1.
Romanization
–
Romanization, in linguistics, is the conversion of writing from a different writing system to the Roman script, or a system for doing so. Methods of romanization include transliteration, for representing written text, and transcription, for representing the spoken word, There are many consistent or standardized romanization systems. They can be classified by their characteristics, source, or donor language – A system may be tailored to romanize text from a particular language, or a series of languages, or for any language in a particular writing system. A language-specific system typically preserves language features like pronunciation, while the one may be better for cataloguing international texts. Target, or receiver language – Most systems are intended for an audience that speaks or reads a particular language and this affects the ease of creation, digital storage and transmission, reproduction, and reading of the romanized text. Reversibility – Whether or not the original can be restored from the converted text, some reversible systems allow for an irreversible simplified version. Most romanizations are intended to enable the reader who is unfamiliar with the original script to pronounce the source language reasonably accurately. Such romanizations follow the principle of phonemic transcription and attempt to render the significant sounds of the original as faithfully as possible in the target language, the popular Hepburn romanization of Japanese is an example of a transcriptive romanization designed for English speakers. The International Phonetic Alphabet is the most common system of phonetic transcription, for most language pairs, building a usable romanization involves tradeoffs between the two extremes. In modern times the chain of transcription is usually spoken foreign language, written language, written native language. Reducing the number of processes, i. e. removing one or both steps of writing, usually leads to more accurate oral articulations. In general, outside a limited audience of scholars romanizations tend to lean more towards transcription, Romanization standards include the following, Deutsche Morgenländische Gesellschaft, Adopted by the International Convention of Orientalist Scholars in Rome. It is the basis for the very influential Hans Wehr dictionary, qalam, A system that focuses upon preserving the spelling, rather than the pronunciation, and uses mixed case ISO 233-2, Simplified transliteration. Buckwalter transliteration, Developed at Xerox by Tim Buckwalter, doesnt require unusual diacritics ALA-LC Arabic chat alphabet There are romanization systems for both Modern and Ancient Greek. ALA-LC Beta Code Greeklish ISO843 The Hebrew alphabet is romanized using several standards, ANSI Z39.25 UNGEGN ISO259, ALA-LC The Brahmic family of abugidas is used for languages of the Indian subcontinent and south-east Asia. There is a tradition in the west to study Sanskrit. Various transliteration conventions have been used for Indic scripts since the time of Sir William Jones, ISO15919, A standard transliteration convention was codified in the ISO15919 standard. It uses diacritics to map the much larger set of Brahmic consonants, see also Transliteration of Indic scripts, how to use ISO15919
Romanization
–
Languages can be romanized in a number of ways, as shown here with
Mandarin Chinese
2.
Ticker symbol
–
A ticker symbol or stock symbol is an abbreviation used to uniquely identify publicly traded shares of a particular stock on a particular stock market. A stock symbol may consist of letters, numbers or a combination of both, ticker symbol refers to the symbols that were printed on the ticker tape of a ticker tape machine. Stock symbols are unique identifiers assigned to each security traded on a particular market, for example, AAPL is for Apple Inc. OODH is for Orion DHC, Inc. and HD is for Home Depot, a stock symbol can consist of letters, numbers, or a combination of both, and is a way to uniquely identify that stock. The symbols were kept as short as possible to reduce the number of characters that had to be printed on the ticker tape, the allocation of symbols and formatting convention is specific to each stock exchange. In the US, for example, stock tickers are typically between 1 and 4 letters and represent the name where possible. In Europe, most exchanges use three-letter codes, for example Dutch consumer goods company Unilever traded on the Amsterdam Euronext exchange has the symbol UNA, while in Asia, numbers are often used as stock tickers to avoid issues for international investors when using non-Latin scripts. For example, the bank HSBCs stock traded on the Hong Kong Stock Exchange has the ticker symbol 0005, symbols sometimes change to reflect mergers. Prior to the 1999 merger with Mobil Oil, Exxon used a spelling of the company XON as its ticker symbol. The symbol of the firm after the merger was XOM, symbols are sometimes reused, in the US the single-letter symbols are particularly sought after as vanity symbols. For example, since Mar 2008 Visa Inc. has used the symbol V that had previously used by Vivendi which had delisted. To fully qualify a stock, both the ticker and the exchange or country of listing needs to be known, on many systems both must be specified to uniquely identify the security. This is often done by appending the location or exchange code to the ticker, although stock tickers identify a security, they are exchange dependent, generally limited to stocks and can change. These limitations have led to the development of other codes in financial markets to identify securities for settlement purposes, the most prevalent of these is the International Securities Identifying Number. An ISIN uniquely identifies a security and its structure is defined in ISO6166, Securities for which ISINs are issued include bonds, commercial paper, stocks, and warrants. The ISIN identifies the security, not the exchange on which it trades, for instance, Daimler AG stock trades on twenty-two different stock exchanges worldwide, and is priced in five different currencies, it has the same ISIN on each, though not the same ticker symbol. ISIN cannot specify a particular trade in this case, and another identifier, following the introduction of the Sequence trading platform in 1996, EPICs were renamed Tradable Instrument Display Mnemonics, but they are still widely referred to as EPICs. Stocks can also be identified using their SEDOL number or their ISIN, in the United States, modern letter-only ticker symbols were developed by Standard & Poors to bring a national standard to investing
Ticker symbol
–
Stock
telegraph ticker machine by
Thomas Edison
3.
Tokyo Stock Exchange
–
The Tokyo Stock Exchange, which is called Tōshō or TSE/TYO for short, is a stock exchange located in Tokyo, Japan. It is the fourth largest stock exchange in the world by market capitalization of its listed companies. It had 2,292 listed companies with a market capitalization of US$4.09 trillion as of April 2015. In July 2012 a planned merger with the Osaka Securities Exchange was approved by the Japan Fair Trade Commission, the resulting entity, the Japan Exchange Group, was launched on January 1,2013. The TSE is incorporated as a kabushiki gaisha with nine directors, four auditors and its headquarters are located at 2-1 Nihonbashi-Kabutochō, Chūō, Tokyo, or Kabuto-chō, which is the largest financial district in Japan. Its operating hours are from 8,00 to 11,30 a. m. from April 24,2006, the afternoon trading session started at its usual time of 12,30 p. m. Stocks listed on the TSE are separated into the First Section for large companies, the Second Section for mid-sized companies, as of October 31,2010, there are 1,675 First Section companies,437 Second Section companies and 182 Mothers companies. Ninety-four domestic and 10 foreign securities companies participate in TSE trading, see, Members of the Tokyo Stock Exchange Other TSE-related institutions include, The exchanges press club, called the Kabuto Club, which meets on the third floor of the TSE building. Most Kabuto Club members are affiliated with the Nihon Keizai Shimbun, Kyodo News, Jiji Press, or business television broadcasters such as Bloomberg LP, the Kabuto Club is generally busiest during April and May, when public companies release their annual accounts. On 15 June 2007, the TSE paid $303 million to acquire a 4. 99% stake in Singapore Exchange Ltd. The Tokyo Stock Exchange was established on May 15,1878, as the Tokyo Kabushiki Torihikijo under the direction of then-Finance Minister Okuma Shigenobu, trading began on June 1,1878. In 1943, the exchange was combined with ten other stock exchanges in major Japanese cities to form a single Japanese Stock Exchange, the combined exchange was shut down and reorganized shortly after the bombing of Nagasaki. The Tokyo Stock Exchange reopened under its current Japanese name on May 16,1949, a new facility, called TSE Arrows, opened on May 9,2000. In 2010, the TSE launched its Arrowhead trading facility, in 2001, the TSE restructured itself as a stock company, before this time, it was structured as an incorporated association with its members as shareholders. The interruption in trading was the worst in the history of the exchange, trading was suspended for four-and-a-half hours. Mizuho failed to catch the error, the Tokyo Stock Exchange initially blocked attempts to cancel the order, on 11 December, the TSE acknowledged that its system was at fault in the Mizuho trade. On 21 December, Takuo Tsurushima, chief executive of the TSE, and two other senior executives resigned over the Mizuho affair. On January 17,2006, the Nikkei 225 fell 2. 8%, its fastest drop in nine months, the Tokyo Stock Exchange closed early on January 18 due to the trade volume threatening to exceed the exchanges computer systems capacity of 4.5 million trades per day
Tokyo Stock Exchange
–
Old Tokyo Stock Exchange building, circa 1960
Tokyo Stock Exchange
–
Tokyo Stock Exchange 東京証券取引所
Tokyo Stock Exchange
–
Tokyo Stock Exchange in 1950
Tokyo Stock Exchange
–
Ticker board of Tokyo stock exchange, 2008
4.
Hamamatsu
–
Hamamatsu is a city located in western Shizuoka Prefecture, Japan. As of September 1,2015, the city had an population of 789,407, making it the prefectures largest city. The total area was 1,558.06 km2 and it became a city designated by government ordinance on April 1,2007. Hamamatsu is 260 kilometres southwest of Tokyo, Hamamatsu consists of a flat plain and the Mikatahara Plateau in the south, and a mountainous area in the north. It is roughly bordered by Lake Hamana to the west, the Tenryū River to the east, in the Nara period, it became the capital of Tōtōmi Province. During the Sengoku period, Hamamatsu Castle was the home of future Shogun Tokugawa Ieyasu, Hamamatsu flourished during the Edo period under a succession of daimyō rulers as a castle town, and as a post town on the Tōkaidō. After the Meiji Restoration, Hamamatsu became a short-lived prefecture from 1871 to 1876, Hamamatsu Station opened on the Tōkaidō Main Line in 1889. The same year, in a reform of Japan, Hamamatsu became a town. April 1,1991, The first Hamamatsu International Piano Competition was held, may 1,1994, Act City Hamamatsu opened. October 1,1995, Hamamatsu Museum of Musical Instruments opened, April 1,1996, Hamamatsu is designated a core city by the central government. June 1,1996, Hamamatsu City Fruit Park opened, january 1,1997, Started separated collection of garbage in residential areas. April 1,1997, Hamamatsu is designated as an Omnibus Town, April 1,1998, Act City Musical School opened. April 3,2000, Shizuoka University of Art and Culture opened, July 1,2001, The citys 90th anniversary is commemorated August 1,2002, Launched the conference on Pan-Hamanako Designated City Simulation. April 1,2003, Shizuoka New Kawafuji National High School Competition was held, june 1,2003, Launched Tenryūgawa-Hamanako Region Merger Conference. April 8 – October 11,2004, Pacific Flora 2004 was held at Hamanako Garden Park, inasa District and Iwata District were both dissolved as a result of this merger. Therefore, there are no more left in Shizuoka Prefecture. April 1,2007, Hamamatsu became a city designated by government ordinance by the central government. The climate in southern Hamamatsu is mild with little snowfall in the winter, however, it is windy in winter because of the dry monsoon called Enshū no Karakaze, the climate in northern Hamamatsu is much harsher because of foehn winds
Hamamatsu
–
From top left:Act City Hamamatsu, Akihasan Hongū Akiha Jinja, Enshu Railway Line, Hamamatsu Castle, Hamana Ōhasi
Hamamatsu
–
Seal
Hamamatsu
–
Lake Hamana
Hamamatsu
–
Hamamatsu Pacific Ocean
5.
Shizuoka Prefecture
–
Shizuoka Prefecture is a prefecture of Japan located in the Chūbu region of Honshu. The capital is the city of Shizuoka, while Hamamatsu is the largest city by population, Shizuoka Prefecture was formed from the former Tōtōmi, Suruga and Izu provinces. The area was the home of the first Tokugawa Shogun, Tokugawa Ieyasu held the region until he conquered the lands of the Hōjō clan in the Kantō region and placed land under the stewardship of Oda Nobunaga. After becoming shogun, Tokugawa took the back for his family. With the creation of Shizuoka han in 1868, it again became the residence of the Tokugawa family. Shizuoka Prefecture is an elongated region following the coast of the Pacific Ocean at the Suruga Bay, in the west, the prefecture extends deep into the Japan Alps. In the east, it becomes a narrower coast bounded in the north by Mount Fuji, until it comes to the Izu Peninsula, throughout history, a disastrous earthquake called the Tokai earthquake has hit Shizuoka every 100 to 150 years. On Tuesday, March 15,2011, Shizuoka Prefecture was hit with a magnitude 6.2 earthquake approximately 42 km NNE of Shizuoka City, ISBN 978-0-674-01753-5, OCLC58053128 Official Shizuoka Prefecture website Official Shizuoka Guide
Shizuoka Prefecture
–
View of Mt. Fuji from Fujinomiya
Shizuoka Prefecture
–
Shizuoka Prefecture 静岡県
Shizuoka Prefecture
–
Shizuoka City
Shizuoka Prefecture
–
Hamamatsu
6.
Japan
–
Japan is a sovereign island nation in Eastern Asia. Located in the Pacific Ocean, it lies off the eastern coast of the Asia Mainland and stretches from the Sea of Okhotsk in the north to the East China Sea, the kanji that make up Japans name mean sun origin. 日 can be read as ni and means sun while 本 can be read as hon, or pon, Japan is often referred to by the famous epithet Land of the Rising Sun in reference to its Japanese name. Japan is an archipelago consisting of about 6,852 islands. The four largest are Honshu, Hokkaido, Kyushu and Shikoku, the country is divided into 47 prefectures in eight regions. Hokkaido being the northernmost prefecture and Okinawa being the southernmost one, the population of 127 million is the worlds tenth largest. Japanese people make up 98. 5% of Japans total population, approximately 9.1 million people live in the city of Tokyo, the capital of Japan. Archaeological research indicates that Japan was inhabited as early as the Upper Paleolithic period, the first written mention of Japan is in Chinese history texts from the 1st century AD. Influence from other regions, mainly China, followed by periods of isolation, from the 12th century until 1868, Japan was ruled by successive feudal military shoguns who ruled in the name of the Emperor. Japan entered into a period of isolation in the early 17th century. The Second Sino-Japanese War of 1937 expanded into part of World War II in 1941, which came to an end in 1945 following the bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. Japan is a member of the UN, the OECD, the G7, the G8, the country has the worlds third-largest economy by nominal GDP and the worlds fourth-largest economy by purchasing power parity. It is also the worlds fourth-largest exporter and fourth-largest importer, although Japan has officially renounced its right to declare war, it maintains a modern military with the worlds eighth-largest military budget, used for self-defense and peacekeeping roles. Japan is a country with a very high standard of living. Its population enjoys the highest life expectancy and the third lowest infant mortality rate in the world, in ancient China, Japan was called Wo 倭. It was mentioned in the third century Chinese historical text Records of the Three Kingdoms in the section for the Wei kingdom, Wa became disliked because it has the connotation of the character 矮, meaning dwarf. The 倭 kanji has been replaced with the homophone Wa, meaning harmony, the Japanese word for Japan is 日本, which is pronounced Nippon or Nihon and literally means the origin of the sun. The earliest record of the name Nihon appears in the Chinese historical records of the Tang dynasty, at the start of the seventh century, a delegation from Japan introduced their country as Nihon
Japan
–
The
Golden Hall and
five-storey pagoda of
Hōryū-ji, among the oldest wooden buildings in the world,
National Treasures, and a
UNESCO World Heritage Site
Japan
Japan
–
Samurai warriors face Mongols, during the
Mongol invasions of Japan. The
Kamikaze, two storms, are said to have saved Japan from Mongol fleets.
Japan
–
Samurai could
kill a commoner for the slightest insult and were widely feared by the Japanese population.
Edo period, 1798
7.
Musical instruments
–
A musical instrument is an instrument created or adapted to make musical sounds. In principle, any object that produces sound can be a musical instrument—it is through purpose that the object becomes a musical instrument, the history of musical instruments dates to the beginnings of human culture. Early musical instruments may have used for ritual, such as a trumpet to signal success on the hunt. Cultures eventually developed composition and performance of melodies for entertainment, Musical instruments evolved in step with changing applications. The date and origin of the first device considered an instrument is disputed. The oldest object that some refer to as a musical instrument. Some consensus dates early flutes to about 37,000 years ago, many early musical instruments were made from animal skins, bone, wood, and other non-durable materials. Musical instruments developed independently in many populated regions of the world, however, contact among civilizations caused rapid spread and adaptation of most instruments in places far from their origin. By the Middle Ages, instruments from Mesopotamia were in maritime Southeast Asia, development in the Americas occurred at a slower pace, but cultures of North, Central, and South America shared musical instruments. By 1400, musical instrument development slowed in areas and was dominated by the Occident. Musical instrument classification is a discipline in its own right, Instruments can be classified by their effective range, their material composition, their size, etc. However, the most common method, Hornbostel-Sachs, uses the means by which they produce sound. The academic study of instruments is called organology. Once humans moved from making sounds with their bodies—for example, by using objects to create music from sounds. Primitive instruments were designed to emulate natural sounds, and their purpose was ritual rather than entertainment. The concept of melody and the pursuit of musical composition were unknown to early players of musical instruments. A player sounding a flute to signal the start of a hunt does so without thought of the notion of making music. Musical instruments are constructed in an array of styles and shapes
Musical instruments
–
Anne Vallayer-Coster, Attributes of Music, 1770. This
still life painting depicts a variety of French Baroque musical instruments, such as a
natural horn,
transverse flute,
musette,
violin, and
lute.
Musical instruments
–
Found in
Slovenia, the
Divje Babe Flute is considered the world's
oldest known musical instrument
Musical instruments
–
Two
Aztec slit drums, called teponaztli. The characteristic " H " slits can be seen on the top of the drum in the foreground.
Musical instruments
–
Ancient Egyptian tomb painting depicting lute players,
18th Dynasty (c. 1350 BC)
8.
Electronics
–
Electronics is the science of controlling electrical energy electrically, in which the electrons have a fundamental role. Commonly, electronic devices contain circuitry consisting primarily or exclusively of active semiconductors supplemented with passive elements, the science of electronics is also considered to be a branch of physics and electrical engineering. The ability of electronic devices to act as switches makes digital information processing possible, until 1950 this field was called radio technology because its principal application was the design and theory of radio transmitters, receivers, and vacuum tubes. Today, most electronic devices use semiconductor components to perform electron control and this article focuses on engineering aspects of electronics. Components are generally intended to be connected together, usually by being soldered to a circuit board. Components may be packaged singly, or in more complex groups as integrated circuits, some common electronic components are capacitors, inductors, resistors, diodes, transistors, etc. Components are often categorized as active or passive, vacuum tubes were among the earliest electronic components. They were almost solely responsible for the revolution of the first half of the Twentieth Century. They took electronics from parlor tricks and gave us radio, television, phonographs, radar, long distance telephony and they played a leading role in the field of microwave and high power transmission as well as television receivers until the middle of the 1980s. Since that time, solid state devices have all but completely taken over, vacuum tubes are still used in some specialist applications such as high power RF amplifiers, cathode ray tubes, specialist audio equipment, guitar amplifiers and some microwave devices. The 608 contained more than 3,000 germanium transistors, thomas J. Watson Jr. ordered all future IBM products to use transistors in their design. From that time on transistors were almost exclusively used for computer logic, circuits and components can be divided into two groups, analog and digital. A particular device may consist of circuitry that has one or the other or a mix of the two types, most analog electronic appliances, such as radio receivers, are constructed from combinations of a few types of basic circuits. Analog circuits use a range of voltage or current as opposed to discrete levels as in digital circuits. The number of different analog circuits so far devised is huge, especially because a circuit can be defined as anything from a single component, analog circuits are sometimes called linear circuits although many non-linear effects are used in analog circuits such as mixers, modulators, etc. Good examples of analog circuits include vacuum tube and transistor amplifiers, one rarely finds modern circuits that are entirely analog. These days analog circuitry may use digital or even microprocessor techniques to improve performance and this type of circuit is usually called mixed signal rather than analog or digital. Sometimes it may be difficult to differentiate between analog and digital circuits as they have elements of both linear and non-linear operation, an example is the comparator which takes in a continuous range of voltage but only outputs one of two levels as in a digital circuit
Electronics
–
Surface-mount electronic components
Electronics
–
Electronics Technician performing a voltage check on a power circuit card in the air navigation equipment room aboard the aircraft carrier
USS Abraham Lincoln (CVN 72).
Electronics
–
Hitachi J100 adjustable frequency drive chassis
9.
Motorcycles
–
A motorcycle is a two- or three-wheeled motor vehicle. Motorcycle design varies greatly to suit a range of different purposes, long travel, commuting, cruising, sport including racing. Motorcycling is riding a motorcycle and related social activity such as joining a motorcycle club, in 1894, Hildebrand & Wolfmüller became the first series production motorcycle, and the first to be called a motorcycle. In 2014, the three top motorcycle producers globally by volume were Honda, Yamaha, and Hero MotoCorp, in developing countries, motorcycles are overwhelmingly utilitarian due to lower prices and greater fuel economy. Of all the motorcycles in the world, 58% are in the Asia-Pacific and Southern and Eastern Asia regions, according to the United States Department of Transportation the number of fatalities per vehicle mile traveled was 37 times higher for motorcycles than for cars. The term motorcycle has different legal definitions depending on jurisdiction, there are three major types of motorcycle, street, off-road, and dual purpose. Within these types, there are many sub-types of motorcycles for different purposes, there is often a racing counterpart to each type, such as road racing and street bikes, or motocross and dirt bikes. Street bikes include cruisers, sportbikes, scooters and mopeds, off-road motorcycles include many types designed for dirt-oriented racing classes such as motocross and are not street legal in most areas. Dual purpose machines like the style are made to go off-road but include features to make them legal. Each configuration offers either specialised advantage or broad capability, and each design creates a different riding posture, the first internal combustion, petroleum fueled motorcycle was the Daimler Reitwagen. It was designed and built by the German inventors Gottlieb Daimler and Wilhelm Maybach in Bad Cannstatt, instead, it relied on two outrigger wheels to remain upright while turning. The inventors called their invention the Reitwagen and it was designed as an expedient testbed for their new engine, rather than a true prototype vehicle. The first commercial design for a cycle was a three-wheel design called the Butler Petrol Cycle. He exhibited his plans for the vehicle at the Stanley Cycle Show in London in 1884, the vehicle was built by the Merryweather Fire Engine company in Greenwich, in 1888. The engine was liquid-cooled, with a radiator over the driving wheel. Speed was controlled by means of a valve lever. No braking system was fitted, the vehicle was stopped by raising and lowering the rear driving wheel using a foot-operated lever, the driver was seated between the front wheels. It wasnt, however, a success, as Butler failed to find sufficient financial backing, many authorities have excluded steam powered, electric motorcycles or diesel-powered two-wheelers from the definition of a motorcycle, and credit the Daimler Reitwagen as the worlds first motorcycle
Motorcycles
–
A 1954
Triumph T110 motorcycle
Motorcycles
–
A boulevard cruiser (front) and a sportbike (background)
Motorcycles
–
A
Ural motorcycle with a
sidecar
Motorcycles
–
French gendarme motorcyclist
10.
All-terrain vehicles
–
As the name implies, it is designed to handle a wider variety of terrain than most other vehicles. Although it is a vehicle in some countries, it is not street-legal within most states and provinces of Australia. By the current ANSI definition, ATVs are intended for use by an operator, although some companies have developed ATVs intended for use by the operator. These ATVs are referred to as tandem ATVs, the rider sits on and operates these vehicles like a motorcycle, but the extra wheels give more stability at slower speeds. Although equipped with three or four wheels, six-wheel models exist for specialized applications, engine sizes of ATVs currently for sale in the United States, range from 49 to 1,000 cc. Royal Enfield built and sold the first powered quadracycle in 1893. It had many components, including handle bars. The Royal Enfield resembles a modern ATV-style quad bike but was designed as a form of carriage for road use. With the introduction of straddle ridden ATVs, the term AATV was introduced to define the original amphibious ATV category, the first three-wheeled ATV was the Sperry-Rand Tricart. It was designed in 1967 as a project of John Plessinger at the Cranbrook Academy of Arts near Detroit. The Tricart was straddle-ridden with a rather than sit-on style. In 1968 Plessinger sold the Tricart patents and design rights to Sperry-Rand New Holland who manufactured them commercially, numerous small American manufacturers of 3-wheelers followed. I. and Hart to Hart. Dubbed the US90 and later—when Honda acquired the trademark on the term—the ATC90, clearly influenced by earlier ATVs, it featured large balloon tires instead of a mechanical suspension. By the early 1980s, suspension and lower-profile tires were introduced, the 1982 Honda ATC200E Big Red was a landmark model. It featured both suspension and racks, making it the first utility three-wheeled ATV, the ability to go anywhere on terrain that most other vehicles could not cross soon made them popular with US and Canadian hunters, and those just looking for a good trail ride. Soon other manufacturers introduced their own models, sport models were also developed by Honda, which had a virtual monopoly in the market due to effective patents on design and engine placement. The 1981 ATC250R was the first high-performance three-wheeler, featuring full suspension, a 248 cc air cooled engine, a five-speed transmission with manual clutch. For the sporting trail rider, the 1983 ATC200X was another landmark machine and it used an easy-to-handle 192 cc four-stroke that was ideal for new participants in the sport. Today, ATC200Xs can be found on the market in all conditions and prices, in 1985, Honda also introduced the new ATC350X
All-terrain vehicles
–
The ATV is commonly called a four-wheeler in Australia, New Zealand, South Africa, the United Kingdom and parts of Canada, India and the United States. They are used extensively in
agriculture, because of their speed and light footprint.
All-terrain vehicles
–
ATV
custom-made from E-ATV Eicker Germany
All-terrain vehicles
–
6x6 Polaris Big Boss in use by the Norwegian military in Afghanistan.
All-terrain vehicles
–
ATV with a tow spreader mounted
11.
Wheelchairs
–
A wheelchair, often abbreviated to just chair, is a chair with wheels, used when walking is difficult or impossible due to illness, injury, or disability. Wheelchairs come in a variety of formats to meet the specific needs of their users. They may include specialized seating adaptions, individualized controls, and may be specific to particular activities, as seen with sports wheelchairs and beach wheelchairs. The earliest records of wheeled furniture are an inscription found on a slate in China. The first records of wheeled seats being used for transporting disabled people date to three centuries later in China, the Chinese used early wheelbarrows to move people as well as heavy objects. A distinction between the two functions was not made for several hundred years, around 525 CE, when images of wheeled chairs made specifically to carry people begin to occur in Chinese art. Later records show the use of technology in Europe by the Renaissance. The invalid carriage or Bath chair brought the technology into more common use from around 1760, in 1887, wheelchairs were introduced to Atlantic City so invalid tourists could rent them to enjoy the Boardwalk. Soon, many healthy tourists also rented the decorated rolling chairs and servants to them as a show of decadence. In 1933 Harry Jennings and his disabled friend Herbert Everest, both engineers, invented the first lightweight, steel, collapsible wheelchair. Everest had previously broken his back in a mining accident, Everest and Jennings saw the business potential of the invention and went on to become the first mass-market manufacturers of wheelchairs. Their x-brace design is still in use, albeit with updated materials. There are a variety of types of wheelchair, differing by propulsion method, mechanisms of control. Some wheelchairs are designed for everyday use, others for single activities. The iBot is perhaps the best known example of this in recent years, a self-propelled manual wheelchair incorporates a frame, seat, one or two footplates and four wheels, usually two caster wheels at the front and two large wheels at the back. There will generally also be a seat cushion. As this causes friction and heat build-up, particularly on long downslopes, everyday manual wheelchairs come in two major varieties, folding or rigid. Folding chairs are generally low-end designs, whose predominant advantage is being able to fold, however this is largely an advantage for part-time users who may need to store the wheelchair more often than use it
Wheelchairs
–
A modern lightweight rigid-frame manual chair
Wheelchairs
–
A modern midwheel based battery powered chair
Wheelchairs
–
Depiction of
Confucius in a wheelchair, dating to ca. 1680. The artist may have been thinking of methods of transport common in his own day.
Wheelchairs
–
Wooden wheelchair dating to the early part of the 20th century
12.
Personal watercraft
–
A personal water craft, also called water scooter, and comically a boatercycle, is a recreational watercraft that the rider sits or stands on, rather than inside of, as in a boat. The first and most popular being a sit downor couch, where the rider uses the watercraft mainly sitting down, the second style is a stand up, where the rider uses the watercraft standing up. The stand up styles are built for one rider and is used more for doing tricks, racing, both styles have an inboard engine driving a pump jet that has a screw-shaped impeller to create thrust for propulsion and steering. They are often referred by the brand names Jet Ski, WaveRunner. Most are designed for two or three people, though four-passenger models exist, there is a wide variety of jet boats many of which exceed 30–40 feet in length. Companies such as UK based *DJR Ltd specialise in building high end luxury freestyle machines based on the Yamaha superjet combined with an aftermarket hull, two thousand Vincent Amandas were exported Australia, Asia, Europe and the United States. In the 1960s, the idea was developed further by Clayton Jacobson II of Byron Bay, Australia. Originally a motocross enthusiast, Jacobsons idea was designed in the mid-1960s, powered by an internal rather than an outboard motor, made of all aluminum. Jacobson eventually quit his job in banking to devote himself to developing the idea and it differed slightly from modern personal watercraft but had definite similarities. He completed a prototype a year later made of fiberglass. The first Clayton-type PWC to reach the market was designed by Bombardier in the late 1960s, bombardiers original designs were not very popular and Bombardier left the business before 1970. Stand-up PWCs first appeared on the US market in 1973 and were produced by Kawasaki and these were mass-produced boats to be used by only one rider. While they are produced today, the more popular design, is the sit down variety of PWC. These sit down models have been produced by Kawasaki, Bombardier, Yamaha, Honda, Polaris, as of 2010, the major manufacturers of PWCs were Kawasaki, Bombardier and Yamaha. Both Yamaha and Kawasaki continue to stand up models but it is a small percentage of the overall market. P1 AquaX is considered the best personal watercraft racing series in the world, the Series is based on strength and skill, so only the best make it through the ranks and to the top. The first series was launched in the UK, in May 2011 by London-based sports promoter Powerboat P1, the series grew quickly by attracting a mix of new and current racers to a new type of racing and in 2013, P1 rolled out a second series in the USA. The Series continues to expand quickly around the world, PWCs are small, fast, easily handled, fairly easy to use, affordable, and their propulsion systems do not have external propellers, making them safer for swimmers and wildlife
Personal watercraft
–
Personal water craft. Racing scene
Personal watercraft
–
Vincent Amanda at the
London Motorcycle Museum
Personal watercraft
–
This article needs additional citations for
verification. Please help improve this article by
adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (September 2012)
Personal watercraft
–
PWC with rescue platform.
13.
Outboard motor
–
An outboard motor is a propulsion system for boats, consisting of a self-contained unit that includes engine, gearbox and propeller or jet drive, designed to be affixed to the outside of the transom. They are the most common motorized method of propelling small watercraft, as well as providing propulsion, outboards provide steering control, as they are designed to pivot over their mountings and thus control the direction of thrust. The skeg also acts as a rudder when the engine is not running, unlike inboard motors, outboard motors can be easily removed for storage or repairs. In order to eliminate the chances of hitting bottom with an outboard motor and this helps when traveling through shallow waters where there may be debris that could potentially damage the motor as well as the propeller. Large outboards are usually bolted to the transom, and are linked to controls at the helm, small outboard motors, up to 15 horsepower or so are easily portable. They are affixed to the boat via clamps, and thus moved from boat to boat. These motors typically use a manual system, with throttle and gearshift controls mounted on the body of the motor. To provide auxiliary power for sailboats, for trolling aboard larger craft, in this application, the motor is frequently installed on the transom alongside and connected to the primary outboard to enable helm steering. In addition many small manufacturers have begun offering variants with power trim/tilt. Pump-jet propulsion is available as an option on most outboard motors, although less efficient than an open propeller, they are particularly useful in applications where the ability to operate in very shallow water is important. They also eliminate the dangers of an open propeller. The first known outboard motor was a small 5 kilogram electric unit designed around 1870 by Gustave Trouvé, later about 25 petrol powered outboards may have been produced in 1896 by American Motors Co—but neither of these two pioneering efforts appear to have had much impact. The Waterman outboard engine appears to be the first real gasoline-powered outboard offered for sale, the inboard boat motor firm of Caille Motor Company of Detroit were instrumental in making the cylinder and engines. The most successful early outboard motor, was created by Norwegian-American inventor Ole Evinrude in 1909, between 1909 and 1912, Evinrude made thousands of his outboards and the three horse units were sold around the world. His Evinrude Outboard Co. was spun off to other owners, the 1920s were the first high-water mark for the outboard with Evinrude, Johnson, ELTO, Atwater Lockwood and dozens of other makers in the field. Historically, a majority of outboards have been two-stroke powerheads fitted with a due to the designs inherent simplicity, reliability, low cost. Drawbacks include increased pollution, due to the volume of unburned gasoline and oil in their exhaust. In the early 1980s Honda Motor Co. introduced its first four-stroke powerhead, in 1984, Yamaha introduced their first four-stroke powerhead
Outboard motor
–
Bolinder's two-cylinder Trim outboard engine.
Outboard motor
–
Basic parts of an outboard motor
Outboard motor
–
A
Mercury Marine 50 hp outboard engine, circa 1970s
Outboard motor
–
1979
Evinrude 70 hp outboard, cowling and air silencer removed, exposing its shift/
throttle /
spark advance linkages, flywheel, and three
carburetors
14.
JPY
–
The yen is the official currency of Japan. It is the third most traded currency in the exchange market after the United States dollar. It is also used as a reserve currency after the U. S. dollar, the euro. Before the Meiji Restoration, Japans feudal fiefs all issued their own money, hansatsu, in an array of incompatible denominations. The New Currency Act of 1871 did away with these and established the yen, the former han became prefectures and their mints private chartered banks, which initially retained the right to print money. To bring an end to this situation the Bank of Japan was founded in 1882, following World War II the yen lost much of its prewar value. To stabilize the Japanese economy the exchange rate of the yen was fixed at ¥360 per $1 as part of the Bretton Woods system, when that system was abandoned in 1971, the yen became undervalued and was allowed to float. The yen had appreciated to a peak of ¥271 per $1 in 1973, then underwent periods of depreciation and appreciation due to the 1973 oil crisis, arriving at a value of ¥227 per $1 by 1980. Since 1973, the Japanese government has maintained a policy of intervention. The Japanese government focuses on an export market, and tries to ensure a low yen value through a trade surplus. Since that time, however, the yen has greatly decreased in value, the Bank of Japan maintains a policy of zero to near-zero interest rates and the Japanese government has an extreme anti-inflation policy. Yen derives from the Japanese word 圓, which is cognate with the Chinese yuan, originally, the Chinese had traded silver in mass called sycees and when Spanish and Mexican silver coins arrived, the Chinese called them silver rounds for their circular shapes. The coins and the name appeared in Japan. While the Chinese eventually replaced 圓 with 元, the Japanese continued to use the same word, the spelling and pronunciation yen is standard in English. This is because mainly English speakers who visited Japan at the end of the Edo period to the early Meiji period spelled words this way, ゑん /wen/ in historical kana orthography. In the 16th century, Japanese /e/ and /we/ both had been pronounced and Portuguese missionaries had spelled them ye, some time thereafter, by the middle of the 18th century, /e/ and /we/ came to be pronounced as in modern Japanese, although some regions retain the pronunciation. In the early Meiji era, James Curtis Hepburn, following Medhurst, spelled all es as ye in his A Japanese and that was the first full-scale Japanese-English/English-Japanese dictionary, which had a strong influence on Westerners in Japan and probably prompted the spelling yen. Hepburn revised most of yes to e in the 3rd edition in order to mirror the contemporary pronunciation and this was probably already fixed and has remained so ever since
JPY
–
Early 1 yen
banknote (1873), engraved and printed by the Continental Bank Note Company of New York.
JPY
–
Banknotes
JPY
–
Early one yen coin (1.5g of pure gold), obverse and reverse.
JPY
–
Early silver one yen coin, 24.26 grams of pure silver, Japan, minted in 1870 (Year 3 of the
Meiji period).
15.
Earnings before interest and taxes
–
In accounting and finance, earnings before interest and taxes, is a measure of a firms profit that includes all expenses except interest and income tax expenses. It is the difference between operating revenues and operating expenses, when a firm does not have non-operating income, then operating income is sometimes used as a synonym for EBIT and operating profit. To calculate EBIT, expenses are subtracted from revenues, net income is later obtained by subtracting interest and taxes from the result
Earnings before interest and taxes
–
Accounting
16.
Net income
–
In business, net income is an entitys income minus cost of goods sold, expenses and taxes for an accounting period. In the context of the presentation of financial statements, the IFRS Foundation defines net income as synonymous with profit, net income is a distinct accounting concept from profit but the same as net profit. Net income can also be calculated by adding a companys operating income to non-operating income, net income can be distributed among holders of common stock as a dividend or held by the firm as an addition to retained earnings. As profit and earnings are used synonymously for income, net earnings, often, the term income is substituted for net income, yet this is not preferred due to the possible ambiguity. Net income is called the bottom line because it is typically found on the last line of a companys income statement. The items deducted will typically include tax expense, financing expense, likewise, preferred stock dividends will be subtracted too, though they are not an expense. For a merchandising company, subtracted costs may be the cost of goods sold, sales discounts, for a product company advertising, manufacturing, and design and development costs are included
Net income
–
Accounting
17.
Yamaha Motor Company
–
Yamaha Motor Company Limited is a Japanese manufacturer of motorcycles, marine products such as boats and outboard motors, and other motorized products. The company was established in 1955 upon separation from Yamaha Corporation, the company conducts development, production and marketing operations through 109 consolidated subsidiaries as of 2012. Led by Genichi Kawakami, the company’s first president, Yamaha Motor began production of its first product, Yamahas initial product was a 125cc two-cycle, single cylinder motorcycle, the YA-1, which was a copy of the German DKW RT125. Yamaha began competing internationally in 1956 when they entered the Catalina Grand Prix, again with the YA-1, the YA-1 was followed by the YA-2 of 1957, another 125cc two stroke, but with significantly improved frame and suspension. The YD-1 of 1957 was a 250cc two-stroke twin cylinder motorcycle, resembling the YA-2, a performance version of this bike, the YDS-1 housed the 250cc two-stroke twin in a double downtube cradle frame and offered the first five-speed transmission in a Japanese motorcycle. This period also saw Yamaha offer its first outboard marine engine, by 1963 Yamahas dedication to both the two-stroke engine and racing paid off with their first victory in international competition, at the Belgium GP, where they won the 250cc class. Success in sales was even more impressive, and Yamaha set up the first of its subsidiaries in this period beginning with Thailand in 1964. 1965 saw the release of a 305cc two-stroke twin, the flagship of the companies lineup and it featured a separate oil supply which directly injected oil into the gasoline prior to combustion. In 1967 a new larger displacement model was added to the range, in 1968 Yamaha launched their first four-stroke motorcycle, the XS-1. Not until 1976 would Yamaha answer the other Japanese brands with a four stroke of their own. The XS-750 a 750cc triple cylinder machine with shaft drive was introduced almost seven years after Hondas breakthrough bike. Yamahas first four-cylinder model, the XS-1100 followed in 1978, again with shaft drive, despite being heavier and more touring oriented than its rivals it produced an impressive string of victories in endurance racing. The 1970s also saw some of the first dedicated off-road bikes for off-road racing, Yamaha was an early innovator in dirt-bike technology, and introduced the first single-shock rear suspension, the trademarked Monoshock of 1973. It appeared in production on the 1974 Yamaha YZ-250, a model which has continued in production, with updates, until 2015, making it Yamahas longest continuous model. Yamaha continued racing throughout the 1960s and 1970s with increasing success in several formats, the decade of the 1970s was capped by the XT500 winning the first Paris-Dakar Rally in 1979. By 1980 the combination of consumer preference and environmental regulation made four strokes increasingly popular, suzuki ended production of their GT two stroke series, including the flagship water-cooled two-stroke 750cc GT-750 in 1977. Kawasaki, who had success throughout the 1970s with their two-stroke triples of 250cc, 350cc, 500cc and 750cc ended production of road-going two strokes in 1980. Yamaha bucked this trend and continued to refine and sell two-strokes for the street into the 1980s and these bikes were performance oriented, water-cooled twin cylinder machines, designed to achieve excellent performance taking advantage of the lower weight of two strokes
Yamaha Motor Company
–
Yamaha XS650 vertical-twin
Yamaha Motor Company
–
Two-time Grand Championship winner
Kenny Roberts at the 1981 German Grand Prix.
Yamaha Motor Company
–
Yamaha-built DOHC V6 Ford Taurus SHO engine
Yamaha Motor Company
–
Yamaha Phazer snowmobile
18.
Kabushiki Gaisha
–
A kabushiki gaisha or kabushiki kaisha, commonly abbreviated KK, is a type of company defined under the Companies Act of Japan. Often translated as stock company, joint-stock company, or stock corporation, in English, kabushiki kaisha is usually used while the original Japanese pronunciation is kabushiki gaisha due to rendaku. A kabushiki kaisha must include 株式会社 in its name, in a company name, 株式会社 can be used as a prefix or as a suffix. Many Japanese companies translate the phrase 株式会社 in their name as Co. Ltd. while others use the more Americanized translations Corporation or Incorporated. English texts often refer to kabushiki gaisha as joint stock companies, while this is close to a translation of the term. The Japanese government previously endorsed business corporation as an official translation, the first kabushiki gaisha was the First National Bank of Japan, incorporated in 1873. Rules regarding kabushiki gaisha were set out in the Commercial Code of Japan, over time, Japanese and U. S. corporate law diverged, and K. K. assumed many characteristics not found in U. S. corporations. For instance, a K. K. could not buy back its own stock, issue stock for a price of less than ¥50,000 per share, or operate with paid-in capital of less than ¥10 million. On June 29,2005, the Diet of Japan passed a new Companies Act, the new law greatly affected the formation and function of K. K. s and other Japanese business organizations, bringing them closer to their contemporary counterparts in the U. S. Prominent examples are the renaming of Nikon KK and Sony KK to Nikon Corporation and Sony Corporation, a kabushiki gaisha may be started with capital as low as ¥1, making the total cost of a K. K. incorporation approximately ¥240,000 in taxes and notarization fees. Under the old Commercial Code, a K. K, although seven incorporators were required as recently as the 1980s, a K. K. now only needs one incorporator, which may be an individual or a corporation. If there are multiple incorporators, they must sign an agreement before incorporating the company. K. to act beyond its purposes. Judicial or administrative scriveners are often hired to draft the purposes of a new company, the Corporation Code allows a K. K. The articles must be sealed by the incorporator and notarized by a notary public, in a direct incorporation, each incorporator receives a specified amount of stock as designated in the articles of incorporation. The other method is an incorporation by offering, in which each incorporator becomes the underwriter of a number of shares. As in a direct incorporation, the incorporators must then hold a meeting to appoint the initial directors. Any person wishing to receive shares must submit an application to the incorporator, capital must be received in a commercial bank account designated by the incorporator, and the bank must provide certification that payment has been made. Once the capital has received and certified, the incorporation may be registered at the Legal Affairs Bureau
Kabushiki Gaisha
19.
Sports
–
Usually the contest or game is between two sides, each attempting to exceed the other. Some sports allow a tie game, others provide tie-breaking methods, to one winner. A number of such two-sided contests may be arranged in a tournament producing a champion, many sports leagues make an annual champion by arranging games in a regular sports season, followed in some cases by playoffs. Hundreds of sports exist, from those between single contestants, through to those with hundreds of participants, either in teams or competing as individuals. In certain sports such as racing, many contestants may compete, each against each other, however, a number of competitive, but non-physical, activities claim recognition as mind sports. Sports are usually governed by a set of rules or customs, which serve to ensure fair competition, winning can be determined by physical events such as scoring goals or crossing a line first. It can also be determined by judges who are scoring elements of the sporting performance, records of performance are often kept, and for popular sports, this information may be widely announced or reported in sport news. Sport is also a source of entertainment for non-participants, with spectator sport drawing large crowds to sport venues. Sports betting is in some cases severely regulated, and in some cases is central to the sport, kearney, a consultancy, the global sporting industry is worth up to $620 billion as of 2013. The worlds most accessible and practised sport is running, while football is the most popular spectator sport. The word Sport comes from the Old French desport meaning leisure, other meanings include gambling and events staged for the purpose of gambling, hunting, and games and diversions, including ones that require exercise. Rogets defines the noun sport as an activity engaged in for relaxation, the singular term sport is used in most English dialects to describe the overall concept, with sports used to describe multiple activities. American English uses sports for both terms, the precise definition of what separates a sport from other leisure activities varies between sources. They also recognise that sport can be physical, primarily mind, predominantly motorised, primarily co-ordination. The inclusion of sports within sport definitions has not been universally accepted. Whilst SportAccord recognises a number of mind sports, it is not open to admitting any further mind sports. According to Council of Europe, European Sports Charter, article 2, other bodies advocate widening the definition of sport to include all physical activity. For instance, the Council of Europe include all forms of physical exercise, in competitive events, participants are graded or classified based on their result and often divided into groups of comparable performance
Sports
–
Sport in
childhood.
Association football, shown above, is a
team sport which also provides opportunities to nurture
physical fitness and
social interaction skills.
Sports
–
The International Olympic Committee recognizes some board games as sports including
Chess.
Sports
–
Show Jumping, an
equestrian sport
Sports
–
Roman bronze reduction of
Myron 's
Discobolos, 2nd century AD.
20.
Nikkei 225
–
The Nikkei 225, more commonly called the Nikkei, the Nikkei index, or the Nikkei Stock Average, is a stock market index for the Tokyo Stock Exchange. It has been calculated daily by the Nihon Keizai Shimbun newspaper since 1950 and it is a price-weighted index, and the components are reviewed once a year. Currently, the Nikkei is the most widely quoted average of Japanese equities, in fact, it was known as the Nikkei Dow Jones Stock Average from 1975 to 1985. The Nikkei 225 began to be calculated on September 7,1950, since January 2010 the index is updated every 15 seconds during trading sessions. The Nikkei 225 Futures, introduced at Singapore Exchange in 1986, the Nikkei average has deviated sharply from the textbook model of stock averages which grow at a steady exponential rate. Subsequently, it lost nearly all these gains, closing at 7,054.98 on March 10, another major index for the Tokyo Stock Exchange is the Topix. On March 15,2011, the working day after the massive earthquake in the northeast part of Japan, the index dropped over 10% to finish at 8605.15. The index continued to drop throughout 2011, eventually bottoming out at 8160.01 on November 25, putting it at its lowest close since March 10,2009. The Nikkei fell over 17% in 2011, finishing the year at 8455.35, its lowest year-end closing value in nearly thirty years, the Nikkei started 2013 near 10,600, hitting a peak of 15,942 in May. However, shortly afterward, it plunged by almost 10% before rebounding, making it the most volatile stock market index among the developed markets. By 2015, it has reached over 20,000 mark, the index is a price-weighted index. As of late 2014, the company with the largest influence on the index is Fast Retailing, as of February 2017, the Nikkei 225 consists of the following companies, S&P/TOPIX150 Nikkei 225 Components Bloomberg page for NKY, IND Nikkei 225 index on Yahoo. Finance Nikkei 225 index on Google Finance Nikkei 225 profile at Wikinvest Reuters page for. N225
Nikkei 225
–
Logarithmic-scale graph of the Nikkei 225 from 1914 to 2012
21.
Piano
–
The piano is an acoustic, stringed musical instrument invented around the year 1700, in which the strings are struck by hammers. It is played using a keyboard, which is a row of keys that the performer presses down or strikes with the fingers and thumbs of both hands to cause the hammers to strike the strings. The word piano is a form of pianoforte, the Italian term for the early 1700s versions of the instrument. The first fortepianos in the 1700s had a sound and smaller dynamic range. An acoustic piano usually has a wooden case surrounding the soundboard and metal strings. Pressing one or more keys on the keyboard causes a padded hammer to strike the strings. The hammer rebounds from the strings, and the continue to vibrate at their resonant frequency. These vibrations are transmitted through a bridge to a soundboard that amplifies by more efficiently coupling the acoustic energy to the air, when the key is released, a damper stops the strings vibration, ending the sound. Notes can be sustained, even when the keys are released by the fingers and thumbs and this means that the piano can play 88 different pitches, going from the deepest bass range to the highest treble. The black keys are for the accidentals, which are needed to play in all twelve keys, more rarely, some pianos have additional keys. Most notes have three strings, except for the bass that graduates from one to two, the strings are sounded when keys are pressed or struck, and silenced by dampers when the hands are lifted from the keyboard. There are two types of piano, the grand piano and the upright piano. The grand piano is used for Classical solos, chamber music and art song and it is used in jazz. The upright piano, which is compact, is the most popular type, as they are a better size for use in private homes for domestic music-making. During the nineteenth century, music publishers produced many works in arrangements for piano, so that music lovers could play. The piano is widely employed in classical, jazz, traditional and popular music for solo and ensemble performances, accompaniment, with technological advances, amplified electric pianos, electronic pianos, and digital pianos have also been developed. The electric piano became an instrument in the 1960s and 1970s genres of jazz fusion, funk music. The piano was founded on earlier technological innovations in keyboard instruments, pipe organs have been used since Antiquity, and as such, the development of pipe organs enabled instrument builders to learn about creating keyboard mechanisms for sounding pitches
Piano
–
A grand piano (left) and an upright piano (right)
Piano
Piano
–
Grand piano by Louis Bas of
Villeneuve-lès-Avignon, France, 1781. Earliest French grand piano known to survive; includes an inverted wrestplank and action derived from the work of Bartolomeo Cristofori (ca. 1700) with ornately decorated soundboard.
Piano
–
Early piano replica by the modern builder Paul McNulty, after Walter & Sohn, 1805
22.
Reed organ
–
The pump organ, reed organ, harmonium, or melodeon is a type of free-reed organ that generates sound as air flows past a vibrating piece of thin metal in a frame. The piece of metal is called a reed, the finer instruments have a unique tone, and the cabinets of those intended for churches and affluent homes were often excellent pieces of furniture. Several million free-reed organs and melodeons were made in the USA, during this time Estey Organ and Mason & Hamlin were popular manufacturers. The harmoniums design incorporates free reeds and derives from the earlier regal, a harmonium-like instrument was exhibited by Gabriel Joseph Grenié in 1810. He called it an orgue expressif, because his instrument was capable of greater expression, alexandre Debain improved Greniés instrument and gave it the name harmonium when he patented his version in 1840. There was concurrent development of similar instruments, beginning in 1885, the firm of Mason & Hamlin, of Boston made their instruments with the suction bellows, and this method of construction soon superseded all others in America. Harmoniums reached the height of their popularity in the West in the late 19th, an added attraction of the harmonium in tropical regions was that the instrument held its tune regardless of heat and humidity, unlike the piano. This export market was lucrative for manufacturers to produce harmoniums with cases impregnated with chemicals to prevent woodworm. At the peak of the instruments Western popularity around 1900, a variety of styles of harmoniums were being produced. These ranged from simple models with plain cases and only four or five stops, up to large instruments with ornate cases, up to a dozen stops, expensive harmoniums were often built to resemble pipe organs, with ranks of fake pipes attached to the top of the instrument. Small numbers of harmoniums were built with two manuals, some were even built with pedal keyboards, which required the use of an assistant to run the bellows or, for some of the later models, an electrical pump. The invention of the organ in the mid-1930s spelled the end of the harmoniums success in the West. By this time, harmoniums had reached high levels of complexity, not only through the need to provide instruments with a greater tonal range. The last mass-producer of harmoniums in North America was the Estey company, which ceased manufacture in the mid-1950s, as the existing stock of instruments aged and spare parts became hard to find, more and more were either scrapped or sold. It was not uncommon for harmoniums to be modernised by having electric blowers fitted, the majority of Western harmoniums today are in the hands of enthusiasts, though the instrument remains popular in South Asia. Modern electronic keyboards can emulate the sound of the pump organ, the acoustical effects described below are a result of the free-reed mechanism. Therefore, they are identical for the Western and Indian harmoniums. And as its vibrators also admit of a delicate and durable tuning and this arrangement was difficult to play on
Reed organ
–
John Church and Co. pump organ
Reed organ
–
Beatty's Parlor Organ 1882
Reed organ
–
Two reeds from a reed organ.
Reed organ
–
Portable 19th century reed organ with one rank of reeds
23.
Shizuoka prefecture
–
Shizuoka Prefecture is a prefecture of Japan located in the Chūbu region of Honshu. The capital is the city of Shizuoka, while Hamamatsu is the largest city by population, Shizuoka Prefecture was formed from the former Tōtōmi, Suruga and Izu provinces. The area was the home of the first Tokugawa Shogun, Tokugawa Ieyasu held the region until he conquered the lands of the Hōjō clan in the Kantō region and placed land under the stewardship of Oda Nobunaga. After becoming shogun, Tokugawa took the back for his family. With the creation of Shizuoka han in 1868, it again became the residence of the Tokugawa family. Shizuoka Prefecture is an elongated region following the coast of the Pacific Ocean at the Suruga Bay, in the west, the prefecture extends deep into the Japan Alps. In the east, it becomes a narrower coast bounded in the north by Mount Fuji, until it comes to the Izu Peninsula, throughout history, a disastrous earthquake called the Tokai earthquake has hit Shizuoka every 100 to 150 years. On Tuesday, March 15,2011, Shizuoka Prefecture was hit with a magnitude 6.2 earthquake approximately 42 km NNE of Shizuoka City, ISBN 978-0-674-01753-5, OCLC58053128 Official Shizuoka Prefecture website Official Shizuoka Guide
Shizuoka prefecture
–
View of Mt. Fuji from Fujinomiya
Shizuoka prefecture
–
Shizuoka Prefecture 静岡県
Shizuoka prefecture
–
Shizuoka City
Shizuoka prefecture
–
Hamamatsu
24.
Musical instrument
–
A musical instrument is an instrument created or adapted to make musical sounds. In principle, any object that produces sound can be a musical instrument—it is through purpose that the object becomes a musical instrument, the history of musical instruments dates to the beginnings of human culture. Early musical instruments may have used for ritual, such as a trumpet to signal success on the hunt. Cultures eventually developed composition and performance of melodies for entertainment, Musical instruments evolved in step with changing applications. The date and origin of the first device considered an instrument is disputed. The oldest object that some refer to as a musical instrument. Some consensus dates early flutes to about 37,000 years ago, many early musical instruments were made from animal skins, bone, wood, and other non-durable materials. Musical instruments developed independently in many populated regions of the world, however, contact among civilizations caused rapid spread and adaptation of most instruments in places far from their origin. By the Middle Ages, instruments from Mesopotamia were in maritime Southeast Asia, development in the Americas occurred at a slower pace, but cultures of North, Central, and South America shared musical instruments. By 1400, musical instrument development slowed in areas and was dominated by the Occident. Musical instrument classification is a discipline in its own right, Instruments can be classified by their effective range, their material composition, their size, etc. However, the most common method, Hornbostel-Sachs, uses the means by which they produce sound. The academic study of instruments is called organology. Once humans moved from making sounds with their bodies—for example, by using objects to create music from sounds. Primitive instruments were designed to emulate natural sounds, and their purpose was ritual rather than entertainment. The concept of melody and the pursuit of musical composition were unknown to early players of musical instruments. A player sounding a flute to signal the start of a hunt does so without thought of the notion of making music. Musical instruments are constructed in an array of styles and shapes
Musical instrument
–
Anne Vallayer-Coster, Attributes of Music, 1770. This
still life painting depicts a variety of French Baroque musical instruments, such as a
natural horn,
transverse flute,
musette,
violin, and
lute.
Musical instrument
–
Found in
Slovenia, the
Divje Babe Flute is considered the world's
oldest known musical instrument
Musical instrument
–
Two
Aztec slit drums, called teponaztli. The characteristic " H " slits can be seen on the top of the drum in the foreground.
Musical instrument
–
Ancient Egyptian tomb painting depicting lute players,
18th Dynasty (c. 1350 BC)
25.
Manufacturer
–
Manufacturing is the value added to production of merchandise for use or sale using labour and machines, tools, chemical and biological processing, or formulation. Manufacturing engineering or manufacturing process are the steps through which raw materials are transformed into a final product, the manufacturing process begins with the product design, and materials specification from which the product is made. These materials are modified through manufacturing processes to become the required part. Manufacturing takes turns under all types of economic systems, in a free market economy, manufacturing is usually directed toward the mass production of products for sale to consumers at a profit. In a collectivist economy, manufacturing is more directed by the state to supply a centrally planned economy. In mixed market economies, manufacturing occurs under some degree of government regulation, modern manufacturing includes all intermediate processes required the production and integration of a products components. Some industries, such as semiconductor and steel manufacturers use the term fabrication instead, the manufacturing sector is closely connected with engineering and industrial design. Examples of major manufacturers in North America include General Motors Corporation, General Electric, Procter & Gamble, General Dynamics, Boeing, Pfizer, examples in Europe include Volkswagen Group, Siemens, and Michelin. Examples in Asia include Sony, Huawei, Lenovo, Toyota, Samsung, in its earliest form, manufacturing was usually carried out by a single skilled artisan with assistants. In much of the world, the guild system protected the privileges. Before the Industrial Revolution, most manufacturing occurred in rural areas, entrepreneurs organized a number of manufacturing households into a single enterprise through the putting-out system. Toll manufacturing is an arrangement whereby a first firm with specialized equipment processes raw materials or semi-finished goods for a second firm, manufacturing provides important material support for national infrastructure and for national defense. On the other hand, most manufacturing may involve significant social and environmental costs, the clean-up costs of hazardous waste, for example, may outweigh the benefits of a product that creates it. Hazardous materials may expose workers to health risks and these costs are now well known and there is effort to address them by improving efficiency, reducing waste, using industrial symbiosis, and eliminating harmful chemicals. The negative costs of manufacturing can also be addressed legally, developed countries regulate manufacturing activity with labor laws and environmental laws. Across the globe, manufacturers can be subject to regulations and pollution taxes to offset the costs of manufacturing activities. Labor unions and craft guilds have played a role in the negotiation of worker rights. Environment laws and labor protections that are available in developed nations may not be available in the third world, tort law and product liability impose additional costs on manufacturing
Manufacturer
–
Textile factory (
Germany, circa 1975).
Manufacturer
Manufacturer
–
Assembly of Section 41 of a
Boeing 787 Dreamliner
Manufacturer
–
A female industrial
worker amidst heavy steel semi-products (KINEX BEARINGS,
Bytča,
Slovakia, c. 1995–2000)
26.
Tuning fork
–
A tuning fork is an acoustic resonator in the form of a two-pronged fork with the prongs formed from a U-shaped bar of elastic metal. It resonates at a constant pitch when set vibrating by striking it against a surface or with an object. The pitch that a tuning fork generates depends on the length. It is frequently used as a standard of pitch to tune musical instruments, the tuning fork was invented in 1711 by British musician John Shore, Sergeant Trumpeter and Lutenist to the court. A tuning fork is an acoustic resonator used in many applications to produce a fixed tone. The reason for this is that the frequency of the first overtone is about 52/22 = 25/4 = 6 1⁄4 times the fundamental. When the tuning fork is struck, little of the energy goes into the overtone modes, they die out correspondingly faster. It is easier to other instruments with this pure tone. Another reason for using the shape is that, when it vibrates in its principal mode. There is a node at the base of each prong, the fork is usually struck, and then the handle is pressed against a wooden box resonator, or a table top. Without the resonator the sound of a fork is very faint. The reason for this is that the waves produced by each fork prong are 180° out of phase with the other, so at a distance from the fork they interfere. Commercial tuning forks are normally tuned to the pitch at the factory. They can be retuned by filing material off the prongs, filing the ends of the prongs raises the pitch, while filing the inside of the base of the prongs lowers it. Tuning forks used by orchestras between 1750 and 1820 mostly had a frequency of A =423.5 Hz, although there were many forks, standard tuning forks are available that vibrate at all the musical pitches within the central octave of the piano, and other pitches. Well-known manufacturers of tuning forks include Ragg and John Walker, both of Sheffield, England, the pitch of a tuning fork varies slightly with temperature, due mainly to a slight decrease in the modulus of elasticity of steel with increasing temperature. A change in frequency of one vibration in 21,000 per °F change is typical for a tuning fork. The frequency decreases with increasing temperature, tuning forks are manufactured to have their correct pitch at a standard temperature
Tuning fork
–
Tuning fork on resonance box, by Max Kohl, Chemnitz, Germany
Tuning fork
–
Tuning fork by John Walker stamped with note (E) and frequency in hertz (659)
Tuning fork
–
A needle on a tuning fork carves figures on carbon black.
Tuning fork
–
A
Bulova Accutron watch from the 1960s, which uses a steel tuning fork (visible in center) vibrating at 360 Hz.
27.
World War II
–
World War II, also known as the Second World War, was a global war that lasted from 1939 to 1945, although related conflicts began earlier. It involved the vast majority of the worlds countries—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing alliances, the Allies and the Axis. It was the most widespread war in history, and directly involved more than 100 million people from over 30 countries. Marked by mass deaths of civilians, including the Holocaust and the bombing of industrial and population centres. These made World War II the deadliest conflict in human history, from late 1939 to early 1941, in a series of campaigns and treaties, Germany conquered or controlled much of continental Europe, and formed the Axis alliance with Italy and Japan. Under the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact of August 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union partitioned and annexed territories of their European neighbours, Poland, Finland, Romania and the Baltic states. In December 1941, Japan attacked the United States and European colonies in the Pacific Ocean, and quickly conquered much of the Western Pacific. The Axis advance halted in 1942 when Japan lost the critical Battle of Midway, near Hawaii, in 1944, the Western Allies invaded German-occupied France, while the Soviet Union regained all of its territorial losses and invaded Germany and its allies. During 1944 and 1945 the Japanese suffered major reverses in mainland Asia in South Central China and Burma, while the Allies crippled the Japanese Navy, thus ended the war in Asia, cementing the total victory of the Allies. World War II altered the political alignment and social structure of the world, the United Nations was established to foster international co-operation and prevent future conflicts. The victorious great powers—the United States, the Soviet Union, China, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and the United States emerged as rival superpowers, setting the stage for the Cold War, which lasted for the next 46 years. Meanwhile, the influence of European great powers waned, while the decolonisation of Asia, most countries whose industries had been damaged moved towards economic recovery. Political integration, especially in Europe, emerged as an effort to end pre-war enmities, the start of the war in Europe is generally held to be 1 September 1939, beginning with the German invasion of Poland, Britain and France declared war on Germany two days later. The dates for the beginning of war in the Pacific include the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War on 7 July 1937, or even the Japanese invasion of Manchuria on 19 September 1931. Others follow the British historian A. J. P. Taylor, who held that the Sino-Japanese War and war in Europe and its colonies occurred simultaneously and this article uses the conventional dating. Other starting dates sometimes used for World War II include the Italian invasion of Abyssinia on 3 October 1935. The British historian Antony Beevor views the beginning of World War II as the Battles of Khalkhin Gol fought between Japan and the forces of Mongolia and the Soviet Union from May to September 1939, the exact date of the wars end is also not universally agreed upon. It was generally accepted at the time that the war ended with the armistice of 14 August 1945, rather than the formal surrender of Japan
World War II
–
Clockwise from top left: Chinese forces in the
Battle of Wanjialing, Australian
25-pounder guns during the
First Battle of El Alamein, German
Stuka dive bombers on the
Eastern Front in December 1943, a U.S. naval force in the
Lingayen Gulf,
Wilhelm Keitel signing the
German Instrument of Surrender, Soviet troops in the
Battle of Stalingrad
World War II
–
The
League of Nations assembly, held in
Geneva,
Switzerland, 1930
World War II
–
Adolf Hitler at a German
National Socialist political rally in
Weimar, October 1930
World War II
–
Italian soldiers recruited in 1935, on their way to fight the
Second Italo-Abyssinian War
28.
Technologies
–
Technology is the collection of techniques, skills, methods and processes used in the production of goods or services or in the accomplishment of objectives, such as scientific investigation. Technology can be the knowledge of techniques, processes, and the like, the human species use of technology began with the conversion of natural resources into simple tools. The steady progress of technology has brought weapons of ever-increasing destructive power. It has helped develop more advanced economies and has allowed the rise of a leisure class, many technological processes produce unwanted by-products known as pollution and deplete natural resources to the detriment of Earths environment. Various implementations of technology influence the values of a society and raise new questions of the ethics of technology, examples include the rise of the notion of efficiency in terms of human productivity, and the challenges of bioethics. Philosophical debates have arisen over the use of technology, with disagreements over whether technology improves the condition or worsens it. The use of the technology has changed significantly over the last 200 years. Before the 20th century, the term was uncommon in English, the term was often connected to technical education, as in the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. The term technology rose to prominence in the 20th century in connection with the Second Industrial Revolution, the terms meanings changed in the early 20th century when American social scientists, beginning with Thorstein Veblen, translated ideas from the German concept of Technik into technology. In German and other European languages, a distinction exists between technik and technologie that is absent in English, which translates both terms as technology. By the 1930s, technology referred not only to the study of the industrial arts, dictionaries and scholars have offered a variety of definitions. Ursula Franklin, in her 1989 Real World of Technology lecture, gave another definition of the concept, it is practice, the way we do things around here. The term is used to imply a specific field of technology, or to refer to high technology or just consumer electronics. Bernard Stiegler, in Technics and Time,1, defines technology in two ways, as the pursuit of life by other than life, and as organized inorganic matter. Technology can be most broadly defined as the entities, both material and immaterial, created by the application of mental and physical effort in order to some value. In this usage, technology refers to tools and machines that may be used to solve real-world problems and it is a far-reaching term that may include simple tools, such as a crowbar or wooden spoon, or more complex machines, such as a space station or particle accelerator. Tools and machines need not be material, virtual technology, such as software and business methods. W. Brian Arthur defines technology in a broad way as a means to fulfill a human purpose
Technologies
–
A
steam turbine with the case opened. Most electricity is produced by
thermal power stations with turbines like this one. Electricity consumption and living standards are highly correlated.
Electrification was voted the most important engineering achievement of the 20th century.
Technologies
–
The spread of paper and printing to the West, exemplified by the
printing press, made it possible for
scientists and
politicians to communicate their ideas with ease, leading to the
Age of Enlightenment; an example of technology as a cultural force.
Technologies
–
The invention of integrated circuits and the
microprocessor (here, an
Intel 4004 chip from 1971) led to the modern
computer revolution.
Technologies
–
Antoine Lavoisier conducting an experiment with combustion generated by amplified sun light
29.
Manufacture
–
Manufacturing is the value added to production of merchandise for use or sale using labour and machines, tools, chemical and biological processing, or formulation. Manufacturing engineering or manufacturing process are the steps through which raw materials are transformed into a final product, the manufacturing process begins with the product design, and materials specification from which the product is made. These materials are modified through manufacturing processes to become the required part. Manufacturing takes turns under all types of economic systems, in a free market economy, manufacturing is usually directed toward the mass production of products for sale to consumers at a profit. In a collectivist economy, manufacturing is more directed by the state to supply a centrally planned economy. In mixed market economies, manufacturing occurs under some degree of government regulation, modern manufacturing includes all intermediate processes required the production and integration of a products components. Some industries, such as semiconductor and steel manufacturers use the term fabrication instead, the manufacturing sector is closely connected with engineering and industrial design. Examples of major manufacturers in North America include General Motors Corporation, General Electric, Procter & Gamble, General Dynamics, Boeing, Pfizer, examples in Europe include Volkswagen Group, Siemens, and Michelin. Examples in Asia include Sony, Huawei, Lenovo, Toyota, Samsung, in its earliest form, manufacturing was usually carried out by a single skilled artisan with assistants. In much of the world, the guild system protected the privileges. Before the Industrial Revolution, most manufacturing occurred in rural areas, entrepreneurs organized a number of manufacturing households into a single enterprise through the putting-out system. Toll manufacturing is an arrangement whereby a first firm with specialized equipment processes raw materials or semi-finished goods for a second firm, manufacturing provides important material support for national infrastructure and for national defense. On the other hand, most manufacturing may involve significant social and environmental costs, the clean-up costs of hazardous waste, for example, may outweigh the benefits of a product that creates it. Hazardous materials may expose workers to health risks and these costs are now well known and there is effort to address them by improving efficiency, reducing waste, using industrial symbiosis, and eliminating harmful chemicals. The negative costs of manufacturing can also be addressed legally, developed countries regulate manufacturing activity with labor laws and environmental laws. Across the globe, manufacturers can be subject to regulations and pollution taxes to offset the costs of manufacturing activities. Labor unions and craft guilds have played a role in the negotiation of worker rights. Environment laws and labor protections that are available in developed nations may not be available in the third world, tort law and product liability impose additional costs on manufacturing
Manufacture
–
Textile factory (
Germany, circa 1975).
Manufacture
Manufacture
–
Assembly of Section 41 of a
Boeing 787 Dreamliner
Manufacture
–
A female industrial
worker amidst heavy steel semi-products (KINEX BEARINGS,
Bytča,
Slovakia, c. 1995–2000)
30.
Motorcycle
–
A motorcycle is a two- or three-wheeled motor vehicle. Motorcycle design varies greatly to suit a range of different purposes, long travel, commuting, cruising, sport including racing. Motorcycling is riding a motorcycle and related social activity such as joining a motorcycle club, in 1894, Hildebrand & Wolfmüller became the first series production motorcycle, and the first to be called a motorcycle. In 2014, the three top motorcycle producers globally by volume were Honda, Yamaha, and Hero MotoCorp, in developing countries, motorcycles are overwhelmingly utilitarian due to lower prices and greater fuel economy. Of all the motorcycles in the world, 58% are in the Asia-Pacific and Southern and Eastern Asia regions, according to the United States Department of Transportation the number of fatalities per vehicle mile traveled was 37 times higher for motorcycles than for cars. The term motorcycle has different legal definitions depending on jurisdiction, there are three major types of motorcycle, street, off-road, and dual purpose. Within these types, there are many sub-types of motorcycles for different purposes, there is often a racing counterpart to each type, such as road racing and street bikes, or motocross and dirt bikes. Street bikes include cruisers, sportbikes, scooters and mopeds, off-road motorcycles include many types designed for dirt-oriented racing classes such as motocross and are not street legal in most areas. Dual purpose machines like the style are made to go off-road but include features to make them legal. Each configuration offers either specialised advantage or broad capability, and each design creates a different riding posture, the first internal combustion, petroleum fueled motorcycle was the Daimler Reitwagen. It was designed and built by the German inventors Gottlieb Daimler and Wilhelm Maybach in Bad Cannstatt, instead, it relied on two outrigger wheels to remain upright while turning. The inventors called their invention the Reitwagen and it was designed as an expedient testbed for their new engine, rather than a true prototype vehicle. The first commercial design for a cycle was a three-wheel design called the Butler Petrol Cycle. He exhibited his plans for the vehicle at the Stanley Cycle Show in London in 1884, the vehicle was built by the Merryweather Fire Engine company in Greenwich, in 1888. The engine was liquid-cooled, with a radiator over the driving wheel. Speed was controlled by means of a valve lever. No braking system was fitted, the vehicle was stopped by raising and lowering the rear driving wheel using a foot-operated lever, the driver was seated between the front wheels. It wasnt, however, a success, as Butler failed to find sufficient financial backing, many authorities have excluded steam powered, electric motorcycles or diesel-powered two-wheelers from the definition of a motorcycle, and credit the Daimler Reitwagen as the worlds first motorcycle
Motorcycle
–
A 1954
Triumph T110 motorcycle
Motorcycle
–
A boulevard cruiser (front) and a sportbike (background)
Motorcycle
–
A
Ural motorcycle with a
sidecar
Motorcycle
–
French gendarme motorcyclist
.jpg)
JPY 410.3 billion (2014)[3]
