1.
Nomadic empire
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They are the most prominent example of non-sedentary polities. Some nomadic empires operated by establishing a city inside a conquered sedentary state. As the pattern is repeated, the originally nomadic dynasty becomes culturally assimilated to the culture of the nation before it is ultimately overthrown. Ibn Khaldun described a cycle on a smaller scale in his Asabiyyah theory. A term used for these polities in the medieval period is khanate. Linguistically they are regarded as Iranian, or possibly Thracian with an Iranian ruling class. The Pontic-Caspian steppe, southern Russia and Ukraine until 7th century BCE, the northern Caucasus area, including Georgia and modern day Azerbaijan Central, East and North Anatolia 714–626 BCE. The Ancient Greeks gave the name Scythia to all the lands north-east of Europe, the Scythians – the Greeks name for this initially nomadic people – inhabited Scythia from at least the 11th century BC to the 2nd century AD. The Sarmatians were a confederation of Iranian people during classical antiquity. They spoke Scythian, an Indo-European language from the Eastern Iranian family, the Xiongnu were a confederation of nomadic tribes from Central Asia with a ruling class of unknown origin and other subjugated tribes. The Xiongnu was the first unified empire of nomadic peoples, relations between early Chinese dynasties and the Xiongnu were complicated and included military conflict, exchanges of tribute and trade, and marriage treaties. They were considered so dangerous and disruptive that the Qin Dynasty ordered the construction of the Great Wall to protect China from Xiongnu attacks, the Kushan Empire was a syncretic empire, formed by Yuezhi, in the Bactrian territories in the early 1st century. Like most ancient peoples known through Chinese historiography, the makeup of the Xianbei is unclear. The Xianbei were a branch of the earlier Donghu and it is likely at least some were proto-Mongols. The Huns were a confederation of Eurasian tribes from the Steppes of Central Asia and their appearance in Europe brought with it great ethnic and political upheaval and may have stimulated the Great Migration. The empire reached its largest size under Attila between 447 and 453, the Rouran, Juan Juan, or Ruru were a confederation of Mongolic speaking nomadic tribes on the northern borders of China from the late 4th century until the late 6th century. They controlled the area of Mongolia from the Manchurian border to Turpan and, perhaps, the east coast of Lake Balkhash, the Göktürks or Kök-Türks were a Turkic people of ancient North and Central Asia and northwestern China. Under the leadership of Bumin Khan and his sons established the first known Turkic state around 546
2.
Orkhon River
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The Orkhon River is a river in Mongolia. It rises in the Khangai Mountains in the Tsenkher sum of Arkhangai aimag at the foot of the Suvraga Khairkhan mountain, from there it crosses the border into Övörkhangai aimag and follows the upper Orkhon valley in eastern direction until it reaches Kharkhorin. On this stretch, very close to the Orkhon the Ulaan Tsutgalan river features a waterfall, ten meters wide, the waterfall is a popular destination for tourists. From Kharkhorin it flows northwards until it reaches Bulgan aimag, and then north-east to join the Selenge River next to Sükhbaatar city in the Selenge aimag, the Selenge then flows further north into Russia and Lake Baikal. With 1,124 km, the Orkhon is longer than the Selenge, major tributaries of the Orkhon river are the Tuul River and Tamir River. There are two sets of ancient ruins along the valley, Khar Balgas, the ancient capital of the Uyghur Kingdom and Karakorum. Pyotr Kuzmich Kozlov excavated several Xiongnu Imperial tombs in the area of the river valley, fish in the Orkhon river include pike, carp, perch, taimen and catfish. UNESCO lists the Orkhon Valley as a World Heritage Site, khöshöö Tsaidam Monuments List of rivers of Mongolia H. Barthel, Mongolei-Land zwischen Taiga und Wüste, Gotha 1990, p. 34f
3.
Xianbei
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The Xianbei were proto-Mongols residing in what became todays eastern Mongolia, Inner Mongolia, and Northeast China. Along with the Xiongnu, they were one of the nomadic groups in northern China during the Han Dynasty. They eventually established their own dynasties, including the Northern Wei founded in the 4th century AD by the Tuoba clan. It is generally accepted that the Xianbei spoke a related to the Mongolic languages. Claus Schönig writes, The Xianbei derived from the context of the Donghu, Later branches and descendants of the Xianbei include the Tabghach and Khitan, who seem to have been linguistically Para-Mongolic. Opinions differ widely as to what the impact of the Xianbei period was. Chinese historical texts unequivocally state that the Xianbei were descendants of the Donghu, the Xianbei were a northern or northeastern Asian population according to modern Chinese and Russian anthropologists. After the Donghu were defeated by Modu Chanyu around 208 BCE, the Book of the Later Han says that “the language and culture of the Xianbei are the same as the Wuhuan”. The Records of the Three Kingdoms say, Tanshihuai of the Xianbei divided his territory into three sections, the eastern, the middle and the western, from the You Beiping to the Liao River, connecting the Fuyu and Mo to the east, it was the eastern section. There were more than twenty counties, the darens were called Mijia, Queji, Suli and Huaitou. From the You Beiping to Shanggu to the west, it was the middle section, there were more than ten counties. The darens of this section were called Kezui, Queju, Murong, from Shanggu to Dunhuang, connecting the Wusun to the west, it was the western section. There were more than twenty counties, the darens were called Zhijian Luoluo, Rilü Tuiyan, Yanliyou, et al. These chiefs were all subordinate to Tanshihuai, … Refined metals and wrought iron have come into the possession of the rebels. Han deserters also seek refuge and serve as their advisers and their weapons are sharper and their horses are faster than those of the Xiong-nu. But in so doing they are bent on gaining precious Chinese goods. As soon as they all they possibly can, they turn in their tracks to start wreaking damage. Around A. D.155, the northern Xiongnu were crushed and subjugated by the Xianbei and their chief, known by the Chinese as Tan-shih-huai, then advanced upon and defeated the Wusun of the Ili by A. D.166
4.
Shamanism
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The word shaman probably originates from the Tungusic Evenki language of North Asia. The term was introduced to the west after Russian forces conquered the shamanistic Khanate of Kazan in 1552, Mircea Eliade writes, A first definition of this complex phenomenon, and perhaps the least hazardous, will be, shamanism = technique of religious ecstasy. Shamanism encompasses the premise that shamans are intermediaries or messengers between the world and the spirit worlds. Shamans are said to treat ailments/illness by mending the soul, alleviating traumas affecting the soul/spirit restores the physical body of the individual to balance and wholeness. The shaman also enters supernatural realms or dimensions to obtain solutions to problems afflicting the community, Shamans may visit other worlds/dimensions to bring guidance to misguided souls and to ameliorate illnesses of the human soul caused by foreign elements. The shaman operates primarily within the world, which in turn affects the human world. The restoration of balance results in the elimination of the ailment, hundreds of books and academic papers on the subject have been produced, with a peer-reviewed academic journal being devoted to the study of shamanism. The word shaman probably originates from the Evenki word šamán, most likely from the dialect spoken by the Sym Evenki peoples. The Tungusic term was adopted by Russians interacting with the indigenous peoples in Siberia. It is found in the memoirs of the exiled Russian churchman Avvakum, adam Brand, a merchant from Lübeck, published in 1698 his account of a Russian embassy to China, a translation of his book, published the same year, introduced the word shaman to English speakers. The etymology of the Evenki word is sometimes connected to a Tungus root ša- to know, other scholars assert that the word comes directly from the Manchu language, and as such would be the only commonly used English word that is a loan from this language. This proposal has been thoroughly critiqued since 1917, ethnolinguist Juha Janhunen regards it as an anachronism and an impossibility that is nothing more than a far-fetched etymology. Ethnolinguists did not develop as a discipline nor achieve contact with these communities until the late 19th century, there is no single agreed-upon definition for the word shamanism among anthropologists. The English historian Ronald Hutton noted that by the dawn of the 21st century, the first of these uses the term to refer to anybody who contacts a spirit world while in an altered state of consciousness. The second definition limits the term to refer to those who contact a spirit world while in a state of consciousness at the behest of others. Problematically, scholars advocating the third view have failed to agree on what the defining technique should be, the fourth definition identified by Hutton uses shamanism to refer to the indigenous religions of Siberia and neighboring parts of Asia. According to the Golomt Center for Shamanic Studies, a Mongolian organisation of shamans, Shamans are normally called by dreams or signs which require lengthy training. However, shamanic powers may be inherited, turner and colleagues mention a phenomenon called shamanistic initiatory crisis, a rite of passage for shamans-to-be, commonly involving physical illness and/or psychological crisis
5.
Monarchy
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The actual power of the monarch may vary from purely symbolic, to partial and restricted, to completely autocratic. Traditionally and in most cases, the monarchs post is inherited and lasts until death or abdication, occasionally this might create a situation of rival claimants whose legitimacy is subject to effective election. Finally, there have been cases where the term of a reign is either fixed in years or continues until certain goals are achieved. Thus there are widely divergent structures and traditions defining monarchy, Monarchy was the most common form of government until the 19th century, but it is no longer prevalent. Currently,47 sovereign nations in the world have monarchs acting as heads of state,19 of which are Commonwealth realms that recognise Queen Elizabeth II as their head of state. The monarchs of Cambodia, Japan, and Malaysia reign, the word monarch comes from the Greek language word μονάρχης, monárkhēs which referred to a single, at least nominally absolute ruler. In current usage the word usually refers to a traditional system of hereditary rule. Depending on the held by the monarch, a monarchy may be known as a kingdom, principality, duchy, grand duchy, empire, tsardom, emirate, sultanate, khaganate. The form of societal hierarchy known as chiefdom or tribal kingship is prehistoric, the Greek term monarchia is classical, used by Herodotus. The monarch in classical antiquity is often identified as king, the Chinese, Japanese and Nepalese monarchs continued to be considered living Gods into the modern period. Since antiquity, monarchy has contrasted with forms of democracy, where power is wielded by assemblies of free citizens. In antiquity, monarchies were abolished in favour of such assemblies in Rome, much of 19th century politics was characterised by the division between anti-monarchist Radicalism and monarchist Conservativism. Many countries abolished the monarchy in the 20th century and became republics, advocacy of republics is called republicanism, while advocacy of monarchies is called monarchism. In the modern era, monarchies are more prevalent in small states than in large ones, most monarchs, both historically and in the modern day, have been born and brought up within a royal family, the centre of the royal household and court. Growing up in a family, future monarchs are often trained for the responsibilities of expected future rule. Different systems of succession have been used, such as proximity of blood, primogeniture, and agnatic seniority. While most monarchs have been male, many female monarchs also have reigned in history, rule may be hereditary in practice without being considered a monarchy, such as that of family dictatorships or political families in many democracies. The principal advantage of hereditary monarchy is the continuity of leadership
6.
Ancient history
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Ancient history is the aggregate of past events from the beginning of recorded human history and extending as far as the Early Middle Ages or the Postclassical Era. The span of recorded history is roughly 5,000 years, beginning with Sumerian Cuneiform script, the term classical antiquity is often used to refer to history in the Old World from the beginning of recorded Greek history in 776 BC. This roughly coincides with the date of the founding of Rome in 753 BC, the beginning of the history of ancient Rome. In India, ancient history includes the period of the Middle Kingdoms, and, in China. Historians have two major avenues which they take to better understand the ancient world, archaeology and the study of source texts, primary sources are those sources closest to the origin of the information or idea under study. Primary sources have been distinguished from secondary sources, which cite, comment on. Archaeology is the excavation and study of artefacts in an effort to interpret, archaeologists excavate the ruins of ancient cities looking for clues as to how the people of the time period lived. The study of the ancient cities of Harappa, Mohenjo-daro, the city of Pompeii, an ancient Roman city preserved by the eruption of a volcano in AD79. Its state of preservation is so great that it is a window into Roman culture and provided insight into the cultures of the Etruscans. The Terracotta Army, the mausoleum of the First Qin Emperor in ancient China, the discovery of Knossos by Minos Kalokairinos and Sir Arthur Evans. The discovery of Troy by Heinrich Schliemann, most of what is known of the ancient world comes from the accounts of antiquitys own historians. Although it is important to take account the bias of each ancient author. Some of the more notable ancient writers include Herodotus, Thucydides, Arrian, Plutarch, Polybius, Sima Qian, Sallust, Livy, Josephus, Suetonius, furthermore, the reliability of the information obtained from these surviving records must be considered. Few people were capable of writing histories, as literacy was not widespread in almost any culture until long after the end of ancient history, the earliest known systematic historical thought emerged in ancient Greece, beginning with Herodotus of Halicarnassus. He was also the first to distinguish between cause and immediate origins of an event, the Roman Empire was one of the ancient worlds most literate cultures, but many works by its most widely read historians are lost. Indeed, only a minority of the work of any major Roman historian has survived, prehistory is the period before written history. The early human migrations in the Lower Paleolithic saw Homo erectus spread across Eurasia 1.8 million years ago, the controlled use of fire occurred 800,000 years ago in the Middle Paleolithic. 250,000 years ago, Homo sapiens emerged in Africa, 60–70,000 years ago, Homo sapiens migrated out of Africa along a coastal route to South and Southeast Asia and reached Australia
7.
Xiongnu
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The Xiongnu, were a confederation of nomadic peoples who, according to ancient Chinese sources, inhabited the eastern Asian Steppe from the 3rd century BC to the late 1st century AD. Chinese sources report that Modu Chanyu, the leader after 209 BC. The Xiongnu were also active in areas now part of Siberia, Inner Mongolia, Gansu and their relations with adjacent Chinese dynasties to the south east were complex, with repeated periods of conflict and intrigue, alternating with exchanges of tribute, trade, and marriage treaties. Attempts to identify the Xiongnu with later groups of the western Eurasian Steppe remain controversial, Scythians and Sarmatians were concurrently to the west. The identity of the core of Xiongnu has been a subject of varied hypotheses, because only a few words, mainly titles. The name Xiongnu may be cognate with that of the Huns and/or the Huna, other linguistic links – all of them also controversial – proposed by scholars include Iranian, Mongolic, Turkic, Uralic Yeniseian, or multi-ethnic. Ancient China often came in contact with the Xianyun and the Xirong nomadic peoples, in later Chinese historiography, some groups of these peoples were believed to be the possible progenitors of the Xiongnu people. These nomadic people often had repeated confrontations with the Shang and especially the Zhou. During the Warring States period, the armies from the Qin, Zhao, qins campaign against the Xiongnu expanded the Qin dynastys territory at the expense of the Xiongnu. In 215 BCE, Qin Shi Huang sent General Meng Tian to conquer the Xiongnu and drive them from the Ordos Loop, after the catastrophic defeat at the hands of General Meng Tian, the Xiongnu leader Touman was forced to flee far into the Mongolian Plateau. The Qin empire became a threat to the Xiongnu, which led to the reorganization of the many tribes into a confederacy. Chubei Huyan Lan Luandi Qiulin Suibu In 209 BCE, three years before the founding of Han China, the Xiongnu were brought together in a confederation under a new chanyu. This new political unity transformed them into a formidable state by enabling formation of larger armies. The Xiongnu adopted many of the Chinese agriculture techniques such as labor for heavy labor, wore silk like the Chinese. The reason for creating the confederation remains unclear, to the north he conquered a number of nomadic peoples, including the Dingling of southern Siberia. He crushed the power of the Donghu people of eastern Mongolia and Manchuria as well as the Yuezhi in the Hexi Corridor of Gansu, Modu also reoccupied all the lands previously taken by the Qin general Meng Tian. Under Modus leadership, the Xiongnu threatened the Han Dynasty, almost causing Emperor Gaozu, the first Han emperor, to lose his throne in 200 BCE. By the time of Modus death in 174 BCE, the Xiongnu had driven the Yuezhi from the Hexi Corridor, killing the Yuezhi king in the process and asserting their presence in the Western Regions
8.
Scythia
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The Ancient Greeks gave the name Scythia to all the lands north-east of Europe and the northern coast of the Black Sea. The Scythians – the Greeks name for this nomadic people – inhabited Scythia from at least the 11th century BC to the 2nd century AD. Its location and extent varied over time but usually extended farther to the west than is indicated on the map opposite, Scythia was a loose state that originated as early as 8th century BC. Little is known of them and their rulers, the most detailed western description is by Herodotus, though it is uncertain he ever went to Scythia. He says the Scythians own name for themselves was Scoloti, the Scythians became increasingly settled and wealthy on their western frontier with Greco-Roman civilization. It is possible that the dynasty ruled in Scythia during most of its history. The name of Koloksai, a founder of a royal dynasty, is mentioned by Alcman in the 7th century BC. Prototi and Madis, Scythian kings in the Near Eastern period of their history, Herodotus lists five generations of a royal clan that probably reigned at the end of the 7th to 6th centuries BC, prince Anacharsis, Saulius, Idanthyrsus, Gnurus, Lycus, and Spargapithes. After being defeated and driven from the Near East, in the first half of the 6th century BCE, in the second half of that century, Scythians succeeded in dominating the agricultural tribes of the forest-steppe and placed them under tribute. As a result, their state was reconstructed with the appearance of the Second Scythian Kingdom which reached its zenith in the 4th century BC, aggressive external policy intensified exploitation of dependent populations and progressed the stratification among the nomadic rulers. Trading with Greeks also stimulated sedentarization processes, accordingly, the trade became a stimulus for capture of slaves as war spoils in numerous wars. The Scythian state reached its greatest extent in the 4th century BC during the reign of Ateas, isocrates believed that Scythians, and also Thracians and Persians, are the most able to power, and are the peoples with the greatest might. In the 4th century BC, under king Ateas, the structure of the state was eliminated. The later sources do not mention three basileuses any more, strabo tells that Ateas ruled over the majority of the North Pontic barbarians. Written sources tell that expansion of the Scythian state before the 4th century BC was mainly to the west, in this respect Ateas continued the policy of his predecessors in the 5th century BC. During western expansion, Ateas fought the Triballi, an area of Thrace was subjugated and levied with severe duties. During the 90 year life of Ateas, the Scythians settled firmly in Thrace, at the same time, both the nomadic and agricultural Scythian populations increased along the Dniester river. A war with the Bosporian Kingdom increased Scythian pressure on the Greek cities along the North Pontic littoral, materials from the site near Kamianka-Dniprovska, purportedly the capital of the Ateas’ state, show that metallurgists were free members of the society, even if burdened with imposed obligations
9.
Greco-Bactrian Kingdom
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The Greco-Bactrian Kingdom was – along with the Indo-Greek Kingdom – the easternmost part of the Hellenistic world, covering Bactria and Sogdiana in Central Asia from 250 to 125 BC. It was centered on the north of present-day Afghanistan, the expansion of the Greco-Bactrians into present-day eastern Afghanistan and Pakistan from 180 BC established the Indo-Greek Kingdom, which was to last until around 10 AD. Diodotus, the satrap of Bactria founded the Greco-Bactrian Kingdom when he seceded from the Seleucid Empire around 250 BC, the preserved ancient sources are somewhat contradictory, and the exact date of Bactrian independence has not been settled. Somewhat simplified, there is a chronology and a low chronology for Diodotos’ secession. The high chronology has the advantage of explaining why the Seleucid king Antiochus II issued very few coins in Bactria, as Diodotos would have become independent there early in Antiochus reign. On the other hand, the low chronology, from the mid-240s BC, has the advantage of connecting the secession of Diodotus I with the Third Syrian War, a catastrophic conflict for the Seleucid Empire. Diodotus, the governor of the cities of Bactria, defected and proclaimed himself king, all the other people of the Orient followed his example. Their cities were Bactra, and Darapsa, and several others, among these was Eucratidia, which was named after its ruler. In 247 BC, the Ptolemaic empire captured the Seleucid capital, in the resulting power vacuum, the satrap of Parthia proclaimed independence from the Seleucids, declaring himself king. A decade later, he was defeated and killed by Arsaces of Parthia and this cut Bactria off from contact with the Greek world. Overland trade continued at a rate, while sea trade between Greek Egypt and Bactria developed. Euthydemus, a Magnesian Greek according to Polybius and possibly satrap of Sogdiana, overthrew the dynasty of Diodotus I around 230-220 BC, and the Iaxartes forms also the boundary between the Sogdians and the nomads. Euthydemus was attacked by the Seleucid ruler Antiochus III around 210 BC, although he commanded 10,000 horsemen, Euthydemus initially lost a battle on the Arius and had to retreat. Following the departure of the Seleucid army, the Bactrian kingdom seems to have expanded, in the west, areas in north-eastern Iran may have been absorbed, possibly as far as into Parthia, whose ruler had been defeated by Antiochus the Great. These territories possibly are identical with the Bactrian satrapies of Tapuria, the Greek historian Strabo too writes that, they extended their empire even as far as the Seres and the Phryni. Several statuettes and representations of Greek soldiers have been north of the Tien Shan, on the doorstep to China. Greek influences on Chinese art have also been suggested, designs with rosette flowers, geometric lines, and glass inlays, suggestive of Hellenistic influences, can be found on some early Han dynasty bronze mirrors. The practice of exporting Chinese metals, in iron, for trade is attested around that period
10.
Rouran Khaganate
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The Rouran Khaganate, Ruru, or Tantan was the name of a state established by proto-Mongols, from the late 4th century until the middle 6th century. Rouran is a Classical Chinese transcription of the endonym of the confederacy, ruanruan and Ruru remained in usage despite being derogatory. They derived from orders given by the Emperor Taiwu of Northern Wei, according to René Grousset, Ju-juan – an alternate Chinese name for the Rouran – was a disparaging pun derived from Juan-Juan, unpleasantly wriggling insects. The power of the Rouran was broken in 555 by an alliance of Göktürks, the states of Northern Qi and Northern Zhou, and tribes in Central Asia. The Rouran were a confederation led by Xianbei people who remained in the Mongolian steppes after most Xianbei migrated south to Northern China and they considered the Tuoba and Rourans to be descended from common ancestors. Also some contemporary historians studying the history of Northern Wei, like Kwok Kin Poon and they were first noted as having defeated the Tiele and establishing an empire extending all the way to the Hulun, an alliance in eastern Inner Mongolia. During the reign of Yujiulü Shelun, Rouran became a powerful empire, to the west of the Rouran Khaganate was the Hephthalite Empire, which was a vassal of the Rouran until the beginning of the 5th century. The Hephthalites and Rouran had close contact, although they had different languages and cultures, in particular, the title “Khan“, which according to McGovern was original to the Rouran, was borrowed by the Hephthalite rulers. The reason for the migration of the Hephthalites southeast was to pressure from the Rouran. Further, the Hephthalites defeated the Yuezhi in Bactria and their leader Kidara led the Yuezhi to the south. The Rouran controlled the area of Mongolia from the Manchurian border to Turpan and, perhaps, the east coast of Lake Balkhash and their ancestor Mugulu is said to have been originally a slave of the Tuoba tribes, situated at the north banks of Yellow River Bend. Mugulus descendant Yujiulü Shelun is said to be the first chieftain who was able to unify the Rouran tribes and to found the power of the Rouran by defeating the Tiele and Xianbei. Shelun was also the first of the peoples to adopt the title of khagan in 402. The Rouran Khaganate arranged for one of their princesses, Khagan Yujiulü Anaguis daughter Princess Ruru, the Rouran and the Hephthalites had a falling out and problems within their confederation were encouraged by Chinese agents. In 508, the Tiele defeated the Rouran in battle, in 516, the Rouran defeated the Tiele. Within the Rouran confederation was a Turkic tribe noted in Chinese annals as the Göktürks, after a marriage proposal to the Rouran was rebuffed, the Göktürks joined the Western Wei, successor state of the Northern Wei, and revolted against the Rouran. In 555, they beheaded 3,000 Rouran, a better date for their defeat may be 552. Some scholars claim that the Rouran then fled west across the steppes and became the Avars, the remainder of the Rouran fled into China, were absorbed into the border guards, and disappeared forever as an entity
11.
Han dynasty
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The Han dynasty was the second imperial dynasty of China, preceded by the Qin dynasty and succeeded by the Three Kingdoms period. Spanning over four centuries, the Han period is considered an age in Chinese history. To this day, Chinas majority ethnic group refers to itself as the Han people and it was founded by the rebel leader Liu Bang, known posthumously as Emperor Gaozu of Han, and briefly interrupted by the Xin dynasty of the former regent Wang Mang. This interregnum separates the Han dynasty into two periods, the Western Han or Former Han and the Eastern Han or Later Han, the emperor was at the pinnacle of Han society. He presided over the Han government but shared power with both the nobility and appointed ministers who came largely from the gentry class. The Han Empire was divided into areas controlled by the central government using an innovation inherited from the Qin known as commanderies. These kingdoms gradually lost all vestiges of their independence, particularly following the Rebellion of the Seven States, from the reign of Emperor Wu onward, the Chinese court officially sponsored Confucianism in education and court politics, synthesized with the cosmology of later scholars such as Dong Zhongshu. This policy endured until the fall of the Qing dynasty in 1911 AD, the Han dynasty was an age of economic prosperity and saw a significant growth of the money economy first established during the Zhou dynasty. The coinage issued by the government mint in 119 BC remained the standard coinage of China until the Tang dynasty. The period saw a number of limited institutional innovations, the Xiongnu, a nomadic steppe confederation, defeated the Han in 200 BC and forced the Han to submit as a de facto inferior partner, but continued their raids on the Han borders. Emperor Wu of Han launched several campaigns against them. The ultimate Han victory in these wars eventually forced the Xiongnu to accept vassal status as Han tributaries, the territories north of Hans borders were quickly overrun by the nomadic Xianbei confederation. Imperial authority was seriously challenged by large Daoist religious societies which instigated the Yellow Turban Rebellion. When Cao Pi, King of Wei, usurped the throne from Emperor Xian, following Liu Bangs victory in the Chu–Han Contention, the resulting Han dynasty was named after the Hanzhong fief. Chinas first imperial dynasty was the Qin dynasty, the Qin unified the Chinese Warring States by conquest, but their empire became unstable after the death of the first emperor Qin Shi Huangdi. Within four years, the authority had collapsed in the face of rebellion. Although Xiang Yu proved to be a commander, Liu Bang defeated him at Battle of Gaixia. Liu Bang assumed the title emperor at the urging of his followers and is known posthumously as Emperor Gaozu, Changan was chosen as the new capital of the reunified empire under Han
12.
Mongolia
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Mongolia /mɒŋˈɡoʊliə/ is a landlocked unitary sovereign state in East Asia. Its area is equivalent with the historical territory of Outer Mongolia. It is sandwiched between China to the south and Russia to the north, while it does not share a border with Kazakhstan, Mongolia is separated from it by only 36.76 kilometers. At 1,564,116 square kilometers, Mongolia is the 18th largest and it is also the worlds second-largest landlocked country behind Kazakhstan and the largest landlocked country that does not border a closed sea. The country contains very little land, as much of its area is covered by grassy steppe, with mountains to the north and west. Ulaanbaatar, the capital and largest city, is home to about 45% of the countrys population, approximately 30% of the population is nomadic or semi-nomadic, horse culture is still integral. The majority of its population are Buddhists, the non-religious population is the second largest group. Islam is the dominant religion among ethnic Kazakhs, the majority of the states citizens are of Mongol ethnicity, although Kazakhs, Tuvans, and other minorities also live in the country, especially in the west. Mongolia joined the World Trade Organization in 1997 and seeks to expand its participation in regional economic, the area of what is now Mongolia has been ruled by various nomadic empires, including the Xiongnu, the Xianbei, the Rouran, the Turkic Khaganate, and others. In 1206, Genghis Khan founded the Mongol Empire, which became the largest contiguous empire in history. His grandson Kublai Khan conquered China to establish the Yuan dynasty, after the collapse of the Yuan, the Mongols retreated to Mongolia and resumed their earlier pattern of factional conflict, except during the era of Dayan Khan and Tumen Zasagt Khan. In the 16th century, Tibetan Buddhism began to spread in Mongolia, being led by the Manchu-founded Qing dynasty. By the early 1900s, almost one-third of the male population were Buddhist monks. After the collapse of the Qing dynasty in 1911, Mongolia declared independence from the Qing dynasty, shortly thereafter, the country came under the control of the Soviet Union, which had aided its independence from China. In 1924, the Mongolian Peoples Republic was declared as a Soviet satellite state, after the anti-Communist revolutions of 1989, Mongolia conducted its own peaceful democratic revolution in early 1990. This led to a multi-party system, a new constitution of 1992, homo erectus inhabited Mongolia from 850,000 years ago. Modern humans reached Mongolia approximately 40,000 years ago during the Upper Paleolithic, the Khoit Tsenkher Cave in Khovd Province shows lively pink, brown, and red ochre paintings of mammoths, lynx, bactrian camels, and ostriches, earning it the nickname the Lascaux of Mongolia. The venus figurines of Malta testify to the level of Upper Paleolithic art in northern Mongolia, the wheeled vehicles found in the burials of the Afanasevans have been dated to before 2200 BC
13.
China
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China, officially the Peoples Republic of China, is a unitary sovereign state in East Asia and the worlds most populous country, with a population of over 1.381 billion. The state is governed by the Communist Party of China and its capital is Beijing, the countrys major urban areas include Shanghai, Guangzhou, Beijing, Chongqing, Shenzhen, Tianjin and Hong Kong. China is a power and a major regional power within Asia. Chinas landscape is vast and diverse, ranging from forest steppes, the Himalaya, Karakoram, Pamir and Tian Shan mountain ranges separate China from much of South and Central Asia. The Yangtze and Yellow Rivers, the third and sixth longest in the world, respectively, Chinas coastline along the Pacific Ocean is 14,500 kilometers long and is bounded by the Bohai, Yellow, East China and South China seas. China emerged as one of the worlds earliest civilizations in the basin of the Yellow River in the North China Plain. For millennia, Chinas political system was based on hereditary monarchies known as dynasties, in 1912, the Republic of China replaced the last dynasty and ruled the Chinese mainland until 1949, when it was defeated by the communist Peoples Liberation Army in the Chinese Civil War. The Communist Party established the Peoples Republic of China in Beijing on 1 October 1949, both the ROC and PRC continue to claim to be the legitimate government of all China, though the latter has more recognition in the world and controls more territory. China had the largest economy in the world for much of the last two years, during which it has seen cycles of prosperity and decline. Since the introduction of reforms in 1978, China has become one of the worlds fastest-growing major economies. As of 2016, it is the worlds second-largest economy by nominal GDP, China is also the worlds largest exporter and second-largest importer of goods. China is a nuclear weapons state and has the worlds largest standing army. The PRC is a member of the United Nations, as it replaced the ROC as a permanent member of the U. N. Security Council in 1971. China is also a member of numerous formal and informal multilateral organizations, including the WTO, APEC, BRICS, the Shanghai Cooperation Organization, the BCIM, the English name China is first attested in Richard Edens 1555 translation of the 1516 journal of the Portuguese explorer Duarte Barbosa. The demonym, that is, the name for the people, Portuguese China is thought to derive from Persian Chīn, and perhaps ultimately from Sanskrit Cīna. Cīna was first used in early Hindu scripture, including the Mahābhārata, there are, however, other suggestions for the derivation of China. The official name of the state is the Peoples Republic of China. The shorter form is China Zhōngguó, from zhōng and guó and it was then applied to the area around Luoyi during the Eastern Zhou and then to Chinas Central Plain before being used as an occasional synonym for the state under the Qing
14.
Kazakhstan
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Kazakhstan, officially the Republic of Kazakhstan, is a transcontinental country in northern Central Asia and Eastern Europe. Kazakhstan is the worlds largest landlocked country, and the ninth largest in the world, Kazakhstan is the dominant nation of Central Asia economically, generating 60% of the regions GDP, primarily through its oil/gas industry. It also has vast mineral resources, Kazakhstan is officially a democratic, secular, unitary, constitutional republic with a diverse cultural heritage. Kazakhstan shares borders with Russia, China, Kyrgyzstan, Uzbekistan, and Turkmenistan, the terrain of Kazakhstan includes flatlands, steppe, taiga, rock canyons, hills, deltas, snow-capped mountains, and deserts. Kazakhstan has an estimated 18 million people as of 2014, Given its large area, its population density is among the lowest. The capital is Astana, where it was moved in 1997 from Almaty, the territory of Kazakhstan has historically been inhabited by nomadic tribes. This changed in the 13th century, when Genghis Khan occupied the country as part of the Mongolian Empire, following internal struggles among the conquerors, power eventually reverted to the nomads. By the 16th century, the Kazakh emerged as a distinct group, the Russians began advancing into the Kazakh steppe in the 18th century, and by the mid-19th century, they nominally ruled all of Kazakhstan as part of the Russian Empire. Following the 1917 Russian Revolution, and subsequent civil war, the territory of Kazakhstan was reorganised several times, in 1936, it was made the Kazakh Soviet Socialist Republic, part of the Soviet Union. Kazakhstan was the last of the Soviet republics to declare independence during the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991, Kazakhstan has worked to develop its economy, especially its dominant hydrocarbon industry. Kazakhstans 131 ethnicities include Kazakhs, Russians, Uzbeks, Ukrainians, Germans, Tatars, the Kazakh language is the state language, and Russian has equal official status for all levels of administrative and institutional purposes. The name Kazakh comes from the ancient Turkic word qaz, to wander, the name Cossack is of the same origin. The Persian suffix -stan means land or place of, so Kazakhstan can be translated as land of the wanderers. Kazakhstan has been inhabited since the Neolithic Age, the regions climate, archaeologists believe that humans first domesticated the horse in the regions vast steppes. Central Asia was originally inhabited by the Scythians, the Cuman entered the steppes of modern-day Kazakhstan around the early 11th century, where they later joined with the Kipchak and established the vast Cuman-Kipchak confederation. Under the Mongol Empire, the largest in history, administrative districts were established. These eventually came under the rule of the emergent Kazakh Khanate, throughout this period, traditional nomadic life and a livestock-based economy continued to dominate the steppe. Nevertheless, the region was the focus of ever-increasing disputes between the native Kazakh emirs and the neighbouring Persian-speaking peoples to the south, at its height the Khanate would rule parts of Central Asia and control Cumania
15.
Kyrgyzstan
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Kyrgyzstan, officially the Kyrgyz Republic, is a country in Central Asia. Landlocked and mountainous, Kyrgyzstan is bordered by Kazakhstan to the north, Uzbekistan to the west and southwest, Tajikistan to the southwest and its capital and largest city is Bishkek. Kyrgyzstans recorded history spans over 2,000 years, encompassing a variety of cultures and empires, ethnic Kyrgyz make up the majority of the countrys 5.7 million people, followed by significant minorities of Uzbeks and Russians. Kyrgyz is closely related to other Turkic languages, although Russian remains widely spoken and is the official language, the majority of the population are non-denominational Muslims. In addition to its Turkic origins, Kyrgyz culture bears elements of Persian, Mongolian and Russian influence. Kyrgyz is believed to have derived from the Turkic word for forty, in reference to the forty clans of Manas. Literally, Kyrgyz means We are forty, at the time, in the early 9th century AD, the Uyghurs dominated much of Central Asia, Mongolia, and parts of Russia and China. King, Scythians were early settlers in present-day Kyrgyzstan, the Kyrgyz state reached its greatest expansion after defeating the Uyghur Khaganate in 840 A. D. From the 10th century the Kyrgyz migrated as far as the Tian Shan range, in the twelfth century the Kyrgyz dominion had shrunk to the Altay Range and Sayan Mountains as a result of the Mongol expansion. With the rise of the Mongol Empire in the thirteenth century, the Kyrgyz peacefully became a part of the Mongol Empire in 1207. The descent of the Kyrgyz from the autochthonous Siberian population is confirmed on the hand by the recent genetic studies. Issyk Kul Lake was a stopover on the Silk Road, a route for traders, merchants. Kyrgyz tribes were overrun in the 17th century by the Mongols, in the century by the Manchurian Qing Dynasty. In the late century, the majority part of what is today Kyrgyzstan was ceded to Russia through two treaties between China and Russia. The territory, then known in Russian as Kirghizia, was incorporated into the Russian Empire in 1876. The Russian takeover was met with numerous revolts against Tsarist authority, in addition, the suppression of the 1916 rebellion against Russian rule in Central Asia caused many Kyrgyz later to migrate to China. Soviet power was established in the region in 1919. On 5 December 1936, the Kirghiz Soviet Socialist Republic was established as a republic of the Soviet Union
16.
North Korea
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North Korea, officially the Democratic Peoples Republic of Korea, is a country in East Asia, constituting the northern part of the Korean Peninsula. Pyongyang is both the capital as well as its largest city. To the north and northwest the country is bordered by China and by Russia along the Amnok, the country is bordered to the south by South Korea, with the heavily fortified Korean Demilitarized Zone separating the two. Negotiations on reunification failed, and in 1948 two separate governments were formed, the communist Democratic Peoples Republic of Korea in the north, an invasion initiated by North Korea led to the Korean War. The Korean Armistice Agreement brought about a ceasefire, and no peace treaty was ever signed. North Korea officially describes itself as a self-reliant socialist state and formally holds elections, critics regard it as a totalitarian dictatorship. Various outlets have called it Stalinist, particularly noting the elaborate cult of personality around Kim Il-sung, International organizations have assessed human rights violations in North Korea as belonging to a category of their own, with no parallel in the contemporary world. Over time, North Korea has gradually distanced itself from the world communist movement, Juche, an ideology of national self-reliance, was introduced into the constitution as a creative application of Marxism–Leninism in 1972. The means of production are owned by the state through state-run enterprises, most services such as healthcare, education, housing and food production are subsidized or state-funded. From 1994 to 1998, North Korea suffered from a famine that resulted in the deaths of between 0.24 and 3.5 million people, and the continues to struggle with food production. North Korea follows Songun, or military-first policy and it is the country with the highest number of military and paramilitary personnel, with a total of 9,495,000 active, reserve, and paramilitary personnel. Its active duty army of 1.21 million is the fourth largest in the world, after China, North Korea is an atheist state with no official religion and where public religion is discouraged. The name Korea derives from the name Goryeo, the name Goryeo itself was first used by the ancient kingdom of Goguryeo in the 5th century as a shortened form of its name. The 10th-century kingdom of Goryeo succeeded Goguryeo, and thus inherited its name, the modern spelling of Korea first appeared in the late 17th century in the travel writings of the Dutch East India Companys Hendrick Hamel. After the division of the country into North and South Korea, the two sides used different terms to refer to Korea, Chosun or Joseon in North Korea, in 1948, North Korea adopted Democratic Peoples Republic of Korea as its new legal name. After the First Sino-Japanese War and the Russo-Japanese War, Korea was occupied by Japan, Japan tried to suppress Korean traditions and culture and ran the economy primarily for its own benefit. Korean resistance groups known as Dongnipgun operated along the Sino-Korean border, some of them took part in allied action in China and parts of South East Asia. One of the leaders was the communist Kim Il-sung, who later became the leader of North Korea
17.
Russia
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Russia, also officially the Russian Federation, is a country in Eurasia. The European western part of the country is more populated and urbanised than the eastern. Russias capital Moscow is one of the largest cities in the world, other urban centers include Saint Petersburg, Novosibirsk, Yekaterinburg, Nizhny Novgorod. Extending across the entirety of Northern Asia and much of Eastern Europe, Russia spans eleven time zones and incorporates a range of environments. It shares maritime borders with Japan by the Sea of Okhotsk, the East Slavs emerged as a recognizable group in Europe between the 3rd and 8th centuries AD. Founded and ruled by a Varangian warrior elite and their descendants, in 988 it adopted Orthodox Christianity from the Byzantine Empire, beginning the synthesis of Byzantine and Slavic cultures that defined Russian culture for the next millennium. Rus ultimately disintegrated into a number of states, most of the Rus lands were overrun by the Mongol invasion. The Soviet Union played a role in the Allied victory in World War II. The Soviet era saw some of the most significant technological achievements of the 20th century, including the worlds first human-made satellite and the launching of the first humans in space. By the end of 1990, the Soviet Union had the second largest economy, largest standing military in the world. It is governed as a federal semi-presidential republic, the Russian economy ranks as the twelfth largest by nominal GDP and sixth largest by purchasing power parity in 2015. Russias extensive mineral and energy resources are the largest such reserves in the world, making it one of the producers of oil. The country is one of the five recognized nuclear weapons states and possesses the largest stockpile of weapons of mass destruction, Russia is a great power as well as a regional power and has been characterised as a potential superpower. The name Russia is derived from Rus, a state populated mostly by the East Slavs. However, this name became more prominent in the later history, and the country typically was called by its inhabitants Русская Земля. In order to distinguish this state from other states derived from it, it is denoted as Kievan Rus by modern historiography, an old Latin version of the name Rus was Ruthenia, mostly applied to the western and southern regions of Rus that were adjacent to Catholic Europe. The current name of the country, Россия, comes from the Byzantine Greek designation of the Kievan Rus, the standard way to refer to citizens of Russia is Russians in English and rossiyane in Russian. There are two Russian words which are translated into English as Russians
18.
History of Mongolia
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The area of present-day Mongolia has been ruled by various nomadic empires, including the Xiongnu state, the Xianbei state, the Rouran Khaganate, the Turkic Khaganate and others. In 1206, Genghis Khan was able to unite and conquer the Mongols, forging them into a force which went on to create the largest contiguous empire in world history. After the collapse of the Mongol-led Yuan dynasty in 1368, the Mongols returned to their patterns of internal strife. At the end of the 17th century, what is now Mongolia had been incorporated into the area ruled by the Manchu-led Qing dynasty. During the collapse of the Qing in 1911, Mongolia declared independence but had to struggle until 1921 to firmly establish de facto independence and until 1945 to gain international recognition. As a consequence, it came under strong Soviet influence, In 1924, the Mongolian Peoples Republic was declared, after the Revolutions of 1989, the Mongolian Revolution of 1990 led to a multi-party system, a new constitution in 1992, and a transition to a market economy. The climate of Central Asia became dry after the large tectonic collision between the Indian Plate and the Eurasian Plate and this impact threw up the massive chain of mountains known as the Himalayas. The Himalayas, Greater Khingan and Lesser Khingan mountains act like a wall, blocking the warm. Many of the mountains of Mongolia were formed during the Late Neogene, the Mongolian climate was more humid hundreds of thousands of years ago. Mongolia is known to be the source of priceless paleontological discoveries, the first scientifically confirmed dinosaur eggs were found in Mongolia during the 1923 expedition of the American Museum of Natural History, led by Roy Chapman Andrews. During the middle to late Eocene Epoch, Mongolia was the home of many Paleogene mammals with Sarkastodon, Homo erectus possibly inhabited Mongolia as much as 800,000 years ago but fossils of Homo erectus have not yet been found in Mongolia. Stone tools have been found in the southern, Gobi, region, important prehistoric sites are the Paleolithic cave drawings of the Khoid Tsenkheriin Agui in Khovd province, and the Tsagaan Agui in Bayankhongor Province. A neolithic farming settlement has been found in Dornod Province, contemporary findings from western Mongolia include only temporary encampments of hunters and fishers. The population during the Copper Age has been described as paleomongolid in the east of what is now Mongolia and this culture is the main archaeological find of the Bronze Age Mongolia. Deer stones and the omnipresent kheregsüürs probably are from this era, deer stones are ancient megaliths carved with symbols that can be found all over central and eastern Eurasia but are concentrated largely in Siberia and Mongolia. Most deer stones occur in association with ancient graves, it is believed that stones are the guardians of the dead, there are around 700 deer stones known in Mongolia of a total of 900 deer stones that have been found in Central Asia and South Siberia. Their true purpose and creators are still unknown, some researchers claim that deer stones are rooted in shamanism and are thought to have been set up during the Bronze Age around 1000 BC, and may mark the graves of important people. Later inhabitants of the area likely reused them to mark their own burial mounds, in Mongolia, the Lake Baikal area, and the Sayan and Altai Mountains, there are 550,20,20, and 60 known deer stones respectively
19.
Mongolian nobility
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The Mongolian nobility arose between the 10th and 12th centuries, became prominent in the 13th century, and essentially governed Mongolia until the early 20th century. The Mongolian word for nobility, Yazgurtan, derives from the Mongol word yazgur, Khaan, the supreme ruler of the Mongol Empire. Noyon, meaning King of a State, a ruler of a state under the Mongol Empire. Jinong, meaning Crown Prince, the heir apparent of the Great Khaan, during the Yuan dynasty, the Jinong resided in Karakorum and administered ceremonial events. Mirza, a Persian term meaning Prince, Tumetu-iin Noyan, meaning Commander of a Tümen. A tümen was a unit of 10,000 troops. There were initially only nine tümens in the Mongol Empire in 1206, mingghan-u Noyan, meaning Commander of a Mingghan. A mingghan was a unit of 1,000 troops. Jagutu-iin Darga, meaning Commander of a Zuut, a zuut was a military unit of 100 troops. Arban-u Darga, meaning Commander of an Aravt, an aravt was a military unit of 10 troops. Cherbi, a title for a Kheshig commander, bey, a Turkish term meaning Chieftain. Begum, a Turkish term used to refer to the wife or daughter of a bey, gonji, referred to a princess or noble lady. Behi, referred to a noble lady, Khaan, the supreme ruler of the Northern Yuan Empire. Khan, a title for a Mongol feudal lord, by the mid-16th century, there were a number of khans in Mongolia as local feudal lords started calling themselves khan. Note that this khan is different from khaan, khaan was reserved for the supreme ruler only, Jinong, the crown prince or heir apparent of the Khaan. He resided in the Inner Mongolia region, from the 15th century, the title became a hereditary one and was no longer reserved exclusively for the heir apparent of the Khaan. Khong Tayiji, originated from the Chinese term huangtaizi and it was used to refer to a descendant of Genghis Khan who had his own fief. Taiji, a title for a descendant of Genghis Khan, Wang, a title for a descendant of Qasar or any of Genghis Khans brothers who had his own fief
20.
Culture of Mongolia
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The Culture of Mongolia has been heavily influenced by the Mongol nomadic way of life. Other important influences are from Tibet and Tibetan Buddhism, and from China, since the 20th century, Russian and, via Russia, European cultures have had a strong effect on Mongolia. Among the topics that are mentioned from the oldest works of Mongolian literature to modern pop songs are love for parents and homesickness. Horses have always played an important role in life as well as in the arts. Mongols have a lot of heroes from the ancient time. Hospitality is so important in the steppes that it is taken for granted. The Mongolian word for hero, baatar, appears frequently in personal names and it can be seen from Mongolian perspective as “the look in the eye of a horse that is racing where it wants to go, no matter what the rider wants. The ger is part of the Mongolian national identity, ger also means home, and other words are derived from its word stem. For example, gerlekh means to marry, since ancient times Tengrism was the dominant belief system of the Mongols and still retains significant importance in their mythology. During the era of the Great Khans, Mongolia practiced freedom of worship and is still an element of the Mongol character. In the 17th century, Tibetan Buddhism became the dominant religion in Mongolia, traditional Shamanism was, except in some remote regions, suppressed and marginalized. On the other hand, a number of practices, like ovoo worshiping, were incorporated into Buddhist liturgy. Tibetan Buddhism is a religion with a large number of deities. This inspired the creation of objects including images in painting. After the Stalinist purges in the 1930s, both Buddhism and Shamanism were virtually outlawed in the Mongolian Peoples Republic, in Inner Mongolia, traditional religion was heavily affected by the Cultural Revolution. Since the 1990s, a number of Christian sects are trying to gain a foothold in Mongolia, about 4% of the Mongolian population is Muslim. Mongolians traditionally were afraid of misfortunes and believe in good and bad omens, misfortune might be attracted by talking about negative things or by persons that are often talked about. They might also be sent by some malicious shaman enraged by breaking some taboo, like stepping on a threshold, desecrating waters or mountains
21.
Politics of Mongolia
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Politics of Mongolia takes place in a framework of a semi-presidential representative democratic republic, and of a multi-party system. Executive power is exercised by the President and the Government, legislative power is vested in both the government and parliament. The Judiciary is independent of the executive and the legislature, after some instability during the first two decades of communist rule in Mongolia, there was no significant popular unrest until December 1989. Collectivization of livestock, introduction of agriculture, and the extension of fixed abodes were all carried out without perceptible popular opposition, the birth of perestroika in the former Soviet Union and the democracy movement in Eastern Europe were seen in Mongolia. On the morning of 10 December 1989, the first open pro-democracy demonstration met in front of the Youth Cultural Center in Ulaanbaatar, there, Tsakhiagiin Elbegdorj announced the creation of the Mongolian Democratic Union. Over the next months activists 13 democratic leaders continued to organize demonstrations, rallies, protests and hunger strikes, activists had growing support from Mongolians, both in the capital and the countryside and the unions activities led to other calls for democracy all over the country. Jambyn Batmönkh, chairman of Politburo of MPRPs Central Committee decided to dissolve the Politburo, thus paved the way for the first multi-party elections in Mongolia. As a result, Mongolia became the first successful country in Asia to transition into democracy from communist rule, Elbegdorj worked as the Leader of the Mongolian Democratic Union in 1989–1997. Mongolias first multi-party elections for a Peoples Great Hural were held on 29 July 1990, the MPRP won 85% of the seats. The Peoples Great Hural first met on 3 September and elected a president, vice-president, prime minister, the vice president was also a chairman of the Baga Hural. In November 1991, the Peoples Great Hural began discussion on a new constitution, the Constitution entered into force on 12 February 1992. The 1992 constitution provided that the president would be elected by popular vote rather than by the legislature as before. In June 1993, incumbent Punsalmaagiin Ochirbat won the first direct presidential election, as the supreme legislative organ, the SGKh is empowered to enact and amend laws, regarding domestic and foreign policy, to ratify international agreements, and declare a state of emergency. There are 76 members of the parliament and they were popularly elected by district in 1992-2012. By 2012 legislative election law, since 2012 parliamentary election, a voting system began to be used in legislature in Mongolia. 48 of the members are popularly elected by district and 28 of them are elected from nationwide lists using proportional representation. SGKh members elect a speaker and vice speakers from each party or coalition in the government, until June 1996 the predominant party in Mongolia was the ex-communist party Mongolian Peoples Revolutionary Party. The countrys president was Punsalmaagiin Ochirbat in 1990-1997, Ochirbat was a member of MPRP until 1990 but changed his party membership to Democratic Party following the democratic revolution
22.
Geography of Mongolia
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Mongolia is a landlocked country in Central Asia and East Asia, located between China and Russia. The terrain is one of mountains and rolling plateaus, with a degree of relief. The total land area of Mongolia is 1,564,116 square kilometres, overall, the land slopes from the high Altay Mountains of the west and the north to plains and depressions in the east and the south. The Khüiten Peak in extreme western Mongolia on the Chinese border is the highest point, the lowest is 518 metres, an otherwise undistinguished spot in the eastern Mongolian plain. The country has an elevation of 1,580 metres. The landscape includes one of Asias largest freshwater lakes, many lakes, marshes, sand dunes, rolling grasslands, alpine forests. Northern and western Mongolia are seismically active zones, with frequent earthquakes and many hot springs, Mongolia has two major mountain ranges. The highest is the Altai Mountains, which stretch across the western, the highest peak in the country, Khüiten Peak at 4734 metres, is in the Altai range. The Khangai Mountains, mountains also trending northwest to southeast, occupy much of central and north-central Mongolia and these are older, lower, and more eroded mountains, with many forests and alpine pastures. Much of eastern Mongolia is occupied by a plain, and the lowest area is a southwest-to-northeast trending depression that reaches from the Gobi Desert region in the south to the eastern frontier. Some of Mongolias waterways drain to the oceans, but many finish at Endorheic basins in the deserts, rivers are most extensively developed in the north, and the countrys major river system is that of the Selenge, which drains via Lake Baikal to the Arctic Ocean. Some minor tributaries of Siberias Yenisei River, which flows to the Arctic Ocean. In northeastern Mongolia the Onon River drains into the Pacific Ocean through the Shilka River in Russia and the Amur rivers, forming the tenth longest river system in the world. Many rivers of western Mongolia end at lakes in the Central Asian Internal Drainage Basin, most often in the Great Lakes Depression, or at Hulun Lake, the few streams of southern Mongolia do not reach the sea but run into lakes or deserts. Mongolias largest lake by area, Uvs Lake is in the Great Lakes Depression, Mongolias largest lake by volume of water, Khövsgöl Nuur, drains via the Selenge river to the Arctic Ocean. One of the most easterly lakes of Mongolia, Hoh Nuur, in total, the lakes and rivers of Mongolia cover 10,560 square kilometres, or 0. 67% of the country. Mongolia is high, cold, and dry and it has an extreme continental climate with long, cold winters and short summers, during which most precipitation falls. The country averages 257 cloudless days a year, and it is usually at the center of a region of high atmospheric pressure
23.
Mongolic languages
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The Mongolic languages are a group of languages spoken in East-Central Asia, mostly in Mongolia and surrounding areas plus in Kalmykia. The closest relative of the Mongolic languages appears to be the extinct language Khitan, some linguists have grouped Mongolic with Turkic, Tungusic, and possibly Koreanic and Japonic as part of the controversial Altaic family, but this has been widely discredited. In another classificational approach, there is a tendency to call Central Mongolian a language consisting of Mongolian proper, Oirat and Buryat, within Mongolian proper, they then draw a distinction between Khalkha on the one hand and Southern Mongolian on the other hand. A less common subdivision of Central Mongolian is to divide it into a Central dialect, an Eastern dialect, a Western dialect, and a Northern dialect. Another problem lies in the comparability of terminology as Western linguists use language and dialect, while Mongolian linguists use the Grimmian trichotomy language, dialect. Proto-Mongolic, the language of the modern Mongolic languages, is very close to Middle Mongol, the language spoken at the time of Genghis Khan. Most features of modern Mongolic languages can thus be reconstructed from Middle Mongol, an exception would be the voice suffix like -caga- do together, which can be reconstructed from the modern languages but is not attested in Middle Mongol. One can speculate that the languages of Donghu, Wuhuan, the closest relative of the languages traced back to Proto-Mongolic appears to be the medieval Khitan language. Khitan has been described as Para-Mongolic, not part of the Mongolic family, once again on the Tabgač language. Ethnic map of Mongolia Monumenta Altaica grammars, texts, dictionaries and bibliographies of Mongolian and other Altaic languages
24.
Buddhism in Mongolia
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Buddhism in Mongolia derives much of its recent characteristics from Tibetan Buddhism of the Gelug and Kagyu lineages. Although the emperors of the Yuan dynasty in the 14th and 15th century had already converted to Tibetan Buddhism, the Mongols returned to their old shamanist ways after the collapse of their empire. In 1578 Altan Khan, a Mongol military leader with ambitions to unite the Mongols and to emulate the career of Genghis Khan and they formed an alliance that gave Altan Khan legitimacy and religious sanction for his imperial pretensions and that provided the Buddhist school with protection and patronage. Altan Khan of Mongolia gave the Tibetan leader the title of Dalai Lama, Tibetan Buddhism combines Vajrayana with indigenous rituals of curing and exorcism, shares the common Buddhist goal of individual release from suffering and the cycles of rebirth. Tantrism contributed esoteric techniques of meditation and a repertoire of sacred icons, phrases and mudra that easily lent themselves to pragmatic and magical interpretation. In Tibet Buddhism thus became an amalgam, combining colorful popular ceremonies and these leaders, referred to as tulkus, held secular power and supervised a body of ordinary monks or lamas. The monks were supported by the laity, who thereby gained merit and who received from the instructions in the rudiments of the faith and monastic services in healing, divination. Though Tibetan influence is prevalent in Mongolia, Mongolian Buddhism is distinct, the earliest introduction of Buddhism into the Mongolian steppes took place during the periods of pre-Mongol states. Buddhism penetrated Mongolia from Nepal via Central Asia, many Buddhist terms of Sanskrit origin were adopted via the Sogdian language. The rulers of the pre- and para-Mongol states such as the Xiongnu, Xianbei, Rouran Khaganate, Buddhism prevailed among aristocrats and was patronised by the monarchs of the Northern Wei established by the Xianbei and of the Liao dynasty established by the Khitan people. The Khitan aristocracy regarded Buddhism as the culture of the Uyghur Khaganate that dominated the Mongolian steppes before the rise of the Khitans, the monarchs of the Jin established by the Jurchen people also regarded Buddhism as part of their Khitan. Tibetan Buddhist monasticism made an important impact on the development of Mongolian Buddhism. The Buddhist monkhood has always played significant political roles in Central and Southeast Asia, Mongols assisted Tibetans in unifying the country. The activities of the Mongols were conducive to the prominency of the Sakya school and then the Gelug, by the beginning of the twentieth century, Outer Mongolia had 583 monasteries and temple complexes, which controlled an estimated 20 percent of the countrys wealth. Almost all Mongolian cities have grown up on the sites of monasteries, Ikh Huree, as Ulaanbaatar was then known, was the seat of the preeminent living Buddha of Mongolia, who ranked third in the ecclesiastical hierarchy after the Dalai Lama and the Panchen Lama. Two monasteries there contained approximately 13,000 and 7000 monks, respectively, over the centuries, the monasteries acquired riches and secular dependents, gradually increasing their wealth and power as the wealth and power of the Mongol nobility declined. Some nobles donated a portion of their dependent families — people, rather than land, were the foundation of wealth, some herders dedicated themselves and their families to serve the monasteries, either from piety or from the desire to escape the arbitrary exactions of the nobility. In some areas, the monasteries and their living buddhas were also the secular authorities, about 250,000 people, more than a third of the total population, either lived in territories administered by monasteries and living Buddhas or were hereditary dependents of the monasteries
25.
Prehistoric Mongolia
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The climate of Central Asia became dry after the large tectonic collision between the Indian Plate and the Eurasian Plate. This impact threw up the chain of mountains known as the Himalayas. The Himalayas, Greater Khingan and Lesser Khingan mountains act like a wall, blocking the warm. Many of the mountains of Mongolia were formed during the Late Neogene, the Mongolian climate was more humid hundreds of thousands of years ago. Mongolia is known to be the source of priceless paleontological discoveries, the first scientifically confirmed dinosaur eggs were found in Mongolia during the 1923 expedition of the American Museum of Natural History, led by Roy Chapman Andrews. During the middle to late Eocene Epoch, Mongolia was the home of many Paleogene mammals with Sarkastodon, homo erectus possibly inhabited Mongolia as much as 800,000 years ago but fossils of H. erectus have not yet been found in Mongolia. Stone tools have been found in the southern, Gobi, region, deer stones are ancient megaliths carved with symbols that can be found all over central and eastern Eurasia but are concentrated largely in Siberia and Mongolia. Most deer stones occur in association with ancient graves, it is believed that stones are the guardians of the dead, there are around 700 deer stones known in Mongolia of a total of 900 deer stones that have been found in Central Asia and South Siberia. Their true purpose and creators are still unknown, some researchers claim that deer stones are rooted in shamanism and are thought to have been set up during the Bronze Age around 1000 BC, and may mark the graves of important people. Later inhabitants of the area likely reused them to mark their own burial mounds, in Mongolia, the Lake Baikal area, and the Sayan Altai and Altai Mountain regions, there are 550,20,20, and 60 known deer stones respectively. There are different viewpoints about the origins of stone art. According to H. L. Chlyenova, the deer image originated from the Saka tribe. D. G. Savinov and M. H. Mannai-Ool have also studied deer stone art and have reached other conclusions
26.
Slab Grave culture
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Slab Grave culture is a archaeological culture of the Late Bronze Age and Early Iron Age Mongols. According to various sources, it is dated from 1,300 to 300 BC, the Slab Grave Culture became an eastern wing of a huge nomadic Eurasian world which at the beginning of the 1st millennium BC produced a civilization known as Scythian-Siberian. The anthropological type of the population is predominantly Mongoloid, the newcomers from the area of Tuva. The name of the culture is derived from the main typology of the graves, its graves have rectangular fences of vertically set slabs of gneiss or granite, were found settlements, burial and ritual structures, rock paintings, deer stones, and other remains of that culture. The most recent graves date from the 6th century BC, the gap is not less than three centuries, and the monuments that would fill this chronological gap are almost unknown. The slab graves are both individual and collective in groups of 5-8 to large burials with up to 350 fences, large cemeteries have a clear plan. In Aga Buryat District were found more than three thousand fences, most of the graves are burials, some are ritual fences - cenotaphs. Graves are oriented along west-east axis, deceased are laid on the back, with the head to the east. The fences vary from 1.5 m to 9.6 m, the grave pits under stome kurgan mounds are covered with slabs that often are of considerable sizes. The depth of the burial pits vary from 0,6 m to 2, 5–3 meters, in places within the fence sometimes were installed deer stones, single slabs with images of deer, less frequently of the horses, accompanied with solar signs and armaments. A burial complex on the Lami mountain in the Nerchinsk area consisted of graves about 30 meters in length, not plundered fence was covered by several slabs each weighing up to 0,5 tons. Under cover slabs was an altar with skulls of horses, cows, below were five burial chambers for inhumation. Most of the graves were looted, the buried clothing and footwear is colorful, with various ornaments of bronze, bone and stone, plaques, buttons, necklaces, pendants, mirrors, cowrie shells. The accompanying tools are rare, Needles and needle beds, knives, even less common are weapons, arrowheads, daggers, bow end caps. In some graves are horse harnesses, whip handles, there are bronze objects, fewer iron and precious metals. Jars are round-bottom earthenware, some tripods, vessel ornament are impressions, rolled bands, indentations. The art of the Slab Grave Culture belongs to the animal style art that depicts domesticated and wild animals, daily life, the Slab Grave Culture art has many common features with cultures of Southern Siberia, Karasuk, Tagar, and others. Thousands of graves can now be seen in the southern Baikal area, in some cases they form a cemetery, with a clear plan and a strict order
27.
Turkic Khaganate
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The Turkic Khaganate, Skyturks or Göktürk Khaganate was a khaganate established by the Ashina clan of the Göktürks in medieval Inner Asia. This khaganate interacted extensively with various dynasties based in North China, a century later, a second, renewed, Turkic Khaganate emerged in 682 and lasted until 744, when it was overthrown by the Uyghurs, a different Turkic-speaking group. The origins of the Türk Khanate trace back to 546, when Bumin Qaghan made a strike against the Uyghur and Tiele groups planning a revolt against their overlords. For this service he expected to be rewarded with a Rouran princess, however, the Rouran khagan, Yujiulü Anagui, sent an emissary to Bumin to rebuke him, saying, You are my blacksmith slave. How dare you utter these words, according to Denis Sinor, this reference indicates that the Türks specialized in metallurgy, although it is unclear if they were miners or, indeed, blacksmiths. Whatever the case, that the Turks were slaves need not be taken literally, a disappointed Bumin allied with the Western Wei against the Rouran, their common enemy. In 552, Bumin defeated Anagui and his forces north of Huaihuang, having excelled both in battle and diplomacy, Bumin declared himself Illig Khagan of the new khanate at Otukan, but died a year later. His son, Muqan Qaghan, defeated the Hephthalite Empire, Khitan, bumins brother Istämi bore the title Yabgu of the West and collaborated with the Sassanid Empire of Iran to defeat and destroy the Hephthalites, who were allies of the Rouran. This war tightened the Ashina clans grip on the Silk Road, Istämis policy of western expansion brought the Göktürks into Europe. In 576 the Göktürks crossed the Kerch Strait into the Crimea, five years later they laid siege to Chersonesus, their cavalry kept roaming the steppes of Crimea until 590. As for the borders, they were drawn south of the Amu Darya, bringing the Ashina into conflict with their former allies. Much of Bactria remained a dependency of the Ashina until the end of the century, the Turkic Khanate split in two after the death of the fourth ruler, Taspar Qaghan, ca. He had willed the title of khagan to Muqans son Apa Qaghan, before long, four rivals claimed the title. They were successfully played off against each other by Sui and Tang China, the most serious contender was the western one, Istämis son Tardu, a violent and ambitious man who had already declared himself independent from the Qaghan after his fathers death. He now seized the title and led an army east to claim the seat of imperial power, in order to buttress his position, Ishbara of the Eastern Khaganate applied to Emperor Yang of Sui for protection. Tardu attacked Changan, the Sui capital, around 600, demanding Emperor Yangdi end his interference in the civil war, in retaliation, Chinese diplomacy successfully incited a revolt of Tardus Tiele vassals, which led to the end of Tardus reign in 603. Among the dissident tribes were the Uyghurs and Xueyantuo, the civil war left the empire divided into eastern and western parts. The eastern part, still ruled from Otukan, remained in the orbit of the Sui, the Shibi Khan and Illig Qaghan attacked China at its weakest moment during the transition between the Sui and Tang
28.
Xueyantuo
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Initially the Xue and the Yantuo were two separate tribes. The Xue appeared earlier as Xinli but were not referred to again until the 7th century, after Yishibo, the Xueyantuo founded a short-lived Qaghanate over the steppe under Zhenzhu Khan, his son Duomi Khan and nephew Yitewushi Khan, the last of which eventually surrendered to the Chinese. On March 27,630, the Xueyantuo allied with the Chinese to defeat the Eastern Qaghanate in the Yin Mountains, illig Qaghan escaped, but was handed over to the Chinese by his subordinate qaghan on May 2. In 632 they repulsed an army of Si Yabgu Qaghan from the Western Qaghanate, then subjugated the Qarluq at the Ulungur and Irtysh River, and the Yenisei Kyrgyz tribes. In 634 one of their rivals, Dubu Qaghan, son of Chuluo Khan and he allied with his nephew Ashina Heluohu, choosing him as the leader of the raid on May 19. They were unsuccessful and over 40 rebels were executed, Heluohu was spared and expelled to the far south. After this incident, an arraignment was made on August 13, among the Göktürk nobles, Ashina Simo was selected as the qaghan with his capital at the border. The plot failed, as he was unable to gather his people and those defeats by the advancing Chinese had made their tribal allies lose confidence in them. The crisis deepened the next year when a coup took place within the clan. On August 1,646, they were defeated by the Uyghur, the Xueyantuos Duomi Khan, Bazhuo, was killed by the Uyghur. A Tang army led by the general Li Daozong, the Prince of Jiangxia crushed the Xueyantuo forces, the last Xueyantuo khan, the Yitewushi Khan Duomozhi, surrendered. For a relationship with the later Shato Turks, see Shato and their remnants were destroyed two years later, on September 15. It is possible that Bo was influenced by the Tongdian which asserted the Xueyantuo surname as Yilitu or certain studies that was made, according to Cen Zhongmian the forementioned name are related to the variant of elteris. Duan Lianqin asserted that the name Yishibo can also be interchangeable as Yedie. During the late Tang Dynasty, a group of Xueyantuo remnants known as Shatuo began to play an important role in Chinese politics. Leaders of the following Jin Kingdom, the Later Tang, the Later Jin, the Later Han, list of Turkic dynasties and countries Timeline of Turks Xue Selenga River Later Tang Sir-Kıvchak
29.
Protectorate General to Pacify the North
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In 646 the Tang dynasty conquered the Xuyantuo and on 9 January 647,13 Tiele and Uyghur tribes surrendered to the Tang. Tang Taizong organized them into six commanderies and seven tributary prefectures under the Jimi system, the six commanderies were Hanhai, Jinwei, Yanran, Youling, Guilin, and Lushan. The seven prefectures were Gaolan, Gaoque, Jilu, Jitian, Yuxi, Dailin, collectively these were known as the Cantian Khan Circuit. On 5 February 663 the Yanran Protectorate was renamed Hanhai Protectorate, in August 669 the Hanhai Protectorate was renamed the Protectorate General to Pacify the North, otherwise known as the Anbei Duhufu. Its seat was relocated to the city of Datong in present day Ejin Banner, in 687 the seat of Anbei was moved to the city of Xian near modern Minle County due to incursions by the Second Turkic Khaganate. In 698 the seat was moved to Yunzhong near modern Horinger, in 708 the Shuofang Army general Zhang Renyuan ordered the construction of three Shouxiang cities north of the Yellow River as military outposts to deter incursions from the Second Turkic Khaganate. The seat of Anbei was moved to the western Shouxiang city near modern Wuyuan County, in 711 the Chanyu Protectorate was re-established alongside the Anbei Protectorate in the city of western Shouxiang. In 714 the Anbei and Chanyu protectorates were separated, Chanyu was re-located to Yunzhong while Anbei was re-located to the middle Shouxiang city, near modern Baotou. Following the establishment of the Shuofang Jiedushi in 721, both the posts of Anbei and Chanyu protector generals were held concurrently by the Shuofang Jiedushi, in 749 the seat was moved to the military settlement of Hengsai, near modern day Urad Middle Banner. Due to unfavorable farming conditions near the Hengsai settlement, Guo Ziyi resettled the army near modern Urad Front Banner in 755, following the An Lushan Rebellion, the Chanyu and Anbei protectorates lost any real authority and survived in name only. Due to the taboo of An Lushans name, the Anbei Protectorate was renamed the Zhenbei Protectorate, in 758 the Hengsai Army changed its name to Tiande Army. In 784 the Anbei Protectorate was abolished, in 843 the Chanyu Protectorate was renamed Anbei Protectorate. Youguan Tang Anbei Duhufu De Jige Wenti, ISSN 1001-0483 Wang, Jilin, Anbei Duhufu. Chinese Encyclopedia, 1st ed. Zhou, Weiyan, Duhufu, Encyclopedia of China, 1st ed Xue, Zongzheng. Central Asia and Non-Chinese Peoples of Ancient China
30.
Uyghur Khaganate
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The Uyghur Khaganate, was a Turkic empire that existed for about a century between the mid 8th and 9th centuries. They were a confederation under the Orkhon Uyghur nobility, referred to by the Chinese as the Jiu Xing. In the Gobi, the Tang dynasty was supported by the Uighurs after the Uighurs left the control of the Western Turks due to the defeat by the Western Turks by Tang Taizong. In 627-628 a revolt of the Uighurs against the Turkic Khaganate weakened the Turks, in 742, the Old Uyghurs, Karluks, and Basmyls rebelled against the ruling Göktürks. The Basmyls captured the Göktürk capital, Otukan, and the Göktürk king, Özmish Khan, in 744, however, a Uyghur-Karluk alliance against the Basmyls was formed later the same year. The coalition defeated the Basmyls and beheaded their king, the Basmyl tribes were effectively destroyed, their people sold to the Chinese or distributed amongst the victors. The Uyghur leader became the khagan in Mongolia and the Karluk leader the yabgu and this arrangement, however, lasted less than a year, as hostilities between the Uyghurs and Karluks forced the Karluks to migrate westward into the western Turgesh lands. The Uyghur leader was from the Yaghlakar clan, called Qullığ Boyla and he took the title Qutlugh Bilge Köl Kaghan Glorious, wise, mighty kaghan, claiming to be the supreme ruler of all the tribes and built his capital at Ordu-Baliq. In 747, the Qutlugh Bilge Köl Kaghan died, leaving his youngest son, Bayanchur Khan to reign as Khagan El etmish bilge State settled, wise. After building a number of trading outposts with the Han Chinese, Bayanchur Khan used the profits to build the capital, Ordu-Baliq, the new khagan then embarked on a series of campaigns to bring all the steppe peoples under his banner. During this time the Empire vastly expanded, with Sekiz Oghuz, Qïrghïz, Qarluqs, Türgish, Toquz Tatars, Chiks, the rebellion of An Lushan in Tang China in 755 forced Emperor Suzong to turn to Bayanchur Khan for assistance in 756. As a result, in 757 the Uyghurs received 20,000 rolls of silk as tribute from the Chinese, Bayanchur Khan was given the daughter of the Chinese Emperor to marry, while Emperor Suzong was given a Uyghur princess. In 758, the Uyghurs turned their attentions to a rival tribe to the north. Bayanchur Khan destroyed several of their trading outposts before slaughtering a Kyrgyz army, in 759, Bayanchur Khan died after drinking heavily at a celebration. His son, Tengri Bögü, succeeded him as Khagan Qutlugh Tarkhan sengün, at Tingzhou the Uighurs and Chinese were defeated by the Tibetans which led to the Gansu corridor being taken away from Tang rule in 791. Professor James A. Millward described the original Uyghurs as phenotypically East Asian in appearance, Millward gives as an example the images of the Uyghur patrons at temple 9 in the Bezeklik caves. During the reign of Tengri Bögü the Uyghur Khaganate reached the height of its power, in 762, with the help of Tengri Bögü, the Tang Emperor Daizong finally quelled the An Lushan rebellion, and the eastern capital Luoyang was recaptured. Khagan Tengri Bögü met with Manichaean priests from Iran while on campaign and was converted to Manichaeism, one effect of this conversion was the increased influence of Sogdia in the Uyghur court
31.
Liao dynasty
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The Liao dynasty was founded by Abaoji, Khagan of the Khitan people around the time of the collapse of Tang China. It was the first state to all of Manchuria. Almost immediately after its founding, the Liao dynasty began a process of territorial expansion, tension between traditional Khitan social and political practices and Chinese influence and customs was a defining feature of the dynasty. So different were Khitan and Chinese practices that Abaoji set up two parallel governments, Khitan women were taught to hunt, managed family property, and held military posts. Many marriages were not arranged, women were not required to be virgins at their first marriage, the Liao dynasty was destroyed by the Jurchen people of the Jin dynasty in 1125 with the capture of Emperor Tianzuo of Liao. However, the remnant Khitan, led by Yelü Dashi, established the Qara Khitai, the Liao dynasty was officially known as the Khitan（now known as Cathay） or Khitan state in 916. The name Great Liao began to appear as the name between 936 and 947. The dynasty name Liao means iron, but it refers to the Liao River in southern Manchuria. Since 983 the state became known as the Khitan, but Great Liao reappeared as the country name in 1066. Neither the origins, ethnic makeup, nor early history of the Khitans are well documented in historical records, the earliest reference to a Khitan state is found in the Book of Wei, a history of the Northern Wei Dynasty that was completed in 554. Several books written after 554 mention the Khitans as being active during the late third, the Book of Jin, a history of the Jin dynasty, refers to the Khitans in the section covering the reign of Murong Sheng. Samguk Sagi, a history of the Three Kingdoms of Korea, Twitchett and Klaus-Peter Tietze, it is generally held that the Khitans emerged from the Yuwen branch of the Xianbei people. Following a defeat at the hands of another branch of the Xianbei in 345, in 388 the Kumo Xi itself split, with one group remaining under the name Kumo Xi and the other group becoming the Khitans. This view is backed up by the Book of Wei. There are also several competing theories on the origin of the Khitans, beginning in the Song dynasty, some Chinese scholars suggested that the Khitans might have descended from the Xiongnu people. While modern historians have rejected the idea that the Khitan were solely Xiongnu in origin, there is support for the claim that they are of mixed Xianbei. By the time the Book of Wei was written in 554, the Khitans suffered a series of military defeats to other nomadic groups in the region, as well as to the Chinese Northern Qi and Sui Dynasties. Khitan tribes at various times fell under the influence of Turkic tribes such as the Uighurs and Chinese dynasties such as the Sui and this influence would significantly shape Khitan language and culture
32.
Khamag Mongol
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Khamag Mongol was a major Mongolic tribal confederation on the Mongolian Plateau in the 12th century. It is sometimes considered a predecessor state to the Mongol Empire. Existence of a mysterious tribal power known in Mongol tradition as Khamag Mongol Uls recorded in sources of Khitan Liao dynasty in North China. After the fall of Liao dynasty in 1125, the Khamag Mongols began to play an important role on the Mongolian plains and they occupied one of the most fertile lands of the country, the basins of the river Onon, Kherlen and Tuul Rivers in the Khentii Mountains. The Taichiud was one of the three tribes in the Khamag Mongol Khanate of Mongolia during the 12th century and whose people lived in the southern part of Russian Zabaykalsky Krai. Zabaykalsky Krai and the Mongolian Khentii Province were core regions of the Khamag Mongol Khanate, the Khamags consisted of the four core clans Khiyad, Taichuud, Jalairs and Jirukhen. The first khan of Khamag Mongol recorded in history is Khabul Khan from the Borjigin clan, Khabul Khan successfully repelled the invasions of the Jurchen Jin armies. Khabul Khan was succeeded by Ambaghai Khagann of the Taichiud, Ambagai was captured by the Tatar confederation while delivering his daughter for marriage to their leadership. He was handed over to the Jin, who executed him. Ambaghai was succeeded by Hotula Khan, a son of Khabul Khan, Hotula Khan engaged the Tatars in 13 battles in an effort to obtain vengeance for the death of Ambagai Khan. Khamag Mongol was unable to elect a khan after Hotula died, however, Khabuls grandson Yesugei, who was a chief of the Khiyad tribe, was an effective and preeminent leader of Khamag Mongol. Temujin, the future Genghis Khan, was born into Yesukheis family as the first son in Delüün Boldog on the reaches of the Onon river in 1162. Yesukhei was poisoned by the Tatars in 1170 and shortly after Yesukhei died, the Khamag Mongol began to disintegrate after Yesugeis death in 1171. Political anarchy and a power vacuum lasted until 1189 when Temujin became the Khan of the Khamag Mongol, war broke soon out between other Mongol tribes. Temujins friend Jamukha was recognized by the tribes as Gur-Khan in 1201 but he was defeated by the alliance of Khamag Mongol. When Tooril Khan refused to cement the alliance with the Khamag, Temujin united all clans on the Mongolian plateau at last in 1206, when he was given the title Genghis Khan. List of medieval Mongol tribes and clans Akademiiya nauk SSSR - History of the Mongolian Peoples Republic, house, Central Dept. of Oriental Literature,1973 Bat-Ochir Bold - Mongolian Nomadic Society, St. Martins Press,1999
33.
Mongol Empire
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The Mongol Empire existed during the 13th and 14th centuries and was the largest contiguous land empire in history. The Mongol Empire emerged from the unification of tribes in the Mongol homeland under the leadership of Genghis Khan. The empire grew rapidly under the rule of him and his descendants, the Toluids prevailed after a bloody purge of Ögedeid and Chagataid factions, but disputes continued even among the descendants of Tolui. Kublai successfully took power, but civil war ensued as Kublai sought unsuccessfully to control of the Chagatayid and Ögedeid families. The Battle of Ain Jalut in 1260 marked the point of the Mongol conquests and was the first time a Mongol advance had ever been beaten back in direct combat on the battlefield. In 1304, the three western khanates briefly accepted the suzerainty of the Yuan dynasty, but it was later taken by the Han Chinese Ming dynasty in 1368. What is referred to in English as the Mongol Empire was called the Ikh Mongol Uls, in the 1240s, one of Genghiss descendants, Güyük Khan, wrote a letter to Pope Innocent IV which used the preamble Dalai Khagan of the great Mongolian state. After the succession war between Kublai Khan and his brother Ariq Böke, Ariq limited Kublais power to the part of the empire. Kublai officially issued an edict on December 18,1271 to name the country Great Yuan to establish the Yuan dynasty. Some sources state that the full Mongolian name was Dai Ön Yehe Monggul Ulus, the area around Mongolia, Manchuria, and parts of North China had been controlled by the Liao dynasty since the 10th century. In 1125, the Jin dynasty founded by the Jurchens overthrew the Liao dynasty, in the 1130s the Jin dynasty rulers, known as the Golden Kings, successfully resisted the Khamag Mongol confederation, ruled at the time by Khabul Khan, great-grandfather of Temujin. The Mongolian plateau was occupied mainly by five powerful tribal confederations, Keraites, Khamag Mongol, Naiman, Mergid, khabuls successor was Ambaghai Khan, who was betrayed by the Tatars, handed over to the Jurchen, and executed. The Mongols retaliated by raiding the frontier, resulting in a failed Jurchen counter-attack in 1143, in 1147, the Jin somewhat changed their policy, signing a peace treaty with the Mongols and withdrawing from a score of forts. The Mongols then resumed attacks on the Tatars to avenge the death of their late khan, the Jin and Tatar armies defeated the Mongols in 1161. During the rise of the Mongol Empire in the 13th century and it is thought that as a result, a rapid increase in the number of war horses and other livestock significantly enhanced Mongol military strength. Known during his childhood as Temujin, Genghis Khan was the son of a Mongol chieftain, when he was young he was from one of Yesugis orphaned and deserted families, he rose very rapidly by working with Toghrul Khan of the Kerait. Kurtait was the most powerful Mongol leader during this time and was given the Chinese title Wang which means Prince, Temujin went to war with Wang Khan. After Temujin defeated Wang Khan he gave himself the name Genghis Khan and he then enlarged his Mongol state under himself and his kin
34.
Mongolia under Yuan rule
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The Yuan dynasty ruled over the Mongolian steppe, including both Inner and Outer Mongolia as well as part of southern Siberia, for roughly a century between 1271 and 1368. The Mongols came from the Mongolian steppe, and Karakorum was the capital of the Mongol Empire until 1260, during the Toluid Civil War, Mongolia was controlled by Ariq Böke, a younger brother of Kublai Khan. There were many Mongolian princes concentrated in the Mongolian steppe, whose influence extended into the Yuan capital, in fact, in order to maintain his claim as the Great Khan, Kublai Khan made significant efforts to control and restore peace in Mongolia after the Toluid Civil War. In 1266, Nomukhan, one of Kublais favorite sons, was dispatched to Mongolia to guard the north, during the Kaidu–Kublai war which lasted a few decades, Kaidu, the de facto ruler of the Chagatai Khanate, tried to take control of Mongolia from Kublai Khan. In fact he shortly occupied large parts of Mongolia, although it was recovered by the Yuan commander Bayan of the Baarin. Temür was later appointed a governor in Karakorum and Bayan became a minister, after all, the Yuan court needed the allegiance of the Mongol aristocracy as a whole even when it was forced to strike against individual members. After the death of the Crown Prince Zhenjin in 1286, Kublai Khan decided to make Zhenjins son Temur his successor, after Kublai Khans death in 1294, Temür, who previously garrisoned in Mongolia, returned to the Yuan capital to become the next ruler of the empire. In 1307, when Temür Khan died, he returned eastward to Karakorum and he eventually succeeded to the throne with the support of his mother and younger brother, Ayurbarwada. It was renamed to the Lingbei Branch Secretariat or simply the Lingbei province by his successor Ayurbarwada in 1312, after the civil war Tugh Temür abdicated in favor of his older brother Kusala, who enthroned himself on February 27,1329 north of Karakorum. However, he died only four days after a banquet with Tugh Temür on his way to Khanbaliq. Then Tugh Temür was restored to the throne on September 8, after the capture of the Yuan capital by the Ming dynasty founded by Han Chinese in 1368, the last Yuan emperor Toghon Temür fled north to Shangdu, then to Yingchang and died there in 1370. The Mongols under his son and successor Biligtü Khan Ayushiridara retreated to the Mongolian steppe, the Mongolian homeland became the ruling center of the Northern Yuan dynasty, which would last until the 17th century. Toluid Civil War Mongolia under Qing rule Manchuria under Yuan rule Korea under Yuan rule Tibet under Yuan rule Yuan dynasty in Inner Asia History of Mongolia
35.
Northern Yuan dynasty
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Dayan Khan and Mandukhai Khatun reunited the entire Mongol nation in the 15th century. However, the distribution of his empire among his sons. The last sixty years of this period are marked by intensive penetration of Tibetan Buddhism into Mongolian society, the term Northern Yuan is derived from the corresponding term in the Chinese language. However, in the English language the term Northern Yuan is still used to cover the period for historiography reasons. Apart from the name Great Yuan in the period, the Mongols called their nation Ikh Mongol Uls. In Mongolian chronicles this period is known as The Forty. Furthermore, Mongolian historiography also use the term Period of political disunion, the Mongol Yuan dynasty ruled all of China for about a century. However, the Mongols dominated North China for more than 140 years, in 1351, the Red Turban Rebellion started and grew into a nationwide turmoil. Eventually, Zhu Yuanzhang, a Chinese peasant established the Ming dynasty in South China, toghon Temür, the last ruler of the Yuan, fled north to Shangdu from Dadu in 1368 after the approach of the forces of the Míng dynasty. He had tried to regain Dadu, but eventually failed, he died in Yingchang two years later, Yingchang was seized by the Ming shortly after his death. The Ming army pursued the Mongol forces of the Northern Yuan into Mongolia in 1372, in 1375, Naghachu, a Mongol official of Biligtu Khan in Liaoyang province invaded Liaodong with aims of restoring the Mongols to power. Although he continued to hold southern Manchuria, Naghachu finally surrendered to the Ming dynasty in 1387–88 after a successful diplomacy of the latter, the Yuan loyalists under Kublaid prince Basalawarmi in Yunnan and Guizhou were also destroyed by the Ming in 1381-82. The Ming tried again towards the Northern Yuan in 1380, ultimately winning a victory over Mongol forces around the Buir Lake region in 1388. About 70,000 Mongols were taken prisoner and the Mongol capital Karakorum was sacked and destroyed and it effectively destroyed the power of the Khaans Mongols for a long time, and allowed the Western Mongols to become supreme. Field guns and hand cannons were used by the Northern Yuan army, in 1388, the Northern Yuan throne was taken over by Yesüder, a descendant of Arik Böke, instead of the descendants of Kublai Khan. After the death of his master Togus Temur, Gunashiri, a descendant of Chagatai Khan, the following century saw a succession of Chinggisid rulers, many of whom were mere figureheads put on the throne by those warlords who happened to be the most powerful. From the end of the 14th century there appear designations such as period of kings for this period in modern historiography. On one side stood the Oirats in the west against the Eastern Mongols, while the Oirats drew their side to the descendants of Arik Boke and other princes, Arugtai of the Asud supported the old Yuan khans
36.
Four Oirat
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The Oirats were one of the forest peoples who lived in west of the Mongols of Genghis Khan. They submitted to Genghis in 1207 and played prominent roles in the history of the Mongol Empire, after the overthrow of the Yuan dynasty, Möngke-Temür, a high official of the Yuan, had placed himself at the head of the Oirats. When he died, three chieftains, Mahamu, Taiping and Batu-bolad, ruled them and they sent envoys with gifts to the Ming dynasty. In 1409, the Yongle Emperor bestowed upon them the title of wang in return, the Oirats began to challenge the Borjigin Emperors in the reign of Elbeg Khan. It is curious to find one of the 3 chief was with Muslim name, before 1640, the Oirats had been wavering between the two faiths, Islam and Buddhism. Both these creeds had supporters among the pagan Oirats, the Chinese Yongle Emperor demanded Öljei Temür Khan Bunyashiri to accept his supremacy in 1409 but Öljei Temür refused and defeated a Ming force the next year. In 1412 a large force under Yongle forced Öljei Temür Khan to flee westward, the Oirats led by Mahamu of Choros killed Öljei Temür who suffered great loss. The Western Mongols had Delbeg Khan, a descendant of Ariq Böke, whose family had been relegated to Mongolia during the Yuan, however, the Eastern Mongols under Arugtai of the Asud refused to accept the new khan and they were in constant war with each other. The Ming dynasty intervened aggressively against any overpowerful Mongol leader, exacerbating the Mongol-Oirat conflict, in 1408 Mahamu was succeeded by his son Toghan, who continued his strife with Arugtai chingsang. By 1437, Toghan had totally defeated Arugtai and an Ögedeid Emperor Adai Khan, Toghan made Genghisid princes his puppet khans of the Mongolia-based Northern Yuan dynasty. When he died in 1438, his son Esen became a taishi, the Oirats had close relations with Moghulistan and Hami where the Chagatayid Khans reigned. From the Ming chronicles, it is known that the Oirats conducted regular raids on those areas, Esen crushed the Moghulistan and Hami monarchs and forced them to accept him as their overlord. He also conquered Outer and Inner Mongolia and subjugated the Jurchens in Manchuria, the Mings Zhengtong Emperor was captured by Esen in 1449. During his reign, the Oirat headquarters was centered on north-west Mongolia and Barkol, Esen relied on Muslim merchants from Samarkand, Hami and Turpan and his own royal house, Choros was related to Moghulistan according to a myth. After murdering Khagan Agbarjin, Esen took the title khan for himself, but soon after he was overthrown by the Oirat noblemen and killed by a son of a man whom he executed. Esens death broke up the unity of the Oirats and they now warred with each other for leadership. Esens son Amasanj moved west, pillaging the lands of Hami, Moghulistan, from 1480 on, the Eastern Mongols under Mandukhai Khatun and Dayan Khan pushed the Oirats westward. By 1510 Dayan Khan had unified the entire Mongol nation including Oirats, however, the Khalkhas and some princes of southwest Inner Mongolia repeatedly launched massive attacks on the Oirats and looted their properties in the Irtysh, Barkol and Altai from 1552-1628
37.
Dzungar Khanate
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The Dzungar Khanate, also written as the Zunghar Khanate, was an Oirat khanate on the Eurasian Steppe. It covered the area called Dzungaria and stretched from the west end of the Great Wall of China to present-day Kazakhstan, most of this area today is part of the Xinjiang autonomous region in China, Kazakhstan, and Kyrgyzstan. The Dzungar Khanate was the last major nomadic empire left from the Mongol Empire, in 1678, Galdan received from the Dalai Lama the title of Boshogtu Khan, thus confirming the Dzungars as the leading tribe within the Oirats. However, the Dzungar rulers bore the title of Khong Tayiji, Dzungar is a compound of the Mongolian word jegün, meaning left or east and γar meaning hand or wing. The region of Dzungaria derives its name from this confederation, although the Dzungars were located west of the Eastern Mongols, the derivation of their name has been attributed to the fact that they represented the left wing of the Oirats. In the early 17th century, the head of the Oirat confederation was the leader of the Khoshut, Gushi Khan. When Gushi Khan decided to invade Tibet to replace the local Tsangpa Khan in favor of the Tibetan Geluk Sect, the Dzungar Khanate is memorable because it was the last of the steppe nomadic empires and because of its influence on the westward expansion of the Chinese state. About 1620 the Oirats or western Mongols became united in Dzungaria, by about 1680 they had conquered the Tarim Basin to the south. In 1688 Galdan defeated the Khalkhas or eastern Mongols, many of whom fled southeast to Inner Mongolia where they became, in 1696, the Manchu defeated Galdan near Ulan Bator, chased him westward and gained control over Outer Mongolia. In 1717 Tsewang Rabtan sent an army to Tibet, the Manchu drove the Dzungars out and established a protectorate over Tibet. In 1750-57, the Manchu took advantage of a Dzungar civil war to conquer Dzungaria, the Manchu turned south and annexed the Tarim Basin by 1759, thus completing the current western border of China. The chiefs of the Dzungars were of the Choros lineage and reckoned their descent from the Oirat taishis Toghoon, Early in his reign, Khara Kula united the Choros, Dorbod and Khoid tribes, thus forming the Dzungar nation. In the 1620s wars against the Khalkha, he could gain decisive victory over the Eastern Mongols, the Oirats homeland was under the dominion of Jasaghtu Khan of the Khalkha. In 1623 the Oirat confederation killed Ubashi Khong Tayiji, and secured their independence, at the time, only Torobaikhu, a leader of the Khoshud tribe could claim the title of Khan while Baatur Dalai Taishi of the Dorbods was considered the most powerful Oirat chief. Even so, Khara Khulas son Baatur Khung Taiji joined the 1636-42 expedition to Tibet led by Güshi Khan Torobaikhu, after Baatur returned to Dzungaria with the title Erdeni and much booty, he made three expeditions against the Kazakhs. With the migrations of the Torghuds, the Khoshuds and the Dorbods from 1630 to 1677, the conflicts by the Dzungars are remembered in a Kazakh ballad Elim-ai. The Dzungars went to war against the Kyrgyz, Tajiks, Uzbeks, in 1653 Sengge succeeded his father Baatur Khung Taiji as Dzungarian chief, but an internal strife with his half brother Chechen Tayiji involved the Khoshuud. From 1657 on, Amin-Daras sons Sengge and Galdan faced disafection from their half-brothers, with the support of Ochirtu Khan of the Khoshuud, this strife ended with Sengges victory in 1661
38.
Mongolia under Qing rule
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Mongolia here is understood in the broader historical sense. The last Mongol Khagan Ligdan saw much of his power weakened in his quarrels with the Mongol tribes and was defeated by the Manchus and his son Ejei Khan gave Hong Taiji the imperial authority, ending the rule of Northern Yuan dynasty then centered in Inner Mongolia by 1635. However, the Khalkha Mongols in Outer Mongolia continued to rule until they were overrun by the Dzungars in 1690, the Manchu-led Qing dynasty had ruled Inner and Outer Mongolia for over 200 years. During this period Qing rulers established separate administrative structures to govern each region, during the course of the 17th and 18th centuries, most regions inhabited by ethnic Mongols, notably Outer and Inner Mongolia became part of the Qing Empire. Even before the dynasty began to control of China proper in 1644. The Manchus conquered a Mongol tribe in the process of war against the Ming, nurhacis early relations with the Mongols tribes was mainly an alliance. After Ligdens defeat and death his son had to submit to the Manchus, the Khalkha Mongols in Outer Mongolia joined in 1691 when their defeat by the Dzungars left them without a chance to remain independent. The Khoshud in Qinghai were conquered in 1723/24, the Dzungars were finally destroyed, and their territory conquered, in 1756/57 during the Dzungar genocide. The last Mongols to join the empire were the returning Torgud Kalmyks at the Ili in 1771, after conquering the Ming, the Qing identified their state as Zhongguo, and referred to it as Dulimbai Gurun in Manchu. When the Qing conquered Dzungaria in 1759, they proclaimed that the new land which belonged to the Dzungar Mongols was now absorbed into China in a Manchu language memorial. From the early years, the Manchus relations with the neighboring Mongol tribes had been crucial in the dynasty development, Nurhaci had exchanged wives and concubines with the Khalkha Mongols since 1594, and also received titles from them in the early 17th century. He also consolidated his relationship with portions of the Khorchin and Kharachin populations of eastern Mongols and they recognized Nurhaci as Khan, and in return leading lineages of those groups were titled by Nurhaci and married with his extended family. Nurhaci chose to emphasize either differences or similarities in lifestyles with the Mongols for political reasons. Nurhaci said to the Mongols that The languages of the Chinese and Koreans are different and it is the same with us Manchus and Mongols. Our languages are different, but our clothing and way of life is the same and my people till the fields and live on grain. We two are not one country and we have different languages, the banners and other Manchu institutions are examples of productive hybridity, combining pure Mongolian elements and Han Chinese elements. Intermarriage with Mongolian noble families had significantly cemented the alliance between the two peoples, Hong Taiji further expanded the marriage alliance policy, he used the marriage ties to draw in more of the twenty-one Inner Mongolian tribes that joined the Manchus alliance. Ejei Khan was given the title of Prince, the surrendered Inner Mongols were divided into separate administrative banners
39.
Mongolian Revolution of 1911
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The Mongolian Revolution of 1911 occurred when the region of Outer Mongolia declared its independence from the Manchu-led Qing dynasty during the Xinhai Revolution. A combination of factors including economic hardship and failure to resist Western imperialism led many in China to be unhappy with the Qing government. When a new program to colonize Mongolia with Han Chinese and assimilate the natives was unveiled, many Barga and Inner Mongolian chieftains assisted in the revolution and became the revolution leaders. By the early 20th century, Mongolia was impoverished, repercussions from the Taiping Rebellion were primarily responsible for this economic deterioration. Loss of tax revenue from South China during the rebellion and expenses for its suppression had depleted the Qing treasury, silver, rather than livestock as was the custom, became the primary medium for paying taxes. The major source of silver for Mongolians was from loans borrowed from Chinese merchants and these loans, transacted at crippling interest rates, were repaid in livestock, which was then exported to China. The result was a decline in the size of the herds upon which the livelihood of Mongolians depended. A disintegrating economy, growing debt, and increasing tax demands were ingredients of social and political unrest in Mongolia, however, it was Qing plans for the transformation of Outer Mongolia that produced the impetus for rebellion. The Qing dynasty was founded by the Manchu clan Aisin Gioro in what is today Northeast China, attempts were made to keep the Manchu strain ethnically pure, although these efforts proved fruitless. The early Manchu rulers enacted various laws to isolate Manchuria from China proper and they did the same for the Mongols, Han Chinese were prohibited from entering Mongolia and Mongols were not allowed to travel outside their own leagues. Mongols were forbidden from speaking Chinese languages or intermarrying with the Han Chinese, while over time enforcement waned, the laws still remained on the books, receiving at least token observance. Western imperialism in China during the part of the 19th century changed political priorities in China. The Boxer Rebellion, and particularly Japan’s victory over Russia in 1905, were interpreted in China as the triumph of constitutionalism over autocracy. It was then that far-reaching economic, political, and military reforms, in Outer Mongolia, however, the New Administration was accented rather differently. The aim was not simply modernization, as it was in Han Chinese territories, the Qing rulers believed that survival of their state as an integral entity depended on the effectiveness of their frontier serving as a protective shield for China proper. To accomplish this, the peoples inhabiting this region would have to become Chinese, between 1901 and 1910, therefore, the Qing government inaugurated an expansive plan for Chinese colonization of the frontier and reorganization of its native governments. He immediately set about organizing twenty offices to oversee such matters as the military, taxation, police, government, plans were made for the colonization of Mongolia with Chinese farmers. In January 1911 a Lieutenant Colonel Tang Zaili arrived to supervise the organization of a Mongolian army, a 400-room barracks was erected near Urga
40.
Occupation of Mongolia
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These, in turn, were defeated by the Red Army and its Mongolian allies by June 1921. Although the Beiyang Government abolished the autonomy of the Bogd Khaanate of Mongolia and subsequently expanded its occupation to include Tuva, in December 1911, Outer Mongolia took advantage of the Xinhai Revolution to declare independence from the Qing dynasty. The political system of new Mongolia was a theocratic monarchy led by Bogd Khan. However, the newly founded Republic of China considered Mongolia as part of its territory, in the 1915 tripartite Kyakhta Agreement, Russia, the Republic of China and Mongolia agreed that Mongolia was autonomous under Chinese suzerainty. However, in the following years Russian influence in Asia waned due to the First World War and, later, the October Revolution. From 1918 on, Mongolia was threatened by the Russian Civil War, and in summer 1918 asked for Chinese military assistance, grigory Semyonov led the Buryats and Inner Mongols in spearheading a plan to create a pan-Mongol state. According to an Associated Press dispatch, some Mongol chieftains signed a petition asking China to retake administration of Mongolia, an ally of the Chinese government, the Qinghai born Monguor Gelugpa Buddhist Lama leader Sixth Janggiya Khutughtu was against the autonomy of Outer Mongolia. The invasion of Mongolia was the brainchild of Premier Duan Qirui, when Duan engineered Chinas entry into the First World War he took out several large loans from the Japanese government including the Nishihara Loans. He used the money to create the War Participation Army ostensibly to battle the Central Powers and his rivals knew the purpose of this army was to crush internal dissent. It existed outside of the Ministry of the Army and was controlled by the War Participation Bureau, which the premier led, President Feng Guozhang, Duans rival, had no control, despite constitutionally being commander-in-chief. When the war ended without a soldier stepping foot abroad, his critics demanded the disbanding of the War Participation Army, Duan had to find a new purpose for his army. His reputation as a patriot was discredited, the Constitutional Protection War was fought to a bloody standstill in Hunan. Using his army for another attempt to retake southern China from the rebels was undesirable. The Russian Civil War left Mongolia without a foreign protector, an easy victory would boost Duans stature. Mongolias long running prime minister, Tögs-Ochiryn Namnansüren, died in April 1919 leaving the ruling elite deeply divided over a successor. Some of Mongolias princes, as well as its Han Chinese, Anhui clique was also known as Anfu group. The Anfu Club was bribed by Japan to implement in Mongolia the strategies of Japan, the War Participation Army was renamed the Northwestern Frontier Army. Duan gave control of it to his right-hand, Xu Shuzheng and they announced the expedition was at the invitation of several Mongolian princes to protect Mongolia from Bolshevik incursions
41.
Mongolian Revolution of 1921
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Although nominally independent, the Mongolian Peoples Republic was a satellite state of the Soviet Union until 1990. The revolution also ended Chinese occupation over Mongolia, which had existed since 1919, official Mongolian name of the revolution is Peoples Revolution of 1921 or simply Peoples Revolution. For about two centuries, the Qing dynasty had enforced—albeit with mixed success—a policy of segregating the non-Han peoples on the frontier from Han Chinese. By the end of the 19th century, however, China faced the prospect of being parcelled out among the Western powers and Japan, on the northern frontier, Russian Empire was viewed by the Qing court as posing the greatest threat to its territorial integrity. In July 1911 a group of Khalkha nobles persuaded the Jebtsundamba Khutuktu, the head of Mongolian Buddhism and they agreed to send a small delegation to Russia to obtain its assistance in this undertaking. In October 1911 revolution broke out in China, with one province after another declaring its independence from the Qing government, on 1 December 1911 Outer Mongolia declared independence, and established a theocracy under the Khutuktu. On 29 December he was installed as the Bogd Khaan of Mongolia and this ushered in the Bogd Khaan era, which lasted from 1911 to 1919. The new Mongolian government was a fusion of Buddhist theocracy, Qing imperial usages, the Bogd Khaan assumed the same powers—symbolic and real—of Qing emperors in the past. The Buddhist religious establishment discovered new opportunities for gain and financial profit. Despite the presence of a government, real power lay in the Bogd Khaans court. The religious establishment appropriated revenues for its own purposes, for example, it enlarged its financial holdings by transferring to the religious estate wealthy herdsmen who traditionally had owed their services and taxes to lay princes. According to Mongolian and Russian sources, the Mongolian society was satisfied with the theocracy. The Republic of China, for its part, did all it could to re-establish Chinese sovereignty over the country, Russia refused to support full independence for Mongolia, nor would it agree to the restoration of Chinese sovereignty. The matter was settled in 1915 by the tripartite Treaty of Kyakhta, both the Chinese and Mongols found the treaty equally dissatisfying, although for different reasons. The outbreak of the Russian Revolution in 1917 and the Russian Civil War a year changed the Mongolian-Chinese dynamic. The invasion in fact did not occur, and so the Bogd Khaans government requested that the troops be recalled, the Beijing government refused, seeing this violation of the Kyakhta Treaty as the first step in restoring Chinese sovereignty over Mongolia. Early in 1919, Grigori Semyonov, a White Guard general, had assembled a group of Buryats, the Khalkhas were invited to join, but they refused. Semyonov threatened an invasion to force them to participate and this threat galvanized the lay princes, who now saw a larger opportunity, the end of theocratic rule
42.
Mongolian People's Republic
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Mongolia, officially the Mongolian Peoples Republic is the period of Mongolian history which existed between 1924 and 1992 as a landlocked unitary sovereign socialist state in East Asia. It was ruled by the Mongolian Peoples Revolutionary Party and maintained links with the Soviet Union throughout its history. Geographically, it was bordered by China to its south, the Soviet Union to its north, from 1691 to 1911, Outer Mongolia was ruled by the Manchu Qing dynasty. In the first decade of the 20th century, the Qing government began implementing the so-called New Policies, upset by the prospect of the colonization akin to the developments in Inner Mongolia during the 19th century, the Mongolian aristocracy turned to the Russian Empire for support. In August 1911, a Mongol delegation went to Saint Petersburg, when they returned, the Xinhai Revolution that eventually led to the collapse of the Qing dynasty had begun. In the Khiagt agreement of 1915, China, Russia and Mongolia agreed on Mongolias status as autonomy under Chinese suzerainty, according to an Associated Press dispatch, some Mongol chieftains signed a petition asking China to retake administration of Mongolia and end Outer Mongolias autonomy. The Tusiyetu Khan Aimaks Prince Darchin Chin Wang was a supporter of Chinese rule while his younger brother Tsewang was a supporter of Ungern-Sternberg. It was under Chinese occupation that the Mongolian Peoples Party was founded and once again looked to the north, this time to Soviet Russia, for help. In the meantime, White Russian troops led by Roman Ungern von Sternberg had occupied Khuree in early March 1921, the Peoples Party founded a new government, but kept the Bogd Khaan as nominal head of state. In the following years through some violent power struggles, Soviet influence got ever stronger, and after the Bogd Khaans death, the government took control of the Bogda Khans seal after his death according to the 26 November 1924 Constitution of the Mongolian Peoples Republic. It was proposed that Zhang Zuolins domain take Outer Mongolia under its administration by the Bogda Khan, between 1925 and 1928, the new regime became established. At the time, Mongolia was severely underdeveloped, industry was nonexistent and all wealth was controlled by the nobility and religious establishments. The population numbered less than a people and was shrinking due to nearly half of all Mongolian males living in monasteries. In 1928, Soviet leader Joseph Stalin and comintern ordered the building of socialism, in 1934, Peljidiin Genden visited Moscow and angrily accused Stalin of Red imperialism. He subsequently died in the Great Purge after being tricked into taking a holiday on the Black Sea, after 1932, the implementation of a command economy was scaled back. In 1936, Stalin then ordered the liquidation of the countrys Buddhist institutions, meanwhile, Japanese incursions in Manchuria were a casus belli for Moscow to station troops in Mongolia. At the same time, the Great Purge spilled into Mongolia, among those killed included Genden, Anandyn Amar, Demid, and Losol. After the removal of Genden from power, Marshal Khorloogiin Choibalsan, the purges led to the almost complete eradication of Tibetan Buddhism in the country, and cost an estimated 30, 000–35,000 lives, equivalent to about five percent of Mongolias population
43.
Mongolian Revolution of 1990
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It was spearheaded by mostly younger people demonstrating on Sükhbaatar Square in the capital Ulaanbaatar. It ended with the authoritarian government resigning without bloodshed, some of the main organizers were Tsakhiagiin Elbegdorj, Sanjaasürengiin Zorig, Erdeniin Bat-Üül, and Bat-Erdeniin Batbayar. This was the beginning of the end of the 70-year period of socialism in Mongolia, although a multi-party system was established, the Mongolian Peoples Revolutionary Party actually remained in power until 1996. Nevertheless, reforms were implemented and the transition to a market economy begun, the revolution was inspired by the reforms in the Soviet Union, and by the similar revolutions in Eastern Europe in late 1989. There were pro-independence movements in 1911 against the policy of the late Qing dynasty. Finally, the Mongolian Peoples Party took power in Mongolia in 1921 with the help of the Soviet Union, after White Russian, in 1924, the party renamed itself the Mongolian Peoples Revolutionary Party. Over the following decades, Mongolia was always very closely aligned with the Soviet Union, young people in Mongolia wanted a change in the society, the way the government was conducting its business. They began to meet and discuss secretly, for example, during his studies in the USSR, Tsakhiagiin Elbegdorj learned about Glasnost, the concepts such as freedom of speech and economic liberties. After returning to Mongolia, he met other like-minded people and tried to present those ideas to a wider audience and he told the audience We consider that Perestroika is a timely and brave step. Youths contribution to this matter is not by supportive talks. Our contribution is our objectives to be fulfilled, following democracy and transparency and contributing to glasnost. These are the objectives of an initiatives group-an organization that shall work, after the congress I hope we will gather and discuss with you about it in this. The organization shall be based on public, voluntary and democratic principles, the chairman of the congress stopped Elbegdorjs speech and warned him not to say such things. It was 1989 and Mongolia had been a communist country for 68 years, at that time, it was alleged that every other person was an unofficial communist party spy who would report people who expressed opinions other than socialism and communism. During the break of the congress, two young individuals Dari, sukhbaatar and Chimediin Enkhee met Elbegdorj and the three agreed to found a democratic movement and to secretly spread the news to other young people. Later the three met and united with ten other individuals and they are known as the Thirteen Leaders of Mongolias Democratic Revolution and they met many times and brought new friends and new supporters to join them secretly. One night they placed ads of their demonstration in streets. On the morning of 10 December 1989, the first open pro-democracy public demonstration occurred in front of the Youth Cultural Center in Ulaanbaatar, there, Elbegdorj announced the creation of the Mongolian Democratic Union
44.
History of modern Mongolia
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This article is about the period of modern democratic era of Mongolia since its democratic revolution of 1990. In addition, Mongolia suffered economic hardships from as early as the 1980s, the young people began to meet secretly and discuss it. For example, during his studies in the USSR, Tsakhiagiin Elbegdorj learned about Glasnost, in October 1989, New Generation, an underground resistance movement was formed. He told the audience We consider that Perestroika is a timely, youths contribution to this revolutionary matter is not by supportive talks but by certain work. Our contribution is our objectives to be fulfilled, following democracy and transparency and contributing to glasnost. These are the objectives of an initiatives group-an organization that shall work, after the congress I hope we will gather and discuss with you about it in this. The organization shall be based on public, voluntary and democratic principles, the chairman of the congress stopped Elbegdorjs speech and warned him not to say such things. It was 1989 and Mongolia had been a communist country for 68 years, at that time, it was alleged that every other person was an unofficial communist party spy who would report people who expressed opinions other than socialism and communism. During the break of the congress, two young individuals met Elbegdorj and the three agreed to found a movement and to secretly spread the news to other young people. Later the three met and united with ten other individuals and they are known as the Thirteen Leaders of Mongolias Democratic Revolution and they met many times and brought new friends and new supporters to join them secretly. One night they placed ads of their demonstration in streets. On 9 December, people from New Generation met students, journalists, the group called itself Mongolian Democratic Union. On the morning of 10 December 1989, the first open pro-democracy demonstration met in front of the Youth Cultural Center in Ulaanbaatar, there, Elbegdorj announced the creation of the Mongolian Democratic Union. The activists had growing support from Mongolians, both in the capital and the countryside and the activities led to other calls for democracy all over the country. On 2 January 1990, Mongolian Democratic Union began distributing leaflets calling for a democratic revolution, when the government did not comply with this and later, more aggressive demands, demonstrations occurred. On January 14,1990, some 1000 protesters met on square in front of Lenin Museum which has renamed as Freedom Square since then in Ulaanbaatar. A demonstration on Sükhbaatar Square on 21 January followed, protestors carried banners alluding to Chinggis Khaan, rehabilitating a figure which Soviet schooling neglected to praise. They celebrated Daramyn Tömör-Ochir, a politician who was purged from the MPRP in 1962 as part of the MPRPs efforts to suppress the commemoration of the 800th anniversary of Genghis Khans birth
45.
History of Manchuria
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Manchuria is a region in East Asia. Depending on the definition of its extent, Manchuria can either refer to a region falling entirely within China, to differentiate between the two parts following the latter definition, the Russian part is also known as Outer Manchuria, while the Chinese part is known as Inner Manchuria. The population grew from about 1 million in 1750 to 5 million in 1850 and 14 million in 1900, lying at the juncture of the Chinese, Japanese and Russian spheres of influence, Manchuria has been a cockpit of conflict since the late 19th century. The Russian Empire established control over the part of Manchuria in 1860. Disputes over Manchuria and Korea led to the Russo-Japanese War of 1904 to 1905, the Japanese invaded Manchuria in 1931, setting up the puppet state of Manchukuo which became a centerpiece of the fast-growing Japanese Empire. The Soviet invasion of Manchuria in 1945 led to the collapse of Japanese rule. Manchuria was a base of operations for the Mao Zedongs Peoples Liberation Army in the Chinese Civil War, in the Korean War, Chinese forces used Manchuria as a base to assist North Korea against the UN forces. During the Cold War era, Manchuria became a matter of contention, the Sino-Russian border dispute was resolved diplomatically only in 2004. In recent years there has been extensive scholarship on Manchuria in the 20th century, neolithic sites located in the region of Manchuria are represented by the Xinglongwa culture, Xinle culture and Hongshan culture. At various times in antiquity, Han dynasty, Cao Wei dynasty, Western Jin dynasty, Tang dynasty, various kingdoms of mixed proto-Korean and Tungusic ethnicity, such as Gojoseon, Buyeo, Goguryeo and Balhae were also established in parts of this area. Manchuria was the homeland of several Tungusic tribes, including the Ulchs, various ethnic groups and their respective kingdoms, including the Sushen, Donghu, Xianbei, Wuhuan, Mohe and Khitan have risen to power in Manchuria. Balhae was a feudal medieval state of Eastern Asia, which developed its industry, agriculture, animal husbandry. People of Balhae maintained political, economic and cultural contacts with the southern Chinese Tang dynasty, primorsky Krai settled at this moment by Northern Mohe tribes were incorporated to Balhae Kingdom under King Seons reign and put Balhae territory at its height. They went on to parts of Northern China and Mongolia after a series of successful military campaigns. The capital of the Jin, Zhongdu, was captured by the Mongols in 1215 at the Battle of Zhongdu, the Jin moved their capital Kaifeng, which fell to Mongols in 1233. In 1234, the Jin dynasty collapsed after the siege of Caizhou, the last emperor of the Jin, Emperor Mo, was killed while fighting the Mongols who had breached the walls of the city. Days earlier, his predecessor, Emperor Aizong, committed suicide because he was unable to escape the besieged city, in 1211, after the conquest of Western Xia, Genghis Khan mobilized an army to conquer the Jin dynasty. His general Jebe and brother Qasar were ordered to reduce the Jurchen cities in Manchuria and they successfully destroyed the Jin forts there
46.
Gojoseon
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Gojoseon, originally named Joseon, was an ancient Korean kingdom. The addition of Go, meaning ancient, distinguishes it from the other kingdoms called Joseon. The founding legend of Gojoseon, which is recorded in the Samguk Yusa and other medieval Korean books, states that the country was established in 2333 BC by Dangun, said to be descended from heaven. While no evidence has found that supports whatever facts may lie beneath this. In the 12th century BC Gija, a prince from the Shang dynasty of China, however, due to the lack of archaeological evidence, its existence has been challenged since the 20th century, and today no longer forms the mainstream understanding of this period. The historical Gojoseon kingdom was first mentioned in Chinese records in the early 7th century BC. During its early phase, the capital of Gojoseon was located in Liaoning, around 400 BC, it was moved to Pyongyang, while in the south of the peninsula, in 108 BC, the Han dynasty of China invaded and conquered Wiman Joseon. The Han established four commanderies to administer the Gojoseon territory, the area was later conquered by Goguryeo in 313 AD. Their language was probably a predecessor of the equally prehistoric Buyeo languages, Dangun is the legendary founder of Korea. A similar account is found in Jewang Ungi, according to the legend, the Lord of Heaven, Hwanin had a son, Hwanung, who descended to Baekdu Mountain and founded the city of Shinsi. Then a bear and a tiger came to Hwanung and said that wanted to become people. Hwuanung said to them if they went in a cave and lived there for 100 days while only eating mugwort. However, about halfway through the 100 days the tiger gave up, on the other hand, the bear successfully restrained herself and became a beautiful woman called Ungnyeo. Hwanung later married Ugnyeo, and she gave birth to Dangun, while the Dangun story is considered to be a myth, it is believed it is a mythical synthesis of a series of historical events relating to the founding of Gojoseon. There are various theories on the origin of this myth, Lee K. B. believes Dangun-wanggeom was a title borne by successive leaders of Gojoseon. Dangun is said to have founded Gojoseon around 2333 BC, based on the descriptions of the Samgungnyusa, Jewang Ungi, Dongguk Tonggam, the date differs among historical sources, although all of them put it during the mythical Emperor Yaos reign. Samgungnyusa says Dangun ascended to the throne in the 50th year of the legendary Yaos reign, Annals of the King Sejong says the first year, and Dongguk Tonggam says the 25th year. Gija, a man from Shang China, allegedly fled to the Korean peninsula in 1122 BC during the fall of the Shang to the Zhou dynasty and founded Gija Joseon
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