1.
WorldWideWeb
–
WorldWideWeb was the first web browser and editor. At the time it was written, it was the web browser in existence. The source code was released into the domain on April 30,1993. Some of the code still resides on Tim Berners-Lees NeXT Computer in the CERN museum and has not been recovered due to the status as a historical artifact. Berners-Lee wrote what would become known as WorldWideWeb on a NeXT Computer during the half of 1990. The first successful build was completed by December 25,1990, successive builds circulated among Berners-Lees colleagues at CERN before being released to the public, by way of Internet newsgroups, in August 1991. By this time, several others, including Bernd Pollermann, Robert Cailliau, Jean-François Groff, Berners-Lee proposed different names for his new application, The Mine of Information and The Information Mesh were proposals. At the end WorldWideWeb was chosen, but later renamed to Nexus to avoid confusion between the World Wide Web and the web browser. The team created so called passive browsers which do not have the ability to edit because it was hard to port this feature from the NeXT system to operating systems. A number of early browsers appeared, notably ViolaWWW and they were all eclipsed by Mosaic in terms of popularity, which by 1993 had replaced the WorldWideWeb program. Those involved in its creation had moved on to other tasks, such as defining standards, on April 30,1993, the CERN directorate released the source code of WorldWideWeb into the public domain. Several versions of the software are available on the web. Berners-Lee initially considered releasing it under the GNU General Public License, since WorldWideWeb was developed on and for the NeXTSTEP platform, the program uses many of NeXTSTEPs components – WorldWideWebs layout engine was built around NeXTSTEPs Text class. WorldWideWeb is capable of displaying basic style sheets, downloading and opening any file supported by the NeXT system, browsing newsgroups. In earlier versions, images are displayed in windows, until NeXTSTEPs Text class gained support for Image objects. WorldWideWeb is able to use different protocols, FTP, HTTP, NNTP, later versions are able to display inline images. The browser is also a WYSIWYG editor and it allows the simultaneous editing and linking of many pages in different windows. The functions Mark Selection, which creates an anchor, and Link to Marked, editing pages remotely is not possible, as the HTTP PUT method had not yet been implemented during the period of the applications active development
WorldWideWeb
–
WorldWideWeb, c. 1993
2.
Internet
–
The Internet is the global system of interconnected computer networks that use the Internet protocol suite to link devices worldwide. The origins of the Internet date back to research commissioned by the United States federal government in the 1960s to build robust, the primary precursor network, the ARPANET, initially served as a backbone for interconnection of regional academic and military networks in the 1980s. Although the Internet was widely used by academia since the 1980s, Internet use grew rapidly in the West from the mid-1990s and from the late 1990s in the developing world. In the two decades since then, Internet use has grown 100-times, measured for the period of one year, newspaper, book, and other print publishing are adapting to website technology, or are reshaped into blogging, web feeds and online news aggregators. The entertainment industry was initially the fastest growing segment on the Internet, the Internet has enabled and accelerated new forms of personal interactions through instant messaging, Internet forums, and social networking. Business-to-business and financial services on the Internet affect supply chains across entire industries, the Internet has no centralized governance in either technological implementation or policies for access and usage, each constituent network sets its own policies. The term Internet, when used to refer to the global system of interconnected Internet Protocol networks, is a proper noun. In common use and the media, it is not capitalized. Some guides specify that the word should be capitalized when used as a noun, the Internet is also often referred to as the Net, as a short form of network. Historically, as early as 1849, the word internetted was used uncapitalized as an adjective, the designers of early computer networks used internet both as a noun and as a verb in shorthand form of internetwork or internetworking, meaning interconnecting computer networks. The terms Internet and World Wide Web are often used interchangeably in everyday speech, however, the World Wide Web or the Web is only one of a large number of Internet services. The Web is a collection of interconnected documents and other web resources, linked by hyperlinks, the term Interweb is a portmanteau of Internet and World Wide Web typically used sarcastically to parody a technically unsavvy user. The ARPANET project led to the development of protocols for internetworking, the third site was the Culler-Fried Interactive Mathematics Center at the University of California, Santa Barbara, followed by the University of Utah Graphics Department. In an early sign of growth, fifteen sites were connected to the young ARPANET by the end of 1971. These early years were documented in the 1972 film Computer Networks, early international collaborations on the ARPANET were rare. European developers were concerned with developing the X.25 networks, in December 1974, RFC675, by Vinton Cerf, Yogen Dalal, and Carl Sunshine, used the term internet as a shorthand for internetworking and later RFCs repeated this use. Access to the ARPANET was expanded in 1981 when the National Science Foundation funded the Computer Science Network, in 1982, the Internet Protocol Suite was standardized, which permitted worldwide proliferation of interconnected networks.5 Mbit/s and 45 Mbit/s. Commercial Internet service providers emerged in the late 1980s and early 1990s, the ARPANET was decommissioned in 1990
Internet
–
The Internet Messenger by
Buky Schwartz in
Holon.
Internet
–
An
Opte Project visualization of
routing paths through a portion of the Internet
Internet
–
ICANN headquarters in the
Playa Vista neighborhood of
Los Angeles, California, United States.
Internet
–
This
NeXT Computer was used by
Tim Berners-Lee at
CERN and became the world's first
Web server.
3.
Uniform Resource Locator
–
A Uniform Resource Locator, commonly informally termed a web address is a reference to a web resource that specifies its location on a computer network and a mechanism for retrieving it. A URL is a type of Uniform Resource Identifier, although many people use the two terms interchangeably. A URL implies the means to access a resource and is denoted by a protocol or an access mechanism. Thus http, //www. example. com is an URL, URLs occur most commonly to reference web pages, but are also used for file transfer, email, database access, and many other applications. Most web browsers display the URL of a web page above the page in an address bar, a typical URL could have the form http, //www. example. com/index. html, which indicates a protocol, a hostname, and a file name. The format combines the pre-existing system of names with file path syntax. Conventions already existed where server names could be prefixed to complete file paths, every HTTP URL conforms to the syntax of a generic URI. Although schemes are case-insensitive, the form is lowercase and documents that specify schemes must do so with lowercase letters. It is followed by a colon, examples of popular schemes include http, ftp, mailto, file, data, and irc. URI schemes should be registered with the Internet Assigned Numbers Authority, two slashes, This is required by some schemes and not required by some others. When the authority component is absent, the path component cannot begin with two slashes, iPv4 addresses must be in dot-decimal notation, and IPv6 addresses must be enclosed in brackets. An optional port number, separated from the hostname by a colon A path, which contains data, usually organized in hierarchical form, such a sequence may resemble or map exactly to a file system path, but does not always imply a relation to one. The path must begin with a single slash if an authority part was present, and may also if one was not, but must not begin with a double slash. The path is defined, though the defined path may be empty An optional query, separated from the preceding part by a question mark. Its syntax is not well defined, but by convention is most often a sequence of attribute–value pairs separated by a delimiter, an optional fragment, separated from the preceding part by a hash. The fragment contains a fragment identifier providing direction to a secondary resource, when the primary resource is an HTML document, the fragment is often an id attribute of a specific element, and web browsers will scroll this element into view. A web browser will usually dereference a URL by performing an HTTP request to the specified host, URLs using the https scheme require that requests and responses will be made over a secure connection to the website. Internet users are distributed throughout the world using a variety of languages and alphabets
Uniform Resource Locator
–
This
Euler diagram shows that a Uniform Resource Identifier (URI) is either a Uniform Resource Locator (URL), a
Uniform Resource Name (URN), or both.
4.
Hypertext
–
Hypertext documents are interconnected by hyperlinks, which are typically activated by a mouse click, keypress sequence or by touching the screen. Apart from text, the hypertext is also sometimes used to describe tables, images. Hypertext is one of the key underlying concepts of the World Wide Web, as implemented on the Web, hypertext enables the easy-to-use publication of information over the Internet. The English prefix hyper- comes from the Greek prefix ὑπερ- and means over or beyond and it signifies the overcoming of the previous linear constraints of written text. The term hypertext is often used where the term hypermedia might seem appropriate, instead they use the strange term interactive multimedia, this is four syllables longer, and does not express the idea of extending hypertext. Hypertext documents can either be static or dynamic, static hypertext can be used to cross-reference collections of data in documents, software applications, or books on CDs. A well-constructed system can also incorporate other user-interface conventions, such as menus, links used in a hypertext document usually replace the current piece of hypertext with the destination document. A lesser known feature is StretchText, which expands or contracts the content in place, Hypertext can be used to support very complex and dynamic systems of linking and cross-referencing. The most famous implementation of hypertext is the World Wide Web, written in the months of 1990. In 1941, Jorge Luis Borges published The Garden of Forking Paths, in 1945, Vannevar Bush wrote an article in The Atlantic Monthly called As We May Think, about a futuristic proto-hypertext device he called a Memex. The coded symbols would enable the Memex to index, search, in 1963, Ted Nelson coined the terms hypertext and hypermedia as part of a model he developed for creating and using linked content. He later worked with Andries van Dam to develop the Hypertext Editing System in 1967 at Brown University, in December of that year, Engelbart demonstrated a hypertext interface to the public for the first time, in what has come to be known as The Mother of All Demos. The first hypermedia application is considered to be the Aspen Movie Map. The Movie Map allowed users to choose which way they wished to drive in a virtual cityscape. In 1980, Tim Berners-Lee created ENQUIRE, an early hypertext database system somewhat like a wiki but without hypertext punctuation, which was not invented until 1987. The early 1980s also saw a number of experimental hyperediting functions in word processors and hypermedia programs, many of whose features, guide, the first significant hypertext system for personal computers, was developed by Peter J. Brown at UKC in 1982. Sponsored by the founder of IBM, Thomas J, in 1983, Ben Shneiderman at the University of Maryland Human - Computer Interaction Lab led a group that developed the HyperTies system that was commercialized by Cognetics Corporation. Hyperties was used to create the July 1988 issue of the Communications of the ACM as a hypertext document, in August 1987, Apple Computer released HyperCard for the Macintosh line at the MacWorld convention
Hypertext
–
Engineer
Vannevar Bush wrote "
As We May Think " in 1945 describing his conception of the
Memex, a machine that could implement what we now call hypertext. His aim was to help humanity achieve a
collective memory with such a machine and avoid the use of scientific discoveries for destruction and war
Hypertext
–
Douglas Engelbart in 2008, at the 40th anniversary celebrations of "
The Mother of All Demos " in San Francisco, a 90-minute 1968 presentation of the
NLS computer system which was a combination of hardware and software that demonstrated many hyper text ideas
Hypertext
–
Ted Nelson gives a presentation on
Project Xanadu, a theoretical hyper text model conceived in the 1960s whose first and incomplete implementation was first published in 1998
Hypertext
–
Hypertext Editing System (HES)
IBM 2250 Display console – Brown University 1969
5.
Tim Berners-Lee
–
Sir Timothy John Berners-Lee OM KBE FRS FREng FRSA FBCS, also known as TimBL, is an English computer scientist, best known as the inventor of the World Wide Web. Berners-Lee is the director of the World Wide Web Consortium, which oversees the development of the Web. He is also the founder of the World Wide Web Foundation and is a researcher and holder of the founders chair at the MIT Computer Science. He is a director of the Web Science Research Initiative, in 2011, he was named as a member of the board of trustees of the Ford Foundation. In 2004, Berners-Lee was knighted by Queen Elizabeth II for his pioneering work, in April 2009, he was elected a foreign associate of the United States National Academy of Sciences. Named in Time magazines list of the 100 Most Important People of the 20th century and he tweeted This is for everyone, which instantly was spelled out in LCD lights attached to the chairs of the 80,000 people in the audience. Berners-Lee was born in London, England, United Kingdom, one of four born to Mary Lee Woods. His parents worked on the first commercially built computer, the Ferranti Mark 1, a keen trainspotter as a child, he learnt about electronics from tinkering with a model railway. He studied at The Queens College, Oxford, from 1973 to 1976, after graduation, Berners-Lee worked as an engineer at the telecommunications company Plessey in Poole, Dorset. In 1978, he joined D. G. Nash in Ferndown, Dorset, Berners-Lee worked as an independent contractor at CERN from June to December 1980. While in Geneva, he proposed a project based on the concept of hypertext, to demonstrate it, he built a prototype system named ENQUIRE. After leaving CERN in late 1980, he went to work at John Pooles Image Computer Systems, Ltd, in Bournemouth and he ran the companys technical side for three years. The project he worked on was a remote procedure call which gave him experience in computer networking. In 1984, he returned to CERN as a fellow and it then was accepted by his manager, Mike Sendall. He used similar ideas to those underlying the ENQUIRE system to create the World Wide Web, for which he designed and his software also functioned as an editor, and the first Web server, CERN HTTPd. The first web site was built at CERN, despite this being an international organisation hosted by Switzerland, the office that Berners-Lee used was just across the border in France. It was put online on 6 August 1991 for the first time, It provided an explanation of what the World Wide Web was and we can connect with each other instantly, all over the world. In 1994, Berners-Lee founded the W3C at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology and it comprised various companies that were willing to create standards and recommendations to improve the quality of the Web
Tim Berners-Lee
–
Berners-Lee in 2014.
Tim Berners-Lee
–
Berners-Lee, 2005
Tim Berners-Lee
–
Berners-Lee using his laptop in 2003
Tim Berners-Lee
–
Berners-Lee's tweet, "This is for everyone", at the
2012 Summer Olympic Games in London
6.
Computer program
–
A computer program is a collection of instructions that performs a specific task when executed by a computer. A computer requires programs to function, and typically executes the programs instructions in a processing unit. A computer program is written by a computer programmer in a programming language. From the program in its form of source code, a compiler can derive machine code—a form consisting of instructions that the computer can directly execute. Alternatively, a program may be executed with the aid of an interpreter. A part of a program that performs a well-defined task is known as an algorithm. A collection of programs, libraries and related data are referred to as software. Computer programs may be categorized along functional lines, such as software or system software. The earliest programmable machines preceded the invention of the digital computer, in 1801, Joseph-Marie Jacquard devised a loom that would weave a pattern by following a series of perforated cards. Patterns could be weaved and repeated by arranging the cards, in 1837, Charles Babbage was inspired by Jacquards loom to attempt to build the Analytical Engine. The names of the components of the device were borrowed from the textile industry. In the textile industry, yarn was brought from the store to be milled, the device would have had a store—memory to hold 1,000 numbers of 40 decimal digits each. Numbers from the store would then have then transferred to the mill. It was programmed using two sets of perforated cards—one to direct the operation and the other for the input variables, however, after more than 17,000 pounds of the British governments money, the thousands of cogged wheels and gears never fully worked together. During a nine-month period in 1842–43, Ada Lovelace translated the memoir of Italian mathematician Luigi Menabrea, the memoir covered the Analytical Engine. The translation contained Note G which completely detailed a method for calculating Bernoulli numbers using the Analytical Engine and this note is recognized by some historians as the worlds first written computer program. In 1936, Alan Turing introduced the Universal Turing machine—a theoretical device that can model every computation that can be performed on a Turing complete computing machine and it is a finite-state machine that has an infinitely long read/write tape. The machine can move the back and forth, changing its contents as it performs an algorithm
Computer program
–
Lovelace's diagram from Note G, the
first published computer algorithm
Computer program
–
Switches for manual input on a
Data General Nova 3, manufactured in the mid 1970s
Computer program
–
In the 1950s, computer programs were stored on
perforated paper tape
Computer program
–
The
microcontroller on the right of this
USB flash drive is controlled with embedded
firmware.
7.
CERN
–
The European Organization for Nuclear Research, known as CERN, is a European research organization that operates the largest particle physics laboratory in the world. Established in 1954, the organization is based in a northwest suburb of Geneva on the Franco–Swiss border, Israel is the only non-European country granted full membership. The main site at Meyrin hosts a large computing facility, which is used to store and analyse data from experiments. Researchers need remote access to facilities, so the lab has historically been a major wide area network hub. CERN is also the birthplace of the World Wide Web, the convention establishing CERN was ratified on 29 September 1954 by 12 countries in Western Europe. The acronym was retained for the new laboratory after the council was dissolved. CERNs first president was Sir Benjamin Lockspeiser, edoardo Amaldi was the general secretary of CERN at its early stages when operations were still provisional, while the first Director-General was Felix Bloch. The laboratory was originally devoted to study of nuclei, but was soon applied to higher-energy physics. Therefore, the laboratory operated by CERN is commonly referred to as the European laboratory for particle physics, several important achievements in particle physics have been made through experiments at CERN. The 1984 Nobel Prize for Physics was awarded to Carlo Rubbia, the 1992 Nobel Prize for Physics was awarded to CERN staff researcher Georges Charpak for his invention and development of particle detectors, in particular the multiwire proportional chamber. The World Wide Web began as a CERN project named ENQUIRE, initiated by Tim Berners-Lee in 1989, Berners-Lee and Cailliau were jointly honoured by the Association for Computing Machinery in 1995 for their contributions to the development of the World Wide Web. Based on the concept of hypertext, the project was intended to facilitate sharing of information among researchers, the first website was activated in 1991. On 30 April 1993, CERN announced that the World Wide Web would be free to anyone, a copy of the original first webpage, created by Berners-Lee, is still published on the World Wide Web Consortiums website as a historical document. Prior to the Webs development, CERN had pioneered the introduction of Internet technology, a short history of this period can be found at CERN. ch. More recently, CERN has become a facility for the development of computing, hosting projects including the Enabling Grids for E-sciencE. It also hosts the CERN Internet Exchange Point, one of the two main internet exchange points in Switzerland. 48×10−5, a measurement with 6. 0-sigma significance. However, on 23 February, CERN stated in a release that the results were flawed due to an incorrectly connected GPS-synchronization cable. In March 2012, the ICARUS Collaboration reported that the measurement would be reproduced by both OPERA and ICARUS, further tests, after fixing the GPS connector, showed speed measurements consistent with the speed of light from four experiments at Gran Sasso, including OPERA
CERN
–
European Organization for Nuclear Research Organisation européenne pour la recherche nucléaire
CERN
–
The 12 founding member states of CERN in 1954 (map borders from 1954-1990)
CERN
–
This
NeXT Computer used by British scientist
Sir Tim Berners-Lee at CERN became the first
Web server.
CERN
–
This
Cisco Systems router at CERN was one of the first
IP routers deployed in Europe.
8.
Information Age
–
The onset of the Information Age is associated with the Digital Revolution, just as the Industrial Revolution marked the onset of the Industrial Age. The Information Age formed by capitalizing on computer microminiaturization advances, library expansion was calculated in 1945 by Fremont Rider to double in capacity every 16 years, if sufficient space were made available. He advocated replacing bulky, decaying printed works with miniaturized microform analog photographs and he did not foresee the digital technology that would follow decades later to replace analog microform with digital imaging, storage, and transmission media. Automated, potentially lossless digital technologies allowed vast increases in the rapidity of information growth, moores law, which was formulated around 1965, calculated that the number of transistors in a dense integrated circuit doubles approximately every two years. Connectivity between computers within companies led to the ability of workers at different levels to access greater amounts of information. The worlds technological capacity to store information grew from 2.6 exabytes in 1986 to 15.8 in 1993, over 54.5 in 2000 and it is estimated that the worlds capacity to store information has reached 5 zettabytes in 2014. This is the equivalent of 4,500 stacks of printed books from the earth to the sun. In the 1990s, the spread of the Internet caused a sudden leap in access to, technology was developing so quickly that a computer costing $3000 in 1997 would cost $2000 two years later and $1000 the following year. In terms of capacity, there are two measures of importance, the number of operations a system can perform and the amount of information that can be stored, the number of synaptic operations per second in a human brain has been estimated to lie between 10^15 and 10^17. While this number is impressive, even in 2007 humanitys general-purpose computers were capable of performing well over 10^18 instructions per second, estimates suggest that the storage capacity of an individual human brain is about 10^12 bytes. On a per capita basis, this is matched by current digital storage, eventually, Information and Communication Technology—computers, computerized machinery, fiber optics, communication satellites, Internet, and other ICT tools—became a significant part of the economy. Microcomputers were developed and many businesses and industries were changed by ICT. Nicholas Negroponte captured the essence of these changes in his 1995 book and his book discusses similarities and differences between products made of atoms and products made of bits. In essence, a copy of a made of bits can be made cheaply and quickly. The Information Age has affected the workforce in several ways and it has created a situation in which workers who perform easily automated tasks are forced to find work that is not easily automated. Workers are also being forced to compete in a job market. Lastly, workers are being replaced by computers that can do their jobs faster and this poses problems for workers in industrial societies, which are still to be solved. However, solutions that involve lowering the time are usually highly resisted
Information Age
–
A visualization of the various routes through a portion of the Internet.
9.
Web page
–
A web page is a document that is suitable for the World Wide Web and web browsers. A web browser displays a web page on a monitor or mobile device, the web page is what displays, but the term also refers to a computer file, usually written in HTML or comparable markup language. Web browsers coordinate the various web resource elements for the web page, such as style sheets, scripts. Typical web pages provide hypertext that includes a bar or a sidebar menu to other web pages via hyperlinks. On a network, a web browser can retrieve a web page from a web server. On a higher level, the web server may restrict access to only a network such as a corporate intranet or it provides access to the World Wide Web. On a lower level, the web browser uses the Hypertext Transfer Protocol to make such requests, dynamic website pages help the browser to enhance the web page through user input to the server. Web pages usually include information as to the colors of text and backgrounds, an HTTP1.1 web server will maintain a connection with the browser until all related resources have been requested and provided. Web browsers usually render images along with the text and other material on the web page. These scripts may run on the client computer, if the user allows, a web browser can have a Graphical User Interface, like Internet Explorer, Mozilla Firefox, Google Chrome, and Opera, or can be text-based, like Lynx or Links. Web users with disabilities often use assistive technologies and adaptive strategies to access web pages, disabled and able-bodied users may disable the download and viewing of images and other media, to save time, network bandwidth or merely to simplify their browsing experience. Users of mobile devices often have restricted displays and bandwidth, anyone may prefer not to use the fonts, font sizes, styles and color schemes selected by the web page designer and may apply their own CSS styling to the page. The World Wide Web Consortium and Web Accessibility Initiative recommend that all web pages should be designed with all of options in mind. Non-textual information, Static images may be raster graphics, typically GIF, JPEG or PNG, Animated images typically Animated GIF and SVG, but also may be Flash, Shockwave, or Java applet. Audio, typically MP3, Ogg or various proprietary formats, video, WMV, RM, FLV, MPG, MOV Interactive information, see interactive media. For on page interaction, Interactive text, see DHTML, Interactive illustrations, ranging from click to play images to games, typically using script orchestration, Flash, Java applets, SVG, or Shockwave. Buttons, forms providing an interface, typically for use with script orchestration. For between pages interaction, Hyperlinks, standard change page reactivity, forms, providing more interaction with the server and server-side databases
Web page
–
A
screenshot of
Wikimedia Commons, a web page
10.
Plain text
–
In computing, plain text is the data that represent only characters of readable material but not its graphical representation nor other objects. It may also include a number of characters that control simple arrangement of text. Plain text is different from formatted text, where information is included. The encoding has traditionally been either ASCII, sometimes EBCDIC, unicode-based encodings such as UTF-8 and UTF-16 are gradually replacing the older ASCII derivatives limited to 7 or 8 bit codes. Files that contain markup or other meta-data are generally considered plain-text, the use of plain text rather than bit-streams to express markup, enables files to survive much better in the wild, in part by making them largely immune to computer architecture incompatibilities. According to The Unicode Standard, Plain text is a sequence of character codes. Styled text, also known as rich text, is any text representation containing plain text completed by such as a language identifier, font size, color. For instance, Rich text such as SGML, RTF, HTML, XML, wiki markup, according to The Unicode Standard, plain text has two main properties in regard to rich text, plain text is the underlying content stream to which formatting can be applied. Plain text is public, standardized, and universally readable, Plain text represents the basic, interchangeable content of text. Plain text represents character content only, not its appearance and it can be displayed in a variety of ways and requires a rendering process to make it visible with a particular appearance. If the same plain text sequence is given to disparate rendering processes, instead, the disparate rendering processes are simply required to make the text legible according to the intended reading. This legibility criterion constrains the range of possible appearances, the relationship between appearance and content of plain text may be summarized as follows, Plain text must contain enough information to permit the text to be rendered legibly, and nothing more. The Unicode Standard encodes plain text, the distinction between plain text and other forms of data in the same data stream is the function of a higher-level protocol and is not specified by the Unicode Standard itself. The purpose of using plain text today is primarily independence from programs that require their own special encoding or formatting or file format. Plain text files can be opened, read, and edited with countless text editors, a command-line interface allows people to give commands in plain text and get a response, also in plain text. Plain text files are almost universal in programming, a code file containing instructions in a programming language is almost always a plain text file. Plain text is commonly used for configuration files, which are read for saved settings at the startup of a program. Plain text is used for much e-mail, a comment, a. txt file, or a TXT Record generally contains only plain text intended for humans to read
Plain text
–
Text file of The Human Side of Animals by
Royal Dixon, displayed by the command cat in an
xterm window
11.
HTML
–
Hypertext Markup Language is the standard markup language for creating web pages and web applications. With Cascading Style Sheets and JavaScript it forms a triad of cornerstone technologies for the World Wide Web, Web browsers receive HTML documents from a webserver or from local storage and render them into multimedia web pages. HTML describes the structure of a web page semantically and originally included cues for the appearance of the document, HTML elements are the building blocks of HTML pages. With HTML constructs, images and other objects, such as interactive forms and it provides a means to create structured documents by denoting structural semantics for text such as headings, paragraphs, lists, links, quotes and other items. HTML elements are delineated by tags, written using angle brackets, tags such as <img /> and <input /> introduce content into the page directly. Include explicit close tags for elements that permit content but are left empty, by carefully following the W3Cs compatibility guidelines, a user agent should be able to interpret the document equally as HTML or XHTML. For documents that are XHTML1.0 and have made compatible in this way. When delivered as XHTML, browsers should use an XML parser, HTML4 defined three different versions of the language, Strict, Transitional and Frameset. The Transitional and Frameset versions allow for presentational markup, which is omitted in the Strict version, instead, cascading style sheets are encouraged to improve the presentation of HTML documents. Because XHTML1 only defines an XML syntax for the language defined by HTML4, as this list demonstrates, the loose versions of the specification are maintained for legacy support. However, contrary to popular misconceptions, the move to XHTML does not imply a removal of this legacy support, rather the X in XML stands for extensible and the W3C is modularizing the entire specification and opening it up to independent extensions. The primary achievement in the move from XHTML1.0 to XHTML1.1 is the modularization of the entire specification, the strict version of HTML is deployed in XHTML1.1 through a set of modular extensions to the base XHTML1.1 specification. Likewise, someone looking for the loose or frameset specifications will find similar extended XHTML1.1 support, the modularization also allows for separate features to develop on their own timetable. So for example, XHTML1.1 will allow quicker migration to emerging XML standards such as MathML, in summary, the HTML4 specification primarily reined in all the various HTML implementations into a single clearly written specification based on SGML. XHTML1.0, ported this specification, as is, next, XHTML1.1 takes advantage of the extensible nature of XML and modularizes the whole specification. XHTML2.0 was intended to be the first step in adding new features to the specification in a standards-body-based approach. The WHATWG considers their work as living standard HTML for what constitutes the state of the art in major browser implementations by Apple, Google, Mozilla, Opera, hTML5 is specified by the HTML Working Group of the W3C following the W3C process. HTML lacks some of the found in earlier hypertext systems, such as source tracking, fat links
HTML
–
Tim Berners-Lee
HTML
–
HTML (HyperText Markup Language)
12.
Image
–
Images may be two-dimensional, such as a photograph or screen display, or three-dimensional, such as a statue or hologram. They may be captured by optical devices – such as cameras, mirrors, lenses, telescopes, microscopes, etc. and natural objects and phenomena, such as the human eye or water. The word image is used in the broader sense of any two-dimensional figure such as a map, a graph. A volatile image is one that only for a short period of time. This may be a reflection of an object by a mirror, a fixed image, also called a hard copy, is one that has been recorded on a material object, such as paper or textile by photography or any other digital process. A mental image exists in a mind, as something one remembers or imagines. The subject of an image need not be real, it may be a concept, such as a graph, function. For example, Sigmund Freud claimed to have dreamed purely in aural-images of dialogs, a still image is a single static image, as distinguished from a kinetic image. This phrase is used in photography, visual media and the industry to emphasize that one is not talking about movies. A film still is a taken on the set of a movie or television program during production. In literature, imagery is a picture which appeals to the senses. It can both be figurative and literal, a moving image is typically a movie or video, including digital video. It could also be an animated display such as a zoetrope, library of Congress – Format Descriptions for Still Images Image Processing – Online Open Research Group Legal Issues Regarding Images Image Copyright Case
Image
–
A man creating an image of himself, in the form of a painting
Image
–
An
SAR radar image acquired by the SIR-C/X-SAR radar on board the
Space Shuttle Endeavour shows the
Teide volcano. The city of Santa Cruz de Tenerife is visible as the purple and white area on the lower right edge of the island. Lava flows at the summit crater appear in shades of green and brown, while vegetation zones appear as areas of purple, green and yellow on the volcano's flanks.
13.
Video
–
Video is an electronic medium for the recording, copying, playback, broadcasting, and display of moving visual media. Video systems vary greatly in the resolution of the display and refresh rate, video can be carried on a variety of media, including radio broadcast, tapes, DVDs, computer files etc. Video was originally exclusively a live technology, charles Ginsburg led an Ampex research team developing one of the first practical video tape recorder. In 1951 the first video tape recorder captured live images from television cameras by converting the electrical impulses. Video recorders were sold for $50,000 in 1956, however, prices gradually dropped over the years, in 1971, Sony began selling videocassette recorder decks and tapes into the consumer market. The use of techniques in video created digital video, which allowed higher quality and, eventually. After the invention of the DVD in 1997 and Blu-ray Disc in 2006, sales of videotape, the advent of digital broadcasting and the subsequent digital television transition is in the process of relegating analog video to the status of a legacy technology in most parts of the world. PAL standards and SECAM specify 25 frame/s, while NTSC standards specify 29.97 frames, film is shot at the slower frame rate of 24 frames per second, which slightly complicates the process of transferring a cinematic motion picture to video. The minimum frame rate to achieve a comfortable illusion of an image is about sixteen frames per second. Video can be interlaced or progressive, analog display devices reproduce each frame in the same way, effectively doubling the frame rate as far as perceptible overall flicker is concerned. NTSC, PAL and SECAM are interlaced formats, abbreviated video resolution specifications often include an i to indicate interlacing. For example, PAL video format is specified as 576i50, where 576 indicates the total number of horizontal scan lines, i indicates interlacing. In progressive scan systems, each refresh period updates all scan lines in each frame in sequence, when displaying a natively progressive broadcast or recorded signal, the result is optimum spatial resolution of both the stationary and moving parts of the image. Deinterlacing cannot, however, produce video quality that is equivalent to true progressive scan source material, aspect ratio describes the dimensions of video screens and video picture elements. All popular video formats are rectilinear, and so can be described by a ratio between width and height, the screen aspect ratio of a traditional television screen is 4,3, or about 1.33,1. High definition televisions use a ratio of 16,9. The aspect ratio of a full 35 mm film frame with soundtrack is 1.375,1. Therefore, a 720 by 480 pixel NTSC DV image displayes with the 4,3 aspect ratio if the pixels are thin, the popularity of viewing video on mobile phones has led to the growth of vertical video
Video
–
Example of U-V color plane, Y value=0.5
14.
Web browser
–
A web browser is a software application for retrieving, presenting and traversing information resources on the World Wide Web. An information resource is identified by a Uniform Resource Identifier that may be a web page, image, hyperlinks present in resources enable users easily to navigate their browsers to related resources. Although browsers are primarily intended to use the World Wide Web, the most popular web browsers are Google Chrome, Microsoft Edge, Safari, Opera and Firefox. The first web browser was invented in 1990 by Sir Tim Berners-Lee, Berners-Lee is the director of the World Wide Web Consortium, which oversees the Webs continued development, and is also the founder of the World Wide Web Foundation. His browser was called WorldWideWeb and later renamed Nexus, the first commonly available web browser with a graphical user interface was Erwise. The development of Erwise was initiated by Robert Cailliau, andreesens browser sparked the internet boom of the 1990s. The introduction of Mosaic in 1993 – one of the first graphical web browsers – led to an explosion in web use, Microsoft responded with its Internet Explorer in 1995, also heavily influenced by Mosaic, initiating the industrys first browser war. Bundled with Windows, Internet Explorer gained dominance in the web browser market, Internet Explorer usage share peaked at over 95% by 2002. Opera debuted in 1996, it has never achieved widespread use and it is also available on several other embedded systems, including Nintendos Wii video game console. In 1998, Netscape launched what was to become the Mozilla Foundation in an attempt to produce a competitive browser using the open source software model, as of August 2011, Firefox has a 28% usage share. Apples Safari had its first beta release in January 2003, as of April 2011, the most recent major entrant to the browser market is Chrome, first released in September 2008. Chromes take-up has increased year by year, by doubling its usage share from 8% to 16% by August 2011. This increase seems largely to be at the expense of Internet Explorer, in December 2011, Chrome overtook Internet Explorer 8 as the most widely used web browser but still had lower usage than all versions of Internet Explorer combined. Chromes user-base continued to grow and in May 2012, Chromes usage passed the usage of all versions of Internet Explorer combined, by April 2014, Chromes usage had hit 45%. Internet Explorer was deprecated in Windows 10, with Microsoft Edge replacing it as the web browser. The ways that web browser makers fund their development costs has changed over time, the first web browser, WorldWideWeb, was a research project. In addition to being freeware, Netscape Navigator and Opera were also sold commercially, Internet Explorer, on the other hand, was bundled free with the Windows operating system, and therefore it was funded partly by the sales of Windows to computer manufacturers and direct to users. Internet Explorer also used to be available for the Mac, in this respect, IE may have contributed to Windows and Microsoft applications sales in another way, through lock-in to Microsofts browser
Web browser
–
Marc Andreessen, inventor of Netscape
Web browser
–
Usage share of web browsers according to
StatCounter
Web browser
–
Some home media devices now include web browsers, like this
LG Smart TV. The browser is controlled using an on-screen keyboard and LG's "Magic Motion" remote.
15.
Multimedia
–
Multimedia is content that uses a combination of different content forms such as text, audio, images, animations, video and interactive content. Multimedia contrasts with media that use only rudimentary computer displays such as text-only or traditional forms of printed or hand-produced material, Multimedia devices are electronic media devices used to store and experience multimedia content. Multimedia is distinguished from mixed media in art, for example. The term rich media is synonymous with interactive multimedia, the term multimedia was coined by singer and artist Bob Goldstein to promote the July 1966 opening of his LightWorks at LOursin show at Southampton, Long Island. Goldstein was perhaps aware of an American artist named Dick Higgins, two years later, in 1968, the term multimedia was re-appropriated to describe the work of a political consultant, David Sawyer, the husband of Iris Sawyer—one of Goldsteins producers at LOursin. In the intervening forty years, the word has taken on different meanings, in the late 1970s, the term referred to presentations consisting of multi-projector slide shows timed to an audio track. However, by the 1990s multimedia took on its current meaning, in the 1993 first edition of Multimedia, Making It Work, Tay Vaughan declared Multimedia is any combination of text, graphic art, sound, animation, and video that is delivered by computer. When you allow the user – the viewer of the project – to control what, when you provide a structure of linked elements through which the user can navigate, interactive multimedia becomes hypermedia. The German language society Gesellschaft für deutsche Sprache recognized the words significance, the institute summed up its rationale by stating has become a central word in the wonderful new media world. In common usage, multimedia refers to an electronically delivered combination of media including video, still images, audio, much of the content on the web today falls within this definition as understood by millions. That era saw also a boost in the production of educational multimedia CD-ROMs, the term video, if not used exclusively to describe motion photography, is ambiguous in multimedia terminology. Video is often used to describe the format, delivery format. Multiple forms of content are often not considered modern forms of presentation such as audio or video. Likewise, single forms of content with single methods of information processing are often called multimedia. Performing arts may also be considered multimedia considering that performers and props are multiple forms of content and media. Multimedia presentations may be viewed by person on stage, projected, transmitted, a broadcast may be a live or recorded multimedia presentation. Broadcasts and recordings can be analog or digital electronic media technology. Digital online multimedia may be downloaded or streamed, streaming multimedia may be live or on-demand
Multimedia
–
A
lasershow is a live multimedia performance.
Multimedia
–
Multimedia (multi-image) setup for the 1988 Ford New Car Announcement Show, August 1987, Detroit, MI
Multimedia
–
A presentation using
Powerpoint. Corporate presentations may combine all forms of media content.
Multimedia
–
Virtual reality uses multimedia content. Applications and
delivery platforms of multimedia are virtually limitless.
16.
Hyperlink
–
In computing, a hyperlink, or simply a link, is a reference to data that the reader can directly follow either by clicking, tapping, or hovering. A hyperlink points to a document or to a specific element within a document. The text that is linked from is called anchor text, a software system that is used for viewing and creating hypertext is a hypertext system, and to create a hyperlink is to hyperlink. A user following hyperlinks is said to navigate or browse the hypertext, the document containing a hyperlink is known as its source document. For example, in a reference work such as Wikipedia, many words. Hyperlinks are often used to implement reference mechanisms such as tables of contents, footnotes, bibliographies, indexes, letters, in some hypertext hyperlinks can be bidirectional, they can be followed in two directions, so both ends act as anchors and as targets. More complex arrangements exist, such as many-to-many links, another possibility is transclusion, for which the link target is a document fragment that replaces the link anchor within the source document. Not only persons browsing the document follow hyperlinks, they may also be followed automatically by programs, a program that traverses the hypertext, following each hyperlink and gathering all the retrieved documents is known as a Web spider or crawler. An inline link displays remote content without the need for embedding the content, the remote content may be accessed with or without the user selecting the link. An inline link may display a modified version of the content, for instance, instead of an image, the full content will then usually be available on demand, as is the case with print publishing software – e. g. with an external link. This allows for file sizes and quicker response to changes when the full linked content is not needed. An anchor hyperlink is a bound to a portion of a document—generally text. For instance, it may also be a hot area in an image, one way to define it is by a list of coordinates that indicate its boundaries. For example, a map of Africa may have each country hyperlinked to further information about that country. A separate invisible hot area interface allows for swapping skins or labels within the hot areas without repetitive embedding of links in the various skin elements. Tim Berners-Lee saw the possibility of using hyperlinks to link any information to any information over the Internet. Hyperlinks were therefore integral to the creation of the World Wide Web, Web pages are written in the hypertext mark-up language HTML. w3. org to the URL for the page. The URL is followed by >, marking the end of the opening tag
Hyperlink
–
Douglas Engelbart and his team at
SRI, 1969
17.
Domain name
–
A domain name is an identification string that defines a realm of administrative autonomy, authority or control within the Internet. Domain names are formed by the rules and procedures of the Domain Name System, any name registered in the DNS is a domain name. Domain names are used in various networking contexts and application-specific naming and addressing purposes, in 2015,294 million domain names had been registered. Domain names are organized in levels of the DNS root domain. The registration of domain names is usually administered by domain name registrars who sell their services to the public. A fully qualified domain name is a name that is completely specified with all labels in the hierarchy of the DNS. A domain name may represent entire collections of resources or individual instances. Individual Internet host computers use domain names as host identifiers, also called host names, the term host name is also used for the leaf labels in the domain name system, usually without further subordinate domain name space. Host names appear as a component in Uniform Resource Locators for Internet resources such as web sites, Domain names are also used as simple identification labels to indicate ownership or control of a resource. Such examples are the realm identifiers used in the Session Initiation Protocol, the Domain Keys used to verify DNS domains in e-mail systems, an important function of domain names is to provide easily recognizable and memorizable names to numerically addressed Internet resources. This abstraction allows any resource to be moved to a different physical location in the topology of the network. Such a move usually requires changing the IP address of a resource, Domain names are used to establish a unique identity. Organizations can choose a name that corresponds to their name. A generic domain is a name that defines a category, rather than a specific or personal instance, for example. Some examples of names are books. com, music. com. Companies have created brands based on names, and such generic domain names may be valuable. The use of names in commerce may subject them to trademark law. The practice of using a simple memorable abstraction of a hosts numerical address on a computer network dates back to the ARPANET era, before the advent of todays commercial Internet
Domain name
–
channelsurfing.net
Domain name
–
The hierarchy of labels in a fully qualified domain name.
18.
Website
–
A website is a collection of related web pages, including multimedia content, typically identified with a common domain name, and published on at least one web server. A website may be accessible via a public Internet Protocol network, such as the Internet, or a local area network. Websites have many functions and can be used in various fashions, a website can be a website, a commercial website for a company. Websites are typically dedicated to a topic or purpose, ranging from entertainment and social networking to providing news. All publicly accessible websites collectively constitute the World Wide Web, while private websites, Web pages, which are the building blocks of websites, are documents, typically composed in plain text interspersed with formatting instructions of Hypertext Markup Language. They may incorporate elements from other websites with suitable markup anchors, Web pages are accessed and transported with the Hypertext Transfer Protocol, which may optionally employ encryption to provide security and privacy for the user. The users application, often a web browser, renders the page content according to its HTML markup instructions onto a display terminal. Hyperlinking between web pages conveys to the reader the site structure and guides the navigation of the site, Some websites require user registration or subscription to access content. As of 2016 end users can access websites on a range of devices, including desktop and laptop computers, tablet computers, smartphones, the World Wide Web was created in 1990 by the British CERN physicist Tim Berners-Lee. On 30 April 1993, CERN announced that the World Wide Web would be free to use for anyone, before the introduction of HTML and HTTP, other protocols such as File Transfer Protocol and the gopher protocol were used to retrieve individual files from a server. These protocols offer a directory structure which the user navigates and chooses files to download. Documents were most often presented as text files without formatting. Websites have many functions and can be used in various fashions, a website can be a website, a commercial website. Websites can be the work of an individual, a business or other organization, any website can contain a hyperlink to any other website, so the distinction between individual sites, as perceived by the user, can be blurred. Websites are written in, or converted to, HTML and are accessed using a software interface classified as a user agent. Web pages can be viewed or otherwise accessed from a range of computer-based and Internet-enabled devices of various sizes, including computers, laptops, PDAs. A website is hosted on a system known as a web server. These terms can refer to the software that runs on these systems which retrieves
Website
–
NASA.gov homepage as it appeared in April 2015
19.
History of the World Wide Web
–
The World Wide Web is a global information medium which users can read and write via computers connected to the Internet. The term is often used as a synonym for the Internet itself. The history of the Internet dates back further than that of the World Wide Web. Paul Otlets Mundaneum project has also named as an early 20th century precursor of the Web. Although the computer system in the story is centralized, the story anticipates a ubiquitous information environment similar to the Web. Shortly after Berners-Lees return to CERN, TCP/IP protocols were installed on some key non-Unix machines at the institution, as a result, CERNs infrastructure was ready for Berners-Lee to create the Web. Berners-Lee wrote a proposal in March 1989 for a large database with typed links. Although the proposal attracted little interest, Berners-Lee was encouraged by his boss, Mike Sendall and he considered several names, including Information Mesh, The Information Mine or Mine of Information, but settled on World Wide Web. Berners-Lee found a supporter in Robert Cailliau. The browser could access Usenet newsgroups and FTP files as well, however, it could run only on the NeXT, Nicola Pellow therefore created a simple text browser that could run on almost any computer called the Line Mode Browser. To encourage use within CERN, Bernd Pollermann put the CERN telephone directory on the web — previously users had to log onto the mainframe in order to look up phone numbers. While inventing and working on setting up the Web, Berners-Lee spent most of his hours in Building 31 at CERN. In January 1991 the first Web servers outside CERN itself were switched on, jones stored the plain-text page, with hyperlinks, on a floppy disk and on his NeXT computer. CERN put the oldest known web page back online in 2014, on August 6,1991, Berners-Lee posted a short summary of the World Wide Web project on the alt. hypertext newsgroup, inviting collaborators. This date is confused with the public availability of the first web servers. Paul Kunz from the Stanford Linear Accelerator Center visited CERN in September 1991, the www-talk mailing list was started in the same month. An early CERN-related contribution to the Web was the parody band Les Horribles Cernettes, by January 1993 there were fifty Web servers across the world, by October 1993 there were over five hundred. Two of the earliest webcomics started on the World Wide Web in 1993, Doctor Fun and NetBoy
History of the World Wide Web
–
The
NeXTcube used by
Tim Berners-Lee at CERN became the first Web server.
History of the World Wide Web
–
The web's logo designed by
Robert Cailliau
20.
Domain Name System
–
The Domain Name System is a hierarchical decentralized naming system for computers, services, or other resources connected to the Internet or a private network. It associates various information with domain names assigned to each of the participating entities, by providing a worldwide, distributed directory service, the Domain Name System is an essential component of the functionality of the Internet, that has been in use since 1985. The Domain Name System delegates the responsibility of assigning domain names, Network administrators may delegate authority over sub-domains of their allocated name space to other name servers. This mechanism provides distributed and fault tolerant service and was designed to avoid a large central database. The Domain Name System also specifies the technical functionality of the service that is at its core. It defines the DNS protocol, a specification of the data structures and data communication exchanges used in the DNS. Historically, other directory services preceding DNS were not scalable to large or global directories as they were based on text files. The Internet maintains two principal namespaces, the domain name hierarchy and the Internet Protocol address spaces, the Domain Name System maintains the domain name hierarchy and provides translation services between it and the address spaces. Internet name servers and a communication protocol implement the Domain Name System, a DNS name server is a server that stores the DNS records for a domain, a DNS name server responds with answers to queries against its database. The most common types of stored in the DNS database are for Start of Authority, IP addresses, SMTP mail exchangers, name servers, pointers for reverse DNS lookups. As a general purpose database, the DNS has also used in combating unsolicited email by storing a real-time blackhole list. The DNS database is stored in a structured zone file. An often-used analogy to explain the Domain Name System is that it serves as the book for the Internet by translating human-friendly computer hostnames into IP addresses. For example, the name www. example. com translates to the addresses 93.184.216.119 and 2606,2800,220, 6d, 26bf,1447,1097. Unlike a phone book, DNS can be updated, allowing a services location on the network to change without affecting the end users. Users take advantage of this when they use meaningful Uniform Resource Locators, an important and ubiquitous function of DNS is its central role in distributed Internet services such as cloud services and content delivery networks. When a user accesses a distributed Internet service using a URL and this process of using the DNS to assign proximal servers to users is key to providing faster and more reliable responses on the Internet and is widely used by most major Internet services. The DNS reflects the structure of administrative responsibility in the Internet, each subdomain is a zone of administrative autonomy delegated to a manager
Domain Name System
–
The hierarchical Domain Name System, organized into zones, each served by a name server
21.
Robert Cailliau
–
Robert Cailliau is a Belgian informatics engineer and computer scientist who created the first web browser for the Mac. He also designed the logo of the WWW, and organized the first International World Wide Web Conference at CERN in 1994. Cailliau was born in Tongeren, Belgium, in 1958 he moved with his parents to Antwerp. After secondary school he graduated from Ghent University in 1969 as civil engineer in electrical and mechanical engineering and he also has an MSc from the University of Michigan in Computer, Information and Control Engineering,1971. During his military service in the Belgian Army he maintained Fortran programs to simulate troop movements, in December 1974 he started working at CERN as a Fellow in the Proton Synchrotron division, working on the control system of the accelerator. In April 1987 he left the PS division to become leader of Office Computing Systems in the Data Handling division. In 1989, Tim Berners-Lee proposed a system for access to the many forms of documentation at. Berners-Lee created the system, calling it World Wide Web, between September and December 1990, during this time, Cailliau and he co-authored a proposal for funding for the project. Cailliau later became a key proponent of the project and developed with Nicola Pellow the first web browser for the Classic Mac OS operating system called MacWWW, in 1993, in collaboration with the Fraunhofer Gesellschaft Cailliau started the European Commissions first web-based project for information dissemination in Europe. As a result of his work with CERNs Legal Service, CERN released the web technology into the domain on 30 April 1993. In December 1993 Cailliau called for the first International WWW Conference which was held at CERN in May 1994, the oversubscribed conference brought together 380 web pioneers and was a milestone in the development of the web. The conference led to the forming of the International World Wide Web Conferences Steering Committee which has organized a conference since then. Cailliau was a member of the Committee from 1994 until 2002, in 1995 Cailliau started the Web for Schools project with the European Commission, introducing the web as a resource for education. After helping to transfer the web development from CERN to the World Wide Web Consortium and he went on early retirement from CERN in January 2007. Cailliau is now a member of Newropeans, a pan-European political movement for which he. 1995, ACM Software System Award 1999, Christophe Plantin Prize, Antwerp 1999, southern Cross University 2000, Dr. Hon
Robert Cailliau
–
Robert Cailliau with an Apple Macintosh computer running his pioneering web browser,
MacWWW Photo
CERN
22.
HTTP
–
The Hypertext Transfer Protocol is an application protocol for distributed, collaborative, and hypermedia information systems. HTTP is the foundation of data communication for the World Wide Web, Hypertext is structured text that uses logical links between nodes containing text. HTTP is the protocol to exchange or transfer hypertext, development of HTTP was initiated by Tim Berners-Lee at CERN in 1989. Standards development of HTTP was coordinated by the Internet Engineering Task Force and the World Wide Web Consortium, culminating in the publication of a series of Requests for Comments. The first definition of HTTP/1.1, the version of HTTP in common use, occurred in RFC2068 in 1997, although this was obsoleted by RFC2616 in 1999 and then again by RFC7230 and family in 2014. A later version, the successor HTTP/2, was standardized in 2015, HTTP functions as a request–response protocol in the client–server computing model. A web browser, for example, may be the client, the client submits an HTTP request message to the server. The server, which provides resources such as HTML files and other content, or performs other functions on behalf of the client, the response contains completion status information about the request and may also contain requested content in its message body. A web browser is an example of a user agent, other types of user agent include the indexing software used by search providers, voice browsers, mobile apps, and other software that accesses, consumes, or displays web content. HTTP is designed to permit intermediate network elements to improve or enable communications between clients and servers, high-traffic websites often benefit from web cache servers that deliver content on behalf of upstream servers to improve response time. Web browsers cache previously accessed web resources and reuse them when possible to network traffic. HTTP proxy servers at private network boundaries can facilitate communication for clients without a globally routable address, HTTP is an application layer protocol designed within the framework of the Internet protocol suite. Its definition presumes an underlying and reliable transport layer protocol, however HTTP can be adapted to use unreliable protocols such as the User Datagram Protocol, for example in HTTPU and Simple Service Discovery Protocol. HTTP resources are identified and located on the network by Uniform Resource Locators, using the Uniform Resource Identifiers schemes http, uRIs and hyperlinks in HTML documents form inter-linked hypertext documents. HTTP/1.1 is a revision of the original HTTP, in HTTP/1.0 a separate connection to the same server is made for every resource request. HTTP/1.1 can reuse a connection multiple times to download images, scripts, stylesheets, HTTP/1.1 communications therefore experience less latency as the establishment of TCP connections presents considerable overhead. Tim Berners-Lee and his team at CERN are credited with inventing the original HTTP along with HTML and the technology for a web server. Berners-Lee first proposed the WorldWideWeb project in 1989—now known as the World Wide Web, the first version of the protocol had only one method, namely GET, which would request a page from a server
HTTP
–
URL beginning with the HTTP scheme and the
WWW domain name label.
HTTP
–
Tim Berners-Lee
23.
Wiki
–
A wiki is a website that provides collaborative modification of its content and structure directly from the web browser. In a typical wiki, text is written using a markup language. A wiki is run using wiki software, otherwise known as a wiki engine, there are dozens of different wiki engines in use, both standalone and part of other software, such as bug tracking systems. Some wiki engines are open source, whereas others are proprietary, some permit control over different functions, for example, editing rights may permit changing, adding or removing material. Others may permit access without enforcing access control, other rules may also be imposed to organize content. Wikipedia is not a wiki but rather a collection of hundreds of wikis. There are at least tens of thousands of other wikis in use, both public and private, including functioning as knowledge management resources, notetaking tools, community websites. The English-language Wikipedia has the largest collection of articles, as of September 2016, ward Cunningham, the developer of the first wiki software, WikiWikiWeb, originally described it as the simplest online database that could possibly work. Wiki is a Hawaiian word meaning quick, Wiki promotes meaningful topic associations between different pages by making page link creation intuitively easy and showing whether an intended target page exists or not. A wiki is not a carefully crafted site created by experts and professional writers, instead, it seeks to involve the typical visitor/user in an ongoing process of creation and collaboration that constantly changes the website landscape. A wiki enables communities of editors and contributors to write documents collaboratively, all that people require to contribute is a computer, Internet access, a web browser and a basic understanding of a simple markup language. A single page in a website is referred to as a wiki page, while the entire collection of pages. A wiki is essentially a database for creating, browsing, a wiki allows non-linear, evolving, complex and networked text, while also allowing for editor argument, debate and interaction regarding the content and formatting. A defining characteristic of wiki technology is the ease with which pages can be created and updated, generally, there is no review by a moderator or gatekeeper before modifications are accepted and thus lead to changes on the website. Many wikis are open to alteration by the public without requiring registration of user accounts. Many edits can be made in real-time and appear almost instantly online, however, this feature facilitates abuse of the system. Private wiki servers require user authentication to edit pages, and sometimes even to read them, maged N. Kamel Boulos, Cito Maramba and Steve Wheeler write that the open wikis produce a process of Social Darwinism. Unfit sentences and sections are ruthlessly culled, edited and replaced if they are not considered fit, while such openness may invite vandalism and the posting of untrue information, this same openness also makes it possible to rapidly correct or restore a quality wiki page
Wiki
–
Ward Cunningham, inventor of the wiki
Wiki
Wiki
–
Wiki Wiki Shuttle at
Honolulu International Airport
Wiki
–
Homepage of Wikipedia
24.
Blog
–
A blog is a discussion or informational website published on the World Wide Web consisting of discrete, often informal diary-style text entries. Posts are typically displayed in chronological order, so that the most recent post appears first. Until 2009, blogs were usually the work of an individual, occasionally of a small group. In the 2010s, multi-author blogs have developed, with posts written by large numbers of authors, MABs from newspapers, other media outlets, universities, think tanks, advocacy groups, and similar institutions account for an increasing quantity of blog traffic. The rise of Twitter and other microblogging systems helps integrate MABs, Blog can also be used as a verb, meaning to maintain or add content to a blog. In the 2010s, the majority are interactive Web 2.0 websites, allowing visitors to leave online comments, in that sense, blogging can be seen as a form of social networking service. Indeed, bloggers do not only produce content to post on their blogs, however, there are high-readership blogs which do not allow comments. Many blogs provide commentary on a subject or topic, ranging from politics to sports. Others function as more personal online diaries, and others function more as online brand advertising of an individual or company. A typical blog combines text, digital images, and links to blogs, web pages. The ability of readers to leave publicly viewable comments, and interact with other commenters, is an important contribution to the popularity of many blogs, however, blog owners or authors often moderate and filter online comments to remove hate speech or other offensive content. Most blogs are primarily textual, although focus on art, photographs, videos, music. In education, blogs can be used as instructional resources and these blogs are referred to as edublogs. Microblogging is another type of blogging, featuring very short posts, on 16 February 2011, there were over 156 million public blogs in existence. On 20 February 2014, there were around 172 million Tumblr and 75.8 million WordPress blogs in existence worldwide, according to critics and other bloggers, Blogger is the most popular blogging service used today. However, Blogger does not offer public statistics, Technorati lists 1.3 million blogs as of February 22,2014. The term weblog was coined by Jorn Barger on 17 December 1997, the short form, blog, was coined by Peter Merholz, who jokingly broke the word weblog into the phrase we blog in the sidebar of his blog Peterme. com in April or May 1999. Shortly thereafter, Evan Williams at Pyra Labs used blog as both a noun and verb and devised the term blogger in connection with Pyra Labs Blogger product, in the 1990s, Internet forum software, created running conversations with threads
Blog
–
Journalism
25.
Web 2.0
–
Web 2.0 describes World Wide Web websites that emphasize user-generated content, usability, and interoperability for end users. The term was popularized by Tim OReilly and Dale Dougherty at the OReilly Media Web 2.0 Conference in late 2004, Web 2.0 does not refer to an update to any technical specification, but to changes in the way Web pages are designed and used. A Web 2. 0-era websites where people were limited to the viewing of content. Whether Web 2.0 is substantively different from prior Web technologies has been challenged by World Wide Web inventor Tim Berners-Lee and his original vision of the Web was a collaborative medium, a place where we all meet and read and write. On the other hand, the term Semantic Web was coined by Berners-Lee to refer to a web of content where the meaning can be processed by machines, Web 1.0 is a retronym referring to the first stage of the World Wide Webs evolution. According to Cormode, G. and Krishnamurthy, B. content creators were few in Web 1.0 with the vast majority of users simply acting as consumers of content. Personal web pages were common, consisting mainly of static pages hosted on ISP-run web servers, with the advent of Web 2. The content for both were generated dynamically from stored content, allowing for readers to comment directly on pages in a way that was not previously common, some Web 2.0 capabilities were present in the days of Web 1.0 but they were implemented differently. For example, a Web 1.0 site may have had a page to publish visitor comments. Server performance and bandwidth considerations had a long thread on each page. Terry Flew, in his 3rd edition of New Media described the differences between Web 1.0 and Web 2, Flew believed it to be the above factors that form the basic change in trends that resulted in the onset of the Web 2.0 craze. Some design elements of a Web 1.0 site include, pages built using Server Side Includes or Common Gateway Interface instead of a web application written in a dynamic programming language such as Perl, PHP, Python or Ruby. The use of HTML3. 2-era elements such as frames and tables to position and these were often used in combination with spacer GIFs. Proprietary HTML extensions, such as the <blink> and <marquee> tags, GIF buttons, graphics promoting web browsers, operating systems, text editors and various other products. Support for server side scripting was rare on shared servers during this period, to provide a feedback mechanism for web site visitors, mailto forms were used. A user would fill in a form, and upon clicking the forms submit button, their client would launch. The popularity and complications of the mailto protocol led browser developers to incorporate email clients into their browsers, the term Web 2.0 was first used in January 1999 by Darcy DiNucci, an information architecture consultant. In her article, Fragmented Future, DiNucci writes, The Web we know now, the first glimmerings of Web 2.0 are beginning to appear, and we are just starting to see how that embryo might develop
Web 2.0
–
A
tag cloud (a typical Web 2.0 phenomenon in itself) presenting Web 2.0 themes
26.
RSS
–
RSS uses a family of standard web feed formats to publish frequently updated information, blog entries, news headlines, audio, video. An RSS document includes full or summarized text, and metadata, like publishing date, RSS feeds enable publishers to syndicate data automatically. A standard XML file format ensures compatibility with many different machines/programs, RSS feeds also benefit users who want to receive timely updates from favourite websites or to aggregate data from many sites. Subscribing to a website RSS removes the need for the user to check the website for new content. Instead, their browser constantly monitors the site and informs the user of any updates, the browser can also be commanded to automatically download the new data for the user. Software termed RSS reader, aggregator, or feed reader, which can be web-based, desktop-based, or mobile-device-based, users subscribe to feeds either by entering a feeds URI into the reader or by clicking on the browsers feed icon. The RSS reader checks the users feeds regularly for new information and can download it. The reader also provides a user interface, the RSS formats were preceded by several attempts at web syndication that did not achieve widespread popularity. RDF Site Summary, the first version of RSS, was created by Dan Libby and it was released in March 1999 for use on the My. Netscape. Com portal. This version became known as RSS0.9, in July 1999, Dan Libby of Netscape produced a new version, RSS0.91, which simplified the format by removing RDF elements and incorporating elements from Dave Winers news syndication format. Libby also renamed the format from RDF to RSS Rich Site Summary and this would be Netscapes last participation in RSS development for eight years. Winer published a version of the RSS0.91 specification on the UserLand website, covering how it was being used in his companys products. A few months later, UserLand filed a U. S. trademark registration for RSS, but failed to respond to a USPTO trademark examiners request and the request was rejected in December 2001. The RSS-DEV Working Group, a project whose members included Guha and representatives of OReilly Media and Moreover and he also released drafts of RSS0.93 and RSS0.94 that were subsequently withdrawn. In September 2002, Winer released a new version of the format, RSS2.0. RSS2.0 removed the type attribute added in the RSS0.94 draft, to preserve backward compatibility with RSS0.92, namespace support applies only to other content included within an RSS2.0 feed, not the RSS2.0 elements themselves. Because neither Winer nor the RSS-DEV Working Group had Netscapes involvement and this has fueled ongoing controversy in the syndication development community as to which entity was the proper publisher of RSS. One product of that debate was the creation of an alternative syndication format, Atom
RSS
–
RSS - Rich Site Summary
27.
Atom (standard)
–
The name Atom applies to a pair of related Web standards. The Atom Syndication Format is an XML language used for web feeds, Web feeds allow software programs to check for updates published on a website. To provide a web feed, the owner may use specialized software that publishes a list of recent articles or content in a standardized. A feed contains entries, which may be headlines, full-text articles, excerpts, summaries, and/or links to content on a website, the Atom format was developed as an alternative to RSS. Proponents of the new format formed the IETF Atom Publishing Format, the Atom syndication format was published as an IETF proposed standard in RFC4287, and the Atom Publishing Protocol was published as RFC5023. The blogging community uses web feeds to share recent entries headlines, full text, the providers allow other websites to incorporate a blogs syndicated headline or headline-and-short-summary feeds under various usage agreements. As of 2016 people use Atom and other formats for many purposes, including journalism, marketing, bug-reports. Atom also provides a way to export an entire blog, or parts of it. It is common to find web feeds on major websites, as well as on smaller ones. Some websites let people choose between RSS- or Atom-formatted web feeds, others offer only RSS or only Atom, in particular, many blog and wiki sites offer their web feeds in the Atom format. A feed reader or aggregator program can be used to check feeds, client-side readers may also be designed as standalone programs or as extensions to existing programs like web browsers. Web-based feed readers and news aggregators require no software installation and make the users feeds available on any computer with Web access, some aggregators syndicate web feeds into new feeds, e. g. taking all football-related items from several sports feeds and providing a new football feed. The Atom working group chose instead to use timestamps formatted according to the rules specified by RFC3339, while the RSS vocabulary has a mechanism to indicate a human language for the feed, there is no way to specify a language for individual items or text elements. Atom, on the hand, uses the standard xml. The elements of the RSS vocabulary are not generally reusable in other XML vocabularies, the Atom syntax was specifically designed to allow elements to be reused outside the context of an Atom feed document. For instance, it is not uncommon to find atom, link elements being used within RSS2.0 feeds. Despite the emergence of Atom as an IETF Proposed Standard and the decision by major companies such as Google to embrace Atom, use of the older, there are several reasons to this, RSS2.0 support for enclosures led directly to the development of podcasting. While many podcasting applications, such as iTunes, support the use of Atom 1.0, many sites choose to publish their feeds in only a single format
Atom (standard)
–
Atom
28.
Data center
–
A data center is a facility used to house computer systems and associated components, such as telecommunications and storage systems. It generally includes redundant or backup power supplies, redundant data communications connections, environmental controls, large data centers are industrial scale operations using as much electricity as a small town. Data centers have their roots in the computer rooms of the early ages of the computing industry. Early computer systems, complex to operate and maintain, required an environment in which to operate. Many cables were necessary to all the components, and methods to accommodate and organize these were devised such as standard racks to mount equipment, raised floors. A single mainframe required a deal of power, and had to be cooled to avoid overheating. Security became important – computers were expensive, and were used for military purposes. Basic design-guidelines for controlling access to the room were therefore devised. During the boom of the industry, and especially during the 1980s, users started to deploy computers everywhere. However, as information technology operations started to grow in complexity, the advent of Unix from the early 1970s led to the subsequent proliferation of freely available Linux-compatible PC operating-systems during the 1990s. These were called servers, as timesharing operating systems like Unix rely heavily on the model to facilitate sharing unique resources between multiple users. The use of the data center, as applied to specially designed computer rooms. The boom of data centers came during the bubble of 1997–2000. Companies needed fast Internet connectivity and non-stop operation to deploy systems, installing such equipment was not viable for many smaller companies. Many companies started building very large facilities, called Internet data centers, New technologies and practices were designed to handle the scale and the operational requirements of such large-scale operations. These practices eventually migrated toward the data centers, and were adopted largely because of their practical results. Data centers for cloud computing are called cloud data centers, but nowadays, the division of these terms has almost disappeared and they are being integrated into a term data center. Standards documents from accredited professional groups, such as the Telecommunications Industry Association, well-known operational metrics for data-center availability can serve to evaluate the commercial impact of a disruption
Data center
–
An operation engineer overseeing a network operations control room of a data center
Data center
–
Indiana University Data Center.
Bloomington, Indiana
Data center
–
Racks of telecommunications equipment in part of a data center
Data center
–
A typical server rack, commonly seen in
colocation
29.
SGML
–
The Standard Generalized Markup Language is a standard for defining generalized markup languages for documents. Declarative markup is less likely to conflict with unforeseen future processing needs, Markup should be rigorous so that the techniques available for processing rigorously-defined objects like programs and databases can be used for processing documents as well. HTML was theoretically an example of an SGML-based language until HTML5, DocBook SGML and LinuxDoc are better examples, as they were used almost exclusively with actual SGML tools. SGML, in 1996, resulted from a Technical Corrigendum to add extended naming rules allowing arbitrary-language, SGML, in 1998, resulted from a Technical Corrigendum to better support XML and WWW requirements. Full SGML is rarely found or used in new projects, DSSSL —Document processing and styling language based on Scheme. DSSSL was reworked into W3C XSLT and XSL-FO which use an XML syntax, nowadays, DSSSL is rarely used in new projects apart from Linux documentation. HyTime—Generalized hypertext and scheduling. HyTime was partially reworked into W3C XLink, HyTime is rarely used in new projects. SGML descended from IBMs Generalized Markup Language, which Charles Goldfarb, Edward Mosher, Goldfarb, editor of the international standard, coined the “GML” term using their surname initials. Goldfarb also wrote the work on SGML syntax in The SGML Handbook. The syntax of SGML is closer to the COCOA format, as a document markup language, SGML was originally designed to enable the sharing of machine-readable large-project documents in government, law, and industry. Many such documents must remain readable for several long time in the information technology field. SGML also was applied by the military, and the aerospace, technical reference. The advent of the XML profile has made SGML suitable for application for small-scale. SGML defines two kinds of validity, according to the revised Terms and Definitions of ISO8879, A conforming SGML document must be either a type-valid SGML document, a tag-valid SGML document, or both. Note, A user may wish to enforce additional constraints on a document, a type-valid SGML document is defined by the standard as An SGML document in which, for each document instance, there is an associated document type declaration to whose DTD that instance conforms. A tag-valid SGML document is defined by the standard as An SGML document, there need not be a document type declaration associated with any of the instances. Note, If there is a document type declaration, the instance can be parsed with or without reference to it, the standard calls this fully tagged. Integrally stored reflects the XML requirement that elements end in the entity in which they started
SGML
–
A fragment of the
OED (1985), showing SGML markup
SGML
–
Standard Generalized Generic Markup Language
30.
Brown University
–
Brown is the seventh-oldest institution of higher education in the United States and one of the nine Colonial Colleges established before the American Revolution. At its foundation, Brown was the first college in the United States to accept students regardless of their religious affiliation and its engineering program was established in 1847 and was the first in the Ivy League. It was one of the early doctoral-granting U. S. institutions in the late 19th century, adding master, Browns New Curriculum is sometimes referred to in education theory as the Brown Curriculum and was adopted by faculty vote in 1969 after a period of student lobbying. In 1971, Browns coordinate womens institution Pembroke College was fully merged into the university, Pembroke Campus now operates as a place for dorms and classrooms. Undergraduate admissions is very selective, with a rate of 8.3 percent for the class of 2021. The University comprises The College, the Graduate School, Alpert Medical School, the School of Engineering, the School of Public Health, and the School of Professional Studies. The Brown/RISD Dual Degree Program, offered in conjunction with the Rhode Island School of Design, is a course that awards degrees from both institutions. Browns main campus is located in the College Hill Historic District in the city of Providence, the Universitys neighborhood is a federally listed architectural district with a dense concentration of Colonial-era buildings. On the western edge of the campus, Benefit Street contains one of the finest cohesive collections of restored seventeenth-, Browns faculty and alumni include eight Nobel Prize laureates, five National Humanities Medalists, and ten National Medal of Science laureates. Other notable alumni include eight billionaire graduates, a U. S. Supreme Court Chief Justice, to erect a public Building or Buildings for the boarding of the youth & the Residence of the Professors. Stiles and Ellery were co-authors of the Charter of the College two years later, there is further documentary evidence that Stiles was making plans for a college in 1762. On January 20, Chauncey Whittelsey, pastor of the First Church of New Haven, answered a letter from Stiles, should you make any Progress in the Affair of a Colledge, I should be glad to hear of it, I heartily wish you Success therein. Isaac Backus was the historian of the New England Baptists and an inaugural Trustee of Brown, Mr. James Manning, who took his first degree in New-Jersey college in September,1762, was esteemed a suitable leader in this important work. Manning arrived at Newport in July 1763 and was introduced to Stiles, stiless first draft was read to the General Assembly in August 1763 and rejected by Baptist members who worried that the College Board of Fellows would under-represent the Baptists. A revised Charter written by Stiles and Ellery was adopted by the Assembly on March 3,1764, in September 1764, the inaugural meeting of the College Corporation was held at Newport. Governor Stephen Hopkins was chosen chancellor, former and future governor Samuel Ward was vice chancellor, John Tillinghast treasurer, the Charter stipulated that the Board of Trustees be composed of 22 Baptists, five Quakers, five Episcopalians, and four Congregationalists. Of the 12 Fellows, eight should be Baptists—including the College president—and the rest indifferently of any or all Denominations, the Charter was not the grant of King George III, as is sometimes supposed, but rather an Act of the colonial General Assembly. In two particulars, the Charter may be said to be a uniquely progressive document, the oft-repeated statement is inaccurate that Browns Charter alone prohibited a religious test for College membership, other college charters were also liberal in that particular
Brown University
–
Stephen Hopkins, first chancellor of Brown, governor of Rhode Island, and
signer of the
Declaration of Independence
Brown University
–
The
Ezra Stiles copy of the Brown University Charter of 1764
Brown University
–
Nicholas Brown, Junior, founder of the
Providence Athenaeum, co-founder of
Butler Hospital, philanthropist, progressive, and
abolitionist. Following his major gift in 1804, the College was renamed Brown University. Painting by
Chester Harding, 1836
Brown University
–
Brigadier general
James Mitchell Varnum, class of 1769, served in the
Continental Army and advocated the enlistment of African Americans, which resulted in the reformation of the
1st Rhode Island Regiment as an all-black unit. Painting by
Charles Willson Peale, 1804
31.
NeXT Computer
–
The NeXT Computer is a workstation computer developed, marketed, and sold by NeXT Inc. It runs the Mach- and BSD-derived, Unix-based NeXTSTEP operating system, the motherboard is square and fits into one of four identical slots in the enclosure. The NeXT Computer enclosure consists of a 1-foot die-cast magnesium cube-shaped, black case and it was launched in 1988 at US$6,500. The NeXT Computer was succeeded by the NeXTcube, an upgraded model and this event gave developers interested in developing NeXT software an insight into the software architecture, object-oriented programming, and developing for the NeXT Computer. The luncheon speaker was Steve Jobs, citing as truly innovative the optical drive, DSP, and object-oriented programming environment, the magazine concluded that the NeXT Computer is worth every penny of its $6500 market price. It was, however, not a significant commercial success, failing to reach the level of volume sales like the Apple II, Commodore 64. The workstations were sold to universities, financial institutions, and government agencies, issue #3 was first demonstrated to Steve Jobs at NeXTWorld Expo 1993. com — NeXTcube Photos of black hardware A fun fact and one of Steve Jobs quirks. All the components in the including the PCB and connectors had to be black in color. PCBs were typically green from the mask that was applied. A process of pad capping was developed to allow the black oxide from the layers to be seen. Even the euro card connector had to be molded in black which where typically grey. The mounting hardware had to be black oxide. etc
NeXT Computer
–
NeXT Computer used by
Berners-Lee at
CERN
32.
Web server
–
A web server is a computer system that processes requests via HTTP, the basic network protocol used to distribute information on the World Wide Web. The term can refer to the system, or specifically to the software that accepts. The primary function of a web server is to store, process, the communication between client and server takes place using the Hypertext Transfer Protocol. Pages delivered are most frequently HTML documents, which may include images, the resource is typically a real file on the servers secondary storage, but this is not necessarily the case and depends on how the web server is implemented. While the primary function is to serve content, an implementation of HTTP also includes ways of receiving content from clients. This feature is used for submitting web forms, including uploading of files, many generic web servers also support server-side scripting using Active Server Pages, PHP, or other scripting languages. This means that the behaviour of the web server can be scripted in separate files, usually, this function is used to generate HTML documents dynamically as opposed to returning static documents. The former is used for retrieving or modifying information from databases. The latter is much faster and more easily cached but cannot deliver dynamic content. Web servers are not only used for serving the World Wide Web and they can also be found embedded in devices such as printers, routers, webcams and serving only a local network. The web server may then be used as a part of a system for monitoring or administering the device in question and this usually means that no additional software has to be installed on the client computer, since only a web browser is required. In 1989 Tim Berners-Lee proposed a new project to his employer CERN, the project resulted in Berners-Lee writing two programs in 1990, A browser called WorldWideWeb. In 1994 Berners-Lee decided to constitute the World Wide Web Consortium to regulate the development of the many technologies involved through a standardization process. On an Apache server, this is commonly /home/www, the result is the local file system resource, /home/www/path/file. html The web server then reads the file, if it exists, and sends a response to the clients web browser. The response will describe the content of the file and contain the file itself or a message will return saying that the file does not exist or is unavailable. A web server can be incorporated into the OS kernel. Web servers that run in user-mode have to ask the system for permission to use more memory or more CPU resources, executing in user mode can also mean useless buffer copies which are another handicap for user-mode web servers. When a web server is near to or over its limit, it becomes unresponsive, at any time web servers can be overloaded due to, Excess legitimate web traffic
Web server
–
The inside and front of a
Dell PowerEdge web server, a computer designed for
rack mounting
Web server
–
Multiple web servers may be used for a high traffic website, here
Dell servers are installed together being used for
Wikimedia Foundation
Web server
–
The world's first web server, a
NeXT Computer workstation with Ethernet, 1990, the case label reads: "This machine is a server. DO NOT POWER IT DOWN!!"
Web server
–
Sun's
Cobalt Qube 3 - a computer
server appliance (2002, discontinued)
33.
UNC-Chapel Hill
–
The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, also known as UNC, or simply Carolina, is a public research university located in Chapel Hill, North Carolina, United States. It is one of the 17 campuses of the University of North Carolina system, the first public institution of higher education in North Carolina, the school opened its doors to students on February 12,1795. The university offers degrees in over 70 courses of study through fourteen colleges, in 1952, North Carolina opened its own hospital, UNC Health Care, for research and treatment, and has since specialized in cancer care. The schools students, alumni, and sports teams are known as Tar Heels, the campus covers 729 acres of Chapel Hills downtown area, encompassing the Morehead Planetarium and the many stores and shops located on Franklin Street. Students can participate in over 550 officially recognized student organizations, the student-run newspaper The Daily Tar Heel has won national awards for collegiate media, while the student radio station WXYC provided the worlds first internet radio broadcast. North Carolina is one of the members of the Atlantic Coast Conference. Competing athletically as the Tar Heels, North Carolina has achieved success in sports, most notably in mens basketball, womens soccer. As a result, Womans College was renamed the University of North Carolina at Greensboro, in 1955, UNC Chapel Hill officially desegregated its undergraduate divisions. During World War II, UNC Chapel Hill was one of 131 colleges and universities nationally that took part in the V-12 Navy College Training Program which offered students a path to a Navy commission, during the 1960s, the campus was the location of significant political protest. Prior to the passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, protests about local racial segregation which began quietly in Franklin Street restaurants led to mass demonstrations, the climate of civil unrest prompted the 1963 Speaker Ban Law prohibiting speeches by communists on state campuses in North Carolina. The law was criticized by university Chancellor William Brantley Aycock and university President William Friday. A group of UNC Chapel Hill students, led by Student Body President Paul Dickson, filed a lawsuit in U. S. federal court, and on February 20,1968, the Speaker Ban Law was struck down. From the late 1990s and onward, UNC Chapel Hill expanded rapidly with a 15% increase in student population to more than 28,000 by 2007. Professor Oliver Smithies was awarded the Nobel Prize in Medicine in 2007 for his work in genetics, additionally, Aziz Sancar was awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 2015 for his work in understanding the molecular repair mechanisms of DNA. The current chancellor is Carol Folt, the first woman to hold the post, UNC Chapel Hills 729-acre campus is dominated by two central quads, Polk Place and McCorkle Place. Adjacent to Polk Place is a sunken brick courtyard known as the Pit where students will gather, the Morehead–Patterson Bell Tower, located in the heart of campus, tolls the quarter-hour. In 1999, UNC Chapel Hill was one of sixteen recipients of the American Society of Landscape Architects Medallion Awards and was identified as one of 50 college or university works of art by T. A, gaines in his book The Campus as a Work of Art. The universitys campus is divided into three regions, usually referred to as north campus, middle campus, and south campus
UNC-Chapel Hill
–
University of North Carolina course catalog from June 1819
UNC-Chapel Hill
–
University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill
UNC-Chapel Hill
–
Confederate soldier
Silent Sam, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill by sculptor
John Wilson.
UNC-Chapel Hill
–
The
Morehead Planetarium, designed by
Eggers & Higgins, first opened in 1949.
34.
Magneto-optical drive
–
A magneto-optical drive is a kind of optical disc drive capable of writing and rewriting data upon a magneto-optical disc. Both 130 mm and 90 mm form factors exist, the technology was introduced commercially in 1985. Although optical, they appear as hard drives to the operating system. Magneto-optical drives were common in countries, such as Japan because of the success of the Sony MiniDisc. Early drives are 130 mm and have the size of full-height 130 mm hard-drives,130 mm media looks similar to a CD-ROM enclosed in an old-style caddy, while 90 mm media is about the size of a regular 3½-inch floppy disk, but twice the thickness. The cases provide dust resistance, and the drives themselves have slots constructed in such a way that always appear to be closed. Original MO systems were WORM, and later systems were read/write, the disc consists of a ferromagnetic material sealed beneath a plastic coating. The only physical contact is during recording when a head is brought into contact with the side of the disc opposite to the laser. During reading, a laser projects a beam on the disk and, according to the state of the surface. During recording, laser power is increased to heat the material to the Curie point in a single spot and this enables an electromagnet positioned on the opposite side of the disc, to change the local magnetic polarization. The polarization is retained after the temperature drops, each write cycle requires both a pass to erase a region, and another pass to write information. Both passes use the laser to heat the recording layer, the field is used for actually changing the magnetic orientation of the recording layer. The electromagnet reverses polarity for writing, and the laser is pulsed to record spots of 1 over the region of 0. As a result of this process, it takes twice as long to write data as it does to read it. In 1996, Direct Overwrite technology was introduced for 90 mm discs eliminating the initial pass when writing. By default, magneto-optical drives verify information after writing it to the disc, using a magneto-optical disc is much more like using a diskette drive than a CD-RW drive. During a read cycle, the laser is operated at a power setting, emitting polarized light. The reflected light has a change in Kerr rotation and Kerr ellipticity which is measured by an analyzer, the 130 mm drives have been available in capacities from 650 MB to 9.2 GB
Magneto-optical drive
–
A Magneto-optical disc and the numerous rectangles on its surface.
Magneto-optical drive
–
A 130 mm 2.6GB magneto-optical disc.
Magneto-optical drive
–
A 230 MB Fujitsu 90 mm magneto-optical disc.
Magneto-optical drive
–
Minidiscs are magneto-optical discs used to store music.
35.
Les Horribles Cernettes
–
Les Horribles Cernettes was an all-female parody pop group, self-labelled the one and only High Energy Rock Band, founded by employees of CERN which performed at CERN and other HEP related events. Their musical style is described as doo-wop. The initials of their name, LHC, are the same as those of the Large Hadron Collider which was built at CERN. Their humorous songs are available on their website. The band is known for a photograph of themselves that became the first-ever photographic image posted on the web. Les Horribles Cernettes was founded in 1990 by Michele de Gennaro, the group was subsequently formed with the help of Silvano de Gennaro, an analyst in the Computer Science department at CERN, who wrote additional songs. They received press coverage from newspapers, including The New York Times, The Herald Tribune, La Tribune de Genève. The bands lineup has changed over time, but they were performing under the name until 21 July 2012, when the band had its final performance. I had only an idea of what that was, but I scanned some photos on my Mac. How was I to know that I was passing a historical milestone, Silvano had taken the picture above on July 18,1992. The band went into hiatus when Silvano and Michele moved away from the CERN area and officially disbanded in late July 2012, however, Lynn Veronneau has since embarked upon a serious solo career, recording French language versions of popular standards. Making a song and dance about physics
Les Horribles Cernettes
–
This picture of Les Horribles Cernettes was the first
photographic image published on the
World Wide Web in 1992. From left to right: Angela Higney, Michele de Gennaro, Colette Marx-Neilsen, Lynn Veronneau.
36.
SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory
–
The main accelerator is 3.2 kilometers long—the longest linear accelerator in the world—and has been operational since 1966. In 1984 the laboratory was named an ASME National Historic Engineering Landmark, SLAC developed and, in December 1991, began hosting the first World Wide Web server outside of Europe. In the early-to-mid 1990s, the Stanford Linear Collider investigated the properties of the Z boson using the Stanford Large Detector, in October 2008, the Department of Energy announced that the Centers name would be changed to SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory. The reasons given include a representation of the new direction of the lab. Stanford University had legally opposed the Department of Energys attempt to trademark Stanford Linear Accelerator Center, in March 2009 it was announced that the SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory was to receive $68.3 Million in Recovery Act Funding to be disbursed by Department of Energys Office of Science. The main accelerator is an RF linear accelerator that can accelerate electrons and positrons up to 50 GeV, at 3.2 km long, the accelerator is the longest linear accelerator in the world, and is claimed to be the worlds most straight object. The main accelerator is buried 9 m below ground and passes underneath Interstate Highway 280, the above-ground klystron gallery atop the beamline is the longest building in the United States. The Stanford Linear Collider was a linear accelerator that collided electrons and positrons at SLAC, the center of mass energy was about 90 GeV, equal to the mass of the Z boson, which the accelerator was designed to study. Grad student Barrett D. Milliken discovered the first Z event on 12 April 1989 while poring over the previous days computer data from the Mark II detector, the bulk of the data was collected by the SLAC Large Detector, which came online in 1991. Presently no beam enters the south and north arcs in the machine, the SLAC Large Detector was the main detector for the Stanford Linear Collider. It was designed primarily to detect Z bosons produced by the accelerators electron-positron collisions, the SLD operated from 1992 to 1998. PEP began operation in 1980, with energies up to 29 GeV. At its apex, PEP had five large particle detectors in operation, about 300 researchers made used of PEP. PEP stopped operating in 1990, and PEP-II began construction in 1994, PEP-II was host to the BaBar experiment, one of the so-called B-Factory experiments studying charge-parity symmetry. The Stanford Synchrotron Radiation Lightsource is a synchrotron light user facility located on the SLAC campus, originally built for particle physics, it was used in experiments where the J/ψ meson was discovered. In the early 1990s, an independent electron injector was built for this ring, allowing it to operate independently of the main linear accelerator. SLAC plays a role in the mission and operation of the Fermi Gamma-ray Space Telescope. The principal scientific objectives of this mission are, To understand the mechanisms of particle acceleration in AGNs, pulsars, to resolve the gamma-ray sky, unidentified sources and diffuse emission
SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory
–
The entrance to SLAC in Menlo Park.
SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory
–
SLAC 1.9 mile (3 kilometer) long Klystron Gallery above the
beamline Accelerator
SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory
–
Part of the SLAC beamline
SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory
–
SLC pit and detector
37.
SPIRES
–
The Stanford Physics Information Retrieval System is a database management system developed by Stanford University. It is used by universities, colleges and research institutions, the first website in North America was created to allow remote users access to its database. SPIRES was originally developed at the Stanford Linear Accelerator Center in 1969, the system was designed as a physics database management system to deal with high-energy-physics preprints. Written in PL/I, SPIRES ran on an IBM mainframe, in the early 1970s, an evaluation of this system resulted in the decision to implement a new system for use by faculty, staff and students at Stanford University. SPIRES was renamed the Stanford Public Information Retrieval System, the new development took place under a National Science Foundation grant headed by Edwin B. SPIRES was rewritten in PL360, a structured programming language designed explicitly for IBM/360-compatible hardware. The primary authors were, Thomas H. Martin, Dick Guertin, john Schroeder was the manager of the SPIRES project during this early phase of development. Eventually, BALLOTS split off from SPIRES and the Research Libraries Group adopted SPIRES as its base engine while providing a graphical interface to its clients. Socrates was a library management system rooted in SPIRES. SPIRES became the primary database management system for Stanford University business and it was also adopted by about two dozen other universities, including installations using the Michigan Terminal System, and VM/CMS. These universities collaborated through annual meetings of the SPIRES Consortium, in 2004, SPIRES was migrated off the mainframe onto Unix platforms by means of an IBM-mainframe Emulator developed by Dick Guertin. The DBMS now runs on Unix, Linux or Darwin and is available under Mozilla Public License and this project stores bibliographic information about the literature of the field of High Energy Physics and is an example of academic databases and search engines. SPIRES is, as of 2012, being replaced by INSPIRE-HEP, SPIRES currently runs on Unix, Linux and Darwin platforms. Its primary use today is for the physics communities. SPIRES runs under emulation of the original ORVYL operating system, the emulators are written primarily in C compiled by 32-bit gcc or g++ depending upon architectures. The SPIRES engine is less than one-megabyte in size, but performs all the searching, maintenance, and formatting of databases
SPIRES
–
Contents
38.
Hypertext Editing System
–
The Hypertext Editing System, or HES, was an early hypertext research project conducted at Brown University in 1967 by Andries van Dam, Ted Nelson, and several Brown students. It was the first hypertext system available on commercial equipment that novices could use, HES organized data into two main types, links and branching text. The branching text could automatically be arranged into menus and a point within an area could also have an assigned name, called a label. Although HES pioneered many modern concepts, its emphasis was on text formatting and printing. HES ran on an IBM System/360 Model 50 mainframe computer, which was inefficient for the power required by the system. The program was used by NASAs Houston Manned Spacecraft Center for documentation on the Apollo space program, the projects research was funded by IBM but the program was stopped around 1969, and replaced by the FRESS project. The immediate future of this system will be concerned with its improvement and these capabilities include a number of subprograms for acting on various features of a hypertext, and for adding new features to this hypertext editing system. The problems of management for multiple interactive users will be tackled. Within the contained text it will be possible for the user to designate string attributes, through existing programs, the user may have the text searched on Boolean retrieval functions of attributes or in-line key words. Indices and KWIC indices of these keywords and their positions may then be produced automatically, attributes may also be assigned by the user to annotations and to labels. Attributes assigned to tags will either be defined within the system — such as bibliography. The system-defined tag attributes may communicate with other such as a set up bibliography program). All tags may be listed and indexed by attributes, new facilities will be added to provide automatic steering or routing through a hypertext on the screen, or automatic sequence selection during printout. The user would specify which alternative is to be taken by such as take the happy alternative. This would correspond to Bushs trails, and Engelbarts trail markers, a number of other facilities will simplify and clarify the users work. Since it is easy to get lost in a complex hypertext. A parts graph may be drawn for the case. Since an increasing number of user-specified modes of operation will exist, the exact window layout and display in each window may be placed in a stack and popped on return
Hypertext Editing System
–
Hypertext Editing System (HES)
IBM 2250 Display console, with lightpen – Brown University 1969
39.
Ted Nelson
–
Theodor Holm Ted Nelson is an American pioneer of information technology, philosopher, and sociologist. He coined the terms hypertext and hypermedia in 1963 and published them in 1965, Nelson coined the terms transclusion, virtuality, and intertwingularity. Nelson is the son of Emmy Award-winning director Ralph Nelson and the Academy Award-winning actress Celeste Holm and his parents marriage was brief and he was mostly raised by his grandparents, first in Chicago and later in Greenwich Village. Nelson earned a BA from Swarthmore College in 1959, while there, he made an experimental humorous student film titled The Epiphany of Slocum Furlow, in which the titular hero discovers the meaning of life. His contemporary at the college, musician and composer Peter Schickele scored the film, in 1960 Nelson began graduate work at Harvard University in philosophy, earning a masters degree in sociology in 1963. Much later in life, in 2002, he obtained a Doctorate in Media and this came to be known as Project Xanadu. Nelson founded Project Xanadu in 1960, with the goal of creating a network with a simple user interface. The effort is documented in his 1974 book Computer Lib / Dream Machines, much of his adult life has been devoted to working on Xanadu and advocating for it. The Xanadu project itself failed to flourish, for a variety of reasons which are disputed, on his own website, Nelson expressed his disgust with the criticisms, referring to Wolf as Gory Jackal, and threatened to sue him. He also outlined his objections in a letter to Wired, in a network with two-way links, each node knows what other nodes are linked to it. Its a small change in how online information should be stored that couldnt have vaster implications for culture. Nelson co-founded itty bitty machine company, or ibm, which was a computer retail store operating from 1977 to 1980 in Evanston. The itty bitty machine company was one of the few stores to sell the original Apple I computer. In 1978 he had a significant impact upon IBMs thinking when he outlined his vision of the potential of personal computing to the team three years later launched the IBM PC. As of 2011, Nelson was working on a new structure, ZigZag, which is described on the Xanadu project website. He also developed XanaduSpace, a system for the exploration of connected parallel documents, in January 1988 BYTE computer journal published an article about Nelsons ideas, titled Managing Immense Storage. This stimulated discussions within the industry, and encouraged people to experiment with Hypertext features. In 1998, at the Seventh WWW Conference in Brisbane, Australia, in 2001 he was knighted by France as Officier des Arts et Lettres
Ted Nelson
–
Ted Nelson, speaking at the
Tech Museum of Innovation in 2011
40.
Douglas Engelbart
–
Douglas Carl Engelbart was an American engineer and inventor, and an early computer and Internet pioneer. These were demonstrated at The Mother of All Demos in 1968, Engelbarts Law, the observation that the intrinsic rate of human performance is exponential, is named after him. In the early 1950s, he decided instead of having a steady job – such as his position at NASAs Ames Research Center – he would focus on making the world a better place. He believed that the computer, which was at the thought of only as a tool for automation. He was a committed, vocal proponent of the development and use of computers and computer networks to help cope with the increasingly urgent. Engelbart embedded a set of organizing principles in his lab, which he termed bootstrapping and his belief was that when human systems and tool systems were aligned, such that workers spent time improving their tools for improving their tools it would lead to an accelerating rate of progress. The lab was transferred from SRI to Tymshare in the late 1970s, which was acquired by McDonnell Douglas in 1984, at both Tymshare and McDonnell Douglas, Engelbart was limited by a lack of interest in his ideas and funding to pursue them, and retired in 1986. In December 2000, United States President Bill Clinton awarded Engelbart the National Medal of Technology, in December 2008, Engelbart was honored by SRI at the 40th Anniversary celebration of the 1968 Mother of All Demos. Engelbart was born in Portland, Oregon on January 30,1925, to Carl Louis Engelbart and his ancestors were of German, Swedish and Norwegian descent. He was the middle of three children, with a sister Dorianne, and a brother David, the family lived in Portland, Oregon, in his early years, and moved to the surrounding countryside along Johnson Creek when he was 8. His father died one year later and he graduated from Portlands Franklin High School in 1942. On a small island, in a hut on stilts, he read Vannevar Bushs article As We May Think. He returned to Oregon State College and completed his bachelors degree in engineering in 1948. While at Oregon State College, he was a member of Sigma Phi Epsilon social fraternity and he was hired by the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics at the Ames Research Center, where he worked in wind tunnel maintenance. In his off hours he enjoyed hiking, camping, and folk dancing and it was there he met Ballard Fish who was just completing her training to become an occupational therapist. They were married on May 5,1951 in Portola State Park, soon after, Engelbart left NACA to pursue a PhD at UC Berkeley. Engelbarts career was inspired in December 1950 when he was engaged to be married and realized he had no goals other than a steady job, getting married. In 1945, Engelbart had read with interest Vannevar Bushs article As We May Think and he had also read something about the recent phenomenon of computers, and from his experience as a radar technician, he knew that information could be analyzed and displayed on a screen
Douglas Engelbart
–
Douglas Engelbart in 2008
Douglas Engelbart
–
Engelbart's
prototype of a computer mouse, as designed by
Bill English from Engelbart's sketches.
Douglas Engelbart
–
Two
Apple Macintosh Plus mice, 1986
41.
NLS (computer system)
–
NLS, or the oN-Line System, was a revolutionary computer collaboration system from the 1960s. It was funded by the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency, NASA, Douglas Engelbart developed his concepts while supported by the US Air Force from 1959 to 1960, and published a framework in 1962. The strange acronym, NLS was an artifact of the evolution of the system and his first computers were not able to support more than one user at a time. First was the CDC 160A in 1963 which had very little programming power of its own, without interactive visualization, this could be awkward, since the user had to mentally simulate the cumulative effects of their commands on the document text. On the other hand, it matched the workflow of the 1960s office, since managers would give marked-up printouts of documents to secretaries, the design continued to support this off-line workflow, as well as an interactive on-line ability to edit the same documents. To avoid two acronyms starting with the letter, the Off-Line Text System was abbreviated FLTS, while the On-Line Text System was abbreviated NLTS. As the system evolved to more than just text, the T was dropped. Robert Taylor, who had a background in psychology, provided support from NASA, when Taylor moved to the Information Processing Techniques Office of the US Defense Departments Advanced Research Projects Agency, he was able to provide even more funding to the project. In 1965, NLS development moved to a CDC3100, jeff Rulifson joined SRI in 1966 and became the lead programmer for NLS until he left in 1973. NLS development moved to a Scientific Data Systems SDS940 computer running the Berkeley Timesharing System in 1968 and it had an approximately 96 MB storage disk. It could support up to 16 workstations, which were composed of a monitor, a three-button mouse. The input of typed text was sent from the keyboard to a subsystem that relayed the information along a bus to one of two Display Controllers and Display Generators. The TV camera information was sent to the closed-circuit Camera Control and Patch Panel. NLS was demonstrated by Engelbart on December 9,1968 to an audience at that years Fall Joint Computer Conference in San Francisco. This has since been dubbed The Mother of All Demos, as it not only demonstrated the features of NLS. One of NLSs most revolutionary features, the Journal, was developed in 1970 by Australian computer engineer David A. Evans as part of his doctoral thesis. The Journal was a primitive hypertext-based groupware program which can be seen as a predecessor of all contemporary server software that supports collaborative document creation and it was used by ARC members to discuss, debate, and refine concepts in the same way that wikis are being used today. The journal was used to store documents for the Network Information Center, the NLS was implemented using several domain-specific languages implemented with the Tree Meta compiler-compiler
NLS (computer system)
–
Videoconferencing on NLS
42.
Vannevar Bush
–
He is also known in engineering for his work on analog computers, for founding Raytheon, and for the memex, a hypothetical adjustable microfilm viewer with a structure analogous to that of hypertext. The memex influenced generations of scientists, who drew inspiration from its vision of the future. He was chiefly responsible for the movement that led to the creation of the National Science Foundation, for his masters thesis, Bush invented and patented a profile tracer, a mapping device for assisting surveyors. It was the first of a string of inventions and he joined the Department of Electrical Engineering at Massachusetts Institute of Technology in 1919, and founded the company now known as Raytheon in 1922. Starting in 1927, Bush constructed a differential analyzer, a computer with some digital components that could solve differential equations with as many as 18 independent variables. An offshoot of the work at MIT by Bush and others was the beginning of digital circuit design theory, Bush became vice president of MIT and dean of the MIT School of Engineering in 1932, and president of the Carnegie Institution of Washington in 1938. Bush was appointed to the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics in 1938, Bush was a well-known policymaker and public intellectual during World War II, when he was in effect the first presidential science advisor. As head of NDRC and OSRD, he initiated the Manhattan Project, Vannevar Bush was born in Everett, Massachusetts, on March 11,1890, the third child and only son of Perry Bush, the local Universalist pastor, and his wife Emma Linwood née Paine. He had two sisters, Edith and Reba. He was named after John Vannevar, an old friend of the family who had attended Tufts College with Perry, the family moved to Chelsea, Massachusetts, in 1892, and Bush graduated from Chelsea High School in 1909. He then attended Tufts, like his father before him, a popular student, he was vice president of his sophomore class, and president of his junior class. During his senior year, he managed the football team and he became a member of the Alpha Tau Omega fraternity, and dated Phoebe Clara Davis, who also came from Chelsea. Tufts allowed students to gain a degree in four years simultaneously with a bachelors degree, so for his masters thesis. This was a device for assisting surveyors that looked like a lawn mower and it had two bicycle wheels, and a pen that plotted the terrain over which it traveled. It was the first of a string of inventions, on graduation in 1913 he received both bachelor of science and master of science degrees. After graduation, Bush worked at General Electric in Schenectady, New York, as a test man, his job was to assess equipment to ensure that it was safe. He transferred to GEs plant in Pittsfield, Massachusetts, to work on high voltage transformers, but after a fire out at the plant, Bush. He returned to Tufts in October 1914 to teach mathematics, and he was awarded a $1,500 scholarship to study at Clark University as a doctoral student of Arthur Gordon Webster, but Webster wanted Bush to study acoustics
Vannevar Bush
–
Vannevar Bush, ca. 1940–44
Vannevar Bush
–
Meccano differential analyzer in use at the Cambridge University Mathematics Laboratory, 1938.
Douglas Hartree, who visited Bush in his laboratory in 1933, built it based upon Bush's design.
Vannevar Bush
–
Bush attending a meeting at the
University of California, Berkeley in 1940. From left to right:
Ernest O. Lawrence,
Arthur H. Compton, Bush,
James B. Conant,
Karl T. Compton, and
Alfred L. Loomis
Vannevar Bush
–
Cut away diagram of the
proximity fuze Mark 53
43.
Microfilm
–
Microforms are any forms, either films or paper, containing microreproductions of documents for transmission, storage, reading, and printing. Microform images are commonly reduced to about one twenty-fifth of the original document size, for special purposes, greater optical reductions may be used. All microform images may be provided as positives or negatives, more often the latter, three formats are common, microfilm, aperture cards and microfiche. Microcards, a no longer produced, were similar to microfiche. Using the daguerreotype process, John Benjamin Dancer was one of the first to produce microphotographs and he achieved a reduction ratio of 160,1. The idea that microphotography could be no more than a novelty was an opinion shared by the 1858 Dictionary of Photography, microphotography was first suggested as a document preservation method in 1851 by James Glaisher, an astronomer, and in 1853 by John Herschel. Both men attended the 1851 Great Exhibition in London, where the exhibit on photography greatly influenced Glaisher and he called it the most remarkable discovery of modern times, and argued in his official report for using microphotography to preserve documents. The developments in microphotography continued through the decades, but it was not until the turn of the century that its potential for practical usage was seized by a wider audience. In 1896, Canadian engineer Reginald A. Fessenden suggested microforms were a solution to engineers unwieldy. He proposed that up to 150,000,000 words could be made to fit in an inch. In 1906, Paul Otlet and Robert Goldschmidt proposed the livre microphotographique as a way to alleviate the cost, in 1925, the team spoke of a massive library where each volume existed as master negatives and positives, and where items were printed on demand for interested patrons. In the 1920s microfilm began to be used in a commercial setting, New York City banker George McCarthy was issued a patent in 1925 for his Checkograph machine, designed to make micrographic copies of cancelled checks for permanent storage by financial institutions. In 1928, the Eastman Kodak Company bought McCarthys invention and began marketing check microfilming devices under its Recordak division, binkley, which looked closely at microform’s potential to serve small print runs of academic or technical materials. In 1935, Kodaks Recordak division began filming and publishing The New York Times on reels of 35 millimeter microfilm and this method of information storage received the sanction of the American Library Association at its annual meeting in 1936, when it officially endorsed microforms. Roll microfilm proved far more satisfactory as a medium than earlier methods of film information storage, such as the Photoscope, the Film-O-Graph, the Fiske-O-Scope. The year 1938 also saw another major event in the history of microfilm when University Microfilms International was established by Eugene Power, for the next half century, UMI would dominate the field, filming and distributing microfilm editions of current and past publications and academic dissertations. After another short-lived name change, UMI was made a part of ProQuest Information, systems that mount microfilm images in punched cards have been widely used for archival storage of engineering information. This permits automated reproduction, as well as permitting mechanical card-sorting equipment to sort, aperture card mounted microfilm is roughly 3% of the size and space of conventional paper or vellum engineering drawings
Microfilm
–
Digital scanning of microfilm (see
Digital conversion below).
Microfilm
–
DuKane brand microfiche reader with source code printed on the films.
Microfilm
–
A microfiche reader in a library
Microfilm
–
Microfilm roll
44.
As We May Think
–
As We May Think is a 1945 essay by Vannevar Bush which has been described as visionary and influential, anticipating many aspects of information society. It was first published in The Atlantic in July 1945 and republished in a version in September 1945—before and after the atomic bombings of Hiroshima. Through this machine, Bush hoped to transform an information explosion into a knowledge explosion, the article was a reworked and expanded version of Bushs essay Mechanization and the Record. Here, he described a machine that would combine lower level technologies to achieve a level of organized knowledge. Shortly after the publication of this essay, Bush coined the term memex in a letter written to the editor of Fortune magazine and that letter became the body of As We May Think, which added only an introduction and conclusion. The memex, in essence, reflects a library of collective knowledge stored in a piece of machinery described in his essay as a piece of furniture. The Atlantic publication of Bushs article was followed, in the September 10,1945 issue of Life magazine, by a reprint that showed illustrations of the proposed memex desk and automatic typewriter. Bush also discussed other technologies such as dry photography and microphotography where he elaborates on the potentialities of their future use, Bush envisioned the ability to retrieve several articles or pictures on one screen, with the possibility of writing comments that could be stored and recalled together. He believed people would create links between related articles, thus mapping the thought process and path of each user and saving it for others to experience, Bushs article also laid the foundation for new media. Today, storage has greatly surpassed the level imagined by Vannevar Bush, a library of a million volumes could be compressed into one end of a desk. It can be in one place, unless duplicates are used. This description resembles popular file systems of modern operating systems. Bush urges that scientists should turn to the task of creating more efficient accessibility to our fluctuating store of knowledge. For years inventions have extended peoples physical powers rather than the powers of their mind and he argues that the instruments are at hand which, if properly developed, will give society access to and command over the inherited knowledge of the ages. The perfection of these instruments, he suggests, should be the first objective of our scientists. Through this process society would be able to focus and evolve past the existing knowledge rather than looping through infinite calculations and we should be able to pass the tedious work of numbers to machines and work on the intricate theory which puts them best of use. To exemplify the importance of this concept, consider the process involved in simple shopping, Every time a charge sale is made, there are a number of things to be done. The inventory needs to be revised, the needs to be given credit for the sale, the general accounts need an entry, and most important
As We May Think
–
Vannevar Bush
45.
Uniform resource locator
–
A Uniform Resource Locator, commonly informally termed a web address is a reference to a web resource that specifies its location on a computer network and a mechanism for retrieving it. A URL is a type of Uniform Resource Identifier, although many people use the two terms interchangeably. A URL implies the means to access a resource and is denoted by a protocol or an access mechanism. Thus http, //www. example. com is an URL, URLs occur most commonly to reference web pages, but are also used for file transfer, email, database access, and many other applications. Most web browsers display the URL of a web page above the page in an address bar, a typical URL could have the form http, //www. example. com/index. html, which indicates a protocol, a hostname, and a file name. The format combines the pre-existing system of names with file path syntax. Conventions already existed where server names could be prefixed to complete file paths, every HTTP URL conforms to the syntax of a generic URI. Although schemes are case-insensitive, the form is lowercase and documents that specify schemes must do so with lowercase letters. It is followed by a colon, examples of popular schemes include http, ftp, mailto, file, data, and irc. URI schemes should be registered with the Internet Assigned Numbers Authority, two slashes, This is required by some schemes and not required by some others. When the authority component is absent, the path component cannot begin with two slashes, iPv4 addresses must be in dot-decimal notation, and IPv6 addresses must be enclosed in brackets. An optional port number, separated from the hostname by a colon A path, which contains data, usually organized in hierarchical form, such a sequence may resemble or map exactly to a file system path, but does not always imply a relation to one. The path must begin with a single slash if an authority part was present, and may also if one was not, but must not begin with a double slash. The path is defined, though the defined path may be empty An optional query, separated from the preceding part by a question mark. Its syntax is not well defined, but by convention is most often a sequence of attribute–value pairs separated by a delimiter, an optional fragment, separated from the preceding part by a hash. The fragment contains a fragment identifier providing direction to a secondary resource, when the primary resource is an HTML document, the fragment is often an id attribute of a specific element, and web browsers will scroll this element into view. A web browser will usually dereference a URL by performing an HTTP request to the specified host, URLs using the https scheme require that requests and responses will be made over a secure connection to the website. Internet users are distributed throughout the world using a variety of languages and alphabets
Uniform resource locator
–
This
Euler diagram shows that a Uniform Resource Identifier (URI) is either a Uniform Resource Locator (URL), a
Uniform Resource Name (URN), or both.
46.
Uniform resource identifier
–
In information technology, a Uniform Resource Identifier is a string of characters used to identify a resource. Such identification enables interaction with representations of the resource over a network, typically the World Wide Web, schemes specifying a concrete syntax and associated protocols define each URI. The most common form of URI is the Uniform Resource Locator, more rarely seen in usage is the Uniform Resource Name, which was designed to complement URLs by providing a mechanism for the identification of resources in particular namespaces. A Uniform Resource Name can be compared to a persons name, in other words, a URN identifies an item and a URL provides a method for finding it. A URN is a URI that identifies a resource by name in a particular namespace, a URN may be used to talk about a resource without implying its location or how to access it. For example, in the International Standard Book Number system, ISBN 0-486-27557-4 identifies a specific edition of Shakespeares play Romeo, the URN for that edition would be urn, isbn, 0-486-27557-4. To gain access to the book, its location is needed, a URL is simply a URI that happens to point to a resource over a network. However, in non-technical contexts and in software for the World Wide Web, additionally, the term web address often occurs in non-technical publications as a synonym for a URI that uses the http or https scheme. Such assumptions can lead to confusion, for example in the case of XML namespaces, while most URI schemes were originally designed to be used with a particular protocol, and often have the same name, they should not be referred to as protocols. Some URI schemes are not associated with any specific protocol and many others do not use the name of a protocol as their prefix. The syntax of generic URIs and absolute URI references was first defined in Request for Comments 2396, published in August 1998, although schemes are case-insensitive, the canonical form is lowercase and documents that specify schemes must do so with lowercase letters. It is followed by a colon, examples of popular schemes include http, ftp, mailto, file, data, and irc. URI schemes should be registered with the Internet Assigned Numbers Authority, two slashes, This is required by some schemes and not required by some others. When the authority component is absent, the path component cannot begin with two slashes, iPv4 addresses must be in dot-decimal notation, and IPv6 addresses must be enclosed in brackets. An optional port number, separated from the hostname by a colon A path, which contains data, usually organized in hierarchical form, such a sequence may resemble or map exactly to a file system path, but does not always imply a relation to one. The path must begin with a single slash if an authority part was present, and may also if one was not, but must not begin with a double slash. The path is defined, though the defined path may be empty An optional query, separated from the preceding part by a question mark. Its syntax is not well defined, but by convention is most often a sequence of attribute–value pairs separated by a delimiter, an optional fragment, separated from the preceding part by a hash
Uniform resource identifier
–
An
Euler diagram showing that a Uniform Resource Identifier (URI) can be either a Uniform Resource Locator (URL), a Uniform Resource Name (URN), or both.
47.
Hypertext Markup Language
–
Hypertext Markup Language is the standard markup language for creating web pages and web applications. With Cascading Style Sheets and JavaScript it forms a triad of cornerstone technologies for the World Wide Web, Web browsers receive HTML documents from a webserver or from local storage and render them into multimedia web pages. HTML describes the structure of a web page semantically and originally included cues for the appearance of the document, HTML elements are the building blocks of HTML pages. With HTML constructs, images and other objects, such as interactive forms and it provides a means to create structured documents by denoting structural semantics for text such as headings, paragraphs, lists, links, quotes and other items. HTML elements are delineated by tags, written using angle brackets, tags such as <img /> and <input /> introduce content into the page directly. Include explicit close tags for elements that permit content but are left empty, by carefully following the W3Cs compatibility guidelines, a user agent should be able to interpret the document equally as HTML or XHTML. For documents that are XHTML1.0 and have made compatible in this way. When delivered as XHTML, browsers should use an XML parser, HTML4 defined three different versions of the language, Strict, Transitional and Frameset. The Transitional and Frameset versions allow for presentational markup, which is omitted in the Strict version, instead, cascading style sheets are encouraged to improve the presentation of HTML documents. Because XHTML1 only defines an XML syntax for the language defined by HTML4, as this list demonstrates, the loose versions of the specification are maintained for legacy support. However, contrary to popular misconceptions, the move to XHTML does not imply a removal of this legacy support, rather the X in XML stands for extensible and the W3C is modularizing the entire specification and opening it up to independent extensions. The primary achievement in the move from XHTML1.0 to XHTML1.1 is the modularization of the entire specification, the strict version of HTML is deployed in XHTML1.1 through a set of modular extensions to the base XHTML1.1 specification. Likewise, someone looking for the loose or frameset specifications will find similar extended XHTML1.1 support, the modularization also allows for separate features to develop on their own timetable. So for example, XHTML1.1 will allow quicker migration to emerging XML standards such as MathML, in summary, the HTML4 specification primarily reined in all the various HTML implementations into a single clearly written specification based on SGML. XHTML1.0, ported this specification, as is, next, XHTML1.1 takes advantage of the extensible nature of XML and modularizes the whole specification. XHTML2.0 was intended to be the first step in adding new features to the specification in a standards-body-based approach. The WHATWG considers their work as living standard HTML for what constitutes the state of the art in major browser implementations by Apple, Google, Mozilla, Opera, hTML5 is specified by the HTML Working Group of the W3C following the W3C process. HTML lacks some of the found in earlier hypertext systems, such as source tracking, fat links
Hypertext Markup Language
–
Tim Berners-Lee
Hypertext Markup Language
–
HTML (HyperText Markup Language)
48.
Hypertext Transfer Protocol
–
The Hypertext Transfer Protocol is an application protocol for distributed, collaborative, and hypermedia information systems. HTTP is the foundation of data communication for the World Wide Web, Hypertext is structured text that uses logical links between nodes containing text. HTTP is the protocol to exchange or transfer hypertext, development of HTTP was initiated by Tim Berners-Lee at CERN in 1989. Standards development of HTTP was coordinated by the Internet Engineering Task Force and the World Wide Web Consortium, culminating in the publication of a series of Requests for Comments. The first definition of HTTP/1.1, the version of HTTP in common use, occurred in RFC2068 in 1997, although this was obsoleted by RFC2616 in 1999 and then again by RFC7230 and family in 2014. A later version, the successor HTTP/2, was standardized in 2015, HTTP functions as a request–response protocol in the client–server computing model. A web browser, for example, may be the client, the client submits an HTTP request message to the server. The server, which provides resources such as HTML files and other content, or performs other functions on behalf of the client, the response contains completion status information about the request and may also contain requested content in its message body. A web browser is an example of a user agent, other types of user agent include the indexing software used by search providers, voice browsers, mobile apps, and other software that accesses, consumes, or displays web content. HTTP is designed to permit intermediate network elements to improve or enable communications between clients and servers, high-traffic websites often benefit from web cache servers that deliver content on behalf of upstream servers to improve response time. Web browsers cache previously accessed web resources and reuse them when possible to network traffic. HTTP proxy servers at private network boundaries can facilitate communication for clients without a globally routable address, HTTP is an application layer protocol designed within the framework of the Internet protocol suite. Its definition presumes an underlying and reliable transport layer protocol, however HTTP can be adapted to use unreliable protocols such as the User Datagram Protocol, for example in HTTPU and Simple Service Discovery Protocol. HTTP resources are identified and located on the network by Uniform Resource Locators, using the Uniform Resource Identifiers schemes http, uRIs and hyperlinks in HTML documents form inter-linked hypertext documents. HTTP/1.1 is a revision of the original HTTP, in HTTP/1.0 a separate connection to the same server is made for every resource request. HTTP/1.1 can reuse a connection multiple times to download images, scripts, stylesheets, HTTP/1.1 communications therefore experience less latency as the establishment of TCP connections presents considerable overhead. Tim Berners-Lee and his team at CERN are credited with inventing the original HTTP along with HTML and the technology for a web server. Berners-Lee first proposed the WorldWideWeb project in 1989—now known as the World Wide Web, the first version of the protocol had only one method, namely GET, which would request a page from a server
Hypertext Transfer Protocol
–
URL beginning with the HTTP scheme and the
WWW domain name label.
Hypertext Transfer Protocol
–
Tim Berners-Lee
49.
HyperCard
–
HyperCard is application software and a programming tool for Apple Macintosh and Apple IIGS computers. It is among the first successful hypermedia systems before the World Wide Web and it combines database abilities with a graphical, flexible, user-modifiable interface. HyperCard also features HyperTalk, a language for manipulating data. This combination of features – simple form layout, database abilities, HyperCard was originally released in 1987 for $49.95 and was included for free with all new Macs sold then. It was withdrawn from sale in March 2004 after its final update in 1998, HyperCard ran in the Classic Environment, but was not ported to Mac OS X. Through its influence on Robert Cailliau, HyperCard influenced the development of the Web in late 1990, in this sense, like the Web it did form a brain-like association- or link-based experience of information browsing, despite not operating remotely over the TCP/IP protocol then. Like the Web, it allowed for the connections of many different kinds of media. HyperCard is based on the concept of a stack of virtual cards, cards hold data, just as they would in a Rolodex card-filing device. Each card contains a set of objects, including text fields, check boxes, buttons. Users browse the stack by navigating from card to card, using built-in navigation features, users build new stacks or modify extant ones by adding new cards. They place GUI objects on the using a interactive layout engine based on a simple drag-and-drop interface. This way, a stack of cards with a common layout, the layout engine is similar in concept to a form as used in most rapid application development environments. The database features of the HyperCard system are based on the storage of the state of all of the objects on the cards in the physical file representing the stack. The database did not exist as a system within the HyperCard stack. Instead, the state of any object in the system was considered to be live, such changes are immediately saved when complete, so typing into a field caused that text to be stored to the stacks physical file. The system operates in a largely stateless fashion, with no need to save during operation and this is in common with many database-oriented systems, although somewhat different from document-based applications. The final key element in HyperCard was the script, a single code-carrying element of every object within the stack, the script was a text field which contents were interpreted in the HyperTalk language. Like any other property, the script of any object could be edited at any time, when the user invokes actions in the GUI, like clicking on a button or typing into a field, these actions are translated into events by the HyperCard runtime
HyperCard
–
HyperCard
50.
Uniform Resource Identifier
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In information technology, a Uniform Resource Identifier is a string of characters used to identify a resource. Such identification enables interaction with representations of the resource over a network, typically the World Wide Web, schemes specifying a concrete syntax and associated protocols define each URI. The most common form of URI is the Uniform Resource Locator, more rarely seen in usage is the Uniform Resource Name, which was designed to complement URLs by providing a mechanism for the identification of resources in particular namespaces. A Uniform Resource Name can be compared to a persons name, in other words, a URN identifies an item and a URL provides a method for finding it. A URN is a URI that identifies a resource by name in a particular namespace, a URN may be used to talk about a resource without implying its location or how to access it. For example, in the International Standard Book Number system, ISBN 0-486-27557-4 identifies a specific edition of Shakespeares play Romeo, the URN for that edition would be urn, isbn, 0-486-27557-4. To gain access to the book, its location is needed, a URL is simply a URI that happens to point to a resource over a network. However, in non-technical contexts and in software for the World Wide Web, additionally, the term web address often occurs in non-technical publications as a synonym for a URI that uses the http or https scheme. Such assumptions can lead to confusion, for example in the case of XML namespaces, while most URI schemes were originally designed to be used with a particular protocol, and often have the same name, they should not be referred to as protocols. Some URI schemes are not associated with any specific protocol and many others do not use the name of a protocol as their prefix. The syntax of generic URIs and absolute URI references was first defined in Request for Comments 2396, published in August 1998, although schemes are case-insensitive, the canonical form is lowercase and documents that specify schemes must do so with lowercase letters. It is followed by a colon, examples of popular schemes include http, ftp, mailto, file, data, and irc. URI schemes should be registered with the Internet Assigned Numbers Authority, two slashes, This is required by some schemes and not required by some others. When the authority component is absent, the path component cannot begin with two slashes, iPv4 addresses must be in dot-decimal notation, and IPv6 addresses must be enclosed in brackets. An optional port number, separated from the hostname by a colon A path, which contains data, usually organized in hierarchical form, such a sequence may resemble or map exactly to a file system path, but does not always imply a relation to one. The path must begin with a single slash if an authority part was present, and may also if one was not, but must not begin with a double slash. The path is defined, though the defined path may be empty An optional query, separated from the preceding part by a question mark. Its syntax is not well defined, but by convention is most often a sequence of attribute–value pairs separated by a delimiter, an optional fragment, separated from the preceding part by a hash
Uniform Resource Identifier
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Euler diagram showing that a Uniform Resource Identifier (URI) can be either a Uniform Resource Locator (URL), a Uniform Resource Name (URN), or both.
