1.
Taoism
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Taoism, also known as Daoism, is a religious or philosophical tradition of Chinese origin which emphasizes living in harmony with the Tao. The Tao is an idea in most Chinese philosophical schools, in Taoism, however. Taoism differs from Confucianism by not emphasizing rigid rituals and social order, the Tao Te Ching, a compact book containing teachings attributed to Laozi, is widely considered the keystone work of the Taoist tradition, together with the later writings of Zhuangzi. By the Han dynasty, the sources of Taoism had coalesced into a coherent tradition of religious organizations. In earlier ancient China, Taoists were thought of as hermits or recluses who did not participate in political life, Zhuangzi was the best known of these, and it is significant that he lived in the south, where he was part of local Chinese shamanic traditions. Women shamans played an important role in this tradition, which was strong in the southern state of Chu. Early Taoist movements developed their own institution in contrast to shamanism, shamans revealed basic texts of Taoism from early times down to at least the 20th century. Institutional orders of Taoism evolved in various strains that in recent times are conventionally grouped into two main branches, Quanzhen Taoism and Zhengyi Taoism. After Laozi and Zhuangzi, the literature of Taoism grew steadily and was compiled in form of a canon—the Daozang—which was published at the behest of the emperor, throughout Chinese history, Taoism was nominated several times as a state religion. After the 17th century, however, it fell from favor, Chinese alchemy, Chinese astrology, Chan Buddhism, several martial arts, traditional Chinese medicine, feng shui, and many styles of qigong have been intertwined with Taoism throughout history. Beyond China, Taoism also had influence on surrounding societies in Asia, Taoism also has a presence in Hong Kong, Macau, and in Southeast Asia. English speakers continue to debate the preferred romanization of the words Daoism and Taoism, the root Chinese word 道 way, path is romanized tao in the older Wade–Giles system and dào in the modern Pinyin system. In linguistic terminology, English Taoism/Daoism is formed from the Chinese loanword tao/dao 道 way, route, principle and the native suffix -ism. The debate over Taoism vs. Daoism involves sinology, phonemes, loanwords, Daoism is pronounced /ˈdaʊ. ɪzəm/, but English speakers disagree whether Taoism should be /ˈdaʊ. ɪzəm/ or /ˈtaʊ. ɪzəm/. In theory, both Wade–Giles tao and Pinyin dao are articulated identically, as are Taoism and Daoism, an investment book titled The Tao Jones Averages illustrates this /daʊ/ pronunciations widespread familiarity. In speech, Tao and Taoism are often pronounced /ˈtaʊ/ and ˈtaʊ. ɪzəm/, lexicography shows American and British English differences in pronouncing Taoism. Taoist philosophy or Taology, or the mystical aspect — The philosophical doctrines based on the texts of the I Ching, the Tao Te Ching and these texts were linked together as Taoist philosophy during the early Han Dynasty, but notably not before. It is unlikely that Zhuangzi was familiar with the text of the Daodejing, however, the discussed distinction is rejected by the majority of Western and Japanese scholars
2.
Tao
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Tao or Dao is a Chinese word signifying way, path, route, key or sometimes more loosely doctrine or principle. The Tao differs from conventional ontology in that it is an active and holistic practice of the order of Nature and its universal awakening. The Tao is eternally nameless” and to be distinguished from the countless named things which are considered to be its manifestations, the Tao lends its name to the religious tradition and philosophical tradition that are both referred to in English with the single term Taoism. The word Tao has a variety of meanings in ancient and modern Chinese language. Aside from its purely prosaic use to mean road, channel, path, principle, or similar, the Tao can be roughly thought of as the flow of the Universe, or as some essence or pattern behind the natural world that keeps the Universe balanced and ordered. It is related to the idea of qi, the energy of action. The Tao is a non-dualistic principle – it is the whole from which all the individual elements of the Universe derive. The Tao is more expressed in the relationship between wu and yinyang, leading to its central principle of wu wei. The Tao is usually described in terms of elements of nature, like water it is undifferentiated, endlessly self-replenishing, soft and quiet but immensely powerful, and impassively generous. Much of Taoist philosophy centers on the continuity of the natural world. In all its uses, the Tao is considered to have qualities that prevent it from being defined or expressed in words. It can, however, be known or experienced, and its principles can be followed or practiced, much of East Asian philosophical writing focuses on the value of adhering to the principles of the Tao and the various consequences of failing to do so. The Tao was shared with Confucianism, Chán and Zen Buddhism and more broadly throughout East Asian philosophy and religion in general. In Taoism, Chinese Buddhism and Confucianism, the object of spiritual practice is to one with the Tao or to harmonise ones will with Nature in order to achieve effortless action. This involves meditative and moral practices, important in this respect is the Taoist concept of De. De is the generally used to refer to proper adherence to the Tao. Particular things that manifest from the Tao have their own nature that they follow, in accordance with the Tao. Historically, the concept of De differed significantly between Taoists and Confucianists and this led to some philosophical and political conflicts between Taoists and Confucianisms
3.
De (Chinese)
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Chinese de 德 is an ancient and linguistically complex word. The following analyzes it in terms of semantics, graphics, the Hanyu Da Zidian, defines twenty meanings for de 德, translatable as Rise, go up, climb, ascend. Morals, morality, virtue, personal conduct, moral integrity, denoting a wise/enlightened person with moral character. Benevolent rule, good government, good instruction, quality, nature, basic character, characteristics, attribute. For example, Be of one heart and mind, in Five Phases theory, a reference to seasonally productive energy/air. First growth, initial stage, beginning of something, blessings, good fortune, happiness, resulting from benevolent actions. Used for zhí to plant, grow, establish, used for get, obtain, result in. An abbreviation for the Republic of Germany during World War II, another name for the Yellow River. This dictionary provides early usage examples, and all of these de meanings occur in Han or pre-Han Chinese classic texts, translating de into English is problematic and controversial. Arthur Waley believed that de was better translated power than virtue and it is usually translated virtue, and this often seems to work quite well, though where the word occurs in early, pre-moralistic texts such a translation is in reality quite false. But if we study the usage of the word carefully we find that de can be bad as well as good, clearly virtue is not a satisfactory equivalent. Te is anything that happens to one or that one does of a kind indicating that, as a consequence and it means, so to speak, the stock of credit that at any given moment a man has at the bank of fortune. Such a stock is of course built up partly by the carrying out of ritual. Based on the relation between de and zhi to plant, Waley further noted the early Chinese regarded planting seeds as a de, hence it means a latent power. The linguist Peter A. Boodberg investigated the semantics and etymology of de 德 and they find, therefore, no quarrel with rendering tê, almost invariably, as virtue. Philologists are, however, troubled by the absence in the Chinese term of any connotations reminiscent of the Latin etymon vir, such as manliness, other recommended translation, such as energy and essential quality, seem also inadequate from the etymological point of view. Of these, the last is by far the most frequently encountered, unfortunately, it is also probably the least appropriate of all to serve as an accurate translation of te in the Tao Te Ching. De power, virtue is written with the Chinese character 德 in both Traditional Chinese and Simplified Chinese and this character 德 combines the chi 彳 footstep, go radical with zhi 直 straight, vertical and xin 心 heart, mind
4.
Taiji (philosophy)
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The term Taiji and its other spelling Tai chi are most commonly used in the West to refer to Taijiquan, an internal martial art, Chinese meditation system and health practice. This article, however, refers only to the use of the term in Chinese philosophy, in analogy with the figurative meanings of English pole, Chinese ji 極 ridgepole can mean geographical pole, direction, magnetic pole, or celestial pole. Combining the two words, 太極 means the source, the beginning of the world, common English translations of the cosmological Taiji are the Supreme Ultimate or Great Ultimate, but other versions are the Supreme Pole, Great Absolute, or Supreme Polarity. Taiji references are found in Chinese classic texts associated with schools of Chinese philosophy. Zhang and Ryden explain the necessity of Taiji. Any philosophy that asserts two elements such as the yin-yang of Chinese philosophy will also look for a term to reconcile the two, to ensure that both belong to the sphere of discourse. The term supreme ultimate performs this role in the philosophy of the Book of Changes, in the Song dynasty it became a metaphysical term on a par with the Way. The Daoist classic Zhuangzi introduced the Taiji concept, one of the Inner Chapters contrasts Taiji 太極 great ultimate and Liuji 六極 six ultimates, six cardinal directions. The Way has attributes and evidence, but it has no action and it may be transmitted but cannot be received. It may be apprehended but cannot be seen, from the root, from the stock, before there was heaven or earth, for all eternity truly has it existed. It inspirits demons and gods, gives birth to heaven and earth and it lies above the zenith but is not high, it lies beneath the nadir but is not deep. It is prior to heaven and earth, but is not ancient, it is senior to high antiquity, the fu-sui 夫煫 gathers fire energy from the sun, the fang-chu 方諸 gathers dew from the moon. What are between Heaven and Earth, even an expert calculator cannot compute their number, thus, though the hand can handle and examine extremely small things, it cannot lay hold of the brightness. Were it within the grasp of ones hand to one category from the Supreme Ultimate above. This is because Yin and Yang share a common chi and move each other, Taiji also appears in the Xìcí 繫辭 Appended Judgments commentary to the I Ching, a late section traditionally attributed to Confucius but more likely dating to about the 3rd century B. C. E. Therefore there is in the Changes the Great Primal Beginning and this generates the two primary forces. The two primary forces generate the four images, the four images generate the eight trigrams. The eight trigrams determine good fortune and misfortune, good fortune and misfortune create the great field of action
5.
Yin and yang
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Many tangible dualities are thought of as physical manifestations of the duality symbolized by yin and yang. Duality is found in many systems, but Yin and Yang are parts of a Oneness that is also equated with the Tao. A term has been coined dualistic-monism or dialectical monism, Yin and yang can be thought of as complementary forces that interact to form a dynamic system in which the whole is greater than the assembled parts. Everything has both yin and yang aspects, either of the two major aspects may manifest more strongly in a particular object, depending on the criterion of the observation. The yin yang shows a balance between two opposites with a portion of the element in each section. In Taoist metaphysics, distinctions between good and bad, along with other dichotomous moral judgments, are perceptual, not real, so, the duality of yin and yang is an indivisible whole. In the ethics of Confucianism on the hand, most notably in the philosophy of Dong Zhongshu. The Chinese terms yīn 陰 or 阴 shady side and yáng 陽 or 阳 sunny side are linguistically analyzable in terms of Chinese characters, pronunciations and etymology, meanings, topography, and loanwords. The first phonetic yīn 侌 cloudy ideographically combines jīn 今 now, present and yún 云 cloud, the second phonetic yáng 昜 bright originally pictured 日 the sun with 勿 rays coming down. This phonetic is expanded with the sun radical into yáng 暘 rising sun, the mound, hill radical 阝full forms semantically specify yīn 陰 shady/dark side of a hill and yáng 陽 sunny/light side of a hill. Compare the Classical Chinese names for these two bodies, Tàiyīn 太陰 moon and Tàiyáng 太陽 sun. Reconstructions of Old Chinese have illuminated the etymology of modern Chinese words, Yin and yang are semantically complex words. A reliable Chinese-English dictionary gives the translation equivalents. Many Chinese place names or toponyms contain the word yang sunny side, similarly, yin refers to north side of a hill in Huayin 華陰, which is north of Mount Hua 華山 in Shaanxi province. English yin, yang, and yin-yang are familiar loanwords of Chinese origin, the Oxford English Dictionary defines, yin Also Yin, Yn. a. Also attrib. or as adj. and transf, comb. as yin-yang, the combination or fusion of the two cosmic forces, freq. attrib. Esp. as yin-yang symbol, a divided by an S-shaped line into a dark. Comb. yang-yin = yin-yang s. v. yin b, for the earliest recorded yin and yang usages, the OED cites 1671 for yin and yang,1850 for yin-yang, and 1959 for yang-yin
6.
Wu Xing
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The Five Phases are Wood, Fire, Earth, Metal, and Water. This order of presentation is known as the generation sequence. In the order of mutual overcoming, they are Wood, Earth, Water, Fire, the system of five phases was used for describing interactions and relationships between phenomena. The system is used as a reference in some forms of complementary and alternative medicine. Xing of Wu Xing means moving, a planet is called a star in Chinese. Wu Xing originally refers to the five planets that create five dimensions of earth life. Wu Xing is also translated as Five Elements and this is used extensively by many including practitioners of Five Element acupuncture. This translation arose by analogy with the Western system of the four elements. By the same token, Mù is thought of as Tree rather than Wood, the word element is thus used within the context of Chinese medicine with a different meaning to its usual meaning. It should be recognized that the phase, although commonly preferred, is not perfect. Phase is a translation for the five seasons mentioned below. Manfred Porkert attempts to resolve this by using Evolutive Phase for 五行 Wǔ Xíng and Circuit Phase for 五運 Wǔ Yùn, some of the Mawangdui Silk Texts also present the Wu Xing as five virtues or types of activities. Within Chinese medicine texts the Wu Xing are also referred to as Wu Yun or a combination of the two characters these emphasise the correspondence of five elements to five seasons, another tradition refers to the Wǔ Xíng as Wǔ Dé, the Five Virtues. Wood parts Earth Earth dams Water Water extinguishes Fire Fire melts Metal Metal chops Wood This cycle might also be called controls, according to Wu Xing theory, the structure of the cosmos mirrors the five phases. Each phase has a series of associations with different aspects of nature. In the ancient Chinese form of known as Feng Shui practitioners all based their art. All of these phases are represented within the trigrams, associated with these phases are colors, seasons and shapes, all of which are interacting with each other. Based on a directional energy flow from one phase to the next
7.
Qi
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In traditional Chinese culture, qì or chi is an active principle forming part of any living thing. Qi literally translates as breath, air, or gas, and figuratively as material energy, life force, Qi is the central underlying principle in traditional Chinese medicine and martial arts. Some elements of the concept of qi can be found in the energy when used in the context of various esoteric forms of spirituality. Notions in the West of energeia, élan vital, or vitalism are purported to be similar, despite widespread belief in the reality of qi, it is a non-scientific, unverifiable concept. The logograph 氣 is read with two Chinese pronunciations, the usual qì 氣 air, vital energy and the rare archaic xì 氣 to present food, pronunciations of 氣 in Sino-Xenic borrowings include, Japanese language ki, Korean language gi, and Vietnamese language khi. Reconstructions of the Middle Chinese pronunciation of 氣, standardized to IPA transcription, include, /kʰe̯iH/, /kʰĭəiH/, /kʰiəiH/, /kʰɨjH/, reconstructions of the Old Chinese pronunciation of 氣, standardized to IPA transcription, include, /*kʰɯds/, and /*C. qʰəp-s/. In addition, qì 炁 is an uncommon character especially used in writing Daoist talismans, historically, the word qì was generally written as 气 until the Han dynasty, when it was replaced by the 氣 graph clarified with mǐ 米 rice indicating steam. These oracle, bronze, and seal scripts graphs for qì 气 air, breath, etc. were anciently used as a loan character to write qǐ 乞 plead for, beg, ask. The regular script character qì 氣 is unusual because qì 气 is both the air radical and the phonetic, with mǐ 米 rice semantically indicating steam, vapor. This qì 气 air/gas radical, which was used in a few native Chinese characters like yīnyūn 氤氲 thick mist/smoke, was used to create new scientific characters for gaseous chemical elements. Some examples are based on pronunciations in European languages, fú 氟 fluorine and nǎi 氖 neon, others are based on semantics, qīng 氫 hydrogen and lǜ 氯 chlorine. Qi was an early Chinese loanword in English, romanized as, ki in Church Romanization in the century, chi in Wade–Giles in the mid-19th century. An early form of the idea comes from the writings of the Chinese philosopher Mencius, historically, the Huangdi Neijing/The Yellow Emperors Classic of Medicine is credited with first establishing the pathways through which qi circulates in the human body. The ancient Chinese described it as life force and they believed qi permeated everything and linked their surroundings together. They likened it to the flow of energy around and through the body, forming a cohesive, by understanding its rhythm and flow they believed they could guide exercises and treatments to provide stability and longevity. Although the concept of qi has been important within many Chinese philosophies, until China came into contact with Western scientific and philosophical ideas, they had not categorized all things in terms of matter and energy. Qi and li were fundamental categories similar to matter and energy, yuán qì is a notion of innate or pre-natal qi to distinguish it from acquired qi that a person may develop over the course of their lifetime. The earliest texts that speak of qi give some indications of how the concept developed, the philosopher Mo Di used the word qi to refer to noxious vapors that would in due time arise from a corpse were it not buried at a sufficient depth
8.
Daoist meditation
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Daoist meditation refers to the traditional meditative practices associated with the Chinese philosophy and religion of Daoism, including concentration, mindfulness, contemplation, and visualization. Traditional Chinese medicine and Chinese martial arts have adapted certain Daoist meditative techniques, the Chinese language has several keywords for Daoist meditation practices, some of which are difficult to translate accurately into English. Livia Kohn distinguishes three types of Daoist meditation, concentrative, insight, and visualization. In this sense, Kohn renders ding as intent contemplation or perfect absorption, the Zuowanglun has a section called Taiding 泰定 intense concentration Guan 觀 basically means look at, watch, observe, view, scrutinize. Kohn says the word guan, intimates the role of Taoist sacred sites as places of contact with celestial beings, Guan meditators would seek to merge individual consciousness into emptiness and attain unity with the Dao. For this reason, the word is most commonly rendered to visualize or, as a noun, within the above three types of Daoist meditation, some important practices are, Zuowang 坐忘 sitting forgetting was first recorded in the Zhuangzi. Neiguan 內觀 inner observation, inner vision is visualizing inside ones body and mind, including organs, inner deities, qi movements. Four chapters of the Guanzi have descriptions of practices, Xinshu 心術 Mind techniques, Baixin 白心 Purifying the mind. Modern scholars believe the Neiye text was written in the 4th century BCE, owing to the consensus that proto-Daoist Huang-Lao philosophers at the Jixia Academy in Qi composed the core Guanzi, Neiye meditation techniques are technically Daoistic rather than Daoist. Neiye Verse 8 associates dingxin 定心 stabilizing the mind with acute hearing and clear vision, however, thought, says Roth, is considered an impediment to attaining the well-ordered mind, particularly when it becomes excessive. Verse 18 contains the earliest Chinese reference to practicing breath-control meditation, breathing is said to coil and uncoil or contract and expand, with coiling/contracting referring to exhalation and uncoiling/expanding to inhalation. Several passages in the classic Daodejing are interpreted as referring to meditation, for instance, Attain utmost emptiness, Maintain utter stillness emphasizes xu 虛 empty, void and jing 靜 still, quiet, both of which are central meditative concepts. Verse 10 gives what Roth calls probably the most important evidence for breathing meditation in the Daodejing, Three of these Daodejing phrases resonate with Neiye meditation vocabulary. Baoyi 抱一 embrace unity compares with shouyi 守一 maintain the One, zhuanqi 專氣 focus your vital breath is zhuanqi 摶氣 concentrating your vital breath. Dichu xuanjian 滌除玄覽 cleanse the mirror of mysteries and jingchu qi she 敬除其舍 diligently clean out its lodging place have the same verb chu eliminate, the Daodejing exists in two received versions, named after the commentaries. The Heshang Gong version explains textual references to Daoist meditation, Wang Bi was a scholar of Xuanxue mysterious studies, neo-Daoism, which adapted Confucianism to explain Daoism, and his version eventually became the standard Daodejing interpretation. Richard Wilhelm said Wang Bis commentary changed the Daodejing from a compendiary of magical meditation to a collection of free philosophical aperçus, the Daoist Zhuangzi refers to meditation in more specific terms than the Daodejing. Two well-known examples of disciplines are Confucius and his favorite disciple Yan Hui discussing xinzhai 心齋 heart-mind fasting and zuowang sitting forgetting
9.
Neidan
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It is believed the Xiuzhen Tu is such a cultivation map. In China, it is an important form of practice for most schools of Taoism, the Chinese compound nèidān combines the common word nèi 內 meaning inside, inner, internal with dān 丹 cinnabar, vermillion, elixir, alchemy. The antonym of nèi is wài 外 outside, exterior, external, Chinese alchemical texts and sources ordinarily call neidan the jīndān dào 金丹道 or Way of the Golden Elixir. In Modern Standard Chinese usage, the term nèidān shù 內丹術 refers generally to internal alchemical practices, the date for the earliest use of the term neidan is uncertain. I pray that all the saints and sages will come to my help, so that I may get some good magic mushrooms, in this way I shall be able to practice continually the way of the Sutras and to engage in the several forms of meditations. I shall hope to find a peaceful dwelling in the depths of the mountains, with enough numinous elixirs, thus by the aids of external elixirs I shall be able to cultivate the elixir within. Others believed that neidan first occurred in the biographies of Deng Yuzhi鄧郁之, however, the authenticity of the relevant passages in these pseudo-historical sources is doubtful. Tang texts described internal alchemical practices with the words fúyào 服藥 take drug/medicine and chángshēng 長生 long life, longevity, liu Xiyues 劉希岳988 Taixuan langranzi jindao shi 太玄朗然子進道詩 has the earliest dateable mention of the terms neidan and waidan. The c.1019 Yunji Qiqian Daoist anthology mentions the term neidan, Neidan is part of the Chinese alchemical meditative tradition that is said to have been separated into internal and external at some point during the Tang dynasty. The Cantong qi is the earliest known book on alchemy in China. This text influenced the formation of Neidan, whose earliest existing texts date from the first half of the 8th century, the authors of several Neidan articles refer to their teachings as the Way of the Golden Elixir. The majority of Chinese alchemical sources is found in the Daozang, Neidan shares a significant portion of its notions and methods with classical Chinese medicine, fangshi and with other bodies of practices, such as meditation and the methods for nourishing life. To do so, first keep the body at ease, thereby energy can be made complete. Making ones energy complete, one can nurture the mind, to do so, first keep the mind pure, and make sure there are no thoughts. Thereby spirit can be made complete, making ones spirit complete, one can recover emptiness. To do so, first keep the will sincere, and make sure body, thereby spirit can be returned to emptiness. To attain immortality, there is nothing else but the refinement of these three treasures, essence, energy, spirit. When the three treasures are maintained, along with a balance of yin and yang, it is possible to achieve a healthy body and longevity
10.
I Ching
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The I Ching, or Classic of Changes, is an ancient divination text and the oldest of the Chinese classics. The I Ching uses a type of divination called cleromancy, which produces apparently random numbers. Four numbers,6 to 9, are turned into a hexagram, the hexagrams themselves have often acquired cosmological significance and paralleled with many other traditional names for the processes of change such as yin and yang and Wu Xing. The core of the I Ching is a Western Zhou divination text called the Changes of Zhou, various modern scholars suggest dates ranging between the 10th and 4th centuries BC for the assembly of the text in approximately its current form. It is possible that other systems existed at this time. The name Zhou yi literally means the changes of the Zhou dynasty, the changes involved have been interpreted as the transformations of hexagrams, of their lines, or of the numbers obtained from the divination. Feng Youlan proposed that the word for changes originally meant easy, as in a form of divination easier than the oracle bones, there is also an ancient folk etymology that sees the character for changes as containing the sun and moon, the cycle of the day. Modern Sinologists believe the character to be derived either from an image of the sun emerging from clouds, the Zhou yi was traditionally ascribed to the Zhou cultural heroes King Wen of Zhou and the Duke of Zhou, and was also associated with the legendary world ruler Fu Xi. The Zhou yi itself does not contain this legend and indeed says nothing about its own origins, the Rites of Zhou, however, also claims that the hexagrams of the Zhou yi were derived from an initial set of eight trigrams. During the Han dynasty there were various opinions about the relationship between the trigrams and the hexagrams. The basic unit of the Zhou yi is the hexagram, a composed of six stacked horizontal lines. Each line is broken or unbroken. The received text of the Zhou yi contains all 64 possible hexagrams, along with the name, a short hexagram statement. The book opens with the first hexagram statement, yuán hēng lì zhēn, edward Shaughnessy describes this statement as affirming an initial receipt of an offering, beneficial for further divining. The word zhēn was also used for the divine in the oracle bones of the late Shang dynasty. It also carried meanings of being or making upright or correct, the names of the hexagrams are usually words that appear in their respective line statements, but in five cases an unrelated character of unclear purpose appears. The hexagram names could have been chosen arbitrarily from the line statements, the line statements, which make up most of the book, are exceedingly cryptic. Each line begins with a word indicating the number, base,2,3,4,5, top
11.
Tao Te Ching
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The Tao Te Ching, Daodejing, Dao De Jing, or Daode jing, also simply referred to as the Laozi, is a Chinese classic text. The texts true authorship and date of composition or compilation are still debated, many Chinese artists, including poets, painters, calligraphers, and even gardeners, have used the Daodejing as a source of inspiration. Its influence has spread widely outside East Asia, and it is among the most translated works in world literature. The Tao Te Ching has a long and complex textual history, known versions and commentaries date back two millennia, including ancient bamboo, silk, and paper manuscripts discovered in the twentieth century. There are many translations of the books title, Dào/tao literally means way, or one of its synonyms. This term, which was used by other Chinese philosophers, has special meaning within the context of Taoism. Dé/te means virtue, personal character, inner strength, or integrity, jīng/ching as it is used here means canon, great book, or classic. Thus, Tao Te Ching can be translated as The Classic of the Ways Virtues or The Book of the Way of Virtue. The title Daodejing is a given by posterity, other titles include the amalgam Lǎozǐ Dàodéjīng, the honorific Daode Zhen Jing. The received Tao Te Ching is a text of around 5,000 Chinese characters in 81 brief chapters or sections. There is some evidence that the divisions were later additions—for commentary. It has two parts, the Tao Ching and the Te Ching, which may have been edited together into the received text, the written style is laconic, has few grammatical particles, and encourages varied, even contradictory interpretations. The ideas are singular, the style poetic, the rhetorical style combines two major strategies, short, declarative statements and intentional contradictions. The first of these strategies creates memorable phrases, while the second forces us to create our own reconciliations of the supposed contradictions, the Chinese characters in the original versions were probably written in zhuànshū, while later versions were written in lìshū and kǎishū styles. Daoist Chinese Characters contains a summary of these different calligraphies. The Tao Te Ching is ascribed to Lao Tzu, whose existence has been a matter of scholastic debate. His name, which means Old Master, has only fueled controversy on this issue, the first reliable reference to Laozi is his biography in Shiji, by Chinese historian Sima Qian, which combines three stories. First, Lao Tzu was a contemporary of Confucius and his surname was Li, and his personal name was Er or Dan
12.
Zhuangzi (book)
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The Zhuangzi is an ancient Chinese text from the late Warring States period which contains stories and anecdotes that exemplify the carefree nature of the ideal Daoist sage. The Zhuangzi consists of a collection of anecdotes, allegories, parables, and fables. Its main themes are of spontaneity in action and of freedom from the human world, the fables and anecdotes in the text attempt to illustrate the falseness of human distinctions between good and bad, large and small, life and death, and human and nature. While other ancient Chinese philosophers focused on moral and personal duty, a masterpiece of both philosophical and literary skill, it has significantly influenced writers for more than 2000 years from the Han dynasty to the present. Almost nothing is known of Zhuangzis life. He is thought to have spent time in the state of Chu, as well as in Linzi. The American scholar and Zhuangzi translator Burton Watson has noted, Whoever Zhuang Zhou was, scholars have recognized since at least the Song dynasty that some parts of the book could not have been written by Zhuangzi himself. Since ancient times, however, the first seven chapters—the nèi piān 內篇 inner chapters—have been considered to be the work of Zhuangzi. How many, if any, of the remaining 26 chapters—the wài piān 外篇 outer chapters, all of the 33 surviving chapters are accepted as compositions from the 4th to 2nd centuries BC. Details of the Zhuangzis textual history prior to the Han dynasty are largely unknown, the Records of the Grand Historian refers to a 100, 000-word Zhuangzi work and references several chapters that are still in the text. The Book of Han, finished in AD111, lists a Zhuangzi in 52 chapters, portions of the Zhuangzi have been discovered among bamboo slip texts from Warring States period and Han dynasty tombs, particularly at the Shuanggudui and Zhangjiashan Han bamboo texts sites. One of the slips from the Guodian bamboo texts, which date to around 300 BC and they collectively form about twelve chapters of Guo Xiangs version of the Zhuangzi, and are preserved mostly at the British Library and the Bibliothèque Nationale de France. Among the Japanese national treasures preserved in the Kōzan-ji temple in Kyoto is a Zhuangzi manuscript from the Muromachi period, almost all of the 33 surviving Zhuangzi chapters contain fables and allegories. Unlike other ancient Chinese works, whose allegories were usually based on legends and proverbs. The most famous of all Zhuangzi stories – Zhuang Zhou Dreams of Being a Butterfly – appears at the end of the second chapter, On the Equality of Things. The well known image of Zhuangzi wondering if he was a man who dreamed of being a butterfly or a butterfly dreaming of being a man is so striking that whole dramas have been written on its theme. In it Zhuangzi with the theme of transformation, illustrating that the distinction between waking and dreaming is another false dichotomy, if distinguishes them, how can tell if is now dreaming or awake. Another well known Zhuangzi story—The Death of Wonton—illustrates the dangers Zhuangzi saw in going against the nature of things
13.
Three Pure Ones
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They are regarded as pure manifestation of the Tao and the origin of all sentient beings. From the Taoist classic Tao Te Ching, it was held that The Tao produced One, One produced Two, Two produced Three, Three produced All things and it is generally agreed that, Tao produced One—Wuji produced Taiji, One produced Two—Taiji produced Yin and Yang. However, the subject of how Two produced Three has remained a popular debate among Taoist Scholars, most scholars believe that it refers to the Interaction between Yin and Yang, with the presence of Chi, or life force. In religious Taoism, the theory of how Tao produces One, Two, yuánshǐ Tiānzūn oversees the earliest phase of Creation of the Universe, and is henceforth known as Dàobǎo Treasure of the Tao. Therefore, he is known as Jīngbǎo Treasure of the Law/Scripture. While Jīng in popular understanding means scriptures, in context it also mean passing through. In the final phase of Creation, Daode Tianzun is manifested from Língbăo Tiānzūn to bring civilization, therefore, He is also known as Shībǎo Treasure of the Master. Each of the Three Pure Ones represents both a deity and a heaven, Yuanshi tianzun rules the first heaven, Yu-Qing, which is found in the Jade Mountain. The entrance to heaven is named the Golden Door. He is the source of all truth, as the sun is the source of all light, Lingbao Tianzun rules over the heaven of Shang-Qing. Daode Tianzun rules over the heaven of Tai-Qing, the Three Pure Ones are often depicted as throned elders. Schools of Taoist thought developed around each of these deities, Taoist Alchemy was a large part of these schools, as each of the Three Pure Ones represented one of the three essential fields of the body, jing, qi and shen. The congregation of all three Pure Ones resulted in the return to Tao, the first Pure One is universal or heavenly chi. The second Pure One is human plane chi, and the third Pure One is earth chi, heavenly chi includes the chi or energy of all the planets, stars and constellations as well as the energy of God. Human plane chi is the energy that exists on the surface of our planet and sustains life. As the Three Pure Ones are manifestation of Primordial Celestial Energy, each of them holds onto a divine object associated with their task. Yuánshǐ Tiānzūn is usually depicted holding the Pearl of Creation, signifying his role in creating the Universe from void and chaos. The Ruyi held by Lingbao Tianzun represents authority, the phase of Creation where the Yang was separated from the Yin
14.
Guan Yu
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Guan Yu, courtesy name Yunchang, was a general serving under the warlord Liu Bei in the late Eastern Han dynasty. He played a significant role in the events led to the collapse of the dynasty. After Liu Bei gained control of Yi Province in 214, Guan Yu remained in Jing Province to govern, by the time Guan Yu found out about the loss of Jing Province after his defeat at Fancheng, it was too late. He was subsequently captured in an ambush by Sun Quans forces, Guan Yu is respected as an epitome of loyalty and righteousness. He is portrayed as having a red face, Guan Yu was deified as early as the Sui dynasty and is still worshipped by many Chinese people today in mainland China, Taiwan, Hong Kong, and among many overseas Chinese communities. In religious devotion he is called the Divus Guan or Lord Guan. He is a deity worshipped in Chinese folk religion, popular Confucianism, Taoism, and Chinese Buddhism and his hometown Yuncheng has also named its airport after him. The authoritative historical source on Guan Yus life is the Records of the Three Kingdoms, during the fifth century, Pei Songzhi annotated the Sanguozhi by incorporating information from other sources to Chen Shous original work and adding his personal commentary. No descriptions of Guan Yus physical appearance exist in historical records, traditionally, he is portrayed as a red-faced warrior with a long lush beard. He had an air and looked quite majestic. Alternatively, the idea of his red face could have borrowed from opera representation. In illustrations of Romance of the Three Kingdoms, Guan Yu is traditionally depicted wearing a green robe over his body armour, supposedly, Guan Yus weapon was a guan dao named Green Dragon Crescent Blade, which resembled a glaive and was said to weigh 82 catties. A wooden replica can be today in the Emperor Guan Temple in Xiezhou County. Guan Yu was from Xie County, Hedong Commandery, which is in present-day Yuncheng and his original courtesy name was Changsheng. He was very interested in the Zuo Zhuan and could fluently recite lines from the book and he fled from his hometown after committing a serious crime and arrived in Zhuo Commandery. When the Yellow Turban Rebellion broke out in the 180s, Guan Yu and Zhang Fei joined a militia formed by Liu Bei. When Liu Bei was appointed as the Chancellor of Pingyuan State, Guan Yu and Zhang Fei were appointed as Majors of Separate Command, the three of them shared a brotherly-like relationship, to the point of sharing the same room. Zhang Fei and Guan Yu also stood guard beside Liu Bei when he sat down at meetings and they followed him on his exploits and protected him from danger
15.
Eight Immortals
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The Eight Immortals are a group of legendary xian in Chinese mythology. Each immortals power can be transferred to a tool that can bestow life or destroy evil. Together, these eight tools are called the Covert Eight Immortals, most of them are said to have been born in the Tang or Song dynasty. They are revered by the Taoists and are also an element in the secular Chinese culture. They are said to live on a group of five islands in the Bohai Sea, the Immortals are, He Xiangu Cao Guojiu Li Tieguai Lan Caihe Lü Dongbin Han Xiangzi Zhang Guolao Zhongli Quan In literature before the 1970s, they were sometimes translated as the Eight Genies. First described in the Yuan Dynasty, they were named after the Eight Immortal Scholars of the Han. While cults dedicated to various Taoist immortals date back to the Han dynasty, the art of the Jin tombs of the 12th and 13th centuries depicts a group of eight Taoist immortals in wall murals and sculptures. They officially became known as the Eight Immortals in the writings, the most famous art depiction of the Eight Immortals from this period is a mural of them in the Eternal Joy Temple at Ruicheng. The 8 Immortals are considered to be signs of prosperity and longevity, so they are popular themes in ancient and they were frequent adornments on celadon vases. They were also common in sculptures owned by the nobility and their most common appearance, however, was in paintings. Many silk paintings, wall murals, and wood block prints remain of the Eight Immortals and they were often depicted either together in one group, or alone to give more homage to that specific immortal. This shows that early on, the Eight Immortals quickly became eminent figures of the Taoist religion and had great importance and we can see this importance is only heightened in the Ming and Qing dynasties. During these dynasties, the Eight Immortals were very frequently associated with other prominent spiritual deities in artwork, there are numerous paintings with them and the Three Stars together. Also, other deities of importance, such as the Queen Mother of the West, are seen in the company of the Eight Immortals. The artwork of the Eight Immortals is not limited to paintings or other visual arts and they are quite prominent in written works too. Authors and playwrights wrote numerous stories and plays on the Eight Immortals, one famous story that has been rewritten many times and turned into several plays is The Yellow-Millet Dream, which is the story of how Lǚ Dòngbīn met Zhongli Quan and began his path to immortality. The Immortals are the subject of artistic creations, such as paintings. There is another work, also made during the Ming, by an anonymous writer and it is about the Immortals on their way to attend the Conference of the Magical Peach when they encounter an ocean
16.
Yellow Emperor
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Huangdis cult became prominent in the late Warring States and early Han period, when he was portrayed as the originator of the centralized state, as a cosmic ruler, and as a patron of esoteric arts. A large number of texts – such as the Huangdi Neijing, a classic, and the Huangdi Sijing. To this day the Yellow Emperor remains a powerful nationalist symbol, in the Warring States period, the term di on its own could also refer to the deities associated with the five sacred mountains and colors. Huangdi, the di, was one of the latter. The correlation of the colors in association with different dynasties was mentioned in the Lüshi Chunqiu, the character huang 黄 was often used in place of the homophonous huang 皇, which means august or radiant, giving Huangdi attributes close to those of Shangdi, the Shang supreme god. The Records of the Grand Historian, compiled by Sima Qian in the first century BCE, gives the Yellow Emperors name as Xuanyuan. Third-century scholar Huangfu Mi, who wrote a work on the sovereigns of antiquity, commented that Xuanyuan was the name of a hill where Huangdi had lived, qing-dynasty scholar Liang Yusheng argued instead that the hill was named after the Yellow Emperor. Xuanyuan is also the name of the star Regulus in Chinese and he is also associated to the broader constellations Leo and Lynx, of which the latter is said to represent the body of the Yellow Dragon, Huangdis animal form. Huangdi was also referred to as Youxiong and this name has been interpreted as either a place name or a clan name. According to British sinologist Herbert Allen Giles, that name was taken from that of hereditary principality. William Nienhauser, a translator of the Records of the Grand Historian, states that Huangdi was originally the head of the Youxiong clan. Rémi Mathieu, a French historian of Chinese myths and religion, translates Youxiong as possessor of bears, ye Shuxian has also associated the Yellow Emperor with bear legends common across northeast Asia people as well as the Dangun legend. In Han-dynasty texts the Yellow Emperor is also called upon as the Yellow God, certain accounts interpret him as the incarnation of the Yellow God of the Northern Dipper, another name of the universal god. According to a definition in apocryphal texts related to the Hétú 河圖, as a cosmological deity, the Yellow Emperor is known as the Great Emperor of the Central Peak, and in the Shizi as the Yellow Emperor with Four Faces. His Records of the Grand Historian begins with the Yellow Emperor, throughout most of Chinese history, the Yellow Emperor and the other ancient sages were considered to be real historical figures. Their historicity started to be questioned in the 1920s by historians like Gu Jiegang, Yang Kuan, a member of the same historiographical current, noted that only in the Warring States period had the Yellow Emperor started to be described as the first ruler of China. Yang thus argued that Huangdi was a transformation of Shangdi. Also in the 1920s, French scholars Henri Maspero and Marcel Granet published critical studies of Chinas accounts of high antiquity, most scholars now agree that the Yellow Emperor originated as a god who was later represented as a historical person
17.
Queen Mother of the West
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The Queen Mother of the West, known by various local names, is a goddess in Chinese religion and mythology, also worshipped in neighbouring Asian countries, and attested from ancient times. The first historical information on her can be traced back to oracle bone inscriptions of the fifteenth century BC that record sacrifices to a Western Mother, even though these inscriptions illustrate that she predates organized Taoism, she is most often associated with Taoism. From her name alone some of her most important characteristics are revealed, she is royal, female, Queen Mother of the West is the literal translation of Xiwangmu in Chinese sources, Seiōbo in Japan, and Seowangmo in Korea, and Tây Vương Mẫu in Vietnam. She has numerous titles, one of the most popular being the Golden Mother of the Nacre Lake and she is also known in contemporary sources as the Lady Queen Mother. In the Maternist current of Chinese salvationist religions she is the deity and is called upon as the Eternal Venerable Mother. Commoners and poets of the era referred to her simply as the Queen Mother. The first mentions of the Queen Mother date back to the oracle bone inscriptions of the Shang dynasty, one inscription reads, Crack-making on day IX,9 day, we divined. If we make offering to the mother and the western mother. Western Mother refers to an archaic divinity residing in the west, the exact nature of the Mother divinities in the Shang dynasty is unclear, but they were seen as powerful forces deserving of ritual by the people of the Shang dynasty. After she was adopted into the Taoist pantheon, she was transformed into the goddess of life and immortality. One of the earliest written references to the Queen Mother comes from the writings of the Taoist writer Zhuangzi, no one knows her beginning, no one knows her end. Zhuangzi describes the Queen Mother as one of the highest of the deities, meaning she had gained immortality, Zhuangzi also states that Xiwangmu is seated upon a spiritual western mountain range, suggesting she is connected to not only the heavens, but also to the west. During the Tang dynasty poetry flourished throughout China and it was during this period that the Queen Mother became an extremely popular figure in poetry. Her mythology was recorded in the poems of the Quan Tangshi a collection of surviving poems from the Tang dynasty and this account represents the most complete source of information about Tang societys perceptions of Xīwángmǔ. The Queen Mother of the West usually is depicted holding court within her palace on the mythological Mount Kunlun, usually supposed to be in western China. Her palace is believed to be a perfect and complete paradise, where it was used as a place for the deities. At her palace she was surrounded by a retinue of prominent goddesses. No matter where the peaches were located, the Queen Mother of the West is widely known for serving peaches to her guests and she normally wears a distinctive headdress with the Peaches of Immortality suspended from it
18.
Jade Emperor
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The Jade Emperor in Chinese culture, traditional religions and myth is one of the representations of the first god. In Taoist theology he is Yuanshi Tianzun, one of the Three Pure Ones and he is also the Cao Đài of Caodaism known as Ngọc Hoàng Thượng đế. In Buddhist cosmology he is identified with Śakra, in Korean mythology he is known as Hwanin. The Jade Emperor is known by names, including Heavenly Grandfather, which originally meant Heavenly Duke, which is used by commoners. There are many stories in Chinese mythology involving the Jade Emperor and it was said that the Jade Emperor was originally the crown prince of the kingdom of Pure Felicity and Majestic Heavenly Lights and Ornaments. At birth, he emitted a wondrous light that filled the entire kingdom, when he was young, he was kind, intelligent and wise. He devoted his childhood to helping the needy. Furthermore, he showed respect and benevolence to both men and creatures, after his father died, he ascended the throne. He made sure everyone in his kingdom found peace and contentment. After that, he told his ministers that he wished to cultivate Tao on the Bright, after 1,750 kalpas, each kalpa lasting for 129,600 years, he attained Golden Immortality. After another one hundred years of cultivation, he finally became the Jade Emperor One of the myths describes how the Jade Emperor became the monarch of all the deities in heaven. It is one of the few myths in which the Jade Emperor really shows his might, in the beginning of time, the earth was a very difficult place to live, much harsher than it is now. People had to deal with a variety of beings, and they didn’t have many gods to protect them, in addition. The Jade Emperor was an immortal who roamed the earth helping as many people as he could. He was saddened because his powers could only ease the suffering of humans and he retreated to a mountain cave to cultivate his Tao. He passed 3,200 trials, each lasting about 3 million years. On earth at this time, a powerful, evil entity had the ambition to conquer the immortals and gods in heaven and this evil entity also went into retreat and meditation to expand its power, though later than the Jade Emperor did. He passed through 3,000 trials, each lasting about 3 million years
19.
Laozi
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Laozi was an ancient Chinese philosopher and writer. He is known as the author of the Tao Te Ching and the founder of philosophical Taoism. A central figure in Chinese culture, Laozi is claimed by both the emperors of the Tang dynasty and modern people of the Li surname as a founder of their lineage, Laozis work has been embraced by various anti-authoritarian movements as well as Chinese legalism. In traditional accounts, Laozis personal name is given as Li Er. A prominent posthumous name was Li Dan, Laozi itself is an honorific title, 老 and 子. It is usually pronounced /ˌlaʊˈdzʌ/ in English and it has been romanized numerous ways, sometimes leading to confusion. The most common present form is Laozi or Lǎozǐ, based on the Hanyu Pinyin system adopted by Mainland China in 1958, during the 20th century, Lao-tzu was more common, based on the formerly prevalent Wade–Giles system. In the 19th century, the title was romanized as Lao-tse. Other forms include the variants Lao-tze and Lao-tsu, as a religious figure, he is worshipped under the name Supreme Old Lord and as one of the Three Pure Ones. During the Tang Dynasty, he was granted the title Supremely Mysterious, the earliest certain reference to the present figure of Laozi is found in the 1st-century BCE Records of the Grand Historian collected by the historian Sima Qian from earlier accounts. In one account, Laozi was said to be a contemporary of Confucius during the 6th or 5th century BCE and his surname was Li and his personal name was Er or Dan. He was an official in the archives and wrote a book in two parts before departing to the west. In another, Laozi was a different contemporary of Confucius titled Lao Laizi, in a third, he was the court astrologer Lao Dan who lived during the 4th century BCE reign of Duke Xian of the Qin Dynasty. The oldest text of the Tao Te Ching so far recovered was written on bamboo slips, according to traditional accounts, Laozi was a scholar who worked as the Keeper of the Archives for the royal court of Zhou. This reportedly allowed him access to the works of the Yellow Emperor. The stories assert that Laozi never opened a school but nonetheless attracted a large number of students. There are many variations of a story retelling his encounter with Confucius and he was sometimes held to have come from the village of Chu Jen in Chu. In accounts where Laozi married, he was said to have had a son named Zong who became a celebrated soldier, many clans of the Li family trace their descent to Laozi, including the emperors of the Tang dynasty
20.
Zhuang Zhou
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He is credited with writing—in part or in whole—a work known by his name, the Zhuangzi, which expresses a philosophy of skepticism. In Simas biography, he is described as an official from the town of Meng in the state of Song, living in the time of King Hui of Liang and King Xuan of Qi. He made The Old Fisherman, The Robber Chih, and The Cutting open Satchels, to satirize and expose the disciples of Confucius, and clearly exhibit the sentiments of Lao. Such names and characters as Wei-lei Hsu and Khang-sang Tze are fictitious, but Chuang was an admirable writer and skillful composer, and by his instances and truthful descriptions hit and exposed the Mohists and Literati. King Wei of Chu, having heard of the ability of Chuang Chau, sent messengers with large gifts to bring him to his court, and promising also that he would make him his chief minister. Chuang-Tze, however, only laughed and said to them, A thousand ounces of silver are a great gain to me, but have you not seen the victim-ox for the border sacrifice. It is carefully fed for several years, and robed with rich embroidery that it may be fit to enter the Grand Temple, when the time comes for it to do so, it would prefer to be a little pig, but it can not get to be so. Go away quickly, and do not soil me with your presence, I had rather amuse and enjoy myself in the midst of a filthy ditch than be subject to the rules and restrictions in the court of a sovereign. I have determined never to take office, but prefer the enjoyment of my own free will, in reality, it was nothing of the sort. The Chuang-tzu known to us today was the production of a thinker of the third century CE named Kuo Hsiang, though Kuo was long called merely a commentator, he was in reality much more, he arranged the texts and compiled the present 33-chapter edition. Regarding the identity of the person named Chuang Chou/Zhuangzi, there is no reliable historical data at all. However, Sima Qians biography of Zhuangzi pre-dates Guo Xiang by centuries, furthermore, the Han Shu Yiwenzhi lists a text Zhuangzi, showing that a text with this title existed no later than the early 1st century CE, again pre-dating Guo Xiang by centuries. Zhuangzi is traditionally credited as the author of at least part of the work bearing his name, further study of the text does not provide a clear choice between these alternatives. On the other hand, chapter 33 has been considered as intrusive. In this spirit, Martin Palmer wrote that trying to read Chuang Tzu sequentially is a mistake, the text is a collection, not a developing argument. Zhuangzi was renowned for his brilliant wordplay and use of parables to convey messages and his critiques of Confucian society and historical figures are humorous and at times ironic. Dream argument Liezi Tao Te Ching Ames, Roger T, ‘The Mencian Concept of Ren Xing, Does it Mean Human Nature. ’ in Chinese Texts and Philosophical Contexts, ed. Henry Rosemont, Jr. LaSalle, Ill. Ames, Roger T. ed. Wandering at Ease in the Zhuangzi, albany, State University of New York Press
21.
Zhang Daoling
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He is also known as Zhang Daoling, Celestial Master Zhang, Ancestral Celestial Master or Zhengyi Zhenren to Taoists. Zhang is sometimes pictured riding on a tiger, in some Taoist sects, Zhang, along with Ge Xuan, Xu Xun and Sa Shoujian, are called the Four Celestial Masters. The details of the life of the historical figure Zhang Ling are obscure, most of the information about him comes from later scripture, according to these, Zhang traced his ancestral home to Feng County, Jiangsu, and was said to be a descendant of Zhang Liang. He was born in the year of the Jianwu era during the reign of Emperor Guangwu of Han. He started reading the Tao Te Ching at a young age and he served as a magistrate in Jiangzhou, Ba Commandery during the reign of Emperor Ming of Han. Zhang later retired and led a life at Mount Beimang. When invited to serve as a boshi in the Imperial Academy, Emperor He of Han summoned him thrice to serve as the Taifu but he refused again. Zhang then endeavored to reform supposedly degenerate religious practices, a major change instituted by the new Covenant was the rejection of food and animal sacrifices. Also, the teachings of Laozi as transmitted by Zhang included the first true Taoist religious pantheon as distinguished from the ancient religion of China. The Xianger, a commentary on the Tao Te Ching preserved today in a manuscript, is traditionally ascribed to Zhang Daolings authorship. Zhang is said to have died on Mount Qingcheng in 156 during the reign of Emperor Huan of Han at the age of 123, however, it is also said that Zhang did not die but learned the arcana of Taoism to ascend in broad daylight. Instead, his body became like luminous ether, disappearing from eyesight and his descendants have held the title of Celestial Masters up to the present day. They also held the title of 正一嗣教眞人, list of Celestial Masters Way of the Five Pecks of Rice Way of the Celestial Masters
22.
Zhang Jue
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Zhang Jue was the leader of the Yellow Turban Rebellion during the late Eastern Han dynasty. He was said to be a follower of Taoism and a sorcerer and his name is sometimes read as Zhang Jiao, since the Chinese character of Zhangs given name can be read as either Jiao or Jue. Jue is the reading, while Jiao is the modern one. Giving himself the title of Great Teacher, Zhang Jue led the Yellow Turban Rebellion with his younger brothers Zhang Bao and Zhang Liang in a campaign called The Way of Heaven or The Way of Peace. He and his brothers had their own power, Zhang Bao was the General of Land, Zhang Liang was the General of the People, and Zhang Jue was the General of Heaven. The Yellow Turbans conquered much in the years of the rebellion. Zhang Jue is also featured in Luo Guanzhongs historical novel Romance of the Three Kingdoms and he is introduced in chapter 1 as follows, At that time, there lived three brothers in Julu Commandery, Zhang Jue, Zhang Bao and Zhang Liang. Zhang Jiao was a failure in the county level examination and he had gone into the mountains to gather some medicinal herbs, when he came across an old man, the old man had a youthful countenance, and was carrying a fat-hen walking stick. The old man beckoned Jue into a cave, presented him with a book in three volumes which had come from the heavens, then said, This book is called The Essential Art of Great Peace. Once you have mastered its contents, you will represent the heavens in spreading this knowledge, if you start to have second thoughts, there will be terrible consequences for you. Jue enquired as to the old mans name, the old man said, I am the old immortal spirit from the southern lands. With that, the old man vanished into thin air, upon receiving this book, Jue practiced night and day. Eventually, he could summon the wind and rain, and came to be known as the Great Peace Taoist and he then goes on to found the rebellion known as the Yellow Turban Rebellion. Little time is devoted to Zhang Jue in the book, and his death is given a line in the second chapter and he is referred to as Zhang Jiao in these games. He is also seen as one of the antagonists of the light gun shooting game SEGA Golden Gun, list of people of the Three Kingdoms Chen Shou
23.
Ge Hong
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Ge Hong — courtesy name Zhichuan — was a minor southern official during the Jìn Dynasty of China, best known for his interest in Daoism, alchemy, and techniques of longevity. Yet religious and esoteric writing represents only a portion of Ges considerable literary output, although a prolific writer of many literary styles, most of Ges early work, such as rhapsodies, verse, historical commentary, and biographies, are now lost. Modern scholars have recognized his influence on writers, such as the Tang dynasty poet Li Bai. Nevertheless, Ge’s work was never enshrined in famous collections of essays and poetry, such as the Wenxuan as was Ji Kang’s essay, Yang sheng, whose style Ge freely imitated. Reflecting the complex landscape of the Jin period, Ge is essential reading for an understanding of early medieval Chinese religion, culture. Recent scholarly and popular translations of Ge’s writing into English have ensured his inclusion in the tide of enthusiasm for esoteric. Biographical sources for Ge are varied, but almost all of them are based either in whole or in part upon his autobiographical Postface to the Outer Chapters and it is nearly impossible to judge the veracity of Ge’s account of his early family history as found in the postface. Following literary convention, he claims that his ancestors were of a ruling house that adopted the name of their dynasty as a family name. The sons of ancestor, Pu Lu and Wen, fought together to assist Emperor Guangwu of Han in restoring the Han dynasty. Due to his status in the government army, Pu Lu received rich rewards and a lofty official appointment while Wen. According to Ge, his grandfather, Ge Xi, was a scholar who governed several counties in modern Jiangsu and Zhejiang provinces. He eventually rose to the rank of Junior Mentor to the prince of Wu. Ge describes his father, Ge Ti, in similar, laudatory terms as a gentleman of model conduct. Ge Ti served in civil and military positions, and was eventually appointed Governor of Kuaiji prefecture. Around the time of appointment, the Jin dynasty, which had already succeeded in unifying northern China around 265, invaded Wu under the command of the famous literatus and Jin general. Du Yu would return to the north and write a commentary to the Zuo zhuan after the conquest of Wu in 280. The Jin victory changed the fortunes of Ge’s family, because the Jin administration attempted to check the power of the southern gentry by giving them positions of little authority, Ge Ti initially lost prestige and power under Jin rule. He was appointed to posts at the Jin capital of Luoyang
24.
Chen Tuan
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Chen Tuan 陳摶 was a legendary Taoist sage credited with creation of the kung fu system Liuhebafa. The character Tuan is sometimes confused with the very similar-looking character Bo, in Chinese, he is often respectfully referred to as Aged Ancestor Chen Tuan and Ancestral Teacher Xiyi. Chen Tuan, styled Tunan, titled himself Fuyao Zi Known as the Sleeping Immortal, little is certain about his life, including when and where he was born. He was born around the end of the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period, by another account, he was born in Zhenyuan of Haozhou. Chen is said to have been astonishingly intelligent and erudite in his childhood, according to certain Taoist schools who claim him as a founder, he lived two decades of a secluded life in the Nine Room Cave on Mount Wudang, though traveled frequently. On the 1st year of Xiande Period of Later Zhou Dynasty he is known to live on the Mount Hua, the story goes that Chen Tuan had planned a career at the Imperial court, but flunked the state examination and became a hermit sage instead. Thus, as a student he was conversant with the Confucian classics, history, among the Confucian classics, he was particularly fond of the Yi jing, which he was unable to put down. Apart from the classics, he was said to be conversant with medical principles, astronomy and geography, Chen Tuan had a good command of primordial Yi learning, taught the River Chart and Luo River Book as well as the Infinite and Taiji Charts. As an important teacher of Taoist doctrines who pioneered the Confucian school of idealist philosophy of the Song and Ming Dynasties, having rejected the emperor’s orders and edicts, he was still conferred the title of “Master Xi Yi by the Emperor Taizong of the Song Dynasty. I am about to leave, nowadays I’m transformed in the Zhang Chao Valley at the foot of Lotus Peak on the 27th day of the month of the lunar calendar”. By the time he died when he cupped his cheek in his hand his facial features remained unchanged, many tales of Chen Tuan have been circulated around and it is said that He wanders around and shows no concern for worldly benefits. However, despite many mystical and mysterious stories, Chen was known to care about and was compassionate to ordinary people, for this he is deeply respected by the common folk. This Taoist sage was considered the embodiment of the Supreme Lord Lao and received the nickname of “Aged Ancestor”, a symbol of Taoism in Huashan. According to the biography of General Yue Fei, it was the immortal Chen Tuan who, disguised as a wandering Taoist. General Yue Fei ISBN 962-04-1279-6 Chan Yik Yan Wu Yi Hui Toqtoa, history of Liuhebafa and Chen Xiyi www. liuhopafa. com Taoist Culture & Information Center Plexus-Plus, Myth becomes Historical Artifact
25.
Taoist schools
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Taoism is a religion with many schools or denominations, of which none occupies a position of orthodoxy. Taoist branches usually build their identity around a set of scriptures, scriptures are considered breathwork, that is configurations of energy, embodiments of celestial patterns, or revelations of structures. The earliest Taoist schools emerged during the late Eastern Han dynasty and they blossomed especially in the region of Shu, modern-day Sichuan. From the 12th and 13th century onwards several smaller branches merged in larger ones, in modern times the existing schools tend to be classified under few overarching headings, in most cases two, Quanzhen Taoism and Zhengyi Taoism. Eastern Han period to Tang period, development of the Taiping, Celestial Masters, wudoumi Taoism Tianshi Taoism Zhengyi Taoism Taiping Taoism Eastern Jin period and Southern dynasties period, development of the Shangqing and Lingbao branches. Shangqing Taoism Maoshan Taoism Lingbao Taoism Louguan Taoism Jurchen Jin period, Quanzhen Taoism Zhenda Taoism Taiyi Taoism Southern Song period, Tianxin, Shenxiao, Qingwei, Donghua and Jingming branches. Tianxin Taoism Shenxiao Taoism Qingwei Taoism Donghua Taoism Jingming Taoism 16th and 17th centuries, scriptures, Schools and Forms of Practice in Daoism, A Berlin Symposium
26.
Way of the Five Pecks of Rice
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At its height, the movement controlled a theocratic state in the Hanzhong valley, north of Sichuan. In 215 CE, the state was incorporated into Cao Caos Kingdom of Wei, the Celestial Masters believed that qi pervaded everything, and in order to achieve immortality, the correct balance of qi had to be present within the body. Having a poor quantity of qi in the body, would result in illness, meditation could be used to restore qi to the body, but sex was to be avoided, as it could result in the loss of qi. If there was the balance of qi within the body upon death. If not, an adherent would be transported to a prison where he would face eternal torment. The Hanzhong state was divided into 24 regions which were led by an official, each district had a civil register which recorded peoples names and ranks. Three times a year, the registers were updated at the time as an important feast. While a childs rank rose automatically, adults had to raise their own rank through religious achievement or marriage, higher ranked people had more divine generals at their command, which could be used to fight demons that caused bad luck or disease. The state had a system of law that encouraged confession and benevolence rather than strict punishment, criminals were asked to confess their crimes and meditate, and were given public work to do as a sentence. Few texts written by the Hanzhong Celestial Masters survive, with the most important being the Xianger commentary to the Dao De Jing, while the Hanzhong state lasted for only twenty-five years, their beliefs influenced all subsequent Daoist movements. The movement was called the Way of the Five Pecks of Rice. The movement spread rapidly, particularly under his son Zhang Heng, the Zhangs were able to convert many groups to their cause, such as the Bandun Man, which strengthened their movement. In 184, Zhang Xiu rebelled against the Han Dynasty, in 191, Zhang Lu and Zhang Xiu were sent to conquer the Hanzhong valley, just north of Sichuan, which was under Zhang Xius control. During the subsequent battle, Zhang Xiu was killed, and Zhang Lu founded the state of Zhanghan. In 215, Cao Cao, the ruler of the Kingdom of Wei attacked the Hanzhong state, and forced Zhang Lu to flee to Eastern Sichuan, Zhang was given a title and land, as were several other family members and generals. His followers were forced to resettle in other parts of China, with one group being sent to the Changan area, Zhang and his family relocated to Cao Caos administrative headquarters in Ye, located in todays Henan province. Shortly after the surrender, Zhang Lu died and was succeeded by his son, the Celestial Masters later reemerged in the 4th and 5th centuries as two distinct offshoots, the Northern and Southern Celestial Masters. The only significant Celestial Master text that survives from the Hanzhong period is the Xianger commentary to the Dao De Jing and this text gives insight into the Celestial Masters’ physiological beliefs, meditation practices and rituals
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Way of the Celestial Masters
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The Way of the Celestial Masters is a Chinese Daoist movement that was founded by Zhang Daoling in 142 CE. At its height, the movement controlled a theocratic state in what is now Sichuan, the movement was initially called the Way of the Five Pecks of Rice, because each person wishing to join was required to donate five pecks of rice. The movement spread rapidly, particularly under his son Zhang Heng and their rebellion against the Han dynasty is known as the Five Pecks of Rice Rebellion. After the success of the rebellion in 184, they founded the state of Zhang Han in the Hanzhong Valley of Sichuan. 正一 Zhengyi included in their religious liturgy, the Daoist writings of the Han, Laozi, 方士 Fangshi originated in southern China. Sin was punished by ailments in the view of the Heavenly Masters, the Shangqing syncretized the Heavenly Masters with fangshi. Buddhism, Fangshi, and Heavenly Masters were synchronized in Lingbao, the 180 precepts of the Celestial Masters were rules on morality. Stocking up riches was banned by Daoism, a 173 AD Sichuan stele provides physical proof for the Celestial Masters existence at its oldest. Chinas southeastern area may have seen the spraed of Celestial Masters in the Six Dynasties, at the start of their existence a large amount of religious text canon was already written by the Celestial Masters. Celestial Masters used an 精室 essential chamber for ceremonies, specific attire was worn by Daoists. Celestial Master collectives had secretaries assigned to them on the basis of their population, clerics of the Celestial Masters were referred to as 黃赤祭酒 libationers of te yellow and red in the era of the Six dynasties. There were stationery clerics and roving clerics, distinctions between different social groups in civilization were recognized and utilized accordingly by the Celestial Masters. The Celestial Masters did not find monastic lifestyle attractive and rather passed down their teachings to their biological heirs, children and widows were part of the Celestial Master groups. Tablets were clutched and prostrations were conducted by clerics, the Dadaojia Lingjie denounced the Yellow Turbans who were enemies of the Celestial Masters. A ritual master of the Celestial Masters may have been a 齋官 fast officer, Daoist Lingbao and Celestial Masters may have overlapped in customs with the Daoist Louguan ceremonies. Building temples, effigies and fasting was practiced by Daoists to gain blessings, 寇謙之 Kou Qianzhi was the leader of the Celestial Masters north branch. Celestial Masters north branch under Kou Qianzhi worshipped divinities described in the 魏書 Book of Wei, yin Xi and the Elder Lord are abesnt from the Celestial Masters of Kou Qianzhi. Shandong, Hebei, Henan, Shaanxi, and Shanxi were where the Celestial Masters northern branch operated, while Louguan and Guanzhong Daoism developed around Henan, Celestial Masters are not believed to be connected with stele founded in Shaanxi
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Shangqing School
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The Shangqing School or Supreme Clarity is a Daoist movement that began during the aristocracy of the Western Jin dynasty. Shangqing can be translated as either Supreme Clarity or Highest Clarity, the first leader of the school was a woman, Wei Huacun. Later, Tao Hongjing structured the theory and practice and compiled the canon and he greatly contributed to the development of the school that took place near the end of the 5th century. The mountain near Nanjing where Tao Hongjing had his retreat, Maoshan, Shangqing practice values meditation techniques of visualization and breathing, as well as physical exercises, as opposed to the use of alchemy and talismans. The recitation of the sacred canon plays an important role. The practice was essentially individualistic, contrary to the practices in the Celestial Master school or in the Lingbao School. Recruiting from high classes, during the Tang Dynasty, Shangqing was the dominant school of Daoism. The importance of the school began to diminish beginning from the second half of the Song dynasty. Under the Yuan dynasty, the movement was known by the name Maoshan, in the 21st century, Maoshan Daoism is still practiced but its current techniques are very different from the original techniques developed at the beginning of the school. Lady Wei Huacun, an aristocrat from the Jin dynasty and a Celestial Master practitioner, was the first leader of the Shangqing School. Three decades after her death, from 364 to 370, Yang Xi 楊羲 supposedly had revelations and transcribed texts from a group of immortals and these texts eventually formed the basis of the school’s beliefs. The revelation began to spread in aristocratic circles of South China and he commented upon, and compiled the Shangqing texts, and developed a well-structured system consisting of a pantheon and new ways to reach immortality that depended upon meditation. More interested in Daoism and Buddhism than in administration, in 492 he received authorization to leave the court. He moved to Maoshan, which had by now become the center of the school, there, with the help of the Emperor Wudi of the Liang dynasty, he built the temple of Huayang, the first Shangqing temple. After his death, the continued to prosper, and recruited many people from the aristocracy. From its beginning near Nanjing, the school expanded to the north after laws passed in 504 and 517 forced several masters of the school to go into exile. Ironically this expulsion helped spread the movement to the north, the Daoist encyclopedia published under the patronage of the Emperor Wu of the Northern Zhou placed a great deal of importance on the Shangqing texts. The Shangqing School dominated the Daoist movements under the Tang, during this period, all of its leaders received a title from the emperor
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Lingbao School
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It lasted for about two hundred years until it was absorbed into the Shangqing and Zhengyi currents during the Tang Dynasty. The Lingbao School is a synthesis of ideas based on Shangqing texts, the rituals of the Celestial Masters. The Lingbao School borrowed many concepts from Buddhism, including the concept of reincarnation, although reincarnation was an important concept in the Lingbao School, the earlier Daoist belief in attaining immortality remained. The schools pantheon is similar to Shangqing and Celestial Master Daoism, other gods also existed, some of whom were in charge of preparing spirits for reincarnation. Lingbao ritual was initially in individual practice, but later went through a transformation that put emphasis on collective rites. The most important scripture in the Lingbao School is known as the Five Talismans, although Lingbao no longer exists as a distinct movement, it has left influences on all subsequent branches of Taoism. The yinyang masters popular in contemporary northern China are defined as Zhengyi daoshi following the Lingbao scriptural tradition, the Lingbao School began in around 400 CE when the Lingbao scriptures were revealed to Ge Chaofu, the grandnephew of Ge Hong. Ge Chaofu claimed that the scriptures came to him in a line of transmission going back to Ge Hongs great-uncle, Ge Chaofu transmitted the scriptures to two of his disciples, and the scriptures quickly gained immense popularity. In 471, Lu Xiujing compiled a catalogue of all the Lingbao texts and this organization of texts and ritual provided a solid foundation on which the Lingbao School prospered in the subsequent centuries. During the Tang Dynasty, the influence of the Lingbao School declined and another school of Daoism, borrowing many Lingbao practices, it was well accepted by the aristocracy and established an influence in court. Some early Lingbao scriptures borrowed so many Buddhist terminological, stylistic, many Lingbao beliefs are borrowed from Buddhism. The names of the different deities and heavens were often given titles based on phonetic transcriptions of Sanskrit. Many Sanskrit terms were borrowed phonetically, but given different meanings. One significant concept borrowed from Buddhism was that of reincarnation, both Buddhism and the Lingbao School share the idea of the Five Paths of Rebirth. People were reborn into earth prisons, as a hungry ghost, as an animal, as a man, after death, the body would be alchemically refined in the Palace of Supreme Darkness located in the north, and the Southern Palace in the south. The transmutation of the body consisted of two steps, the yin components of the person were refined in the Palace of Supreme Darkness, the Lingbao concept of rebirth is a Chinese adaptation of Buddhism, mixing traditional Chinese concepts with newly arrived Buddhist ideas. Lingbao cosmology also borrows heavily from Buddhism, unlike previous Daoist cosmological systems which were divided into four to nine regions, Lingbao cosmology supposed that there were ten regions, an idea borrowed from Buddhism. In addition to the regions, there were 32 heavens divided into four sectors
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Zhengyi Dao
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Zhengyi Dao or the Way of Orthodox Unity is a Chinese Daoist movement that emerged during the Tang dynasty as a transformation of the earlier Tianshi Dao movement. Like Tianshi Dao, the leader of Zhengyi Daoism was known as the Celestial Master, Emperor Xuanzong canonized the first Celestial Master Zhang Daoling during his reign. This did not benefit the original territory of his followers in Sichuan and this temple, located at Mount Longhu, claimed to be the spot where Zhang Daoling had obtained the Tao, and where his descendants still lived. Recognized by the emperor as the descendants of Zhang Daoling. The importance of the Zhengyi school grew during the Song dynasty, in 1239, the Southern Song dynastys Emperor Lizong commanded the 35th Celestial Master Zhang Keda to the united Lingbao School, the Shangqing School and Zhengyi Dao. The new school was to retain the Zhengyi name and remain based at Mount Longhu, shortly after the schools were united, the Mongols under Kublai Khan conquered the Southern Song dynasty and established the Yuan dynasty in China. He accepted the claim that the Celestial Master of Mount Longhu was descended from Zhang Daoling, the founding of the Ming dynasty in 1368 marked the beginning of a long decline in the power of the Zhengyi Daoism. By the Daoguang period of the Qing dynasty, relations between the court and the Celestial Masters came to an end, the schools activities became localized to regions in which the school was particularly important. Despite ending association with the court, the Celestial Master himself still retained a great deal of prestige and this prestige, which arose from the belief that he was descended from Zhang Daoling, was evident when the Celestial Master traveled and attracted crowds of people wherever he went. Unlike prior incarnations of the Celestial Masters, like the school based at Louguan, instead, he was viewed as the ancestor of the schools teaching. During the Tang dynasty, the activity of Zhengyi Daoists was to sell protective talismans. Local cults developed around the sale of these talismans, and around guilds, one of the fundamental practices of the school was conferring registers upon people entering Daoism. A register was a way to allow that the Daoist tradition passed on to future generations by ensuring those who received them had a knowledge of the schools teachings. Registers also had the names of deities written on them who could be called upon by the bearer to assist in times of need, once one received a register, they were considered to be part of the priesthood. There were different grades of registers for laypeople with differing levels of religious knowledge, the Celestial Masters adopted the Thunder Rites during the last two decades of the Northern Song dynasty. The Five Thunders variety appeared earlier and was linked with the Celestial Masters, there are two main types of rituals performed by the Zhengyi Daoists the jiao and zhai rituals. The zhai ritual is performed as a way to gain benefits through purification and abstinence, in performing a ritual, an adherent must first recite a litany of repentance, then notify the deities of the merits gained though repentance by submitting a document to heaven. Upon completion of the ritual, the jiao ritual begins in which deities are given offerings
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Yao folk religion
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Yao folk religion is the ethnic religion of the Yao people, a non-Sinitic ethnic group who reside in the Guangxi, Hunan and surrounding provinces of China. Their religion is profoundly intermingled with Taoism since the 13th century, in the 1980s it was found that the Yao clearly identified with the Chinese-language Taoist theological literature, seen as a prestigious statute of culture. Yao folk religion was described by a Chinese scholar of the half of the 20th century as an example of deep Taoisation, a shared sense of Yao identity is based additionally on tracing their descent from the mythical ancestor Panhu. Although the Yao are speakers of non-Sinitic Mienic languages, their Taoist liturgical tradition is in Chinese language, in Yao religion all adult males are initiated to some degree into the Taoist clergy. The tsow say ong are high priests who perform rites for the gods of the pantheon. The Yao folk religion otherwise retains a class of priests or shamans, the sip mien. The Sai nzung sou is the book of ceremonies for inviting the mienv zoux ziouv, the mienv morh are instead angry spirits who cause sickness and tragedy. The mienv baaih is the Yao household altar of the gods and its aim is welcoming the spirits. The mienv kuv is a tablet with the names of the ancestors of the family placed upon the altar, after the death of a person, the priests perform the zoux caeqv, a ceremony to deliver the persons body from sin. Then the priest perform a ritual, the zoux sin. Subsequently the priest performs the doh dangh caeqv jaiv, a ceremony to purify the soul of the person from the influence of evil spirits. The zoux sin-seix is a ritual to give the spirit a peaceful after-life and happiness in the new generation to come. Other practices involve spirit money and sacrifice, Chinese folk religion Confucianism Laotian folk religion Miao folk religion Edward L. Davis. A History of Daoism and the Yao People of South China, other Chinas, The Yao and the Politics of National Belonging
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Daoist temple
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A Taoist temple is a place of worship in Taoism. Structure and function can vary according to the Taoist school the temple belongs to, for example, guān of the Quanzhen School are monasteries where celibate daoshi live. The title gōng palace is used for large temples built with imperial or governmental patronage
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Grotto-heavens
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Grotto-heavens are a type of sacred Taoist site. Grotto-heavens are usually caves, grottoes, mountain hollows, or other underground or semi-underground spaces, because every community was supposed to have access to at least one grotto, there were many of them all over China. They were first organized systematically in the Tang Dynasty by Sima Chengzhen 司馬承禎, the most sacred of these sites were divided into two types, The ten greater grotto-heavens and the thirty-six lesser grotto-heavens. Buddhist grottoes Longmen Grottoes Mogao Caves Yungang Grottoes Sacred Mountains of China Xianren Cave
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Mount Penglai
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Penglai is a legendary land of Chinese mythology. It is known in Japanese mythology as Hōrai, various theories have been offered over the years as to the real location of these places, including Japan, Jejudo south of the Korean Peninsula, and Taiwan. Penglai, Shandong exists, but its connection is as the site of departures for those leaving for the island rather than the island itself. In Chinese mythology, the mountain is said to be the base for the Eight Immortals, or at least where they travel to have a banquet. Supposedly, everything on the mountain seems white, while its palaces are made from gold and platinum, historically, Qin Shi Huang, in search of the elixir of life, made several attempts to find the island where the mountain is located, to no avail. Legends tell that Xu Fu, one servant sent to find the island, found Japan instead, the presentation of Mt. Hōrai in Lafcadio Hearns Kwaidan, Stories and Studies of Strange Things, is somewhat different from the earlier idyllic Chinese myth. This version, which does not truly represent the Japanese views of Horai in the Meiji and preceding Tokugawa periods, rejects much of the fantastic, in this version of the myth, Hōrai is not free from sorrow or death, and the winters are bitterly cold. Hearns conception of Hōrai holds that there are no magical fruits that cure disease, grant eternal youth or raise the dead, and no rice bowls or wine glasses that never become empty. Hearns incarnation of the myth of Hōrai focuses more on the atmosphere of the place, breathing in these souls is said to grant one all of the perceptions and knowledge of these ancient souls. The Japanese version also holds that the people of Hōrai are small fairies, and they have no knowledge of great evil, in the Kwaidan, there is some indication that the Japanese hold such a place to be merely a fantasy. It is pointed out that Hōrai is also called Shinkiro, which signifies Mirage—the Vision of the Intangible, yet uses of Mount Hōrai in Japanese literature and art of the Tokugawa period reveal a very different view than Hearns Victorian-influenced interpretation. Avalon Luggnagg, the island of the immortal struldbrugs in Jonathan Swifts Gullivers Travels Shangri-La Dilmun, Kwaidan, Stories and Studies of Strange Things
