1.
Livery company
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The livery companies of the City of London, currently 110 in number, comprise Londons ancient and modern trade associations and guilds, almost all of which are styled the Worshipful Company of. Their respective craft, trade or profession, Londons livery companies play a significant part in City life, not least by providing charitable-giving and networking opportunities. Liverymen retain voting rights for the civic offices, such as the Lord Mayor, Sheriffs and City of London Corporation. The term livery originated in the form of dress worn to retainers of a nobleman. Most livery companies retain their religious associations, although nowadays members are free to follow any faith or none. Most livery companies still maintain contacts with their trade, craft or professional roles. Some still exercise powers of regulation, inspection and enforcement, while others are awarding bodies for professional qualifications, several companies restrict membership only to those holding relevant professional qualifications, eg. the City of London Solicitors Company and the Worshipful Company of Engineers. Other companies, whose trade died out long ago, such as the Longbow Makers Company, have evolved into being primarily charitable foundations, after the Carmen received City livery status in 1746 no new companies were established in London for 180 years until the Master Mariners in 1926. Post-1926 creations are known as livery companies. The Worshipful Company of Arts Scholars, the newest, was granted status on 11 February 2014. The Honourable Company of Air Pilots is exceptional among Londons livery companies in having active overseas committees in Australia, Canada, Hong Kong, New Zealand and North America. Livery companies are governed by a Master, a number of Wardens, the Clerk to the Company is invariably its most senior permanent member of staff, who as chief executive officer runs its day-to-day activities. Membership generally falls into two categories, freemen and liverymen, most livery companies reserve the right to admit distinguished people, particularly in their sphere of influence, as honorary freemen. Freemen may advance to become liverymen, after obtaining the freedom of the City of London, only liverymen are eligible to vote in the annual election of the Lord Mayor of London, the Sheriffs and various other City civic offices, including the Ale Conners and Bridge Masters. The livery companies elect a majority of the members of the Livery Committee, the Committee oversees the elections of Sheriffs and the Lord Mayor, educates liverymen regarding the City and its activities, represents the livery companies in communications with the City. A liveryman is a member of their respective Company. When a Freeman becomes a liveryman, the candidate is said to be enclothed, indeed, thereafter only the master, wardens and assistants in companies are seen wearing these at company events. The masters wear them at the Citys formal events, e. g. the two Common Halls and the United Guilds Service, and Lord Mayors Show, wherever they may participate
2.
City of London
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The City of London is a city and county within London. It constituted most of London from its settlement by the Romans in the 1st century AD to the Middle Ages, the City is now only a tiny part of the metropolis of London, though it remains a notable part of central London. Administratively, it one of the 33 local authority districts of Greater London, however, the City of London is not a London borough. The City of London is widely referred to simply as the City and is colloquially known as the Square Mile. Both of these terms are often used as metonyms for the United Kingdoms trading and financial services industries. The name London is now used for a far wider area than just the City. London most often denotes the sprawling London metropolis, or the 32 London boroughs and this wider usage of London is documented as far back as 1888, when the County of London was created. The local authority for the City, namely the City of London Corporation, is unique in the UK and has some unusual responsibilities for a local council and it is also unusual in having responsibilities and ownerships beyond its boundaries. The Corporation is headed by the Lord Mayor of the City of London, the current Lord Mayor, as of November 2016, is Andrew Parmley. The City is a business and financial centre. Throughout the 19th century, the City was the primary business centre. London came top in the Worldwide Centres of Commerce Index, published in 2008, the insurance industry is focused around the eastern side of the City, around Lloyds building. A secondary financial district exists outside of the City, at Canary Wharf,2.5 miles to the east, the City has a resident population of about 7,000 but over 300,000 people commute to and work there, mainly in the financial services sector. It used to be held that Londinium was first established by merchants as a trading port on the tidal Thames in around 47 AD. However, this date is only supposition, many historians now believe London was founded some time before the Roman conquest of Britain in 43 AD. They base this notion on evidence provided by both archaeology and Welsh literary legend, archaeologists have claimed that as much as half of the best British Iron Age art and metalwork discovered in Britain has been found in the London area. One of the most prominent examples is the famously horned Waterloo Helmet dredged from the Thames in the early 1860s and now exhibited at the British Museum. Also, according to an ancient Welsh legend, a king named Lud son of Heli substantially enlarged and improved a pre-existing settlement at London which afterwards came to be renamed after him, the same tradition relates how this Lud son of Heli was later buried at Ludgate
3.
Royal charter
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A royal charter is a formal document issued by a monarch as letters patent, granting a right or power to an individual or a body corporate. They were, and are still, used to establish significant organisations such as cities or universities, Charters should be distinguished from warrants and letters of appointment, as they have perpetual effect. Typically, a Royal Charter is produced as a high-quality work of calligraphy on vellum, the British monarchy has issued over 980 royal charters. Of these about 750 remain in existence, the earliest was to the town of Tain in 1066, making it the oldest Royal Burgh in Scotland, followed by the University of Cambridge in 1231. Charters continue to be issued by the British Crown, a recent example being that awarded to the Chartered Institute for the Management of Sport and Physical Activity, Charters have been used in Europe since medieval times to create cities. The date that such a charter is granted is considered to be when a city is founded, at one time, a royal charter was the sole means by which an incorporated body could be formed, but other means are generally used nowadays instead. In the period before 1958,32 higher education institutes had been created by royal charter and these were typically engineering or technical institutions rather than universities. Royal decrees can therefore no longer grant higher education status or university status. A Royal Charter is granted by Order in Council, either creating an incorporated body and this is an exercise of the Royal Prerogative, and, in Canada, there are hundreds of organisations under Royal Charters. Such organisations include charities, businesses, colleges, universities, today, it is mostly charities and professional institutions who receive Royal Charters. Application for a charter is a petition to the Queen-in-Council, however, meeting these benchmarks does not guarantee the issuance of a Royal Charter. Companies, corporations, and societies in Canada founded under or augmented by a Royal Charter include, Royal Charter was issued in August 1826 to purchase and develop lands. Purchased the Crown Reserve of 1,384,413 acres, cities under Royal Charter are not subject to municipal Acts of Parliament applied generally to other municipalities, and instead are governed by legislation applicable to each city individually. The Royal Charter codifies the laws applied to the particular city, the Universitys Pontifical Charter was granted by Pope Leo XIII in 1889. Several Canadian private schools were founded or reconstituted under Royal Charter, the Royal Gibraltar Post Office was granted Royal Charter in 2005. The Royal Hong Kong Jockey Club obtained Royal Charter in 1959 and it is one of the three banknote-issuing banks in Hong Kong. The Royal Asiatic Society Hong Kong Branch Chartered originally in 1847, disbanded 1859, the Institution of Engineers was incorporated by royal charter in 1935. A number of Irish institutions retain the Royal prefix, even though Republic of Ireland severed all remaining connections between the state and the British monarch in 1949, the University of South Africa received a Royal Charter in 1877
4.
Statute of Anne
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Prior to the statutes enactment in 1710, copying restrictions were authorized by the Licensing of the Press Act 1662. These restrictions were enforced by the Stationers Company, a guild of printers given the power to print—and the responsibility to censor—literary works. The censorship administered under the Licensing Act led to public protest, as the act had to be renewed at two-year intervals, in 1694, Parliament refused to renew the Licensing Act, ending the Stationers monopoly and press restrictions. Over the next 10 years the Stationers repeatedly advocated bills to re-authorize the old licensing system, faced with this failure, the Stationers decided to emphasise the benefits of licensing to authors rather than publishers, and the Stationers succeeded in getting Parliament to consider a new bill. This bill, which after substantial amendments was granted Royal Assent on 5 April 1710, following this, the works copyright would expire, with the material falling into the public domain. The statute is considered an event in Anglo-American copyright history. Transforming what had been the private law copyright into a public law grant. Under the statute, copyright was for the first time vested in authors rather than publishers, it included provisions for the public interest. With the introduction of the press to England by William Caxton in 1476. As early as 1483, Richard III recognised the value of works by specifically exempting them from the governments protectionist legislation. This was followed by increasing degrees of censorship and this censorship peaked on 4 May 1557, when Mary I issued a royal warrant formally incorporating the Stationers Company. Instead, the royal warrant devolved this power to the Company and this was done by decreeing that only the Companys publishers could print and distribute books. Their Wardens were given the power to enter any printing premises, destroy illegal works, the legislation required renewal every two years, and was regularly reapproved. The result was a public sphere provided the context that enabled the collapse of traditional press controls. The result of this environment was the lapse of the Licensing Act, in November 1694, a committee was appointed by the Commons to see what laws were lately expired and expiring fit to be revived and continued. The Committee reported in January 1695, and suggested the renewal of the Licensing Act, this was included in the Continuation Bill, when it reached the House of Lords, the Lords re-included the Licensing Act, and returned the bill to the Commons. In response, a committee was appointed - this one to produce a report indicating why the Commons disagreed with the inclusion of the Licensing Act. This committee soon reported to the Commons, and Clarke was ordered to carry a message to the Lords requesting a conference over the Act
5.
City of London Corporation
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In 2006 the name was changed from Corporation of London to avoid confusion with the wider London local government, the Greater London Authority. The Corporation is probably the worlds oldest continuously-elected local government authority, the corporations structure includes the Lord Mayor, the Court of Aldermen, the Court of Common Council, and the Freemen and Livery of the City. In Anglo-Saxon times, consultation between the Citys rulers and its citizens took place at the Folkmoot, administration and judicial processes were conducted at the Court of Husting and the non-legal part of the courts work evolved into the Court of Aldermen. Numerous subsequent Royal Charters over the centuries confirmed and extended the citizens rights, around 1189, the City gained the right to have its own mayor, later being advanced to the degree and style of Lord Mayor of London. The individual commissioners were nominated by the Corporation, but it was a separate body. Local government legislation often makes special provision for the City to be treated as a London borough, the Chief Executive of the administrative side of the Corporation holds the ancient office of Town Clerk of London. The Chamberlain, the City Treasurer and Finance Officer, the City Remembrancer, who is responsible for protocol, ceremonial, security issues as well as legislative matters that may affect the Corporation and is legally qualified. The Comptroller and City Solicitor, legal officer. e, former Lord Mayors, and the junior Aldermen. The Common Serjeant, the senior judge at the Central Criminal Court Old Bailey. C) The Ward Beadles, responsible to a specific Ward from which they are elected, largely ceremonial support to their respective Aldermen, and also perform a formal role at Ward Motes. In 1801, the City had a population of about 130,000 and it has risen slightly to around 9,000 since, largely due to the development of the Barbican Estate. As it has not been affected by other municipal legislation over the period of time since then, therefore, the non-residential vote, abolished in the rest of the country in 1969, became an increasingly large part of the electorate. The non-residential vote system used disfavoured incorporated companies, the City of London Act 2002 greatly increased the business franchise, allowing many more businesses to be represented. In 2009, the vote was about 24,000. Each body or organisation, whether unincorporated or incorporated, whose premises are within the City of London may appoint a number of based on the number of workers it employs. Limited liability partnerships fall into this category, though workers count as part of a workforce regardless of nationality, only certain individuals may be appointed as voters. The City of London is divided into twenty-five Wards, each of which is a division, electing one Alderman. The numbers below reflect the changes caused by the City of London Act, there are over one hundred livery companies in London
6.
Stationer
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Stationery is a mass noun referring to commercially manufactured writing materials, including cut paper, envelopes, writing implements, continuous stationery and other office supplies. Stationery includes materials to be written on by hand or by equipment such as computer printers and it was a special term used between the 13th and 15th centuries in the manuscript culture. The Stationers Company formerly held a monopoly over the industry in England and was responsible for copyright regulations. In its modern sense including personal writing materials, stationery has been an important part of social etiquette. Some uses of stationery, such as sending a manufactured reply card to an invitation, have changed from offensive to appropriate. The use and marketing of stationery is being superseded by electronic media. Stationery is intrinsically linked to paper and the process of written, personalized communication, the most familiar of these techniques are letterpress printing, embossing, engraving and thermographic printing. Flat printing and offset printing are regularly used, particularly for low-cost or informal needs, letterpress is a method of printing many identical copies that requires characters being impressed upon the page. The print may be inked or blind but is typically done in a single color, motifs or designs may be added as many letterpress machines use movable plates that must be hand-set. When a single document needs to be produced, it may be handwritten or printed typically by a computer printer, several copies of one original can be produced by some printers using multipart stationery. Typing with a typewriter is obsolescent, having been superseded by preparing a document with a word processor. Thermographic printing is a process involves several stages but can be implemented in a low-cost manufacturing process. The process involves printing the desired designs or text with an ink that remains wet, the paper is then dusted with a powdered polymer that adheres to the ink. The paper is vacuumed or agitated, mechanically or by hand, to remove excess powder, the wet ink and polymer bond and dry, resulting in a raised print surface similar to the result of an engraving process. Embossing is a technique used to create raised surfaces in the converted paper stock. The process relies upon mated dies that press the paper into a shape that can be observed on both the front and back surfaces, engraving is a process that requires a design to be cut into a plate made of a relatively hard material. It is a technology with a history and requires significant skill. The finished plate is covered in ink, and then the ink is removed from all of the un-etched portions of the plate
7.
Bookbinding
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Bookbinding is the process of physically assembling a book from an ordered stack of paper sheets that are folded together into sections or sometimes left as a stack of individual sheets. The stack is then bound together along one edge by either sewing with thread through the folds or by a layer of flexible adhesive, for protection, the bound stack is either wrapped in a flexible cover or attached to stiff boards. Finally, a cover is adhered to the boards and a label with identifying information is attached to the covers along with additional decoration. Bookbinding is a trade that relies on basic operations of measuring, cutting. A finished book depends on a minimum of two dozen operations to complete but sometimes more than double that according to the specific style. All operations have an order and each one relies on accurate completion of the previous step with little room for back tracking. An extremely durable binding can be achieved by using the best hand techniques, Bookbinding combines skills from other trades such as paper and fabric crafts, leather work, model making, and graphic arts. It requires knowledge about numerous varieties of book structures along with all the internal and external details of assembly, a working knowledge of the materials involved is required. Bookbinding is a craft of great antiquity, and at the same time. The division between craft and industry is not so wide as might at first be imagined and it is interesting to observe that the main problems faced by the mass-production bookbinder are the same as those that confronted the medieval craftsman or the modern hand binder. Before the computer age, the bookbinding trade involved two divisions, second was Letterpress binding which deals with making new books intended to be read from and includes fine binding, library binding, edition binding, and publishers bindings. A result of the new bindings is a third division dealing with the repair, restoration, with the digital age, personal computers have replaced the pen and paper based accounting that used to drive most of the work in the stationery binding industry. There is a grey area between the two divisions. There are cases where the printing and binding jobs are combined in one shop, a step up to the next level of mechanization is determined by economics of scale until you reach production runs of ten thousand copies or more in a factory employing a dozen or more workers. The craft of bookbinding probably originated in India, where religious sutras were copied on to palm leaves with a metal stylus, the leaf was then dried and rubbed with ink, which would form a stain in the wound. The finished leaves were given numbers, and two long twines were threaded through each end through wooden boards, making a palm-leaf book, when the book was closed, the excess twine would be wrapped around the boards to protect the manuscript leaves. Buddhist monks took the idea through Afghanistan to China in the first century BC, similar techniques can also be found in ancient Egypt where priestly texts were compiled on scrolls and books of papyrus. Another version of bookmaking can be seen through the ancient Mayan codex, writers in the Hellenistic-Roman culture wrote longer texts as scrolls, these were stored in boxes or shelving with small cubbyholes, similar to a modern winerack
8.
Bookselling
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Bookselling is the commercial trading of books, the retail and distribution end of the publishing process. People who engage in bookselling are called booksellers, bookwomen, or bookmen, the founding of libraries in 300 BC stimulated the energies of the Athenian booksellers. In Rome, toward the end of the republic, it became the fashion to have a library, and Roman booksellers carried on a flourishing trade. The spread of Christianity naturally created a demand for copies of the Gospels, other sacred books. The modern system of bookselling dates from soon after the introduction of printing, in the course of the 16th and 17th centuries the Low Countries for a time became the chief centre of the bookselling world. Modern book selling has changed dramatically with the advent of the Internet, with major websites such as Amazon, eBay, and other big book distributors offering affiliate programs, book sales have now, more than ever, been put in the hands of the small business owner. Bookstores may be part of a chain, or local independent bookstores. Stores can range in size offering from several hundred to several hundred thousands of titles and they may be brick-and-mortar stores or internet only stores or a combination of both. Sizes for the larger bookstores exceed half a million titles, bookstores often sell other printed matter besides books, such as newspapers, magazines and maps, additional product lines may vary enormously, particularly among independent bookstores. Another common type of bookstore is the used bookstore or second-hand bookshop which buys and sells used, a range of titles are available in used bookstores, including in print and out of print books. Book collectors tend to frequent used book stores, large online bookstores offer used books for sale, too. In the book of Jeremiah the prophet is represented as dictating to Baruch the scribe and these scribes were the earliest booksellers, and supplied copies as they were demanded. Aristotle possessed an extensive library, and Plato is recorded to have paid the large sum of one hundred minae for three small treatises of Philolaus the Pythagorean. When the Alexandrian library was founded about 300 BC, various expedients were used for the purpose of procuring books, in Rome, toward the end of the republic, it became the fashion to have a library as part of the household furniture. Roman booksellers carried on a flourishing trade and their shops were chiefly in the Argiletum, and in the Vicus Sandalarius. On the door, or on the posts, was a list of the books on sale, and Martial. In the time of Augustus the great booksellers were the Sosii, according to Justinian, a law was passed granting to the scribes the ownership of the material written, this may be the beginnings of the modern law of copyright. All references had to be certified by the local mayor, if the application was accepted, the bookseller would have to swear an oath of loyalty to the régime
9.
St Paul's Cathedral
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St Pauls Cathedral, London, is an Anglican cathedral, the seat of the Bishop of London and the mother church of the Diocese of London. It sits on Ludgate Hill at the highest point of the City of London and is a Grade 1 listed building and its dedication to Paul the Apostle dates back to the original church on this site, founded in AD604. The present church, dating from the late 17th century, was designed in the English Baroque style by Sir Christopher Wren and its construction, completed in Wrens lifetime, was part of a major rebuilding programme in the City after the Great Fire of London. The cathedral is one of the most famous and most recognisable sights of London and its dome, framed by the spires of Wrens City churches, dominated the skyline for 300 years. At 365 feet high, it was the tallest building in London from 1710 to 1967, the dome is among the highest in the world. St Pauls is the second-largest church building in area in the United Kingdom after Liverpool Cathedral, St Pauls Cathedral occupies a significant place in the national identity. It is the subject of much promotional material, as well as of images of the dome surrounded by the smoke. St Pauls Cathedral is a church with hourly prayer and daily services. The entry fee is £18 for adults, the location of Londiniums original cathedral is unknown. In 1995, however, a large and ornate 5th century building on Tower Hill was excavated, the Elizabethan antiquarian William Camden argued that a temple to the goddess Diana had stood during Roman times on the site occupied by the medieval St Pauls Cathedral. Wren reported that he had no trace of any such temple during the works to build the new cathedral after the Great Fire. Bede records that in AD604 St Augustine consecrated Mellitus as the first bishop to the Anglo-Saxon kingdom of the East Saxons and their king, Sæberht. Sæberhts uncle and overlord, Æthelberht, king of Kent, built a dedicated to St Paul in London. It is assumed, although unproven, that this first Anglo-Saxon cathedral stood on the site as the later medieval. On the death of Sæberht in about 616, his sons expelled Mellitus from London. The fate of the first cathedral building is unknown and this building, or a successor, was destroyed by fire in 962, but rebuilt in the same year. King Æthelred the Unready was buried in the cathedral on his death in 1016, the cathedral was burnt, with much of the city, in a fire in 1087, as recorded in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle. The fourth St Pauls, generally referred to as Old St Pauls, was begun by the Normans after the 1087 fire, a further fire in 1136 disrupted the work, and the new cathedral was not consecrated until 1240
10.
House of Tudor
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The House of Tudor was a royal house of Welsh and English origin, descended in the male line from the Tudors of Penmynydd. Tudor monarchs ruled the Kingdom of England and its realms, including their ancestral Wales, the Tudors succeeded the House of Plantaganet as rulers of the Kingdom of England, and were succeeded by the House of Stuart. The first monarch, Henry VII, descended through his mother from a branch of the English royal House of Lancaster. The Tudor family rose to power in the wake of the Wars of the Roses and his victory was reinforced by his marriage to Elizabeth of York, daughter of King Edward IV, symbolically uniting the former warring factions under a new dynasty. They also maintained the nominal English claim to the Kingdom of France, although none of them made substance of it, after him, his daughter Mary I lost control of all territory in France permanently with the fall of Calais in 1558. In total, five Tudor monarchs ruled their domains for just over a century, Henry VIII was the only male-line male heir of Henry VII to live to the age of maturity. Issues around the royal succession became major political themes during the Tudor era, the House of Stuart, descended from Henry VIIIs sister Margaret, came to power in 1603 when the direct Tudor line failed, as Elizabeth I died without a legitimate heir. The church retroactively declared the Beauforts legitimate by way of a bull the same year. A subsequent proclamation by John of Gaunts legitimate son, Henry IV, also recognised the Beauforts legitimacy, nevertheless, the Beauforts remained closely allied with Gaunts legitimate descendants from his first marriage, the House of Lancaster. On 1 November 1455, John Beauforts granddaughter, Margaret Beaufort, Countess of Richmond and Derby, married Henry VIs half-brother Edmund Tudor and it was his father, Owen Tudor, who abandoned the Welsh patronymic naming practice and adopted a fixed surname. When he did, he did not choose, as was generally the custom, his fathers name, Maredudd, Owen Tudor was one of the bodyguards for the queen dowager Catherine of Valois, whose husband, Henry V, had died in 1422. Evidence suggests that the two were married in 1429. The two sons born of the marriage, Edmund and Jasper, were among the most loyal supporters of the House of Lancaster in its struggle against the House of York, Edmund died on 3 November 1456. On 28 January 1457, his widow Margaret Beaufort, who had just attained her fourteenth birthday, gave birth to a son, Henry Tudor, at her brother-in-laws Pembroke Castle. Henry Tudor, the future Henry VII, spent his childhood at Raglan Castle, the home of William Herbert, 1st Earl of Pembroke, a leading Yorkist. Following the murder of Henry VI and death of his son, Edward, in 1471, concerned for his young nephews life, Jasper Tudor took Henry to Brittany for safety. Lady Margaret remained in England and remarried, living quietly while advancing the Lancastrian cause, capitalizing on the growing unpopularity of Richard III, she was able to forge an alliance with discontented Yorkists in support of her son. Two years after Richard III was crowned, Henry and Jasper sailed from the mouth of the Seine to the Milford Haven Waterway, upon this victory, Henry Tudor proclaimed himself King Henry VII
11.
House of Stuart
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The House of Stuart, originally Stewart and, in Gaelic, Stiùbhart was a European royal house that originated in Scotland. The dynastys patrilineal Breton ancestors had held the office of High Steward of Scotland since the 12th century, the royal Stewart line was founded by Robert II, and they were Kings and Queens of Scots from the late 14th century until the union with England in 1707. Mary I, Queen of Scots was brought up in France and her son, James VI of Scotland, inherited the thrones of England and Ireland upon the death of Elizabeth I in 1603. Except for the period of the Commonwealth, 1649–1660, the Stuarts were monarchs of England, Scotland and Ireland until 1707, then of Great Britain and Ireland, in total, nine Stewart/Stuart monarchs ruled Scotland alone from 1371 until 1603. James VI of Scotland then inherited the realms of Elizabeth I of England, following the Glorious Revolution in 1688, two Stuart queens ruled the isles, Mary II and Anne. Both were the Protestant daughters of James VII and II by his first wife, during the reign of the Stuarts, Scotland developed from a relatively poor and feudal country into a prosperous, modern and centralised state. They ruled during a time in European history of transition from the Middle Ages, through the Renaissance, monarchs such as James IV were known for sponsoring exponents of the Northern Renaissance such as the poet Robert Henryson, and others. The name Stewart derives from the position of office similar to a governor. It was originally adopted as the surname by Walter Stewart, 3rd High Steward of Scotland. Prior to this, family names were not used, but instead they had patronyms defined through the father, the gallicised spelling was first borne by John Stewart of Darnley after his time in the French wars. During the 16th century, the French spelling Stuart was adopted by Mary, Queen of Scots, the FitzAlan family quickly established themselves as a prominent Anglo-Norman noble house, with some of its members serving as High Sheriff of Shropshire. It was the great-grandson of Alan named Walter FitzAlan who became the first hereditary High Steward of Scotland, another supporter of Matilda was her uncle David I of Scotland from the House of Dunkeld. After Matilda was pushed out of England into the County of Anjou, essentially failing in her legitimist attempt for the throne, many of her supporters in England fled also. It was then that Walter followed David up to the Kingdom of Scotland, where he was granted lands in Renfrewshire, the next monarch of Scotland, Malcolm IV, made the High Steward title a hereditary arrangement. While High Stewards, the family were based at Dundonald, South Ayrshire between the 12th and 13th centuries. The sixth High Steward of Scotland, Walter Stewart, married Marjorie, daughter of Robert the Bruce, in 1503, James IV attempted to secure peace with England by marrying King Henry VIIs daughter, Margaret Tudor. The birth of their son, later James V, brought the House of Stewart into the line of descent of the House of Tudor, and the English throne. Margaret Tudor later married Archibald Douglas, 6th Earl of Angus, and their daughter, Margaret Douglas, was the mother of Henry Stuart, Lord Darnley
12.
Bishop of London
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The Bishop of London is the ordinary of the Church of England Diocese of London in the Province of Canterbury. The diocese covers 458 km² of 17 boroughs of Greater London north of the River Thames and a small part of the County of Surrey. The see is in the City of London where the seat is located at the Cathedral Church of Saint Paul which was founded as a cathedral in 604 and was rebuilt from 1675 following the Great Fire of London. The bishops residence is The Old Deanery, Deans Court, London, previously, for over 1000 years, Fulham Palace was the residence although, from the 18th century, London House next to the Bishops Chapel in Aldersgate Street was where he had his chambers. The current and 132nd Bishop of London is Richard Chartres, who was installed on 26 January 1996 and it has been announced that Chartres is to retire effective Shrove Tuesday,28 February 2017. The diocesan bishop of London has had direct episcopal oversight in the Two Cities area since the institution of the London area scheme in 1979, however, according to later sources, there had been 16 Romano-British bishops of London. The location of Londiniums original cathedral is uncertain, in 1995, however, a large and ornate 4th-century church was discovered on Tower Hill, which seems to have mimicked St Ambroses cathedral in the imperial capital at Milan on a still-larger scale. This possible cathedral was built between 350 and 400 out of stone taken from buildings, including its veneer of black marble. It was burnt down in the early 5th century, following the establishment of the archdiocese of Canterbury by the Gregorian mission, its leader St Augustine consecrated Mellitus as the first bishop to the Saxon kingdom of Essex. Bede records that Augustines patron, King Æthelberht of Kent, built a cathedral for his nephew King Sæberht of Essex as part of this mission and this cathedral was constructed in London and dedicated to St Paul. The diocese was reduced in 1846, when the counties of Essex. The dates and names of early bishops are very uncertain. Diocese of London website Bishop of London refuses to ban gay Bishop from church service The papers of the Bishops of London covering 1423–1945 are held at Lambeth Palace Library
13.
Archbishop of Canterbury
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The current archbishop is Justin Welby. His enthronement took place at Canterbury Cathedral on 21 March 2013, Welby is the 105th in a line which goes back more than 1400 years to Augustine of Canterbury, the Apostle to the English, sent from Rome in the year 597. From the time of Augustine in the 6th until the 16th century, during the English Reformation the Church of England broke away from the authority of the Pope and the Roman Catholic Church. In the Middle Ages there was variation in the methods of nomination of the Archbishop of Canterbury. At various times the choice was made by the canons of Canterbury Cathedral, today the archbishop fills four main roles, He is the diocesan bishop of the Diocese of Canterbury, which covers the eastern parts of the County of Kent. Founded in 597, it is the oldest see in the English church and he is the metropolitan archbishop of the Province of Canterbury, which covers the southern two-thirds of England. He is the primate and chief religious figure of the Church of England. The Archbishop of Canterbury plays a part in national ceremonies such as coronations, due to his high public profile. As spiritual leader of the Anglican Communion, the archbishop, although without legal authority outside England, is recognised by convention as primus inter pares of all Anglican primates worldwide, since 1867 he has convened more or less decennial meetings of worldwide Anglican bishops, the Lambeth Conferences. In the last two of these functions he has an important ecumenical and interfaith role, speaking on behalf of Anglicans in England, the archbishops main residence is Lambeth Palace in the London Borough of Lambeth. He also has lodgings in the Old Palace, Canterbury, located beside Canterbury Cathedral, as holder of one of the five great sees, the Archbishop of Canterbury is ex officio one of the Lords Spiritual of the House of Lords. He is one of the men in England and the highest ranking non-royal in the United Kingdoms order of precedence. Since Henry VIII broke with Rome, the Archbishops of Canterbury have been selected by the English monarch, today the choice is made in the name of the monarch by the prime minister, from a shortlist of two selected by an ad-hoc committee called the Crown Nominations Commission. Since the 20th century, the appointment of Archbishops of Canterbury conventionally alternates between more moderate Anglo-Catholics and Evangelicals, the current archbishop, Justin Welby, the 105th Archbishop of Canterbury, was enthroned at Canterbury Cathedral on 4 February 2013. As archbishop he signs himself as + Justin Cantuar and his predecessor, Rowan Williams, 104th Archbishop of Canterbury, was enthroned at Canterbury Cathedral on 27 February 2003. Immediately prior to his appointment to Canterbury, Williams was the Bishop of Monmouth, on 18 March 2012, Williams announced he would be stepping down as Archbishop of Canterbury at the end of 2012 to become Master of Magdalene College, Cambridge. In addition to his office, the archbishop also holds a number of positions, for example, he is Joint President of the Council of Christians. Some positions he formally holds ex officio and others virtually so, geoffrey Fisher, 99th Archbishop of Canterbury, was the first since 1397 to visit Rome, where he held private talks with Pope John XXIII in 1960
14.
Reformation
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The period is usually considered to have begun with the publication of the Ninety-five Theses by Luther in 1517 to the Thirty Years War and ended with the Peace of Westphalia in 1648. The Protestant position, however, would come to incorporate doctrinal changes such as sola scriptura, the initial movement within Germany diversified, and other reform impulses arose independently of Luther. The spread of Gutenbergs printing press provided the means for the dissemination of religious materials in the vernacular. The largest groups were the Lutherans and Calvinists, Lutheran churches were founded mostly in Germany, the Baltics and Scandinavia, while the Reformed ones were founded in Switzerland, Hungary, France, the Netherlands and Scotland. The new movement influenced the Church of England decisively after 1547 under Edward VI and Elizabeth I, there were also reformation movements throughout continental Europe known as the Radical Reformation, which gave rise to the Anabaptist, Moravian and other Pietistic movements. The Roman Catholic Church responded with a Counter-Reformation initiated by the Council of Trent, much work in battling Protestantism was done by the well-organised new order of the Jesuits. In general, Northern Europe, with the exception of most of Ireland, southern Europe remained Roman Catholic, while Central Europe was a site of a fierce conflict, culminating in the Thirty Years War, which left it devastated. The oldest Protestant churches, such as the Unitas Fratrum and Moravian Church, the later Protestant Churches generally date their doctrinal separation from the Roman Catholic Church to the 16th century. The Reformation began as an attempt to reform the Roman Catholic Church, by priests who opposed what they perceived as false doctrines and ecclesiastic malpractice. They especially objected to the teaching and the sale of indulgences, and the abuses thereof, and to simony, the reformers saw these practices as evidence of the systemic corruption of the Churchs hierarchy, which included the pope. Unrest due to the Great Schism of Western Christianity excited wars between princes, uprisings among the peasants, and widespread concern over corruption in the Church, New perspectives came from John Wycliffe at Oxford University and from Jan Hus at the Charles University in Prague. Hus rejected indulgences and adopted a doctrine of justification by grace through faith alone, the Roman Catholic Church officially concluded this debate at the Council of Constance by condemning Hus, who was executed by burning despite a promise of safe-conduct. Wycliffe was posthumously condemned as a heretic and his corpse exhumed and burned in 1428, the Council of Constance confirmed and strengthened the traditional medieval conception of church and empire. The council did not address the national tensions or the theological tensions stirred up during the century and could not prevent schism. Pope Sixtus IV established the practice of selling indulgences to be applied to the dead, Pope Alexander VI was one of the most controversial of the Renaissance popes. He was the father of seven children, including Lucrezia and Cesare Borgia, in response to papal corruption, particularly the sale of indulgences, Luther wrote The Ninety-Five Theses. The Reformation was born of Luthers dual declaration – first, the discovering of Jesus and salvation by faith alone, the Protestant reformers were unanimous in agreement and this understanding of prophecy furnished importance to their deeds. It was the point and the battle cry that made the Reformation nearly unassailable
15.
English Civil War
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The English Civil War was a series of armed conflicts and political machinations between Parliamentarians and Royalists over, principally, the manner of Englands government. The war ended with the Parliamentarian victory at the Battle of Worcester on 3 September 1651, the monopoly of the Church of England on Christian worship in England ended with the victors consolidating the established Protestant Ascendancy in Ireland. The term English Civil War appears most often in the singular form, the war in all these countries are known as the Wars of the Three Kingdoms. Unlike other civil wars in England, which focused on who should rule, this war was more concerned with the manner in which the kingdoms of England, Scotland, the two sides had their geographical strongholds, such that minority elements were silenced or fled. The strongholds of the royalty included the countryside, the shires, on the other hand, all the cathedral cities sided with Parliament. All the industrial centers, the ports, and the advanced regions of southern and eastern England typically were parliamentary strongholds. Lacey Baldwin Smith says, the words populist, rich, at times there would be two groups of three lines allowing one group to reload while the other group arranged themselves and fired. Mixed in among the musketeers were pikemen carrying pikes that were between 12 feet and 18 feet long, whose purpose was to protect the musketeers from cavalry charges. The Royalist cavaliers skill and speed on horseback led to early victories. While the Parliamentarian cavalry were slower than the cavaliers, they were better disciplined. The Royalists had a tendency to chase down individual targets after the initial charge leaving their forces scattered and tired, Cromwells cavalry, on the other hand, trained to operate as a single unit, which led to many decisive victories. The English Civil War broke out fewer than forty years after the death of Queen Elizabeth I in 1603, in spite of this, James personal extravagance meant he was perennially short of money and had to resort to extra-Parliamentary sources of income. Charles hoped to unite the kingdoms of England, Scotland and Ireland into a new single kingdom, many English Parliamentarians had suspicions regarding such a move because they feared that setting up a new kingdom might destroy the old English traditions which had bound the English monarchy. As Charles shared his fathers position on the power of the crown, at the time, the Parliament of England did not have a large permanent role in the English system of government. Instead, Parliament functioned as an advisory committee and was summoned only if. Once summoned, a continued existence was at the kings pleasure. Yet in spite of this role, Parliament had, over the preceding centuries. Without question, for a monarch, Parliaments most indispensable power was its ability to tax revenues far in excess of all other sources of revenue at the Crowns disposal
16.
Monopoly
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A monopoly exists when a specific person or enterprise is the only supplier of a particular commodity. The verb monopolise or monopolize refers to the process by which a company gains the ability to raise prices or exclude competitors, in economics, a monopoly is a single seller. In law, a monopoly is an entity that has significant market power, that is. Although monopolies may be big businesses, size is not a characteristic of a monopoly, a small business may still have the power to raise prices in a small industry. A monopoly is distinguished from a monopsony, in there is only one buyer of a product or service. Likewise, a monopoly should be distinguished from a cartel, in which several providers act together to coordinate services, prices or sale of goods. Monopolies, monopsonies and oligopolies are all situations in one or a few entities have market power and therefore interact with their customers. Monopolies can be established by a government, form naturally, or form by integration, in many jurisdictions, competition laws restrict monopolies. A government-granted monopoly or legal monopoly, by contrast, is sanctioned by the state, patents, copyrights, and trademarks are sometimes used as examples of government-granted monopolies. The government may also reserve the venture for itself, thus forming a government monopoly, There are four basic types of market structures in traditional economic analysis, perfect competition, monopolistic competition, oligopoly and monopoly. A monopoly is a structure in which a single supplier produces, if there is a single seller in a certain market and there are no close substitutes for the product, then the market structure is that of a pure monopoly. Sometimes, there are many sellers in an industry and/or there exist many close substitutes for the goods being produced and this is termed monopolistic competition, whereas in oligopoly the companies interact strategically. Most economic textbooks follow the practice of explaining the perfect competition model. The boundaries of what constitutes a market and what does not are relevant distinctions to make in economic analysis, in a general equilibrium context, a good is a specific concept including geographical and time-related characteristics. Most studies of market structure relax a little their definition of a good, price Maker, Decides the price of the good or product to be sold, but does so by determining the quantity in order to demand the price desired by the firm. High Barriers, Other sellers are unable to enter the market of the monopoly, single seller, In a monopoly, there is one seller of the good, who produces all the output. Therefore, the market is being served by a single company, and for practical purposes. Price Discrimination, A monopolist can change the price or quantity of the product and he or she sells higher quantities at a lower price in a very elastic market, and sells lower quantities at a higher price in a less elastic market
17.
Copyright
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Copyright is a legal right created by the law of a country that grants the creator of an original work exclusive rights for its use and distribution. This is usually only for a limited time, the exclusive rights are not absolute but limited by limitations and exceptions to copyright law, including fair use. A major limitation on copyright is that copyright protects only the expression of ideas. Copyright is a form of property, applicable to certain forms of creative work. Some, but not all jurisdictions require fixing copyrighted works in a tangible form and it is often shared among multiple authors, each of whom holds a set of rights to use or license the work, and who are commonly referred to as rights holders. These rights frequently include reproduction, control over derivative works, distribution, public performance, copyrights are considered territorial rights, which means that they do not extend beyond the territory of a specific jurisdiction. While many aspects of copyright laws have been standardized through international copyright agreements. Typically, the duration of a copyright spans the authors life plus 50 to 100 years, some countries require certain copyright formalities to establishing copyright, but most recognize copyright in any completed work, without formal registration. Generally, copyright is enforced as a matter, though some jurisdictions do apply criminal sanctions. Most jurisdictions recognize copyright limitations, allowing fair exceptions to the exclusivity of copyright. Copyright came about with the invention of the press and with wider literacy. As a legal concept, its origins in Britain were from a reaction to printers monopolies at the beginning of the 18th century, Copyright laws allow products of creative human activities, such as literary and artistic production, to be preferentially exploited and thus incentivized. Different cultural attitudes, social organizations, economic models and legal frameworks are seen to account for why copyright emerged in Europe and not, for example, however, with copyright laws, intellectual production comes to be seen as a product of an individual, with attendant rights. The most significant point is that patent and copyright laws support the expansion of the range of human activities that can be commodified. This parallels the ways in which led to the commodification of many aspects of social life that earlier had no monetary or economic value per se. Often seen as the first real copyright law, the 1709 British Statute of Anne gave the rights for a fixed period. The act also alluded to individual rights of the artist and it began, Whereas Printers, Booksellers, and other Persons, have of late frequently taken the Liberty of Printing. Books, and other Writings, without the Consent of the Authors. to their very great Detriment, and too often to the Ruin of them and their Families
18.
English Renaissance theatre
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English Renaissance theatre, also known as early modern English theatre, or as Elizabethan theatre, refers to the theatre of England between 1562 and 1642. This is the style of the plays of William Shakespeare, Christopher Marlowe, English Renaissance theatre encompasses the period between 1562 and 1642. Strictly speaking, English Renaissance theatre may be said to encompass Elizabethan theatre from 1562 to 1603, Jacobean theatre from 1603 to 1625, along with the economics of the profession, the character of the drama changed towards the end of the period. Under Elizabeth, the drama was an expression as far as social class was concerned. With the development of the theatres, drama became more oriented towards the tastes and values of an upper-class audience. By the later part of the reign of Charles I, few new plays were being written for the public theatres, theatrical life was largely centred just outside London, as the theatre was banned inside the city itself, but plays were performed by touring companies all over England. English companies even toured and performed English plays abroad, e. g. in Germany, the period starts before the establishment of the first permanent theatres. Initially two types of location were used for performing plays, the courtyards of inns and the Inns of Court such as the Inner Temple and these venues continued to be used even after permanent theatres were established. The first permanent English theatre, the Red Lion opened in 1567, the first successful theatres, such as The Theatre, opened in 1576. The establishment of large and profitable public theatres was an enabling factor in the success of English Renaissance drama. Once they were in operation, drama could become a fixed and their construction was prompted when the Mayor and Corporation of London first banned plays in 1572 as a measure against the plague, and then formally expelled all players from the city in 1575. The Theatre was rapidly followed by the nearby Curtain Theatre, the Rose, the Swan, the Globe, the Fortune, the public theatres were three stories high, and built around an open space at the centre. The upper level behind the stage could be used as a balcony, as in Romeo and Juliet or Antony and Cleopatra, or as a position from which an actor could harangue a crowd, the playhouses were generally built with timber and plaster, and were three stories high. Individual theatre descriptions give additional information to their construction, such as flint stones being used to build the Swan, theatres were also constructed to be able to hold large amounts of people. A different model was developed with the Blackfriars Theatre, which came into use on a long-term basis in 1599. The Blackfriars was small in comparison to the theatres and roofed rather than open to the sky. Other small enclosed theatres followed, notably the Whitefriars and the Cockpit, around 1580, when both the Theatre and the Curtain were full on summer days, the total theatre capacity of London was about 5000 spectators. With the building of new facilities and the formation of new companies
19.
Old Moore's Almanack
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Old Moore’s Almanack is an astrological almanac which has been published in Britain since 1697. It was written and published by Francis Moore, a self-taught physician, the first edition in 1697 contained weather forecasts. In 1700 Moore published Vox Stellarum, The Voice of the Stars, containing astrological observations and it was a bestseller throughout the 18th and 19th centuries, selling as many as 107,000 copies in 1768. The almanac is still published annually by W. Foulsham & Company Limited, giving predictions of world and sporting events and it claims to have predicted the September 11 attacks. Vox Stellarum, or, Royal Almanach from Archive. org
20.
Ave Maria Lane
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Ave Maria Lane is a street in the City of London, to the west of St. Pauls Cathedral. It is the extension of Warwick Lane, between Amen Corner and Ludgate Hill. On the feastday of Corpus Christi, monks would say prayers in a procession to St. Pauls Cathedral and they set off from Paternoster Row chanting the Lords Prayer. They would reach the final Amen as they turned the corner into Ave Maria Lane, Ave Maria Lane is home to the Grade I listed building Stationers Hall, the livery hall of the Worshipful Company of Stationers and Newspaper Makers since 1670. The marathon route of the 2012 Summer Olympics is planned to pass along Ave Maria Lane
21.
Great Fire of London
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The Great Fire of London was a major conflagration that swept through the central parts of the English city of London from Sunday,2 September to Wednesday,5 September 1666. The fire gutted the medieval City of London inside the old Roman city wall and it threatened but did not reach the aristocratic district of Westminster, Charles IIs Palace of Whitehall, and most of the suburban slums. It consumed 13,200 houses,87 parish churches, St Pauls Cathedral and it is estimated to have destroyed the homes of 70,000 of the Citys 80,000 inhabitants. The death toll is unknown but traditionally thought to have been small, a melted piece of pottery on display at the Museum of London found by archaeologists in Pudding Lane, where the fire started, shows that the temperature reached 1250 °C. The Great Fire started at the bakery of Thomas Farriner on Pudding Lane shortly after midnight on Sunday,2 September, by the time that large-scale demolitions were ordered on Sunday night, the wind had already fanned the bakery fire into a firestorm that defeated such measures. The fire pushed north on Monday into the heart of the City, order in the streets broke down as rumours arose of suspicious foreigners setting fires. The fears of the focused on the French and Dutch, Englands enemies in the ongoing Second Anglo-Dutch War. The social and economic problems created by the disaster were overwhelming, evacuation from London and resettlement elsewhere were strongly encouraged by Charles II, who feared a London rebellion amongst the dispossessed refugees. Despite numerous radical proposals, London was reconstructed on essentially the same street plan used before the fire, by the 1660s, London was by far the largest city in Britain, estimated at half a million inhabitants. By inartificial, Evelyn meant unplanned and makeshift, the result of organic growth, London had been a Roman settlement for four centuries and had become progressively more crowded inside its defensive city wall. It had also pushed outwards beyond the wall into squalid extramural slums such as Shoreditch, Holborn, and Southwark, the City was surrounded by a ring of inner suburbs where most Londoners lived. The City was then, as now, the heart of the capital. The aristocracy shunned the City and lived either in the countryside beyond the suburbs, or in the exclusive Westminster district. The relationship was tense between the City and the Crown. The City magistrates were of the generation that had fought in the Civil War and they were determined to thwart any similar tendencies in his son, and when the Great Fire threatened the City, they refused the offers that Charles made of soldiers and other resources. Even in such an emergency, the idea of having the unpopular Royal troops ordered into the City was political dynamite, by the time that Charles took over command from the ineffectual Lord Mayor, the fire was already out of control. The City was essentially medieval in its plan, an overcrowded warren of narrow, winding. It had experienced major fires before 1666, the most recent in 1632
22.
Parliament of England
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The Parliament of England was the legislature of the Kingdom of England. Over the centuries, the English Parliament progressively limited the power of the English monarchy which arguably culminated in the English Civil War, the Act of Union 1707 merged the English Parliament with the Parliament of Scotland to form the Parliament of Great Britain. When the Parliament of Ireland was abolished in 1801, its members were merged into what was now called the Parliament of the United Kingdom. Under a monarchical system of government, monarchs usually must consult, early kings of England had no standing army or police, and so depended on the support of powerful subjects. The monarchy had agents in every part of the country, however, under the feudal system that evolved in England following the Norman Conquest of 1066, the laws of the Crown could not have been upheld without the support of the nobility and the clergy. The former had economic and military bases of their own through major ownership of land. The Church was virtually a law unto itself in this period as it had its own system of law courts. In order to seek consultation and consent from the nobility and the clergy on major decisions. A typical Great Council would consist of archbishops, bishops, abbots, barons and earls, when this system of consultation and consent broke down, it often became impossible for government to function effectively. The most prominent instances of prior to the reign of Henry III are the disagreements between Thomas Becket and Henry II and between King John and the barons. Becket, who served as Archbishop of Canterbury between 1162 and 1170, was murdered following a long running dispute with Henry II over the jurisdiction of the Church. John, who was king from 1199 to 1216, aroused such hostility from many leading noblemen that they forced him to agree to Magna Carta in 1215, johns refusal to adhere to this charter led to civil war. The Great Council evolved into the Parliament of England, the term itself came into use during the early 13th century, deriving from the Latin and French words for discussion and speaking. The word first appears in documents in the 1230s. As a result of the work by historians G. O. Sayles and H. G. Richardson, during the 13th and 14th centuries, the kings began to call Knights of the Shire to meet when the monarch saw it as necessary. A notable example of this was in 1254 when sheriffs of counties were instructed to send Knights of the Shire to parliament to advise the king on finance, initially, parliaments were mostly summoned when the king needed to raise money through taxes. Following the Magna Carta this became a convention and this was due in no small part to the fact that King John died in 1216 and was succeeded by his young son Henry III. Leading peers and clergy governed on Henrys behalf until he came of age, among other things, they made sure that Magna Carta would be reaffirmed by the young king
23.
Fleet Street
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Fleet Street is a major street in the City of London. It runs west to east from Temple Bar at the boundary with the City of Westminster to Ludgate Circus at the site of the London Wall, having been an important through route since Roman times, businesses were established along the road during the Middle Ages. Senior clergy lived in Fleet Street during this period there are several churches including Temple Church. Much of the industry moved out in the 1980s after News International set up cheaper manufacturing premises in Wapping, the term Fleet Street remains a metonym for the British national press, and pubs on the street once frequented by journalists remain popular. The street is mentioned in works by Charles Dickens and is where the legendary fictitious murderous barber Sweeney Todd lived. Fleet Street is named after the River Fleet, which runs from Hampstead to the River Thames at the edge of the City of London. It is one of the oldest roads outside the city and was established by the Middle Ages. In the 13th century, it was known as Fleet Bridge Street, the street runs east from Temple Bar, the boundary between the Cities of London and Westminster, as a continuation of the Strand from Trafalgar Square. It crosses Chancery Lane and Fetter Lane to reach Ludgate Circus by the London Wall, the road ahead is Ludgate Hill. The street numbering runs consecutively from west to east south-side and then east to west north-side and it links the Roman and medieval boundaries of the City after the latter was extended. The nearest London Underground stations are Temple, Chancery Lane, and Blackfriars tube/mainline station, London Bus routes 4,11,15,23,26,76 and 172 run along the full length of Fleet Street, while route 341 runs between Temple Bar and Fetter Lane. Fleet Street was established as a thoroughfare in Roman London and there is evidence that a route led west from Ludgate by 200 AD. Local excavations revealed remains of a Roman amphitheatre near Ludgate on what was Fleet Prison, the Saxons did not occupy the Roman city but established Lundenwic further west around what is now Aldwych and the Strand. Many prelates lived around the street during the Middle Ages, including the Bishops of Salisbury and St Davids, tanning of animal hides became established on Fleet Street owing to the nearby river, though this increased pollution leading to a ban on dumping rubbish by the mid-14th century. Many taverns and brothels were established along Fleet Street and have been documented as early as the 14th century, records show that Geoffrey Chaucer was fined two shillings for attacking a friar in Fleet Street, though modern historians believe this is apocryphal. An important landmark in Fleet Street during the late Middle Ages was a conduit that was the water supply for the area. When Anne Boleyn was crowned Queen following her marriage to Henry VIII in 1533, by the 16th century, Fleet Street, along with much of the City, was chronically overcrowded, and a Royal proclamation in 1580 banned any further building on the street. This had little effect, and construction continued, particularly timber, Prince Henrys Room over the Inner Temple gate dates from 1610 and is named after Henry Frederick, Prince of Wales, eldest son of James I, who did not survive to succeed his father
24.
Hornsey
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Hornsey /hɔːrnziː/ is a district of north London, England in the London Borough of Haringey. It is an inner-suburban, for the most part residential, area centred 6.2 miles north of Charing Cross, despite being the oldest recorded village in London, there is much debate about the definition of the area and the term Hornsey Village. The boundaries of Hornsey neighbourhood today are not clearly defined and this used to stretch to a long border with Islington and Stoke Newington. It also had two small detached parts immediately beyond and within the latter, north of Hornsey High Street, and immediately to its south, some of the area is public sector housing, surrounded by the late Victorian terraces developed by builders such as John Farrer. Between the western end of the High Street and the bottom of Muswell Hill, much of this part is the Warner Estate built up with large well-appointed late Victorian houses. To the south west of the High Street is Priory Park, the High Street has a range of shops and an increasing number of restaurants and pubs. The eastern section retains strong echoes of its rural past and hosts the 13th-century tower which is all that remains of St Marys Church, the Tower has recently been used as The Intimate Space, climaing to be Londons smallest performance space. On the north side of the High street was the old public bath and wash house which was demolished got make way for a new housing scheme, opened in 1932, it had 33,000 users a year in the 1950s. A small group of residents had suggested to Haringey Council that it should be developed as an arts & crafts studio. The TV drama series The Hour was filmed in Hornsey Town Hall, Hornseys Town Hall was also used within the show. One electoral ward containing the word Hornsey was in use by the London Borough of Haringey in 2011, the earliest written form of the name was recorded as Harenhg’ in about 1195. Its development thereafter gave rise to the names of Harringay. The church first mentioned in 1291, the village grew dramatically after about 1860 and eventually merged with the separate settlement at Crouch End to form an urban area in the middle of the parish. Much of Hornsey was built up in Edwardian times, but the tower of the parish church still stands in its ancient graveyard in Hornsey High Street. Other notable places are the Doragh Gasworks, the former Hornsey Town Hall in Crouch End, in 1954 the first Lotus Cars factory was established in stables behind the Railway Hotel on Tottenham Lane. The company was formed as Lotus Engineering Ltd in 1952 by Colin Chapman and Colin Dare, the Railway Hotel pub was owned by Chapman’s father. In its early days Lotus sold cars aimed at privateer racers and its early road cars could be bought as kits, in order to save on purchase tax. Adjacent to the pub was the first Lotus showroom where there is now a plaque to Colin Chapman erected by Club Lotus
25.
Copyright Act 1911
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The Copyright Act 1911, also known as the Imperial Copyright Act of 1911, is an Act of the Parliament of the United Kingdom which received Royal Assent on 16 December 1911. The act established copyright law in the UK and the British Empire, the act amended existing UK copyright law, as recommended by a Royal Commission in 1878 and repealed all previous copyright legislation that had been in force in the UK. The act also implemented changes arising from the first revision of the Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works in 1908. The act came into force in the UK on 1 July 1912, in the Channel Islands on 1 July 1912, in Jersey on 8 March 1913, the Copyright Act 1911 applied or extended to all parts of the British Empire. In India the act came into force on 30 October 1912, in Papua on 1 February 1931 and it was subsequently enacted on various dates in the self-governing dominions and territories under protection of the British Empire. The Copyright act 1911,1924 Ordinance covered Palestine and later Israel, the 1911 Act abolished the need for registration at the Stationers Hall and provided that copyright is established upon the creation of a work. The Act also stated that copyright arose in the act of creation, the scope of copyright was further widened and producers of sound recordings were granted the exclusive right to prevent others reproducing their recordings, or playing them in public. The act provided that the copyright in literary, dramatic and music works could be infringed by the making of a film or other mechanical performance incorporating the copyrighted works. The Copyright Act 1911 was adapted to circumstances and enacted by the then self-governing dominions of Australia, Newfoundland, such self-governing dominions were then treated as if the Copyright Act 1911 extended to the self-governing dominion. The Secretary of State certified the copyright laws of New Zealand, the Copyright Act 1911 provided the template for an approach to copyright exceptions where a specific list of exceptions carefully defines permitted uses of the copyrighted work. The 1911 Act formed the basis of UK copyright law and, as a measure, formed the basis for copyright law in most of what were then British colonies. While many of countries have had their own copyright law for a considerable number of years. Australia, Canada, India, New Zealand, Singapore and South Africa define the limits on and this Commonwealth approach to copyright is in contrast with that adopted in US copyright law. US copyright does contain a number of exceptions, as well as providing for a fair use defence in section 107 of the Copyright Act 1976. The Section provides a list of example of uses under this defence, such as criticism, comment. Original text, as published Hebrew text, as in force at repeal in Israel Crown copyright Copyright Act 1956
26.
Motto
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A motto is a maxim, a phrase meant to formally summarize the general motivation or intention of an individual, family, social group or organization. A motto may be in any language, but Latin has been widely used, especially in the Western world. In heraldry, a motto is depicted below the shield in a banderole, this placement stems from the Middle Ages, in which the vast majority of nobles possessed a coat of arms. In the case of Scottish heraldry it is mandated to appear above the crest, spanish coats of arms may display a motto in the bordure of the shield. In heraldic literature, the rallying cry respectively battle banner are also common, which date back to the battle cry. In English heraldry mottos are not granted with armorial bearings, in Scottish heraldry, mottos can only be changed by re-matriculation, with the Lord Lyon King of Arms. Although very unusual and perhaps outside standard heraldic practice, there are examples of the particular appearance of the motto scroll. Ships and submarines in the Royal Navy each have a badge and motto, Latin has been very common for mottos, but for nation states their official language is generally chosen. A canting motto is one that contains word play, for example, the motto of the Earl of Onslow is Festina lente, punningly interpreting on-slow. In literature, a motto is a sentence, phrase, poem, or word prefixed to an essay, chapter, novel and it is a short, suggestive expression of a guiding principle for the written material that follows. For example, Robert Louis Stevensons Travels with a Donkey in the Cévennes uses mottos at the start of each section, epigram Hendiatris Inscription List of Latin phrases List of mottos List of national mottos Slogan Tagline United in diversity United we stand, divided we fall
27.
Latin
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Latin is a classical language belonging to the Italic branch of the Indo-European languages. The Latin alphabet is derived from the Etruscan and Greek alphabets, Latin was originally spoken in Latium, in the Italian Peninsula. Through the power of the Roman Republic, it became the dominant language, Vulgar Latin developed into the Romance languages, such as Italian, Portuguese, Spanish, French, and Romanian. Latin, Italian and French have contributed many words to the English language, Latin and Ancient Greek roots are used in theology, biology, and medicine. By the late Roman Republic, Old Latin had been standardised into Classical Latin, Vulgar Latin was the colloquial form spoken during the same time and attested in inscriptions and the works of comic playwrights like Plautus and Terence. Late Latin is the language from the 3rd century. Later, Early Modern Latin and Modern Latin evolved, Latin was used as the language of international communication, scholarship, and science until well into the 18th century, when it began to be supplanted by vernaculars. Ecclesiastical Latin remains the language of the Holy See and the Roman Rite of the Catholic Church. Today, many students, scholars and members of the Catholic clergy speak Latin fluently and it is taught in primary, secondary and postsecondary educational institutions around the world. The language has been passed down through various forms, some inscriptions have been published in an internationally agreed, monumental, multivolume series, the Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum. Authors and publishers vary, but the format is about the same, volumes detailing inscriptions with a critical apparatus stating the provenance, the reading and interpretation of these inscriptions is the subject matter of the field of epigraphy. The works of several hundred ancient authors who wrote in Latin have survived in whole or in part and they are in part the subject matter of the field of classics. The Cat in the Hat, and a book of fairy tales, additional resources include phrasebooks and resources for rendering everyday phrases and concepts into Latin, such as Meissners Latin Phrasebook. The Latin influence in English has been significant at all stages of its insular development. From the 16th to the 18th centuries, English writers cobbled together huge numbers of new words from Latin and Greek words, dubbed inkhorn terms, as if they had spilled from a pot of ink. Many of these words were used once by the author and then forgotten, many of the most common polysyllabic English words are of Latin origin through the medium of Old French. Romance words make respectively 59%, 20% and 14% of English, German and those figures can rise dramatically when only non-compound and non-derived words are included. Accordingly, Romance words make roughly 35% of the vocabulary of Dutch, Roman engineering had the same effect on scientific terminology as a whole
28.
Ludgate Hill
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Ludgate Hill is a hill in the City of London, near the old Ludgate, a gate to the City that was taken down, with its attached gaol, in 1780. It is the site of St. Pauls Cathedral, traditionally said to have been the site of a Roman temple of the goddess Diana and it is one of the three ancient hills of London, the others being Tower Hill and Cornhill. The highest point is just north of St. Pauls, at 17.6 metres above sea level, Ludgate Hill is also the name of a street which runs between St. Pauls Churchyard and Ludgate Circus, from where it becomes Fleet Street. It was formerly a much narrower street called Ludgate Street, many small alleys on Ludgate Hill were swept away in the late 1860s to build Ludgate Hill railway station between Water Lane and New Bridge Street, a station of the London, Chatham and Dover Railway. This also involved the regrading of the slope of Ludgate Hill at the junction, there is a blue plaque near the bottom of the hill with these words, In a house near this site was published in 1702 The Daily Courant first London daily newspaper. About halfway up Ludgate Hill is the church of St. Martin, Ludgate, paternoster Square, home of the London Stock Exchange since 2004, lies on the hill, immediately to the north of St. Pauls Cathedral. Ludgate is mentioned in Geoffrey of Monmouths Historia Regum Britanniae, written around 1136, according to the pseudohistorical work the name comes from the mythic Welsh king Lud son of Heli whom he claims also gave his name to London. One proposed derivation, entirely prosaic, is that the name is a variation on Fleodgaet, at the bottom of Ludgate Hill, on the north side, is Limeburner Lane. This may sound like a quaint survival from medieval times, but it was constructed in the 1990s. This was the location of the Bell Savage Inn, first mentioned in 1452 where plays were performed, according to surveyor John Stow the name was derived from Isabella Savage, but Addison claimed it was La belle Sauvage, a woman in the wilderness. The clown Richard Tarlton used to perform here and it is mentioned in Thomas Hughes Tom Browns Schooldays and Charles Dickens The Pickwick Papers. In October 1684, a Rynoceros lately brought from the East Indies was put on show there, the inn was demolished in 1873. In 1851, part of it was rented out to John Cassell, at this time it was still called La Belle Sauvage Yard and the firm of Cassell used la Belle Sauvage in some of their imprints. Thomas Malory was imprisoned in the Ludgate prison in the 1460s and he later wrote Le Morte dArthur. The prison is mentioned in Daniel Defoes Roxana, The Fortunate Mistress, from 1731, the London Coffee House was next to St. Martins, Ludgate, at 24-26 Ludgate Hill. It was frequented by Joseph Priestley and Benjamin Franklin, when the juries at the Old Bailey failed to reach a verdict, they were housed here overnight. In 1806, a Roman hexagonal altar dedicated to Claudia Martina by her husband, the London Coffee House was closed in 1867, and is now occupied by a pub called Ye Olde London. Edmund Spensers Shepheardes Calender was printed by Hugh Singleton at the sign of the Gylden tunne in Creed Lane in 1579, John Evelyn lived in the Hawk and Pheasant on Ludgate Hill in 1658-59
29.
Robert Mylne (architect)
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Robert Mylne was a Scottish architect and civil engineer, particularly remembered for his design for Blackfriars Bridge in London. Born and raised in Edinburgh, he travelled to Europe as a young man, studying architecture in Rome under Piranesi. In 1758 he became the first Briton to win the triennial architecture competition at the Accademia di San Luca, which made his name known in London, and won him the rivalry of fellow Scot Robert Adam. On his return to Britain, Mylne won the competition to design the new Blackfriars Bridge over the Thames in London, his design being chosen over those of established engineers, both positions he held for life. Mylne designed a number of houses and city buildings, as well as bridges. As his career progressed he concentrated more on engineering, writing reports on harbours and advising on canals, Mylne was one of the founder members, with John Smeaton, of the Society of Civil Engineers, the first engineering society in the world, established in 1771. He was also a founder of the Architects Club, another early professional body, known for his quick temper and for his integrity, Mylne had a strong sense of duty, and could be stubborn when he knew he was right. This inflexibility made him unpopular with some, in an age when corruption was more widespread than today and he died aged 78 and was buried in St Pauls Cathedral. The younger Robert was born in Edinburgh, the son of Thomas Mylne, Edinburgh City Surveyor, and Deacon of the Incorporation of St Marys Chapel, the main guild of masons in Edinburgh. He was educated at the Royal High School from the ages of nine to fourteen, after which he was apprenticed to Daniel Wright, during this time he probably also learned stonemasonry from his father. He undertook work for the Duke of Atholl at Blair Castle in Perthshire, in autumn 1754, Mylne set off for mainland Europe on the Grand Tour, to join his brother William, who had been studying in Paris for a year. They travelled through France together, mostly on foot and by boat, visiting Avignon and Marseille, again travelling on foot, they arrived in Rome in January 1755, and took lodgings on the Via del Condotti. They made contact with Andrew Lumisden, secretary to James Stuart, the Old Pretender, and Abbé Peter Grant and they also encountered Robert Adam, a fellow Scot also studying architecture. Adam was disdainful of the Mylnes poor situation, but viewed Robert Mylne as a potential rival, the Mylnes were continually short of funds, and had a joint allowance from their father of just £45 a year, compared to Adams annual expenditure of around £800. Mylne learned architectural and figure drawing, and studied the art of architectural ornament, Piranesi, who had also taught Robert Adam, was a great influence on the young Mylne, and the two continued to correspond after the latter left Rome. Mylne studied the Ancient Roman system of aqueducts, and began to take on work as a tutor himself. A letter from the Duke of Atholl enquired when he would return to work at Blair, and offered Mylne the post of head carver. In the spring of 1757, shortly after William had returned home, Mylne accompanied the diplomat Richard Phelps and he produced sketches and measured drawings of the antiquities for a projected book, although this was never published
30.
Listed building
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A listed building or listed structure, in the United Kingdom, is one that has been placed on the Statutory List of Buildings of Special Architectural or Historic Interest. The statutory bodies maintaining the list are Historic England in England, Cadw in Wales, Historic Scotland in Scotland, however, the preferred term in Ireland is protected structure. In England and Wales, an amenity society must be notified of any work to a listed building which involves any element of demolition. Owners of listed buildings are, in circumstances, compelled to repair and maintain them. When alterations are permitted, or when listed buildings are repaired or maintained, slightly different systems operate in each area of the United Kingdom, though the basic principles of the listing remain the same. It was the damage to caused by German bombing during World War II that prompted the first listing of buildings that were deemed to be of particular architectural merit. The listings were used as a means of determining whether a building should be rebuilt if it was damaged by bombing. Listing was first introduced into Northern Ireland under the Planning Order 1972, the listing process has since developed slightly differently in each part of the UK. In the UK, the process of protecting the historic environment is called ‘designation’. A heritage asset is a part of the environment that is valued because of its historic. Only some of these are judged to be important enough to have legal protection through designation. However, buildings that are not formally listed but still judged as being of heritage interest are still regarded as being a consideration in the planning process. Almost anything can be listed – it does not have to be a building, Buildings and structures of special historic interest come in a wide variety of forms and types, ranging from telephone boxes and road signs, to castles. Historic England has created twenty broad categories of structures, and published selection guides for each one to aid with assessing buildings and these include historical overviews and describe the special considerations for listing each category. Both Historic Scotland and Cadw produce guidance for owners, in England, to have a building considered for listing or delisting, the process is to apply to the secretary of state, this can be done by submitting an application form online to Historic England. The applicant does not need to be the owner of the building to apply for it to be listed, full information including application form guidance notes are on the Historic England website. Historic England assesses buildings put forward for listing or delisting and provides advice to the Secretary of State on the architectural, the Secretary of State, who may seek additional advice from others, then decides whether or not to list or delist the building. In England and Wales the authority for listing is granted to the Secretary of State by the Planning Act 1990, Listed buildings in danger of decay are listed on the Historic England Heritage at Risk Register
31.
Anthony Bailey (PR advisor)
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Anthony John James Bailey, OBE GCSS is a British and Irish public relations consultant. Bailey was born in London on 13 January 1970 and brought up in Ruislip and his wife, Princess Marie-Therese of Hohenberg, is a great-granddaughter of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria. They have one son, Maximilian, born in 2010, in November 2016, the British newspaper the Mail on Sunday reported Princess Marie-Therese had initiated divorce proceedings. Bailey is chairman of Anthony Bailey Consulting, a public affairs company, previous positions include chairman of his own company Eligo International, and senior account director for communications firm Burson-Marsteller, which he joined in 1993. Eligo Consulting was dissolved in January 2016 with their final accounts showing funds of -£85,000, Anthony Bailey Consulting did not trade until 2016, and in accounts posted that year showed liabilities of more than £40,000. Bailey is a member of the Chartered Institute of Public Relations, in 2007 The Observer referred to Bailey as a PR guru who is one of the most influential men you have never heard of and a key player in the world of Catholic and Middle East politics. Bailey is co-president of British Influence and a supporter of Britains membership of the European Union and he was a supporter of the Conservative Party until 1999 from which time he aligned himself with the Labour Party. He made a donation to the failed leadership campaign of David Miliband in 2010. In 2009 Bailey was appointed its magistral delegate, and the organisation has awarded him other honours, Bailey was appointed in 1999 as executive chairman to the now dissolved Painting & Patronage by Prince Khalid Al-Faisal of Saudi Arabia. In 2012, Bailey was a director of the United Learning Trust and he was, until 2016, a director of St Marys University. In 1995 police recorded his conversations with a client, who claimed to be a Libyan prince. Bailey was accused of blackmailing the client, but the case was dismissed before it got to court, Bailey claimed to be Ambassador-at-Large for The Gambia between 2004 and 2007, though the Gambian High Commission in London said at the time that it had no idea who he was. According to the Prime Minister of Grenada, Keith Mitchell, Bailey asked to be made the ambassador to the Holy See. In 2005 it emerged that a £500,000 donation Bailey had made to the Labour party had been rejected by its chief fundraiser, Lord Levy, Bailey insisted the money was his own and issued legal proceedings. He later said, The Labour party has apologised unreservedly for any distress that the affair caused, a subsequent donation of £50,000 was accepted. In May 2016, the British tabloid The Mail on Sunday reported that Bailey was accused of using an Antiguan knighthood as if it were a British title. Friends of Bailey contested the claim, stating that the honorific Sir appeared in his passport, buckingham Palace denied Baileys assertion that he is entitled to call himself Sir in the United Kingdom in reference to his Antiguan knighthood. Bailey also stated that he had Antiguan citizenship on the basis of his Antiguan passport, the Antiguan government did confirm that Bailey’s passport inaccurately stated that he is a national of Antigua and Barbuda
32.
George Eld
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Eld was the son of a carpenter from Derbyshire. He served an apprenticeship to bookseller Robert Bolton, starting in 1592. He established himself in his own printing business in 1604, at the sign of the White Horse in Fleet Lane, by marrying the widow of not one and his shop featured two or perhaps three presses, and four compositors – a substantial operation for the time. Eld entered into a partnership with Miles Fletcher in 1617, Fletcher took over the business once Eld died of plague in 1624. In Elds historical era, most stationers concentrated on either printing or bookselling, and most publishing was done by the booksellers, Eld was primarily a printer during his career, working on specific projects for specific booksellers. Eld worked regularly for Thomas Thorpe, the two produced more than twenty titles together and these included the first quartos of Jonsons Sejanus, Volpone, and The Masque of Blackness and The Masque of Beauty. They also issued John Marstons What You Will, and George Chapmans All Fools and The Conspiracy and Tragedy of Charles, Thorpe and Elds most significant project was the 1609 first edition of Shakespeares Sonnets. In 1612, Thorpe and Eld also issued a work of modern Shakespearean controversy, more Shakespeare, Eld printed the 1609 quarto of Troilus and Cressida, for Richard Bonian and Henry Walley. Eld has also identified as the printer of John Smethwicks third quarto of Hamlet. Eld also printed the 1619 second quarto of Marlowes Doctor Faustus for John Wright, and for William Aspley, he printed one of the most controversial plays of the period, Eastward Ho. Eld printed first editions of a range of texts in Jacobean drama, Samuel Daniels The Queens Arcadia. The anonymous Return from Parnassus, for John Wright, the anonymous Caesars Revenge, also for John Wright. Barnabe Barness The Devils Charter, again for John Wright, day, Rowley, and Wilkinss The Travels of the Three English Brothers, once again for Wright. Thomas Tomkiss Lingua, for Simon Waterson, lording Barrys Ram Alley, for Robert Wilson. Chapmans The Memorable Masque of the Middle Temple and Lincolns Inn, nathan Fields Amends for Ladies, for Matthew Walbancke. Like some printers of his generation – Richard Field is a good example – Eld also published work on his own authority and he was active in drama here too, Eld printed and published both Q1 and Q2 of The Revengers Tragedy. The play is now attributed to Middleton. Also, Middletons A Trick to Catch the Old One, again the first two quartos
33.
Edmund Evans
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Edmund Evans was a prominent English wood engraver and colour printer during the Victorian era. Evans specialized in printing, which, in part because of his work. He employed and collaborated with such as Walter Crane, Randolph Caldecott, Kate Greenaway. Although little is known about his life, he wrote an autobiography before his death in 1905 in which he described his life as a printer in Victorian London. After finishing an apprenticeship, Evans went into business for himself, by the early 1850s, he had established a reputation as a printer of covers for a type of cheap novels known as yellow-backs. In the early 1860s, he began to print childrens toy books and picture books in association with the printing house Routledge and his intention was to produce books for children that were beautiful and inexpensive. For three decades he produced multiple volumes each year, first illustrated by Crane, and later by Caldecott, Evans used a woodblock printing technique known as chromoxylography, which was used primarily for inexpensive serialised books and childrens books requiring few colours, so as to maximize profits. However, chromoxylography allowed a variety of hues and tones to be produced by mixing colours, the process was complicated and required intricate engraving to achieve the best results. Evans possessed a meticulous eye for detail and used a hand-press and he went on to become the preeminent wood engraver and colour printer in Britain during the second half of the 19th century. Evans was born in Southwark, London, on 23 February 1826 and he attended school in Jamaica Row, where he enjoyed mathematics but wished he had learned Latin. As a 13-year-old he began work as a boy at the printing house of Samuel Bentley in London in 1839. However, he was reassigned as an errand boy because his stutter interfered with his duties. The hours were long—from seven in the morning until nine or ten at night—but the printmaking process itself, Evans started with Landells in 1840. His duties included delivering proofs of drawings to be approved by such as Edward Dalziel. A year later, Landells launched Punch magazine, and as early as 1842 had Evans illustrate covers for the new publication, Evans worked and became friends with Myles Birket Foster, John Greenaway and George Dalziel. Foster and Evans became lifelong friends, toward the end of his apprenticeship, the demands of the Illustrated London News caused Evans to work late into the night and return early in the morning. When his apprenticeship ended in 1847, Evans, then 21, refused an offer of employment from Landells, deciding instead to go into business for himself as a wood-engraver, in 1848 Evans engraved a title-page illustration, among other commissions, for the Illustrated London News. However, the Illustrated London News stopped employing him on the basis that his wood engraving was too fine for newspaper work and his final print for the Illustrated London News showed the four seasons, and was illustrated by Foster
34.
Richard Field (printer)
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Richard Field was a printer and publisher in Elizabethan London, best known for his close association with the poems of William Shakespeare, with whom he grew up in Stratford-upon-Avon. Fields family lived on Bridge Street, Stratford-upon-Avon, close to the Shakespeares house on Henley Street and it is generally accepted that Shakespeare and Field knew each other in Stratford, since they were similar in age and their fathers were in similar businesses. After Fields father Henry died in August 1592, Williams father John Shakespeare was one of the officials charged with the appraisal of the deceased mans property. In 1579 Richard Field began an apprenticeship with the London printers George Bishop and this piece of Protestant propaganda was the first work to bear Fields name. Field went on to marry Jacqueline in 1589 and he succeeded to his former masters business, one of the best in London. Fields shop was in the Blackfriars area of London, near Ludgate and he regularly printed works for the most highly regarded publishers in London, including William Ponsonby and Edward Blount. In 1592 his brother, Jasper Field, joined Richards business as an apprentice, Fields Protestantism led him to publish a number of Spanish-language Protestant works for sale in Catholic Spain, under the name Ricardo del Campo. His Spanish works included a number which claimed to be written by Cipriano de Valera, el primero es del Papa y de su autoridad colegiado de su vida y dotrina, y de lo que los doctores y concilios antiguos y la misma sagrada Escritura enseñan. El segundo es de la Missa recopilado de los doctores y concilios y de la sagrada Escritura, for his title pages, Field adopted an Aldine device, an anchor with the Latin motto Anchora Spei, anchor of hope, which previously belonged to the Vautrollier. In Fields era, the trades of printer and publisher were to some significant degree separate activities, booksellers acted as publishers and commissioned printers to do the requisite printing. Field concentrated more on printing than publishing, of the roughly 295 books he printed in his career, he was publisher of perhaps 112, while the rest were published by other stationers. When, for example, Andrew Wise published Thomas Campions Observations in the Art of English Poesy in 1602, Field rose to be one of the 22 master printers of the Stationers Company. From 1615 on he kept his shop in Wood Street, near his home, Field had a number of apprentices, one being George Miller. After Fields death in 1624, his business passed to the partners Richard Badger and George Miller, the Rape of Lucrece – Field printed the first quarto edition of 1594. The Phoenix and the Turtle – working for Edward Blount, Field printed the 1601 first quarto edition of the poem Loves Martyr by Robert Chester, in addition to Chesters poem, the volume contained short poems by other hands, including Shakespeares work. In contrast to the printed editions of Shakespeares plays, Fields texts for the two narrative poems meet a high standard of quality. Scholars have sometimes supposed Shakespeares direct involvement, The two early poems, both printed by Field, are probably the only works the publication of which Shakespeare supervised. Harrison published Lucrece as well as editions of Venus
35.
Rupert Murdoch
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Keith Rupert Murdoch /ˈmɜːrdɒk/, AC, KCSG is an Australian-born American media mogul. His father, Keith Murdoch, had been a reporter, editor, after his fathers death in 1952, Murdoch declined to join his late fathers registered public company and created his own private company, News Limited. Murdoch moved to New York City in 1974, to expand into the U. S. market, however, he retained interests in Australia and Britain. In 1981, Murdoch bought The Times, his first British broadsheet, in 1986, keen to adopt newer electronic publishing technologies, Murdoch consolidated his UK printing operations in Wapping, causing bitter industrial disputes. Murdochs News Corporation acquired Twentieth Century Fox, HarperCollins, and The Wall Street Journal, Murdoch formed the British broadcaster BSkyB in 1990, and during the 1990s expanded into Asian networks and South American television. By 2000, Murdochs News Corporation owned over 800 companies in more than 50 countries, Murdoch faces police and government investigations into bribery and corruption by the British government and FBI investigations in the U. S. On 21 July 2012, Murdoch resigned as a director of News International, on 1 July 2015, Murdoch left his post as CEO of 21st Century Fox. Murdoch and his own both 21st Century Fox and News Corp through the Murdoch Family Trust. In July 2016, after the resignation of Roger Ailes due to accusations of sexual harassment, Keith Rupert Murdoch was born on 11 March 1931 in Melbourne to Sir Keith Murdoch and Dame Elisabeth Murdoch. He is of English, Irish, and Scottish ancestry, Murdochs parents were also born in Melbourne. Keith Murdoch was a war correspondent and later a newspaper magnate owning two newspapers in Adelaide, South Australia, and a radio station in a faraway mining town. Later in life, Keith Rupert chose to use Rupert, the first name of his maternal grandfather. Keith Murdoch the elder asked to meet with his wife after seeing her debutante photograph in one of his own newspapers and they married in 1928. In addition to Rupert, the couple had three daughters, Janet Calvert-Jones, Anne Kantor and Helen Handbury, Murdoch attended Geelong Grammar School, where he was co-editor of the schools official journal The Corian and editor of the student journal If Revived. He took his schools cricket team to the National Junior Finals and he worked part-time at the Melbourne Herald and was groomed by his father to take over the family business. After her husbands death from cancer in 1952, Elisabeth Murdoch did charity work, as governor of the Royal Womens Hospital in Melbourne. At the age of 102, she had 74 descendants, Murdoch completed an MA before working as a sub-editor with the Daily Express for two years. Following his fathers death, when he was 21, Murdoch returned from Oxford to take charge of the family business News Limited, Rupert Murdoch turned its newspaper, Adelaide News, its main asset, into a major success
