1.
Chubut Province
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Chubut is a province in southern Argentina, situated between the 42nd parallel south, the 46th parallel south, the Andes range to the west, and the Atlantic ocean to the east. The provinces name derives from the Tehuelche word chupat, meaning transparent, the largest city is Comodoro Rivadavia in the south of the province, it has 180,000 inhabitants. Other important cities are Puerto Madryn, Trelew, Esquel and Sarmiento, Gaiman is a cultural and demographic centre of the region known as Y Wladfa in which Welsh-Argentines are concentrated. Of the 25,000 Welsh speakers in Argentina,5,000 live in the Chubut region, particularly in the early Welsh settlements of Gaiman, Trelew, before the Spaniards arrived in the Americas, nomadic indigenous Tehuelche peoples had inhabited the Patagonia region for thousands of years. They lived as hunter-gatherers and covered territory in seasonal cycles as they followed game, in the 17th and 18th centuries, Spanish missionaries came to the area, and founded the San José Fort on Península Valdés. The indigenous people destroyed it. In 1865, Welsh people came to Chubut in the Mimosa ship, the region was disputed between Chile and Argentina until 1881. Chile renounced its claim in order to prevent Argentina from entering into the War of the Pacific, in which it was fighting against Peru. As part of the Conquista del Desierto, Argentina organized the National Territory of Chubut in 1884, after the last indigenous cacique, Inyacal, surrendered to government forces. At the beginning of the 20th century, after the Boer War, some Boer people settled in the town of Sarmiento, in 1944, the southern part of Chubut and northern part of Santa Cruz were designated the Comodoro Rivadavia military zone. The zone was dissolved in 1955, and Chubut was declared a province, studies in the 1950s revealed mineral wealth in the province, which the government has tried to develop. Population shifts of the late 20th century, especially from Buenos Aires, raised the population steadily from 190,000, the government has encouraged people to resettle here. Most of the inhabitants are in the main cities and they have also settled along the Chubut River. Most areas have a density of less than 1 inhabitant per square kilometer. Chubuts economy, for a time one of the most prosperous in Argentina, is one of the countrys least diversified. Nearly one-quarter of its 2006 output, estimated at US$4.652 billion, is generated by mining and this sectors contribution helped give Chubut the nations fourth-highest per capita output in 2011, US$25,250. Petroleum refining is the economic activity of the province, it generates 13% of Argentine oil production. Chubut produces 21% of the fish catch
2.
Spanish language
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Spanish —also called Castilian —is a Romance language that originated in the Castile region of Spain, with hundreds of millions of native speakers around the world. It is usually considered the worlds second-most spoken native language after Mandarin Chinese and it is one of the few languages to use inverted question and exclamation marks. Spanish is a part of the Ibero-Romance group of languages, which evolved from several dialects of Vulgar Latin in Iberia after the collapse of the Western Roman Empire in the 5th century. Beginning in the early 16th century, Spanish was taken to the colonies of the Spanish Empire, most notably to the Americas, as well as territories in Africa, Oceania, around 75% of modern Spanish is derived from Latin. Greek has also contributed substantially to Spanish vocabulary, especially through Latin, Spanish vocabulary has been in contact from an early date with Arabic, having developed during the Al-Andalus era in the Iberian Peninsula. With around 8% of its vocabulary being Arabic in origin, this language is the second most important influence after Latin and it has also been influenced by Basque as well as by neighboring Ibero-Romance languages. It also adopted words from languages such as Gothic language from the Visigoths in which many Spanish names and surnames have a Visigothic origin. Spanish is one of the six languages of the United Nations. It is the language in the world by the number of people who speak it as a mother tongue, after Mandarin Chinese. It is estimated more than 437 million people speak Spanish as a native language. Spanish is the official or national language in Spain, Equatorial Guinea, speakers in the Americas total some 418 million. In the European Union, Spanish is the tongue of 8% of the population. Spanish is the most popular second language learned in the United States, in 2011 it was estimated by the American Community Survey that of the 55 million Hispanic United States residents who are five years of age and over,38 million speak Spanish at home. The Spanish Constitution of 1978 uses the term castellano to define the language of the whole Spanish State in contrast to las demás lenguas españolas. Article III reads as follows, El castellano es la lengua española oficial del Estado, las demás lenguas españolas serán también oficiales en las respectivas Comunidades Autónomas. Castilian is the official Spanish language of the State, the other Spanish languages as well shall be official in their respective Autonomous Communities. The Spanish Royal Academy, on the hand, currently uses the term español in its publications. Two etymologies for español have been suggested, the Spanish Royal Academy Dictionary derives the term from the Provençal word espaignol, and that in turn from the Medieval Latin word Hispaniolus, from—or pertaining to—Hispania
3.
Patagonian Welsh
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Patagonian Welsh is the dialect of Welsh which is spoken in the region of the Argentine Patagonia in South America. The language is principally in Y Wladfa with sporadic speakers throughout Argentina by Welsh Argentines. In 2005 there were 62 Welsh classes in the area and Welsh was taught as a subject in two schools and two colleges in the region of Gaiman. There is also a Welsh-language school called Ysgol yr Hendre situated in Trelew, as of 2016, there are three bilingual Welsh-Spanish schools in Patagonia. Patagonian Welsh has developed to be a dialect of Welsh, different from the several dialects used in Wales itself, however speakers from Wales. Toponyms throughout the Chubut Valley are of Welsh origin, a total of 1,220 people undertook Welsh courses in Patagonia in 2015. The Welsh people first arrived in Patagonia in 1865 and they had migrated to protect their native Welsh culture and language, which they considered to be threatened in their native Wales. Over the years the use of the language started to decrease, the situation began to change when many Welsh people visited the region in 1965 to celebrate the colonys centenary, since then the number of Welsh visitors increased. In 1945 and 1946 the BBC World Service broadcast radio shows in Patagonian Welsh, in 2004 the Welsh speakers in Argentina asked permission from the Welsh government to access Welsh TV programmes to encourage the learning of the language and for the language to grow. Project-Hiraeth – Documents the stories of the Welsh colony in Patagonia, Argentina through film, text and illustration
4.
Protestantism
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Protestantism is a form of Christianity which originated with the Reformation, a movement against what its followers considered to be errors in the Roman Catholic Church. It is one of the three divisions of Christendom, together with Roman Catholicism and Orthodoxy. The term derives from the letter of protestation from German Lutheran princes in 1529 against an edict of the Diet of Speyer condemning the teachings of Martin Luther as heretical. Although there were earlier breaks from or attempts to reform the Roman Catholic Church—notably by Peter Waldo, John Wycliffe, Protestants reject the notion of papal supremacy and deny the Roman Catholic doctrine of transubstantiation, but disagree among themselves regarding the real presence of Christ in the Eucharist. The Five solae summarize the reformers basic differences in theological beliefs, in the 16th century, Lutheranism spread from Germany into Denmark, Norway, Sweden, Finland, the Baltic states, and Iceland. Reformed churches were founded in Germany, Hungary, the Netherlands, Scotland, Switzerland and France by such reformers as John Calvin, Huldrych Zwingli, the political separation of the Church of England from Rome under King Henry VIII brought England and Wales into this broad Reformation movement. Protestants developed their own culture, which made major contributions in education, the humanities and sciences, the political and social order, the economy and the arts, some Protestant denominations do have a worldwide scope and distribution of membership, while others are confined to a single country. A majority of Protestants are members of a handful of families, Adventism, Anglicanism, Baptist churches, Reformed churches, Lutheranism, Methodism. Nondenominational, evangelical, charismatic, independent and other churches are on the rise, and constitute a significant part of Protestant Christianity. Six princes of the Holy Roman Empire and rulers of fourteen Imperial Free Cities, the edict reversed concessions made to the Lutherans with the approval of Holy Roman Emperor Charles V three years earlier. During the Reformation, the term was used outside of the German politics. The word evangelical, which refers to the gospel, was more widely used for those involved in the religious movement. Nowadays, this word is still preferred among some of the historical Protestant denominations in the Lutheran and Calvinist traditions in Europe, above all the term is used by Protestant bodies in the German-speaking area, such as the EKD. In continental Europe, an Evangelical is either a Lutheran or a Calvinist, the German word evangelisch means Protestant, and is different from the German evangelikal, which refers to churches shaped by Evangelicalism. The English word evangelical usually refers to Evangelical Protestant churches, and it traces its roots back to the Puritans in England, where Evangelicalism originated, and then was brought to the United States. Protestantism as a term is now used in contradistinction to the other major Christian traditions, i. e. Roman Catholicism. Initially, Protestant became a term to mean any adherent to the Reformation movement in Germany and was taken up by Lutherans. Even though Martin Luther himself insisted on Christian or Evangelical as the only acceptable names for individuals who professed Christ, French and Swiss Protestants preferred the word reformed, which became a popular, neutral and alternative name for Calvinists
5.
Methodism
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Methodism, or the Methodist movement, is a group of historically related denominations of Protestant Christianity which derive their inspiration from the life and teachings of John Wesley. George Whitefield and Johns brother Charles Wesley were also significant leaders in the movement and it originated as a revival within the 18th century Church of England and became a separate Church after Wesleys death. Because of vigorous missionary work, the movement spread throughout the British Empire, Wesleys theology focused on sanctification and the effect of faith on the character of a Christian. Distinguishing Methodist doctrines include an assurance of salvation, imparted righteousness, the possibility of perfection in love, the works of piety and the primacy of Scripture. Most Methodists teach that Jesus Christ, the Son of God, died for all of humanity and that salvation is available for all, in theology and this teaching rejects the Calvinist position that God has pre-ordained the salvation of a select group of people. However, Whitefield and several others were considered Calvinistic Methodists and held to the latter position, Methodism emphasises charity and support for the sick, the poor and the afflicted through the works of mercy. These ideals are put into practice by the establishment of hospitals, orphanages, soup kitchens and schools to follow Christs command to spread the gospel, the movement has a wide variety of forms of worship, ranging from high church to low church in liturgical usage. Denominations that descend from the British Methodist tradition are generally less ritualistic, Methodism is known for its rich musical tradition and Charles Wesley was instrumental in writing much of the hymnody of the Methodist Church. In Britain, the Methodist Church had an effect in the early decades of the making of the working class. In the United States, it became the religion of many slaves who later formed black churches in the Methodist tradition. The Methodist revival began with a group of men, including John Wesley and his younger brother Charles, the Wesley brothers founded the Holy Club at the University of Oxford, where John was a fellow and later a lecturer at Lincoln College. The club met weekly and they set about living a holy life. They were accustomed to receiving Communion every week, fasting regularly, abstaining from most forms of amusement and luxury and frequently visited the sick, the fellowship were branded as Methodist by their fellow students because of the way they used rule and method to go about their religious affairs. John, who was leader of the club, took the attempted mockery, unsuccessful in their work, the brothers returned to England conscious of their lack of genuine Christian faith. They looked for help to Peter Boehler and other members of the Moravian Church, at a Moravian service in Aldersgate on 24 May 1738, John experienced what has come to be called his evangelical conversion, when he felt his heart strangely warmed. Charles had reported an experience an few days previously. Considered a pivotal moment, Daniel L. John Wesley came under the influence of the Dutch theologian Jacobus Arminius, Arminius had rejected the Calvinist teaching that God had pre-ordained an elect number of people to eternal bliss while others perished eternally. Conversely, George Whitefield, Howell Harris, and Selina Hastings, George Whitefield, returning from his own mission in Georgia, joined the Wesley brothers in what was rapidly to become a national crusade
6.
Presbyterianism
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Presbyterianism is a part of the Reformed tradition within Protestantism which traces its origins to the British Isles, particularly Scotland. Presbyterian churches derive their name from the form of church government. Presbyterian theology typically emphasizes the sovereignty of God, the authority of the Scriptures, Presbyterian church government was ensured in Scotland by the Acts of Union in 1707 which created the Kingdom of Great Britain. In fact, most Presbyterians found in England can trace a Scottish connection, the Presbyterian denominations in Scotland hold to the theology of John Calvin and his immediate successors, although there are a range of theological views within contemporary Presbyterianism. The roots of Presbyterianism lie in the Protestant Reformation of the 16th century, most Reformed churches which trace their history back to Scotland are either presbyterian or congregationalist in government. In the twentieth century, some Presbyterians played an important role in the ecumenical movement, many Presbyterian denominations have found ways of working together with other Reformed denominations and Christians of other traditions, especially in the World Communion of Reformed Churches. Some Presbyterian churches have entered into unions with other churches, such as Congregationalists, Lutherans, Anglicans, Presbyterian history is part of the history of Christianity, but the beginning of Presbyterianism as a distinct movement occurred during the 16th-century Protestant Reformation. As the Catholic Church resisted the reformers, several different theological movements splintered from the Church, the Presbyterian church traces its ancestry back primarily to England and Scotland. In August 1560 the Parliament of Scotland adopted the Scots Confession as the creed of the Scottish Kingdom, Presbyterians distinguish themselves from other denominations by doctrine, institutional organization and worship, often using a Book of Order to regulate common practice and order. The origins of the Presbyterian churches are in Calvinism, many branches of Presbyterianism are remnants of previous splits from larger groups. Presbyterians place great importance upon education and lifelong learning, Presbyterian government is by councils of elders. Teaching and ruling elders are ordained and convene in the lowest council known as a session or consistory responsible for the discipline, nurture, teaching elders have responsibility for teaching, worship, and performing sacraments. Pastors are called by individual congregations, a congregation issues a call for the pastors service, but this call must be ratified by the local presbytery. Ruling elders are usually laymen who are elected by the congregation and ordained to serve with the elders, assuming responsibility for nurture. Often, especially in larger congregations, the elders delegate the practicalities of buildings, finance and this group may variously be known as a Deacon Board, Board of Deacons Diaconate, or Deacons Court. These are sometimes known as presbyters to the full congregation, above the sessions exist presbyteries, which have area responsibilities. These are composed of teaching elders and ruling elders from each of the constituent congregations, the presbytery sends representatives to a broader regional or national assembly, generally known as the General Assembly, although an intermediate level of a synod sometimes exists. The Church of Scotland abolished the Synod in 1993, Presbyterian governance is practised by Presbyterian denominations and also by many other Reformed churches
7.
Welsh people
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The Welsh people or the Welsh are a nation and ethnic group native to, or otherwise associated with, Wales and the Welsh language. Prior to the 20th century, large numbers of Welsh people spoke only Welsh, the term Welsh people applies to people from Wales and people of Welsh ancestry perceiving themselves or being perceived as sharing a cultural heritage and shared ancestral origins. Over 300,000 Welsh people live in London, the same etymological origin is shared by the names of various other Celtic or Latin peoples such as the Walloons and the Vlachs, as well as of the Swiss canton of Valais. The modern Welsh name for themselves is Cymry, and Cymru is the Welsh name for Wales and these words are descended from the Brythonic word combrogi, meaning fellow-countrymen. They thus carry a sense of land of fellow-countrymen, our country, the word came into use as a self-description probably before the 7th century. It is attested in a poem to Cadwallon ap Cadfan c. 633. Thereafter Cymry prevailed as a reference to the Welsh, until c.1560 the word was spelt Kymry or Cymry, regardless of whether it referred to the people or their homeland. During their time in Britain, the ancient Romans encountered tribes in present-day Wales that they called the Ordovices, the Demetae, the Silures and the Deceangli. The people of what is now Wales were not distinguished from the rest of the peoples of southern Britain, all were called Britons and spoke the common British language, a Brythonic Celtic tongue. Celtic language and culture seems to have arrived in Britain during the Iron Age, the claim has also been made that Indo-European languages may have been introduced to the British Isles as early as the early Neolithic, with Goidelic and Brythonic languages developing indigenously. The genetic evidence in this case would show that the change to Celtic languages in Britain may have occurred as a cultural rather than through migration as was previously supposed. The assumed genetic imprint of Neolithic incomers is seen as a cline, with stronger Neolithic representation in the east of Europe, when the Roman legions departed Britain around 400, a Romano-British culture remained in the areas the Romans had settled, and the pre-Roman cultures in others. According to Stephen Oppenheimer 96% of lineages in Llangefni in north Wales derive from Iberia, Genetic marker R1b averages from 83–89% amongst the Welsh. The people in what is now Wales continued to speak Brythonic languages with additions from Latin, the surviving poem Y Gododdin is in early Welsh and refers to the Brythonic kingdom of Gododdin with a capital at Din Eidyn and extending from the area of Stirling to the Tyne. John Davies places the change from Brythonic to Welsh between 400 and 700, offas Dyke was erected in the mid-8th century, forming a barrier between Wales and Mercia. The genetic tests suggested that between 50% and 100% of the population of what was to become England was wiped out. In 2001, research for a BBC programme on the Vikings suggested a strong link between the Celts and Basques, dating back tens of thousands of years. The UCL research suggested a migration on a huge scale during the Anglo-Saxon period and it appears England is made up of an ethnic cleansing event from people coming across from the continent after the Romans left, said Dr Mark Thomas, of the Centre for Genetic Anthropology at UCL
8.
English Argentines
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English Argentines are citizens of Argentina, or the children of Argentine citizens brought up in Argentina, who can claim ancestry originating in England. The English settlement in Argentina, took place in the period after Argentinas independence from Spain through the 19th century, the United Kingdom had a strong economic influence in Argentina during the Victorian period. As the 19th century progressed more English families arrived, and many bought land to develop the potential of the Argentine pampas for the growing of crops. The English founded banks, developed the trade in crops and animal products. As well as those who went to Argentina as industrialists and major landowners, others went as railway engineers, civil engineers and to work in banking, others went to become whalers, missionaries and simply to seek out a future. English families sent second and younger sons, or what were described as the sheep of the family, to Argentina to make their fortunes in cattle. English settlers introduced football to Argentina, some English families owned sugar plantations. In a treaty of 1825, the United Kingdom became one of the first countries to recognise the independence of Argentina, at one point in the 19th century, ten per cent of British foreign investment was in Argentina, despite not being a colony. In 1939, 39% of investment in Argentina was British, English culture, or a version of it as perceived from outside, had a noted effect on the culture of Argentina, mainly in the middle classes. In 1888 local Anglo-Argentines established the Hurlingham Club, based on its namesake in London, the city of Hurlingham, Buenos Aires and Hurlingham Partido in Buenos Aires Province later grew up around the club and took their names from it. The Córdoba Athletic Club, one of the oldest sports clubs in Argentina, was founded in 1882 by English men that lived in Córdoba working in the railroads, in 1912 Harrods opened a department store in Buenos Aires, the only Harrods ever opened outside London. Harrods Buenos Aires became independent of Harrods in the 1940s but still traded under the Harrods name, the Richmond café on Florida Street is a notable tea venue near the Harrods department store, now turned into an exhibition hall. Belgrano R, within the Belgrano district, is another train station known for the British neighbourhood around it originated by the railway, an Anglican church from 1896 and the Buenos Aires English High School founded by Alexander Watson Hutton in 1884 are both located in this area. Also important are the railway terminals Retiro in the homonymous neighbourhood, there are numerous countryside stations in the Pampas. Around 100,000 Anglo-Argentines are the descendants of English immigrants to Argentina and they are one of the most successful immigrant groups of Argentina, gaining prominence in commerce, industry, and the professions. Many are noted by their ability to speak English in family circles with an undistinguishable English accent, an English-language newspaper, the Buenos Aires Herald, continues to be published daily in Buenos Aires. Anglo-Argentines have traditionally differed from their fellow Argentines by largely retaining strong ties with their country, including education. Many of the schools in Argentina are bilingual offering both English language and Spanish language, including Northlands School, St, marks College, Balmoral College, St. Albans College, St. Georges College, Belgrano Day School and Washington School
9.
Irish Argentine
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Irish Argentines are Argentine citizens who are fully or partially of Irish descent. Irish emigrants from the Midlands, Wexford and many counties of Ireland arrived in Argentina mainly from 1830 to 1930, the modern Irish-Argentine community is composed of some of their descendants, and the total number is estimated at 500, 000–1,000,000. Argentina is the home of the fifth largest Irish community in the world, others, in turn, left after receiving favourable descriptions of the country from friends and family who had already arrived in Argentina. Others had arrived earlier as merchants, artisans and mercenaries, such as William Brown, who fought for the cause of Argentine independence and it is difficult to accurately calculate the exact number of immigrants. Many Irish newcomers declared themselves to be ingleses, as all of Ireland at the time was part of the United Kingdom. The immigration records in Buenos Aires lack any entries dating from before 1822, the records in between these years are also incomplete, due to conflicts of who was Irish, English and Scottish in South American demographics. Between 1822 and 1829, at least 7,160 Irish immigrants arrived, based on incomplete passenger list records, as well as on census returns transcribed by Eduardo A. Coghlan, researchers made elaborate calculations of the total number of immigrants. Juan Carlos Korol and Hilda Sabato estimated that the number of Irish immigrants in the nineteenth century was between 10,500 and 11,500. For the nineteenth century, one out of every two Irish emigrants to Argentina went back to Ireland or re-migrated to England, the United States, Australia and other destinations. Eduardo A. Coghlan reported 16,284 Irish Argentines in Buenos Aires, only 4,693 of these had actually been born in Ireland, just 28. 8% of the population, while another 11,591 individuals had been born in Argentina. At present, roughly 500,000 Argentines are of Irish descent, the Irish immigrants settled mainly in Buenos Aires, the homonymous province, and the littoral provinces. Those in urban areas worked as labourers, merchants, employees, artisans, teachers, professionals and, increasingly after the 1860s and especially for women, the Irish in the countryside worked as rural labourers, cattle dealers, and shepherds. Those in the flourishing sheep-farming business of 1840–1890 were most likely to succeed working as shepherds and sharing a half or a third of the produce in wool, in this way, some of them managed to rent and later purchase land. In Curumalal, Buenos Aires, and Venado Tuerto, Santa Fe, Eduardo Casey helped populating the agriculturally barren provinces, inviting more Irish and other immigrants to Argentina to work for him. This recommendation system was active, and, with almost limitless amounts of land available. This industry expanded to places, eventually flourishing in the rest of Santa Fe, Entre Ríos. The Dresden Affair marked the end of mass Irish emigration to Argentina, less fortunate Irish immigrants were recruited in the 1870s and 1880s among poor segments in Dublin, Cork and other counties, and sent as colonists to Argentina. Irish-Argentine agents hired by the Buenos Aires provincial government actively worked in Ireland and were paid by the state, in 1889 the Dresden Affair occurred when agents Buckley OMeara and John Stephen Dillon sent 1,774 emigrants in the steamer City of Dresden
10.
Scottish Argentine
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Scottish Argentines are Argentine citizens of Scottish descent or Scottish-born people who reside in Argentina. A Scottish Argentine population has existed at least since 1825, there are an estimated 100,000 Argentines of Scottish ancestry, the most of any country outside the English-speaking world. Frequently, Scottish Argentines are wrongly referred to as English, the first Argentine woman to earn a Doctor of Medicine degree was Cecilia Grierson, of Scottish ancestry. Two schools in Argentina have been founded by Scottish immigrants, St. Andrews Scots School in 1838, in addition, the association football club Club Atlético Douglas Haig is named after the Scottish military commander Douglas Haig, 1st Earl Haig. Argentine President Juan Domingo Peron had Scottish ancestry on his fathers side and his great-grandmother, Ann Hughes Mc Kenzie, traced her roots to Scotland. There have been Scottish Gaelic classes in Buenos Aires for over ten years now, and they are taken by Guillermo Santana MacKinlay, who is himself a Scottish Argentine. The so-called father of Argentine football was a Glaswegian schoolteacher, Alexander Watson Hutton, on 4 February 1884 he founded the Buenos Aires English High School where he continued to instruct the pupils in the game. In 1891 Hutton established the Association Argentine Football League, the first football league outside of the British Isles, five clubs competed but only one season was ever played. His son Arnold Watson Hutton was an Argentine football striker for the Argentina national team and he also played cricket, tennis and waterpolo for Argentina. Alejandro Anderson, actor Andrew Graham-Yooll, author John Joseph Jolly Kyle, chemist, for whom the Premio Dr. Juan J. J. Kyle is named
11.
Welsh Americans
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Welsh Americans are an American ethnic group whose ancestry originates wholly or partly in Wales. In the 2008 U. S. Census community survey, an estimated 1.98 million Americans had Welsh ancestry,0. 6% of the total U. S. population and this compares with a population of 3 million in Wales. However,3. 8% of Americans appear to bear a Welsh surname, there have been several U. S. Presidents with Welsh ancestry, including Thomas Jefferson, John Adams, John Quincy Adams, James A. Garfield, Calvin Coolidge, and Richard Nixon. Jefferson Davis, President of The Confederate States of America P. G. T, vice President Hubert Humphrey, and U. S. Secretary of State Hillary Clinton are also of Welsh heritage. The proportion of the population with a name of Welsh origin ranges from 9. 5% in South Carolina to 1. 1% in North Dakota. Typically names of Welsh origin are concentrated in the mid-Atlantic states, by contrast there are relatively fewer Welsh names in New England, the northern Midwest, and the southwest. The Madog legend attained its greatest prominence during the Elizabethan era, the chief allegedly told him that the forts had been built by a white people called Welsh, as protection against the ancestors of the Cherokee, who eventually drove them from the region. Sevier had also written in 1799 of the discovery of six skeletons in brass armor bearing the Welsh coat-of-arms. Thomas S. Hinde claimed that in 1799, six soldiers had dug up near Jeffersonville. It is possible these were the same 6 Sevier referred to, as the number, brass plates, speculation abounds connecting Madog with certain sites, such as Devils Backbone, located on the Ohio River at Fourteen Mile Creek near Louisville, Kentucky. The more substantiated claim is that the first Welsh arrivals came from Wales after 1618, in the late seventeenth century, there was a large emigration of Welsh Quakers to Pennsylvania, where a Welsh Tract was established in the region immediately west of Philadelphia. By 1700, the Welsh accounted for about one-third of the estimated population of twenty thousand. There are a number of Welsh place names in this area, there was a second wave of immigration in the late eighteenth century, notably a Welsh colony named Cambria established by Morgan John Rhys in what is now Cambria County, Pennsylvania. The Welsh were especially numerous and politically active in colonial Pennsylvania, in the 19th century thousands of Welsh coal miners emigrated to the anthracite and bituminous mines of Pennsylvania, many becoming mine managers and executives. The miners brought organizational skills, exemplified in the United Mine Workers labor union, and its most famous leader John L. Lewis, Pennsylvania has the largest number of Welsh-Americans, approximately 200,000, they are primarily concentrated in the Western and Northeastern regions of the state. Mass emigration from Wales to the United States got under way in the century with Ohio cities and towns such as Canal Dover, Niles. There was a concentration of Welsh people in the Appalachian section of Southeast Ohio, such as Jackson County. The Welsh language was spoken there for generations until the 1950s when its use began to subside
12.
Welsh Canadians
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Welsh Canadians are Canadian citizens of Welsh descent or Wales-born people who reside in Canada. According to the 2011 Census,458,705 Canadians claimed full or partial Welsh descent, the first Welshman to arrive in Canada is believed to have been Sir Thomas Button, who led an expedition to find the Northwest Passage in 1612. Other early Welsh in Canada came after the signing of the Treaty of Paris in 1763, Welsh mapmaker David Thompson was one of the great explorers of the North West Company in the late 18th and early 19th centuries, and is often called Canadas Greatest Geographer. He covered 130,000 kilometres on foot and surveyed most of the Canada–United States border in the days of exploration. One of the first efforts to encourage Welsh emigration to Canada began in 1812, Mathews left home at a young age and went on to become a successful businessman in the United States. When he returned to Wales, he found his family living in poverty, in 1817 his family settled in the township of Southwald, near what is now London, Ontario. By 1812 he had brought over more relatives who built homes on the 100-acre lots granted to them by Colonel Thomas Talbot, the colony attracted 385 Welsh settlers by 1850 and retained its predominantly Welsh character until the late 1870s. Early Welsh immigration to Canada was also spurred on by the Cariboo Gold Rush in British Columbia in 1858, the development of underground mining provided employment for many Welsh coal miners who decided to remain in the area. In 1902, Welsh immigrants arrived from Patagonia, which had incorporated into Argentina in 1881. Compulsory military service and a series of floods that ruined Welsh farmers crops led to some emigrants resettling at Llewelyn near Bangor, Saskatchewan, a community of Welsh farmers was also established at Wood River near Ponoka, Alberta. In a 2001 census, Alberta had the highest number of people of Welsh descent with about 60,000, many Welsh people came to Alberta at the start of the 20th century. Most came from the mining and industrial regions of Wales to work in the mines around Edmonton. David Milwyn Duggan, a Welshman, was the mayor of Edmonton from 1921 to 1923, today, the Welsh community in Alberta is served by three main organizations, The Calgary Welsh Society, St. Davids Welsh Society of Edmonton and the Ponoka Welsh Society. These associations function primarily as social clubs, featuring lectures, films, the St. Davids Welsh Society of Edmonton is a regular participant in the citys Heritage Days event, and in 2005 the group will celebrate its centennial anniversary. Welsh people are famous worldwide for music and song, and choirs are often a part of Welsh community associations and this stems from the bardic tradition in Wales. The St. Davids Welsh Male Voice Choir of Edmonton has existed for over 100 years, Welsh festivals in Canada today include Eisteddfodau, and Gymanfa Ganu. The Welsh in Canada celebrate St. Davids Day, the celebrations include storytelling and singing, banquets are held in Lethbridge, Ponoka, Calgary, Red Deer, Edmonton, Regina. A newsletter serves the Welsh communities in Calgary and Lethbridge, while in Edmonton the St. Davids Society issues a bulletin twice a year informing its members about upcoming events, some Welsh Canadians subscribe to Ninnau, the Welsh national newspaper published in New York
13.
Welsh Australians
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Welsh Australians are citizens of Australia whose ancestry originates in Wales. According to the 2006 Australian census 25,317 Australian residents were born in Wales, while 113,242 claimed Welsh ancestry, a 1996 study gives the total ethnic strength of Welsh Australians as 243,400. This is made up by 44,100 of un-mixed origin and 683,700 of mixed origin and this would make the Welsh the fifth largest Anglo-Celtic group in Australia after the English, Irish, Scottish and Cornish. It is believed that the eastern coast of Australia reminded Captain James Cook of the coast of South Wales, hence the name he gave to it, the first European colony in Australia was in New South Wales, beginning with the First Fleet of 1788. Welsh people numbered amongst these first settlers, and continued to arrive in the new colony through the British policy of penal transportation that was implemented for many criminal acts. A gold rush began in Australia in the early 1850s, amongst its leaders was the Welsh-born Chartist John Basson Humffray, one of a significant group of immigrants that came over from Wales at this time. Mass emigration from Wales to Australia got under way in the early 20th century with New South Wales and it is also said that around 20% of the population of New South Wales are at least partly Welsh descended. In the early twentieth-century most of the Welsh settlers were farmers, Australians from Wales Caernarfon, Gwynedd Archives
14.
Argentina
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Argentina, officially the Argentine Republic, is a federal republic in the southern half of South America. With a mainland area of 2,780,400 km2, Argentina is the eighth-largest country in the world, the second largest in Latin America, and the largest Spanish-speaking one. The country is subdivided into provinces and one autonomous city, Buenos Aires. The provinces and the capital have their own constitutions, but exist under a federal system, Argentina claims sovereignty over part of Antarctica, the Falkland Islands, and South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands. The earliest recorded presence in the area of modern-day Argentina dates back to the Paleolithic period. The country has its roots in Spanish colonization of the region during the 16th century, Argentina rose as the successor state of the Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata, a Spanish overseas viceroyalty founded in 1776. The country thereafter enjoyed relative peace and stability, with waves of European immigration radically reshaping its cultural. The almost-unparalleled increase in prosperity led to Argentina becoming the seventh wealthiest developed nation in the world by the early 20th century, Argentina retains its historic status as a middle power in international affairs, and is a prominent regional power in the Southern Cone and Latin America. Argentina has the second largest economy in South America, the third-largest in Latin America and is a member of the G-15 and it is the country with the second highest Human Development Index in Latin America with a rating of very high. Because of its stability, market size and growing high-tech sector, the description of the country by the word Argentina has to be found on a Venice map in 1536. In English the name Argentina probably comes from the Spanish language, however the naming itself is not Spanish, Argentina means in Italian of silver, silver coloured, probably borrowed from the Old French adjective argentine of silver > silver coloured already mentioned in the 12th century. The French word argentine is the form of argentin and derives of argent silver with the suffix -in. The Italian naming Argentina for the country implies Argentina Terra land of silver or Argentina costa coast of silver, in Italian, the adjective or the proper noun is often used in an autonomous way as a substantive and replaces it and it is said lArgentina. The name Argentina was probably first given by the Venitian and Genoese navigators, in Spanish and Portuguese, the words for silver are respectively plata and prata and of silver is said plateado and prateado. Argentina was first associated with the silver mountains legend, widespread among the first European explorers of the La Plata Basin. The first written use of the name in Spanish can be traced to La Argentina, a 1602 poem by Martín del Barco Centenera describing the region, the 1826 constitution included the first use of the name Argentine Republic in legal documents. The name Argentine Confederation was also used and was formalized in the Argentine Constitution of 1853. In 1860 a presidential decree settled the name as Argentine Republic
15.
Patagonia
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Patagonia is a sparsely populated region located at the southern end of South America, shared by Argentina and Chile. The region comprises the section of the Andes mountains as well as the deserts, steppes. Patagonia has two coasts, a western one towards the Pacific Ocean and an eastern one towards the Atlantic Ocean, the Colorado and Barrancas rivers, which run from the Andes to the Atlantic, are commonly considered the northern limit of Argentine Patagonia. The archipelago of Tierra del Fuego is sometimes included as part of Patagonia, most geographers and historians locate the northern limit of Chilean Patagonia at Reloncaví Estuary. The name Patagonia comes from the word used by Magellan in 1520 to describe the native people that his expedition thought to be giants. It is now believed that the people he called the Patagons were Tehuelches, the hypothesis was accepted and published in the New Review of Spanish Philology in the 2011 article. In the hollows of the plains are ponds or lakes of fresh and brackish water, towards the Andes, the shingle gives place to porphyry, granite, and basalt lavas, animal life becomes more abundant and vegetation more luxuriant. It is characteristic of the flora of the western coast, and consist principally of southern beech and conifers. Among the depressions by which the plateau is intersected transversely, the ones are the Gualichu, south of the Río Negro, the Maquinchao and Valcheta, the Senguerr. There, erosion which is caused principally by the sudden melting, best in evidence where in contact with folded Cretaceous rocks which are uplifted by the Cenozoic granite. It generally separates the plateau from the first lofty hills, the ridges generally called the pre-Cordillera, to the west of these, a similar longitudinal depression extends all along the foot of the snowy Andean Cordillera. This latter depression contains the richest and most fertile land of Patagonia, Lake basins along the Cordillera were also excavated by ice-streams, including Lake Argentino and Lake Fagnano, as well as coastal bays such as Bahía Inútil. There have been discrepancies among geologists on the origin of the Patagonian landmass, víctor Ramos has proposed that the Patagonian landmass originated as an allochtonous terrane that separated from Antarctica and docked in South America 250 to 270 Ma in the Permian era. A2014 study by Robert John Pankhurst and coworkers reject any idea of a far-travelled Patagonia claiming it is likely of parautochtonous origin, the Mesozoic and Cenozoic deposits have revealed a most interesting vertebrate fauna. The Patagonian Myolania belongs to the Upper Chalk, having been associated with remains of Dinosauria. In the Cenozoic marine formation, a number of cetaceans has been discovered. At a state level, Patagonia lies inside two countries, Chile and Argentina, both countries have organised their Patagonian territories into non-equivalent administrative subdivisions, Provinces and departments in Argentina, and regions, provinces and communes in Chile. Being a unitary state Chiles first level administrative divisions—the regions—enjoy far less autonomy than Argentine provinces, Argentine provinces have elected governors and parliaments, while Chilean regions have government-appointed intendants
16.
Buenos Aires
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Buenos Aires is the capital and most populous city of Argentina. The city is located on the shore of the estuary of the Río de la Plata. The city of Buenos Aires is neither part of Buenos Aires Province nor the Provinces capital, rather, in 1880, after decades of political infighting, Buenos Aires was federalized and removed from Buenos Aires Province. The city limits were enlarged to include the towns of Belgrano and Flores, the 1994 constitutional amendment granted the city autonomy, hence its formal name, Ciudad Autónoma de Buenos Aires. Its citizens first elected a chief of government in 1996, previously, Buenos Aires is considered an alpha city by the study GaWC5. Buenos Aires quality of life was ranked 81st in the world and one of the best in Latin America in 2012 and it is the most visited city in South America, and the second-most visited city of Latin America. Buenos Aires is a top tourist destination, and is known for its preserved Spanish/European-style architecture, Buenos Aires held the 1st Pan American Games in 1951 as well as hosting two venues in the 1978 FIFA World Cup. Buenos Aires will host the 2018 Summer Youth Olympics and the 2018 G20 summit, Buenos Aires is a multicultural city, being home to multiple ethnic and religious groups. Several languages are spoken in the city in addition to Spanish, contributing to its culture, the hill was known to them as Buen Ayre, as it was free of the foul smell prevalent in the old city, which is adjacent to swampland. During the siege of Cagliari, the Aragonese built a sanctuary to the Virgin Mary on top of the hill, in 1335, King Alfonso the Gentle donated the church to the Mercedarians, who built an abbey that stands to this day. In the years after that, a story circulated, claiming that a statue of the Virgin Mary was retrieved from the sea after it miraculously helped to calm a storm in the Mediterranean Sea, the statue was placed in the abbey. Spanish sailors, especially Andalusians, venerated this image and frequently invoked the Fair Winds to aid them in their navigation, a sanctuary to the Virgin of Buen Ayre would be later erected in Seville. Pedro de Mendoza called the city Holy Mary of the Fair Winds, mendoza’s settlement soon came under attack by indigenous people, and was abandoned in 1541. For many years, the name was attributed to a Sancho del Campo, a second settlement was established in 1580 by Juan de Garay, who sailed down the Paraná River from Asunción. Garay preserved the name chosen by Mendoza, calling the city Ciudad de la Santísima Trinidad y Puerto de Santa María del Buen Aire. The short form Buenos Aires became the common usage during the 17th century, the usual abbreviation for Buenos Aires in Spanish is Bs. As. It is common as well to refer to it as B. A. or BA /ˌbiːˈeɪ/ bee-AY), while BA is used more by expats residing in the city, the locals more often use the abbreviation Baires, in one word. Seaman Juan Díaz de Solís, navigating in the name of Spain, was the first European to reach the Río de la Plata in 1516 and his expedition was cut short when he was killed during an attack by the native Charrúa tribe in what is now Uruguay
17.
Santa Fe Province
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The Province of Santa Fe is a province of Argentina, located in the center-east of the country. Neighboring provinces are from the north clockwise Chaco, Corrientes, Entre Ríos, Buenos Aires, Córdoba, together with Córdoba and Entre Ríos, the province is part of the economico-political association known as the Center Region. Santa Fes most important cities are Rosario, the capital Santa Fe, Rafaela, Villa Gobernador Gálvez, Venado Tuerto, Reconquista, and Santo Tomé. The adult literacy rate in the province is 96. 3% The aboriginal tribes who inhabited this region were the Tobas, Timbúes, Mocovíes, Pilagás, Guaycurúes and they were nomadic, lived from hunting, fishing and fruit recollection. In 1573 Juan de Garay founded the city of Santa Fe in the surroundings of present town Cayastá, but the city was moved in 1651 and 1660 to its present location. In 1812 the lawyer and general Manuel Belgrano created and displayed for the first time the Argentine flag on the banks of the Paraná River and this period was short lived, since that same year Candioti died and central government reestablished the dependent government. However, in 1816, the caudillos Mariano Vera and Estanislao López deposed the governor delegate and proclaimed the sovereignty of the province, during the civil strifes of 1820, Santa Fe troops were decisive in the defeat of Buenos Aires centralist army. So, in time, López gradually became the Federations Patriarch, after Lópezs death it was his secretary and right hand, José María Cullen the one elected governor. These two parties had many strong electoral contests with the conservative parties. After the Electoral Reform of Roque Sáenz Peña in 1912, the UCR reached the government, during this time, more precisely in 1919, the National University of the Littoral was founded. In 1932 it was the PDP who got the governors seat, the contentious 1958 elections brought an ally of President-elect Arturo Frondizi to power in Santa Fe, Dr. Carlos Sylvestre Begnis. The tunnel, most of which runs under the massive Paraná River, is the longest in Argentina, forced to resign after conservative pressure drove Pres. Frondizi from office in 1962, Begnis had the satisfaction of seeing Hernandarias open in 1969, Santa Fe suffered the violence of the late 70s and the depression of the 1980s more than most other provinces. It continued to languish economically during the prosperous 1990s, as the revalued Argentine peso put pressure on its productive sectors, touching bottom around 2002, its economy has grown by 7% a year since then. Most of the consists of green flatlands, part of the humid Pampas. There are low sierras to the west, the south presents lower temperatures, averaging 14 °C, and slightly less precipitations. Thunderstorms are common, and so are heat waves what can bring temperatures up to 40 °C and these are often interrupted by cold fronts that bring crisp, cool weather from the south. March brings cooler nights in the south, and April brings comfortable weather, with highs ranging from 22 °C in the south to 26 °C in the north, winter is dryer in the west of the province and wetter in the east
18.
Buenos Aires Province
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Buenos Aires is the largest and most populous Argentinian province. It takes the name from the city of Buenos Aires, which used to be the capital until it was federalized in 1880. The current capital of the province is the city of La Plata, the entire province is part of the Pampas geographical region. The province has a population of about 15.6 million people, nearly 10 million people live in Greater Buenos Aires, the metropolitan area surrounding the Autonomous City of Buenos Aires. The area of the province,307,571 km2, makes it the largest in Argentina with around 11% of the total area. The inhabitants of the province before the 16th century advent of Spanish colonisation were aboriginal peoples such as the Charrúas and their culture was lost over the next 350 years. They were subjected to Eurasian plagues from which few survived, the survivors joined other tribes or have been mostly absorbed by Argentinas European ethnic majority. Pedro de Mendoza founded Santa María del Buen Ayre in 1536, even though the first contact with the aboriginals was peaceful, it soon became hostile. The city was evacuated in 1541, Juan de Garay re-founded the settlement in 1580 as Santísima Trinidad y Puerto Santa María de los Buenos Aires. Amidst ongoing conflict with the aboriginals, the cattle farms extended from Buenos Aires, jesuits unsuccessfully tried to peacefully assimilate the aboriginals into the European culture brought by the Spanish conquistadores. A certain balance was found at the end of the 18th century, the end to this situation came in 1879 with the Conquest of the Desert in which the aboriginals where almost completely exterminated. After the independence from Spain in 1816, the city and province of Buenos Aires became the focus of an intermittent Argentine Civil War with other provinces. A Federal Pact secured by Governor Juan Manuel de Rosas in 1831 led to the establishment of the Argentine Confederation and to his gaining the sum of public power, which provided a tenuous unity. Ongoing disputes regarding the influence of Buenos Aires, between Federalists and Unitarians, and over the Port of Buenos Aires fueled periodic hostilities, the province was declared independent on September 11,1852, as the State of Buenos Aires. Concessions gained in the 1859 Pact of San José de Flores, intermittent conflicts with the nation did not truly cease until 1880, when the city of Buenos Aires was formally federalized and, thus, administratively separated from the province. La Plata was founded in 1882 by Governor Dardo Rocha for the purpose of becoming the provincial capital, the equivalent of a billion dollars of British investment and pro-development, education and immigration policies pursued at the national level subsequently spurred dramatic economic growth. Driven by European immigration and improved health, the population, like Argentinas, nearly doubled to one million by 1895. Rail lines connected nearly every town and hamlet in the province by 1914 and this era of accelerated development was cut short by the Wall Street Crash of 1929, which caused a sharp drop in commodity prices and led to a halt in the flow of investment funds between nations
19.
Gaiman, Chubut
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Gaiman is a town in the Chubut Province of Patagonia in Argentina. It has a population of 4,730 as per the 2010 census and it is located on the lower valley of the River Chubut, about 15 km west of Trelew. Gaiman is a cultural and demographic centre of the region of Welsh settlement in Argentina. The town was founded in 1874 by David D. Roberts, the Central Chubut Railway arrived in 1908 connecting Gaiman to Trelew. The Gaiman Train Tunnel was built in 1914 when the railway extended to Las Plumas, many people in the region have maintained the use of the Welsh language alongside Spanish. The annual youth Eisteddfod, a Welsh cultural festival, is held here every September, the Museo Histórico Regional in the former station house commemorates history of the Welsh community in the region. There are a number of Welsh Protestant chapels, of which the largest is Capel Bethel, just 10 km to the south of Gaiman is the Bryn Gwyn Paleontological Park. The towns name originates in an indigenous Tehuelche place-name meaning rocky point, project-Hiraeth – Documents the stories of the Welsh colony in Patagonia, Argentina through film, text and illustration
20.
Trelew
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Trelew is a city in the Chubut Province of Argentina. Located in Patagonia, the city is the largest and most populous in the low valley of the Chubut River, the Trelew municipality is part of the Rawson Department, whose capital, Rawson, is also the provincial capital. Trelew is an important commercial and industrial centre for the region and is the hub for wool processing, accounting for 90 percent of activity in Argentina. The produce of this industry is mainly shipped and exported through Puerto Madryn, the city is served by the Almirante Marcos A. Zar Airport, of both civilian and military use. The airports runway is shared with the Almirante Zar Naval Base, the town was named Trelew in honour of Jones, tre meaning town in Welsh and Lew being an apocope for Lewis. Trelew was established on 20 October 1886 as the point for the Central Chubut Railway line that would link the lower Chubut River Valley to Puerto Madryn. Railway building equipment and 400 settlers arrived on July 28 of that year on the steamer Vesta. The line was opened in 1888 and later extended from Trelew to Gaiman, Dolavon, in 1961, the line was closed. Trelew was the scene of a massacre in 1972, a small group of prisoners succeeded in commandeering a plane and flying to safety in Chile. The rest submitted to the authorities and were returned to a military prison, the town of Trelew was searched by the military and locals were seized and taken to the Villa Devoto prison in Buenos Aires. Virtually the entire town went on strike and succeeded in securing the release of the prisoners at Villa Devoto, Trelew is the centre of the touristic travels to the Central Meseta, the Valley of the Chubut River and the coast. Punta Tombo, the biggest penguin reserve in South America, is accessible from the city, racing de Trelew and Huracán de Trelew are the most important local football clubs. Patoruzú Rugby Club and Trelew Rugby Club are the local clubs practicing this sport, in boxing, the Matthysse brothers, Lucas Matthysse and Walter Matthysse are from Trelew, although most of their notable fights took place in the United States. Trelew experiences a climate with hot summers, cool winters. Trelew is twinned with, Covilhã, Portugal Omega Tower Trelew Welsh settlement in Argentina La Pasión según Trelew, Espejo de la Argentina,1997, Editorial Planeta Argentina S. A. I. C. Third Edition, April 2000, Buenos Aires, ISBN 950-742-859-3 Trelew Site Project-Hiraeth – Documents the stories of the Welsh colony in Patagonia, Argentina through film, text, city home page Municipal information, Municipal Affairs Federal Institute, Municipal Affairs Secretariat, Ministry of Interior, Argentina. Activities around Trelew Trelew Band which blends British folk music and South American sounds, the members are Uruguayan and Welsh and are based in Montevideo, Uruguay 43°15′25″S 65°18′41″W Geo Links for Trelew
21.
Trevelin
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Trevelin is a town in the Patagonian Argentine province of Chubut. The town lies on the banks of the Rio Percy/Río Percey. It is located in the department of Futaleufú,22 kilometres south of Esquel, the town was important in the Welsh settlement of Chubut. It was named Trevelin after the first flour mill, known as Los Andes, was established there by John Daniel Evans in 1891. Evans had previously become well known for leading expeditions into the Pampas in search of new lands and mineral reserves, the three other Welshmen with whom he was travelling were killed and buried nearby at a place now known as Dyffryn y Merthyron or The Valley of the Martyrs. Following a territorial dispute between Argentina and Chile in early 1902, the Limits Commission met in School No.18, the British arbiter was Sir Thomas Holdich whilst the interested parties were represented by Francisco Pascasio Moreno and Dr. Balmaceda. The inhabitants of the area voted to remain in Argentina, the town, in the Valley of the 16th of October, is near the Percy River, which flows south into the Río Grande, crosses the frontier with Chile, and thereafter is known as the Río Futaleufú. The Percy River was named after Percy Wharton, an American who was settled in Cwm Hyfryd between 1885 and 1904 before returning to Los Angeles, USA. A replica of John Evans Los Andes Flour Mill can be found today at the Nant Fach Museum, Trevelin, in an area known as Comarca de los Alerces. Trevelin has a oceanic climate which is milder than that of other locations on the Argentine side of Northern Patagonia because of the low altitude. This microclimate allows for agriculture, a rarity in the region where mid-summer frosts occur every year. Nighttime temperatures rarely drop below −10 °C and although snowfall is frequent, summers are cool, windy and relatively dry while winters are stormy with frequent rain, sleet and snow. Municipal information, Municipal Affairs Federal Institute, Municipal Affairs Secretariat, Ministry of Interior, project-Hiraeth – Documents the stories of the Welsh colony in Patagonia, Argentina through film, text and illustration
22.
South America
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South America is a continent located in the western hemisphere, mostly in the southern hemisphere, with a relatively small portion in the northern hemisphere. It may also be considered a subcontinent of the Americas, which is the used in nations that speak Romance languages. The reference to South America instead of other regions has increased in the last decades due to changing geopolitical dynamics. It is bordered on the west by the Pacific Ocean and on the north and east by the Atlantic Ocean, North America and it includes twelve sovereign states, a part of France, and a non-sovereign area. In addition to this, the ABC islands of the Kingdom of the Netherlands, Trinidad and Tobago, South America has an area of 17,840,000 square kilometers. Its population as of 2005 has been estimated at more than 371,090,000, South America ranks fourth in area and fifth in population. Brazil is by far the most populous South American country, with more than half of the population, followed by Colombia, Argentina, Venezuela. In recent decades Brazil has also concentrated half of the regions GDP and has become a first regional power, most of the population lives near the continents western or eastern coasts while the interior and the far south are sparsely populated. Most of the continent lies in the tropics, the continents cultural and ethnic outlook has its origin with the interaction of indigenous peoples with European conquerors and immigrants and, more locally, with African slaves. Given a long history of colonialism, the majority of South Americans speak Portuguese or Spanish. South America occupies the portion of the Americas. The continent is delimited on the northwest by the Darién watershed along the Colombia–Panama border. Almost all of mainland South America sits on the South American Plate, South Americas major mineral resources are gold, silver, copper, iron ore, tin, and petroleum. These resources found in South America have brought high income to its countries especially in times of war or of rapid growth by industrialized countries elsewhere. However, the concentration in producing one major export commodity often has hindered the development of diversified economies and this is leading to efforts to diversify production to drive away from staying as economies dedicated to one major export. South America is one of the most biodiverse continents on earth, South America is home to many interesting and unique species of animals including the llama, anaconda, piranha, jaguar, vicuña, and tapir. The Amazon rainforests possess high biodiversity, containing a proportion of the Earths species. Brazil is the largest country in South America, encompassing around half of the land area
23.
Michael D. Jones
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Jones was born in Llanuwchllyn, Merioneth in 1822. He returned to Wales and in 1850 he was inducted minister at Bwlchnewydd and his name is closely linked with the attempt to establish a Welsh settlement in Patagonia, Argentina, in the 1860s where Welsh would be the language of religion, government, trade, and education. Jones is recognised as the first to advocate a political solution to defending Welsh identity, see also the collections of essays on his life and work, Michael D. Jones ai Wladfa Gymreig, ed. E. Wyn James and Bill Jones. Dafydd Tudur, The Life, Thought and Work of Michael Daniel Jones, University of Wales, Bangor, E. Wyn James, ‘Michael D. Jones and His Visit to Patagonia in 1882’, in Los Galeses en la Patagonia V, ed. ISBN 978-987-24577-3-0. Project-Hiraeth – Documents the stories of the Welsh colony in Patagonia, Argentina through film, text, Michael D. Jones on the Glaniad website Michael Jones on Ceredigion County Council website
24.
Welsh nationalism
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Through most of its history before the Anglo-Norman Conquest, Wales was divided into several kingdoms. From time to time, rulers such as Hywel Dda, Gruffudd ap Llywelyn and Rhodri the Great managed to unify many of the kingdoms, incursions from the English and Normans also amplified divisions between the kingdoms. In the 12th century, Norman king Henry II of England exploited differences between the three most powerful Welsh kingdoms, Gwynedd, Powys, and Deheubarth, allowing him to make gains in Wales. He defeated and then allied with Madog ap Maredudd of Powys in 1157 and he then turned on Rhys ap Gruffydd of Deheubarth, who finally submitted to him in 1171, effectively subjugating much of Wales to Henrys Angevin Empire. By 1282, only Gwynedd stood out, whose ruler was accorded the title Prince of Wales, following the defeat of Llywelyn ap Gruffudd by Edward I Wales lost its last independent kingdom and became subject to the English crown, either directly or indirectly. It retained some vestiges of distinction from its neighbour however, retaining the Welsh language, law, until the victory of Henry VII at Bosworth in 1485, the Welsh on many occasions revolted against English rule in an attempt to gain their independence. The greatest such revolt was that of Owain Glyndŵr, who gained support in 1400. In response, the English parliament passed repressive measures that included denying the Welsh the right of assembly, Glyndŵr himself vanished, and his final resting place remains a mystery. Throughout the period of conquest the Welsh poets kept alive the dream of independence, during the reign of Henry VIII the Laws in Wales Acts were passed without any democratic mandate, annexing Wales into the English legal system. The repressive measures against the Welsh that had been in place since the revolt of Owain Glyndŵr over a century earlier were removed and these Acts also gave political representation for Wales in the Westminster Parliament. Wales continues to share an identity with England to a large degree as part of a joint entity known simply as England until 1967 and England. The laws also finished the partitioning of Wales into counties that was begun in 1282, the laws had the effect of making English the language to be used for all official purposes, thus effectively excluding non-English speakers from formal office. Patriotism, or a form of nationalism, remained a strong force in Wales, with pride in its language, customs. Along with the rest of Europe the effects of the French Revolution were felt in Wales and it brought to the forefront a small minority of Welsh people who sympathised with revolutionary ideas, people such as Richard Price, Iolo Morganwg, and Morgan John Rhys. This radicalism was exemplified by the Congregationalist minister David Rees of Llanelli, but he was not a lone voice, William Rees established the radical Yr Amserau in 1843, and in the same year Samuel Roberts also established another radical magazine, Y Cronicl. The growth of radicalism and the politicisation of Welsh life did not include any successful attempt to establish a separate political vehicle for promoting Welsh nationalism. On the contrary Welsh nationalism weakened under the pressure as the coal industry of South Wales increasingly was integrated links with English industry. On the whole nationalism was the preserve of antiquarians not political activists, but voices did appear within the Liberal Party, which made great gains in Wales in the 19th century with the extension of the franchise and the tacit support of Welsh nonconformity
25.
Nonconformist
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In English church history, a nonconformist was a Protestant Christian who did not conform to the governance and usages of the established Church of England. Broad use of the term was precipitated after the Restoration of the British monarchy in 1660, by the late 19th-century the term specifically included the Reformed Christians, plus the Baptists and Methodists. The English Dissenters such as the Puritans who violated the Act of Uniformity 1559 — typically by practising radical, sometimes separatist, in England and Wales in the late 19th century the new terms free churchman and Free Church started to replace dissenter or Nonconformist. One influential nonconformist minister is Matthew Henry, who beginning in 1710 published his multi-volume Commentary that is still used, issac Watts is an equally recognized nonconformist minister whose hymns are still sung by Christians worldwide. The Act of Uniformity of 1662 required churchmen to use all rites and ceremonies as prescribed in the Book of Common Prayer. Consequently, nearly 2,000 clergymen were ejected from the church for refusing to comply with the provisions of the act. The Great Ejection created an abiding public consciousness of non-conformity, thereafter, a Nonconformist was any English subject belonging to a non-Anglican church or a non-Christian religion. More broadly, any person who advocated religious liberty was typically called out as Nonconformist, culturally, in England and Wales, discrimination against Nonconformists endured even longer. Presbyterians, Congregationalists, Baptists, Calvinists, other reformed groups, following the act, other groups, including Methodists, Unitarians, Quakers, Plymouth Brethren, and the English Moravians were officially labelled as Nonconformists as they became established. A religious census in 1851 revealed Nonconformist comprised about half that of the people who attended services on Sundays. In the larger manufacturing areas, Nonconformists clearly outnumbered members of the Church of England, in Wales in 1850, Nonconformist chapel attendance significantly outnumbered Anglican church attendance. Historians distinguish two categories of Dissenters, or Nonconformists, in addition to the evangelicals or Low Church element in the Church of England, Old Dissenters, dating from the 16th and 17th centuries, included Baptists, Congregationalists, Quakers, Unitarians, and Presbyterians outside Scotland. New Dissenters emerged in the 18th century and were mainly Methodists, the Nonconformist Conscience was their moral sensibility which they tried to implement in British politics. The Nonconformist conscience of the Old group emphasized religious freedom and equality, pursuit of justice, and opposition to discrimination, compulsion, the New Dissenters stressed personal morality issues, including sexuality, temperance, family values, and Sabbath-keeping. Both factions were active, but until mid-19th century the Old group supported mostly Whigs and Liberals in politics. In the late 19th the New Dissenters mostly switched to the Liberal Party, the result was a merging of the two groups, strengthening their great weight as a political pressure group. The joined together on new issues especially regarding schools and temperance, by 1914 the linkage was weakening and by the 1920s it was virtually dead. Dissenters demanded removal of political and civil disabilities that applied to them, the Anglican establishment strongly resisted until 1828
26.
Bala, Gwynedd
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Bala is a market town and community in Gwynedd, Wales. Formerly an urban district, Bala lies within the county of Merionethshire. It lies at the end of Bala Lake,17 miles north-east of Dolgellau. It is little more than one street, Stryd Fawr. The High Street and its shops can be busy in the summer months with many tourists. Bala is ranked 11th in the list of the highest percentages of Welsh language speakers in Wales, according to the United Kingdom Census 2011,78. 5% of Balas population can speak Welsh. In the 18th century, the town was known for the manufacture of flannel, stockings, gloves. The Tower of Bala is a tumulus or moat-hill, formerly thought to mark the site of a Roman camp, other famous people from the Bala area include Michael D. Jones, Christopher Timothy, Owen Morgan Edwards, born in Llanuwchllyn, and T. E. In 1800 a 15-year-old girl, Mary Jones, walked the 25 miles from her home village Llanfihangel-y-Pennant to purchase a bible in Bala. The scarcity of the Bible, along with the determination of Mary to get one, was a factor in the foundation of the British. Betsi Cadwaladr, who worked with Florence Nightingale in the Crimea, Bala hosted the National Eisteddfod in 1967,1997 and 2009. The 2009 Eisteddfod was notable because the chair was not awarded to any of the entrants as the standard was deemed to be too low, Bala hosted the Eisteddfod Genedlaethol yr Urdd Gobaith Cymru, National Eisteddfod for the Welsh League of Youth, in 2014. On 16 June 2016, Balas name was changed to Bale temporarily in honour of Real Madrid forward Gareth Bale and this was only for the duration of UEFA Euro 2016. The Welsh word bala refers to the outflow of a lake, Bala, Ontario, Canada, was named after the town in 1868. Bala Lake is the largest natural lake in Wales and it occasionally freezes over—most recently in the severe winters of 1947 and 1963. The rare gwyniad fish — trapped in the lake at the end of the last Ice Age, a member of the whitefish family, it is found only in Bala Lake. Coleg y Bala is at the top of the hill on the road towards Llyn Celyn, the Victoria Hall is a small old cinema, that had been a community hall. There are several chapels, notably Capel Mawr and Capel Bach, the livestock market on Arenig Street is still going strong
27.
United States
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Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
28.
Welsh language
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Welsh is a member of the Brittonic branch of the Celtic languages. It is spoken natively in Wales, by some in England, historically it has also been known in English as the British tongue, Cambrian, Cambric and Cymric. The United Kingdom Census 2011 counted 3.1 million residents of Wales, 27% of whom had been born outside Wales, and 73% of whom reported having no Welsh language skills. Of residents of Wales aged three and over, 19% reported being able to speak Welsh, and 77% of these were able to speak, read and this can be compared with the 2001 Census, in which 20. 8% of the population reported being able to speak Welsh. 787,854 of residents in Wales aged three and over had one or more skills in Welsh, in surveys carried out between 2004 and 2006, 57% of Welsh speakers described themselves as fluent in the written language. An estimated 110,000 to 150,000 people speak Welsh in England, Welsh emerged in the 6th century from Common Brittonic, the common ancestor of Welsh, Breton, Cornish and the extinct language known as Cumbric. The Middle Welsh period is considered to have lasted from then until the 14th century, when the Modern Welsh period began, the name Welsh originated as an exonym given to its speakers by the Anglo-Saxons, meaning foreign speech. The native term for the language is Cymraeg, and for the name of the country of Wales it is Cymru, Welsh evolved from Common Brittonic, the Celtic language spoken by the ancient Celtic Britons. Classified as Insular Celtic, the British language probably arrived in Britain during the Bronze Age or Iron Age and was spoken throughout the island south of the Firth of Forth. During the Early Middle Ages the British language began to fragment due to increased dialect differentiation, evolving into Welsh and it is not clear when Welsh became distinct. Kenneth H. Jackson suggested that the evolution in syllabic structure and sound pattern was complete by around 550, Jackson, however, believed that the two varieties were already distinct by that time. The earliest Welsh poetry – that attributed to the Cynfeirdd or Early Poets – is generally considered to date to the Primitive Welsh period. However, much of this poetry was composed in the Hen Ogledd, raising further questions about the dating of the material. An 8th century inscription in Tywyn shows the language already dropping inflections in the declension of nouns, the next main period, somewhat better attested, is Old Welsh, poetry from both Wales and Scotland has been preserved in this form of the language. Both the works of Aneirin and the Book of Taliesin were in this era, Middle Welsh is the label attached to the Welsh of the 12th to 14th centuries, of which much more remains than for any earlier period. This is the language of all surviving early manuscripts of the Mabinogion. It is also the language of the existing Welsh law manuscripts, Middle Welsh is reasonably intelligible, albeit with some work, to a modern-day Welsh speaker. The famous cleric Gerald of Wales tells, in his Descriptio Cambriae, during one of the Kings many raids in the 12th century, Henry asked an old man of Pencader, Carmarthenshire whether the Welsh people could resist his army
29.
Australia
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Australia, officially the Commonwealth of Australia, is a country comprising the mainland of the Australian continent, the island of Tasmania and numerous smaller islands. It is the worlds sixth-largest country by total area, the neighbouring countries are Papua New Guinea, Indonesia and East Timor to the north, the Solomon Islands and Vanuatu to the north-east, and New Zealand to the south-east. Australias capital is Canberra, and its largest urban area is Sydney, for about 50,000 years before the first British settlement in the late 18th century, Australia was inhabited by indigenous Australians, who spoke languages classifiable into roughly 250 groups. The population grew steadily in subsequent decades, and by the 1850s most of the continent had been explored, on 1 January 1901, the six colonies federated, forming the Commonwealth of Australia. Australia has since maintained a liberal democratic political system that functions as a federal parliamentary constitutional monarchy comprising six states. The population of 24 million is highly urbanised and heavily concentrated on the eastern seaboard, Australia has the worlds 13th-largest economy and ninth-highest per capita income. With the second-highest human development index globally, the country highly in quality of life, health, education, economic freedom. The name Australia is derived from the Latin Terra Australis a name used for putative lands in the southern hemisphere since ancient times, the Dutch adjectival form Australische was used in a Dutch book in Batavia in 1638, to refer to the newly discovered lands to the south. On 12 December 1817, Macquarie recommended to the Colonial Office that it be formally adopted, in 1824, the Admiralty agreed that the continent should be known officially as Australia. The first official published use of the term Australia came with the 1830 publication of The Australia Directory and these first inhabitants may have been ancestors of modern Indigenous Australians. The Torres Strait Islanders, ethnically Melanesian, were originally horticulturists, the northern coasts and waters of Australia were visited sporadically by fishermen from Maritime Southeast Asia. The first recorded European sighting of the Australian mainland, and the first recorded European landfall on the Australian continent, are attributed to the Dutch. The first ship and crew to chart the Australian coast and meet with Aboriginal people was the Duyfken captained by Dutch navigator, Willem Janszoon. He sighted the coast of Cape York Peninsula in early 1606, the Dutch charted the whole of the western and northern coastlines and named the island continent New Holland during the 17th century, but made no attempt at settlement. William Dampier, an English explorer and privateer, landed on the north-west coast of New Holland in 1688, in 1770, James Cook sailed along and mapped the east coast, which he named New South Wales and claimed for Great Britain. The first settlement led to the foundation of Sydney, and the exploration, a British settlement was established in Van Diemens Land, now known as Tasmania, in 1803, and it became a separate colony in 1825. The United Kingdom formally claimed the part of Western Australia in 1828. Separate colonies were carved from parts of New South Wales, South Australia in 1836, Victoria in 1851, the Northern Territory was founded in 1911 when it was excised from South Australia
30.
New Zealand
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New Zealand /njuːˈziːlənd/ is an island nation in the southwestern Pacific Ocean. The country geographically comprises two main landmasses—the North Island, or Te Ika-a-Māui, and the South Island, or Te Waipounamu—and around 600 smaller islands. New Zealand is situated some 1,500 kilometres east of Australia across the Tasman Sea and roughly 1,000 kilometres south of the Pacific island areas of New Caledonia, Fiji, because of its remoteness, it was one of the last lands to be settled by humans. During its long period of isolation, New Zealand developed a distinct biodiversity of animal, fungal, the countrys varied topography and its sharp mountain peaks, such as the Southern Alps, owe much to the tectonic uplift of land and volcanic eruptions. New Zealands capital city is Wellington, while its most populous city is Auckland, sometime between 1250 and 1300 CE, Polynesians settled in the islands that later were named New Zealand and developed a distinctive Māori culture. In 1642, Dutch explorer Abel Tasman became the first European to sight New Zealand, in 1840, representatives of Britain and Māori chiefs signed the Treaty of Waitangi, which declared British sovereignty over the islands. In 1841, New Zealand became a colony within the British Empire, today, the majority of New Zealands population of 4.7 million is of European descent, the indigenous Māori are the largest minority, followed by Asians and Pacific Islanders. Reflecting this, New Zealands culture is derived from Māori and early British settlers. The official languages are English, Māori and New Zealand Sign Language, New Zealand is a developed country and ranks highly in international comparisons of national performance, such as health, education, economic freedom and quality of life. Since the 1980s, New Zealand has transformed from an agrarian, Queen Elizabeth II is the countrys head of state and is represented by a governor-general. In addition, New Zealand is organised into 11 regional councils and 67 territorial authorities for local government purposes, the Realm of New Zealand also includes Tokelau, the Cook Islands and Niue, and the Ross Dependency, which is New Zealands territorial claim in Antarctica. New Zealand is a member of the United Nations, Commonwealth of Nations, ANZUS, Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, Pacific Islands Forum, and Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation. Dutch explorer Abel Tasman sighted New Zealand in 1642 and called it Staten Landt, in 1645, Dutch cartographers renamed the land Nova Zeelandia after the Dutch province of Zeeland. British explorer James Cook subsequently anglicised the name to New Zealand, Aotearoa is the current Māori name for New Zealand. It is unknown whether Māori had a name for the country before the arrival of Europeans. Māori had several names for the two main islands, including Te Ika-a-Māui for the North Island and Te Waipounamu or Te Waka o Aoraki for the South Island. Early European maps labelled the islands North, Middle and South, in 1830, maps began to use North and South to distinguish the two largest islands and by 1907, this was the accepted norm. The New Zealand Geographic Board discovered in 2009 that the names of the North Island and South Island had never been formalised and this set the names as North Island or Te Ika-a-Māui, and South Island or Te Waipounamu
31.
Palestine (region)
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Palestine is a geographic region in Western Asia between the Mediterranean Sea and the Jordan River. It is sometimes considered to include adjoining territories, the name was used by Ancient Greek writers, and was later used for the Roman province Syria Palaestina, the Byzantine Palaestina Prima, and the Islamic provincial district of Jund Filastin. The region comprises most of the claimed for the biblical regions known as the Land of Israel. Historically, it has known as the southern portion of wider regional designations such as Canaan, Syria, ash-Sham. The boundaries of the region have changed throughout history, today, the region comprises the State of Israel and the Palestinian territories in which the State of Palestine was declared. Modern archaeology has identified 12 ancient inscriptions from Egyptian and Assyrian records recording likely cognates of Hebrew Pelesheth, the term Peleset is found in five inscriptions referring to a neighboring people or land starting from c.1150 BCE during the Twentieth dynasty of Egypt. Neither the Egyptian nor the Assyrian sources provided clear regional boundaries for the term, approximately a century later, Aristotle used a similar definition for the region in Meteorology, in which he included the Dead Sea. The term is accepted to be a translation of the Biblical name Peleshet. The term is used in the Septuagint, who used a transliteration Land of Phylistieim different from the contemporary Greek place name Palaistínē. Following the Muslim conquest, place names that were in use by the Byzantine administration generally continued to be used in Arabic, Modern archaeologists and historians of the region refer to their field of study as Levantine archaeology. The region was among the earliest in the world to see human habitation, agricultural communities, during the Bronze Age, independent Canaanite city-states were established, and were influenced by the surrounding civilizations of ancient Egypt, Mesopotamia, Phoenicia, Minoan Crete, and Syria. Between 1550–1400 BCE, the Canaanite cities became vassals to the Egyptian New Kingdom who held power until the 1178 BCE Battle of Djahy during the wider Bronze Age collapse. The region became part of the Neo-Assyrian Empire from c.740 BCE, in 539 BCE, the Babylonian empire was replaced by the Achaemenid Empire. In the 330s BCE, Macedonian ruler Alexander the Great conquered the region and it ultimately fell to the Seleucid Empire between 219–200 BCE. In 116 BCE, a Seleucid civil war resulted in the independence of certain regions including the Hasmonean principality in the Judaean Mountains, from 110 BCE, the Hasmoneans extended their authority over much of Palestine, creating a Judaean–Samaritan–Idumaean–Ituraean–Galilean alliance. The Judaean control over the region resulted in it also becoming known as Judaea. Between 73–63 BCE, the Roman Republic extended its influence into the region in the Third Mithridatic War, conquering Judea in 63 BCE, and splitting the former Hasmonean Kingdom into five districts. The three-year Ministry of Jesus, culminating in his crucifixion, is estimated to have occurred from 28–30 CE, in 70 CE, Titus sacked Jerusalem, resulting in the dispersal of the citys Jews and Christians to Yavne and Pella
32.
Chubut River
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The Chubut River is located in the Patagonia region of southern Argentina. Its name comes from the Tehuelche word chupat, which means transparent, the Argentine Chubut Province, through which the river flows, is named after it. Welsh settlers called the river Afon Camwy, meaning twisting river in English, the river is generally shallow and its water flow can vary from 4 to 400 cubic metres per second between drought and flood. Average discharge is about 60 cubic metres per second, flooding made the lands beside the river fertile and important for agriculture. The river has great importance for the agricultural and general economy of the province, there were several attempts to create dams near the two townships of Rawson and Gaiman. The Chubut River has a rare characteristic being higher than the land around it which is mostly arid. Wheat farming was the crop and mainstay of the agricultural and commercial resource of Patagonia. At this time the settlers were struggling with finance as they were using sterling, wheat and barley became a more readily available material to trade with. In 1882, following a bad harvest in 1881 a scheme of irrigation ditches from a new canal would ensure consistent watering of crops. This was key to the survival of the whole Chubut valley, the construction of the canal and irrigation system was overseen by a young Welshman, E. J. Williams. His meticulous planning created a system of ditches and channels according to an agreed size. These landowners dug the channels themselves with simple tools, the river is also a popular trout fishing destination. The river flows eastwards for approximately 800 kilometres, from the Andes to the Atlantic Ocean, the main arm of the Chubut originates in Carreras, Río Negro Province, and its basin covers a large area of the western Andean foothills between Bariloche and Esquel. It is also fed by the Chico River, the many branches join some distance before the small town of Piedra Parada, where the terrain becomes the flat plain characteristic of Argentinian Patagonia. It flows east and passes by the town of Paso del Sapo and it meets Highway 25 and turns east once again. A 255-metre long concrete dam blocks the river some 120 kilometres west of Trelew and this dam, named after paleontologist Florentino Ameghino, was designed in 1943 by engineer Antonio Domingo Pronsato, work started on 19 April 1963. The artificial lake covers 70 square kilometres, in the 19th century, Welsh settlers arrived in Chubut and established a colony, Y Wladfa/Colonia Gales, in the valley of the Chubut river. Today, the Welsh language and Welsh tea houses are common in several towns, dolavon and Trelew are examples of Welsh towns
33.
Sir Love Jones-Parry, 1st Baronet
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For his father, see Love Jones-Parry. Sir Thomas Duncombe Love Jones-Parry, 1st Baronet was a Welsh landowner who was Liberal Member of Parliament for Caernarvonshire, Love Jones-Parry inherited the Madryn estate near Nefyn from his father, Sir Love Jones-Parry. He was educated at Rugby School and Oxford University, and was High Sheriff of Caernarvonshire in 1854 and he was a prominent figure in eisteddfodic circles, where he had the bardic name Elphin. Jones-Parry rose to prominence in politics when he won the Caernarvonshire seat in the 1868 election, defeating the Tory candidate and he lost this seat at the next election, but won the Caernarvon Boroughs seat at a by-election in 1882 and held it until 1886. He was made a baronet by Gladstone for his services to the Liberal Party, towards the end of 1862 Captain Love Jones-Parry, accompanied by Lewis Jones, left for Patagonia to decide whether it was a suitable area for Welsh emigrants. The trip was financed by Jones-Parry, who paid at least £750 from his own pocket. They first visited Buenos Aires where they held discussions with the Interior Minister Guillermo Rawson then, having come to an agreement, they headed south. They reached Patagonia in a ship named the Candelaria, and were driven by a storm into a bay which they named Porth Madryn after Jones-Parrys estate in Wales. The town which grew near the spot where they landed is now named Puerto Madryn, following a favourable report from Jones-Parry and Lewis Jones, a group of 162 Welsh emigrants departed for Patagonia in the ship Mimosa in 1865. Later there was criticism that the report had given too favourable an impression of the area, hansard 1803–2005, contributions in Parliament by Sir Love Jones-Parry Photograph of Love Jones-Parry, c.1865
34.
Lewis Jones (Patagonia)
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Lewis Jones was one of the founders of the Welsh settlement in Patagonia. The city of Trelew was named after him, Jones was born in Caernarfon and worked as a printer in Holyhead, where he was co-editor of the Welsh periodical Y Punch Cymraeg. Later he moved to Liverpool and married Ellen Griffith in 1859, in 1862 Lewis Jones accompanied Captain Love Jones-Parry to Patagonia to investigate whether it was a suitable area for the project. They first visited Buenos Aires where they held discussions with the minister Guillermo Rawson then having come to an agreement headed south. They reached Patagonia in a ship named the Candelaria, and were driven by a storm into a bay which they named Porth Madryn after Jones-Parrys estate in Wales. The town which grew near the spot where they landed is now named Puerto Madryn and they returned to Wales with a favourable report, which was further embellished by Lewis Jones in a series of speeches. Lewis Jones and Edwyn Cynrig Roberts went to Patagonia ahead of the party to prepare the ground. However a quarrel broke out when some of the settlers complained that the land was by no means as suitable for settlement as Lewis Jones had claimed. Jones moved to Buenos Aires to work as a printer for a period and he set up a printing press and published two Welsh newspapers, Ein Breiniad and Y Drafod. The Argentine government appointed him governor for a period, but he was imprisoned for supporting the rights of the Welsh settlers against the government. In the 1870s he made a number of trips to explore the area beyond the Chubut valley, Lewis Jones was the driving force behind the construction of a railway running up the Chubut valley from Puerto Madryn. In 1884 the Argentine Congress authorised the construction of the Central Chubut Railway by Lewis Jones y Cia. Raising funds locally to set up a company to build the railway proved difficult and it was Bell who assisted them to set up the company in Liverpool. Work on the began in 1886, helped by the arrival of another 465 Welsh settlers on the steamer Vesta. The town which grew at the railhead was named Trelew in honour of Lewis Jones, the town grew rapidly and in 1888 became the headquarters of the Compañía Mercantil del Chubut. Lewis Jones died in 1904, the year in which Trelew elected its first municipal authority and his daughter Eluned, later Eluned Morgan, became a prominent figure in the life of the Welsh settlement, and is generally regarded as the finest Welsh language writer produced by Patagonia. Dictionary of Welsh Biography Photograph of Lewis Jones The construction of the railway
35.
Guillermo Rawson
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Dr. Guillermo Rawson was a medical doctor and politician in nineteenth-century Argentina. As Interior Minister in 1862 he met Captain Love Jones-Parry and Lewis Jones who were on their way to Patagonia to investigate whether it was suitable for the creation of a Welsh settlement there. Rawson came to an agreement with them, and this resulted in the creation of a colony in the Chubut Valley in the following years, the city of Rawson, the capital of the province of Chubut was named after him. Guillermo Rawsons parents were Dr. Aman Rawson, a doctor who had emigrated from the United States to Argentina, and Justina Rojo, a daughter of a family in San Juan. His elder brother was the artist Franklin Rawson, after a Jesuit education in San Juan, Rawson graduated from the Medical Faculty of University of Buenos Aires in 1844. Rawson became interested in politics and democracy, in 1853 he was jailed for opposing Nazario Benavidez, the caudillo or de facto governor of San Juan. The following year he was a member of the Paraná Congress, apart from politics, Rawson was interested in medicine and hygiene. In 1876 he attended the Centennial Exposition in Philadelphia to present his work on health in Buenos Aires. In 1879, he was elected a member of the American Antiquarian Society, Rawson spent a year in Paris in 1881 for medical treatment, before returning to Argentina. He returned to France for further treatment in 1885 and died in Paris in 1890, the building of the first Medical School in Buenos Aires is named after him. Rawson, Guillermo, and Alberto B. Martinez, escritos y discursos del doctor Guillermo Rawson. Buenos Aires, Compañía Sud-Americana de Billetes de Banco, Guillermo Rawson at Find a Grave The Escuela Dr Guillermo Rawson in Himetop - The History of Medicine Topographical database
36.
Puerto Madryn
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Puerto Madryn is a city in the province of Chubut in Argentine Patagonia. It is the capital of the Biedma Department, and has about 93,995 inhabitants according to the last census in 2010, Puerto Madryn is protected by the Golfo Nuevo, which is formed by the Península Valdés and the Punta Ninfas. It is an important centre for visiting the natural attractions of the Península Valdés. A new shopping mall in the city centre has helped tourism significantly and it is twinned with Nefyn, a small town on the Llŷn Peninsula in North Wales, the result of its enduring link with Welsh culture since the Welsh settlement in Argentina. The first of a two-Test tour to Argentina by the Wales national rugby team was played in 2006 in Puerto Madryn. Puerto Madryn is home to two clubs, Club Social y Atlético Guillermo Brown, who play in Nacional B. A basketball team, Deportivo Puerto Madryn, plays in the Liga Nacional de Básquetbol and their home arena is known as the Deportivo Puerto Madryn Arena. El Tehuelche Airport is located 10 km northwest of the city centre, commercial flights from Buenos Aires, Ushuaia, and other Argentinian cities are available. Most tourists fly into Trelew Airport as flights into Puerto Madryn are restricted as a result of environmental concerns, Puerto Madryn is situated in Chubut on the Golfo Nuevo, which is formed by the Valdés Peninsula and Punta Ninfas. The climate is that of a desert zone, with an annual precipitation of between 150 and 200 mm. The settlement grew as a result of the building of the Central Chubut Railway by Welsh, Spanish and this line, opened in 1889, linked the town to Trelew via the lower Chubut River valley. Immigration in Argentina Hospital A R Isola Project-Hiraeth – Documents the stories of the Welsh colony in Patagonia, Argentina through film, text, Municipal information, Municipal Affairs Federal Institute, Municipal Affairs Secretariat, Ministry of Interior, Argentina
37.
Mimosa (ship)
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The Mimosa was a clipper ship best known for carrying the first Welsh emigrants to South America in 1865. By the time Mimosa made the voyage she was already past her prime and she had not been designed to carry passengers, but had been converted for the purpose. The cost of fitting provisioning and chartering the ship was £2,500, before the voyage the emigrants assembled at various points, not always their places of origin, to prepare for the journey, including Aberdare, Birkenhead and Mountain Ash. Mimosa sailed from Liverpool, England on May 28,1865 to Patagonia, South America with a group of about 153 passengers with Captain George Pepperell, thomas Greene, an Irishman from Kildare, had been appointed as ships surgeon. They landed on July 28,1865 and named their landing site Porth Madryn and they were met by Edwyn Cynrig Roberts and Lewis Jones who had already arrived in Patagonia in June 1865 to prepare for the arrival of the main body of settlers. Their aim was to establish a Welsh colony which would preserve the Welsh language, the proposed site for the colony was in the Chubut River valley. On September 15,1865 the first town in the Chubut colony was named Rawson, the exact number of emigrants who sailed out to Patagonia on the Mimosa remains uncertain. In 1875 the Argentine government granted the Welsh settlers ownership of the land which encouraged hundreds of others from Wales to join the colony, in the early 21st century, approximately 50,000 Patagonians are of Welsh descent, of whom around 5,000 are Welsh speakers. Photograph of Mimosa passengers in 1890 Ticket of Rev. Abraham Matthews for journey to Patagonia
38.
Liverpool
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Liverpool is a major city and metropolitan borough in North West England.24 million people in 2011. Liverpool historically lay within the ancient hundred of West Derby in the south west of the county of Lancashire and it became a borough from 1207 and a city from 1880. In 1889 it became a county borough independent of Lancashire, Liverpool sits on the eastern side of the Mersey Estuary and its growth as a major port is paralleled by the expansion of the city throughout the Industrial Revolution. Along with general cargo, freight, raw materials such as coal and cotton, the city was also directly involved in the Atlantic slave trade. Liverpool was home to both the Cunard and White Star Line, and was the port of registry of the ocean liner RMS Titanic and others such as the RMS Lusitania, Queen Mary, and Olympic. The city celebrated its 800th anniversary in 2007, and it held the European Capital of Culture title together with Stavanger, Norway, several areas of Liverpool city centre were granted World Heritage Site status by UNESCO in 2004. The Liverpool Maritime Mercantile City includes the Pier Head, Albert Dock, tourism forms a significant part of the citys economy. Liverpool is also the home of two Premier League football clubs, Liverpool and Everton, matches between the two being known as the Merseyside derby, the world-famous Grand National horse race takes place annually at Aintree Racecourse on the outskirts of the city. The city is home to the oldest Black African community in the country. Natives of Liverpool are referred to as Liverpudlians and colloquially as Scousers, a reference to scouse, the word Scouse has also become synonymous with the Liverpool accent and dialect. Pool is a place name element in England from the Brythonic word for a pond, inlet, or pit, cognate with the modern Welsh. The derivation of the first element remains uncertain, with the Welsh word Llif as the most plausible relative and this etymology is supported by its similarity to that of the archaic Welsh name for Liverpool Llynlleifiad. Other origins of the name have suggested, including elverpool. The name appeared in 1190 as Liuerpul, and it may be that the place appearing as Leyrpole, in a record of 1418. King Johns letters patent of 1207 announced the foundation of the borough of Liverpool, the original street plan of Liverpool is said to have been designed by King John near the same time it was granted a royal charter, making it a borough. The original seven streets were laid out in an H shape, Bank Street, Castle Street, Chapel Street, Dale Street, Juggler Street, Moor Street, in the 17th century there was slow progress in trade and population growth. Battles for the town were waged during the English Civil War, in 1699 Liverpool was made a parish by Act of Parliament, that same year its first slave ship, Liverpool Merchant, set sail for Africa. Since Roman times, the city of Chester on the River Dee had been the regions principal port on the Irish Sea
39.
Tailor
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A tailor is a person who makes, repairs, or alters clothing professionally, especially suits and mens clothing. The term refers to a set of hand and machine sewing and pressing techniques that are unique to the construction of traditional jackets. Retailers of tailored suits often take their services internationally, traveling to various cities, traditional tailoring is called bespoke tailoring in the United Kingdom, where the heart of the trade is Londons Savile Row tailoring, and custom tailoring in the United States and Hong Kong. This is unlike made to measure which uses pre-existing patterns, a bespoke garment or suit is completely original and unique to each customer. Famous fictional tailors include the tailor in The Tailor of Gloucester, The Emperors New Clothes, a more recent example is John le Carrés The Tailor of Panama. As the tailoring profession has evolved, so too have the methods of tailoring, there are a number of distinctive business models of which modern tailors may practice. While some may practice many, there are others who will only one or two. Local tailoring is as the name implies, typically the tailor is met locally and the garment produced locally. This method enables the tailor to take measurements, assess posture. Local tailors will typically have a showroom or shopfront allowing clients to choose fabrics from samples or return the garment easily should it require further modification and this is the most traditional form of tailoring. Hong Kong and London are the most famous for high quality bespoke tailoring, distance tailoring involves ordering a garment from an out-of-town tailor enabling cheaper labour to be used. In practice this can now be done on a global scale via e-commerce websites, unlike local tailoring, customers must take their own measurements, fabric selection must be made from a photo, and if further alterations are required the garment must be shipped. Today, the most common platform for distance tailoring is via online tailors, online tailors sometimes offer to pay for needed alterations at a local tailor. Another new option is the concept where a free test suit is made to the provided measurements, the test suit can be tried on and worn to see where any adjustments are wanted. The final suit is tailored to the new specifications provided by the test suit fitting. Traveling tailors travel between cities and station in a luxury hotel for a short period of time to meet. In the hotel, the customer will be able to select the fabric from samples, the order then will be shipped to the customer within three to four weeks time. Unlike local tailoring, if further alterations are required the garment must be shipped, today, most traveling tailors are from Hong Kong, traveling to the United States, the United Kingdom, France, Australia and Japan
40.
Shoemaking
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Shoemaking is the process of making footwear. Originally, shoes were made one at a time by hand, shoemakers, also known as cordwainers or snobs, may produce a range of footwear items, including shoes, boots, sandals, clogs and moccasins. Such items are made of leather, wood, rubber, plastic, jute or other plant material. Trades that engage in shoemaking have included the cordwainers and cobblers trades, today shoes are often made on a factory basis rather than a craft basis. For most of history, shoemaking has been a handicraft, limited to time consuming manufacture by hand, traditional shoemakers used more than 15 different techniques of making shoes. Some of these were, pegged construction, English welted, goyser welted, Norwegian, stitchdown, turnout, German sewn, moccasin, bolognese stitched, and blake-stitched. The most basic foot protection, used since ancient times in the Mediterranean area, was the sandal, similar footwear worn in the Far East was made from plaited grass or palm fronds. In climates that required a full foot covering, a piece of untanned hide was laced with a thong, providing full protection for the foot. The production of shoes, was widespread in medieval Europe. They were made from a piece of wood roughly cut into shoe form. A variant of this form was the clog, which were wooden soles to which a leather upper was attached, the sole and heel were made from one piece of maple or ash two inches thick, and a little longer and broader than the desired size of shoe. With the use of a hollower, the inner soles contours were adapted to the shape of the foot, the leather uppers were then fitted closely to the groove around the sole. Clogs were of great advantage to workers in muddy and damp conditions, keeping the feet dry, by the 1600s, leather shoes came in two main types. Turn shoes consisted of one thin flexible sole, which was sewed to the upper while outside in and this type was used for making slippers and similar shoes. The second type united the upper with an insole, which was attached to an out-sole with a raised heel. This was the variety, and was used for most footwear, including standard shoes. The traditional shoemaker would measure the feet and cut out upper leathers according to the required size and these parts were fitted and stitched together. The insole was then attached to a last made of wood, some lasts were straight, while curved lasts came in pairs, one for left shoes, the other for right shoes
41.
Carpentry
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Carpentry in the United States is almost always done by men. With 98. 5% of carpenters being male, it was the fourth most male-dominated occupation in the country in 1999, Carpenters are usually the first tradesmen on a job and the last to leave. Carpenters normally framed post-and-beam buildings until the end of the 19th century and it is also common that the skill can be learned by gaining work experience other than a formal training program, which may be the case in many places. The word carpenter is the English rendering of the Old French word carpentier which is derived from the Latin carpentrius, the Middle English and Scots word was wright, which could be used in compound forms such as wheelwright or boatwright. An easy way to envisage this is that first fix work is all that is done before plastering takes place, second fix is done after plastering takes place. Second fix work, the construction of such as skirting boards, architraves. Carpentry is also used to construct the formwork into which concrete is poured during the building of such as roads. In the UK, the skill of making timber formwork for poured, or in situ, although the. work of a carpenter and joiner are often combined. Joiner is less common than the finish carpenter or cabinetmaker. The terms housewright and barnwright were used historically, now used by carpenters who work using traditional methods. Someone who builds custom concrete formwork is a form carpenter, wood is one of mankinds oldest building materials. The ability to shape wood improved with technological advances from the age to the bronze age to the iron age. The oldest surviving, complete text is Vitruvius ten books collectively titled De architectura which discusses some carpentry. By the 16th century sawmills were coming into use in Europe, the founding of America was partly based on a desire to extract resources from the new continent including wood for use in ships and buildings in Europe. In the 18th century part of the Industrial Revolution was the invention of the steam engine and these technologies combined with the invention of the circular saw led to the development of balloon framing which was the beginning of the decline of traditional timber framing. The 19th century saw the development of engineering and distribution which allowed the development of hand-held power tools, wire nails. In the 20th century portland cement came into use and concrete foundations allowed carpenters to do away with heavy timber sills. Also, drywall came into common use replacing lime plaster on wooden lath, plywood, engineered lumber and chemically treated lumber also came into use
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Brickworks
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A brickworks, also known as a brick factory, is a factory for the manufacturing of bricks, from clay or shale. Usually a brickworks is located on a clay bedrock, often with a quarry for clay on site, most brickworks have some or all of the following, A kiln, for firing, or burning the bricks. Drying yard or shed, for drying bricks before firing, a building or buildings for manufacturing the bricks. A pugmill or clay preparation plant, bricks were originally made by hand, and that practice continues in developing countries and a few specialty suppliers. When the clay enters the plant it is crushed, and mixed with water and other additives which may include breeze. This process, which is known as pugmilling, improves the consistency, firing qualities, texture. From here, the clay can be extruded into a continuous strip and cut with wires. After the forming or cutting, the bricks must be dried, either in the air, in drying sheds. When the bricks have been dried, they must then be fired or burnt in a kiln, to them their final hardness. In the past, clay was transported from the quarry to the brickworks by narrow gauge railway or aerial ropeway. The London Brick Company Bursledon Brickworks Brickworks Limited - Australian brick manufacturer Evergreen Brickworks Brick Brickwork Brickyard Masonry Factories
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Miner
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A miner is a person who extracts ore, coal, or other mineral from the earth through mining. There are two senses in which the term is used, in its narrowest sense, a miner is someone who works at the rock face, cutting, blasting, or otherwise working and removing the rock. In a broader sense, a miner is working within a mine. Mining is one of the most dangerous trades in the world, in some countries, miners lack social guarantees and in case of injury may be left to cope without assistance. Different functions of the individual miner, many of the roles are specific to a type of mining, such as coal mining. Roles considered to be miners in the narrower sense have included, Hewer, collier, a hewer who hews coal with a pick. Driller, who works a rock drill to bore holes for placing dynamite or other explosives, other roles within mines that did not involve breaking rock have included, Loader, who loads the mining carts with coal at the face. Putter, who works the carts around the mine, barrow-man, who transported the broken coal from the face in wheelbarrows. Hurrier, who transported coal carts from a mine to the surface, timberer, who fashions and installs timber supports to support the walls and ceiling in an underground mine. In addition to miners working underground, a mine employs other workers in duties at the surface, in addition to office staff of various sorts, these may include, Brakesman, who operate the winding engine. Mining engineers use the principles of math and science to develop solutions to technical problems for miners. In most cases, a degree in engineering, mining engineering or geological engineering is required. Because technology is changing, miners and mining engineers need to continue their education. The basics of mining engineering includes finding, extracting, and preparing minerals, metals and these mined products are used for electric power generation and manufacturing industries. Mining engineers also supervise the construction of mine operations and create ways to transport the extracted minerals to processing plants. Underground mining Miners apron Miners cap Miners habit Mining helmet Mooskappe, miners cap worn in the Harz
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South Wales Coalfield
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The South Wales Coalfield is a large region of south Wales that is rich in coal deposits, especially the South Wales Valleys. It supported a large part, but not all, of the industry in Wales. The South Wales Coalfield extends across parts of Pembrokeshire, Carmarthenshire, Swansea, Neath Port Talbot, Bridgend, Rhondda Cynon Taf, Merthyr Tydfil, Caerphilly, Blaenau Gwent, see also the Geology of South Wales. The coal generally increases in grade or rank from east to west, with bituminous coals in the east, the Rhondda Valley was particularly known for steam coals which fuelled steamships of the 19th and early 20th centuries. Communications along the floors provided the main routeways for exporting coal south to ports and docks such as Newport Docks, Cardiff Docks. Early activity was mainly by levels or adits driven into coal seams from outcrops in the valley sides, development of the coalfield proceeded very actively from about 1850, when deep mining became significant in the previously entirely rural Rhondda Valley. Later colliery shafts were sunk as deep as 800 yards in order to reach the thicker, better quality seams, iron ore was also extracted from the coal measures, principally from the north crop area. This trend, which was extended to railway locomotives, was a factor in the economic hardship which struck the coalfield after the First World War. Coal workings were over-expanded in the nineteenth century, but the Welsh coal owners had failed to invest in mechanisation. By the inter-war period the South Wales Coalfield had the lowest productivity, highest costs, hardship continued through the 1926 general strike, the great depression of the 1930s, World War II and thereafter. The 1937 novel The Citadel and the 1939 novel How Green Was My Valley describe such hardship, as do the poems of Idris Davies the miner, teacher and poet of Rhymney. New collieries, particularly in the part of the coalfield where anthracite is found, were developed into the 1960s by the National Coal Board. Following the general collapse of the UK coal industry, most pits closed during the 1980s, with such as exhaustion of reserves. The last deep mine, at Tower Colliery on the north crop, however, a few small licensed mines continue to work seams, mostly from outcrop, on the hillsides. Although some areas of the coalfield are effectively worked out, considerable reserves remain, however, the geological difficulties, which resulted in the closure of Nantgarw colliery, make the cost of significant further extraction high. The coalfield experienced a development when opencast mining was commenced on a large scale. In addition, old tips were reclaimed for their small coal content, most of the old sites have been filled and landscaped, but new operations continue. Landslipping of the valley slopes, and subsidence caused by the coal extraction, have also posed problems
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