1.
Hong Kong
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Hong Kong, officially the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region of the Peoples Republic of China, is an autonomous territory on the Pearl River Delta of East Asia. Macau lies across the delta to the west, and the Chinese province of Guangdong borders the territory to the north. With a total area of 1,106 square kilometres. Hong Kong was later occupied by Japan during World War II until British control resumed in 1945, under the principle of one country, two systems, Hong Kong maintains a separate political and economic system from China. Except in military defence and foreign affairs, Hong Kong maintains its independent executive, legislative, in addition, Hong Kong develops relations directly with foreign states and international organisations in a broad range of appropriate fields. Hong Kong is one of the worlds most significant financial centres, with the highest Financial Development Index score and consistently ranks as the worlds most competitive and freest economic entity. As the worlds 8th largest trading entity, its legal tender, Hong Kongs tertiary sector dominated economy is characterised by simple taxation with a competitive level of corporate tax and supported by its independent judiciary system. However, while Hong Kong has one of the highest per capita incomes in the world and it has a very high Human Development Index ranking and the worlds longest life expectancy. Over 90% of the population use of well-developed public transportation. Seasonal air pollution with origins from neighbouring areas of Mainland China. Hong Kong was officially recorded in the 1842 Treaty of Nanking to encompass the entirety of the island, before 1842, the name referred to a small inlet—now Aberdeen Harbour —between Aberdeen Island and the southern coast of Hong Kong Island. Aberdeen was a point of contact between British sailors and local fishermen. Detailed and accurate romanisation systems for Cantonese were available and in use at the time, fragrance may refer to the sweet taste of the harbours fresh water estuarine influx of the Pearl River or to the incense from factories lining the coast of northern Kowloon. The incense was stored near Aberdeen Harbour for export before Hong Kong developed Victoria Harbour, the name had often been written as the single word Hongkong until the government adopted the current form in 1926. Nevertheless, a number of century-old institutions still retain the form, such as the Hongkong Post, Hongkong Electric. As of 1997, its name is the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region of the Peoples Republic of China. This is the title as mentioned in the Hong Kong Basic Law. Hong Kong has carried many nicknames, the most famous among those is the Pearl of the Orient, which reflected the impressive nightscape of the citys light decorations on the skyscrapers along both sides of the Victoria Harbour
Hong Kong
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The Cenotaph in Hong Kong commemorates those who died in service in WWI and WWII.
Hong Kong
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Flag
Hong Kong
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Stamp with portrait of
Queen Elizabeth II, 1953
Hong Kong
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Development of
Hong Kong Island in 1986
2.
Youth rights
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Youth rights are rights that young people have due to having reached a specific age or sufficient maturity. Youth rights have increased over the last century in many countries, the youth rights movement seeks to further increase youth rights, with some advocating intergenerational equity. Youth rights are one aspect of how youth are treated in society, other aspects include how adults see and treat youth, and how open society is to youth participation. Several of these made by society include the assumption that young people are incapable of making crucial decisions. There are specific sets of issues addressing the rights of youth in schools, including zero tolerance, gulag schools, In loco parentis, homeschooling, unschooling, and alternative schools are popular youth rights issues. A long-standing effort within the rights movements has focused on civic engagement. There have been a number of campaigns to increase youth voting rights by lowering the voting age. There are also efforts to get young people elected to prominent positions in local communities, including as members of city councils, for example, in the 2011 Raleigh mayoral election 17-year-old Seth Keel launched a campaign for Mayor despite the age requirement of 21. First emerging as a movement in the 1930s, youth rights have long been concerned with civil rights. Tracing its roots to youth activists during the Great Depression, youth rights has influenced the civil movement, opposition to the Vietnam War. Since the advent of the Internet youth rights is gaining predominance again, generally, the importance of judging each individual by observable relevant behaviors and not by birth date is stressed by advocates of these views. Childrens rights cover all the rights belong to children, when they grow up they are granted new rights. After youth reach these limits they are free to vote, have intercourse, buy or consume alcohol beverages or to drive cars. They point out distinctions between 1970s youth liberation literature and child rights literature from groups such as the Childrens Defense Fund, International Youth Rights is a student-run youth rights organization in China, with regional chapters across the country and abroad. Its aim is to make voices of youth be heard across the world, the European Youth Forum is the platform of the National Youth Council and International Non-Governamental Youth Organisations in Europe. It strives for youth rights in International Institutions such as the European Union, the Council of Europe, the European Youth Forum works in the fields of youth policy and youth work development. It focuses its work on European youth policy matters, whilst through engagement on the level it is enhancing the capacities of its members. The principles of equality and sustainable development are mainstreamed in the work of the European Youth Forum, other International youth rights organizations include Article 12 in Scotland and K. R. A. T. Z. A. in Germany
Youth rights
3.
Bailey v. Drexel Furniture Co.
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The Court indicated that the tax imposed by the statute was actually a penalty in disguise. The Court later abandoned the underlying the Bailey case. For example, see United States v. Kahriger,345 U. S.22, overruled on other grounds, Marchetti v. United States,390 U. S.39. On February 24,1919, Congress passed the Child Labor Tax Law which imposed a tax of 10 percent on the net profits of a company that employed children. The law defined child labor as “under the age of sixteen in any mine or quarry, drexel was a furniture manufacturing company in North Carolina. On September 21,1921, a collector from the Bureau of Internal Revenue assessed $6,312.79 in excise taxes for employing a child under fourteen during the 1919 tax year, drexel paid the tax under protest and sued for a refund. Drexel’s main argument was that the tax was an attempt to regulate manufacturing. The United States argued that the statute as an indirect tax did not need to meet a standard as long as it was geographically uniform. In addition, the government contended that the tax was merely a tax levied by Congress under its broad power of taxation under Article One of the Constitution. The lower court ruled in favor of the company, Chief Justice Tafts Court declared the tax on child labor was unconstitutional because it was a disguised criminal penalty, not a tax, on employment of children. In addition, the Child Labor Tax Law is a regulation on businesses instead of a tax, taft argued the law describes a set course for businesses and when they deviate from that course, a payment is enacted. Taft said, “Scienters are associated with penalties, not with taxes. ”“ court must be not to see that the so-called tax is imposed to stop the employment of children within the age limits prescribed. ”Taft said that the court must commit itself to the highest law of the land. He went on to say that the good sought in unconstitutional legislation leads citizens and legislators down a path of breaching the constitution and recognized standards. ”This would break down the constitutional limitations on Congress. A tax is a source of revenue for the government, while a penalty is a regulation, as a general rule, the court repeatedly favored the federal power to tax. In other cases, the court has upheld Congress’s excise tax on narcotics, marijuana, even with the firearms case, the Court admitted the law was unmistakably a legislative purpose to regulate rather than tax. Sebelius, penned by Chief Justice John Roberts in 2012, previously, in Hammer v. Dagenhart,247 U. S.251, the Court ruled a law prohibiting the transportation in interstate commerce of goods manufactured with child labor was unconstitutional. Unlike most proposed amendments, this did not have a deadline for state’s ratification, the proposed amendment eventually failed to achieve ratification, as many states passed their own child labor laws, making a federal amendment unnecessary. In addition, in 1938, Congress enacted Section 212 of the Fair Labor Standards Act which prohibited the transportation of goods in interstate commerce made from oppressive child labor
Bailey v. Drexel Furniture Co.
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Supreme Court of the United States
4.
Child Labor Deterrence Act
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The Child Labor Deterrence Act was created by Senator Tom Harkin, and was first proposed in the United States Congress in 1992, with subsequent propositions in 1993,1995,1997 and 1999. According to Harkins website, This bill would prohibit the importation of products that have produced by child labor. The final proposal for the bill, called Child Labor Deterrence Act of 1999, was bill number S.1551 in the U. S. Senate. Harkin was the lead sponsor calling for a bill that would prohibit the importation of manufactured and mined goods into the U. S. which are produced by children under the age of 15. The original wording of Senate Bill 706 in 1995 included the purpose of and it included civil and criminal punishments for anyone or business that defies the act. Harkins original proposal in 1992 is attributed for inciting concrete responses to the issue of child labor by the U. S. Congress. Harkin is involved in several other labor and anti-sweatshop movements. According to Harkin, I was able to amend the Trade Act of 2000 to ensure that the statute applied to goods made with forced or indentured child labor. While the original bill was not passed in Congress in 1999, of the millions of wage earning children in Bangladesh in 1990, almost all of them worked in the ready-made garment industry. Based on the Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics Labor Force Survey estimated there were about 5.7 million 10- to 14-year-old children engaged in Child labour in Bangladesh and this number may have been as high as 15 million children. In 1993 employers in Bangladesh ready-made garment industry dismissed 50,000 children out of fear of reprisals of the imminent passage of the Child Labor Deterrence Act. The act which banned importation to the United States of products which are manufactured or mined in whole or in part by children would have resulted in the loss of lucrative American contracts. Its impact on Bangladeshs economy would have been significant as the export-oriented ready-made garment industry represents most of the countrys exports, UNICEF sent a team of investigators into Bangladesh to learn what came of the children who were dismissed from their factory jobs. Many of the girls ended up in prostitution Childrens rights movement Child labor laws
Child Labor Deterrence Act
5.
Convention on the Rights of the Child
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The United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child is a human rights treaty which sets out the civil, political, economic, social, health and cultural rights of children. The Convention defines a child as any human being under the age of eighteen, Nations that ratify this convention are bound to it by international law. Compliance is monitored by the UN Committee on the Rights of the Child and their reports and the committees written views and concerns are available on the committees website. The UN General Assembly adopted the Convention and opened it for signature on 20 November 1989 and it came into force on 2 September 1990, after it was ratified by the required number of nations. Currently,196 countries are party to it, including member of the United Nations except the United States. Two optional protocols were adopted on 25 May 2000, the First Optional Protocol restricts the involvement of children in military conflicts, and the Second Optional Protocol prohibits the sale of children, child prostitution and child pornography. Both protocols have been ratified by more than 160 states, a third optional protocol relating to communication of complaints was adopted in December 2011 and opened for signature on 28 February 2012. It came into effect on 14 April 2014, the Convention deals with the child-specific needs and rights. It requires that the nations that ratify this convention are bound to it by international law, ratifying states must act in the best interests of the child. The Convention obliges states to allow parents to exercise their parental responsibilities, the Convention forbids capital punishment for children. The European Court of Human Rights has referred to the Convention when interpreting the European Convention on Human Rights, global human rights standards were challenged at the World Conference on Human Rights in Vienna when a number of governments raised serious objections to the idea of universal human rights. Some scholars link slavery and slavery-like practices for many child marriages, Child marriage as slavery is not directly addressed by the Convention on the Rights of the Child. Currently 196 countries are parties to the treaty and this includes every member of the United Nations, plus the Cook Islands, Niue, the State of Palestine, and the Holy See. The United States has not ratified it, somalias domestic ratification finished in January 2015 and the instrument was deposited with the United Nations in October 2015. All successor states of Czechoslovakia and Yugoslavia made declarations of succession to the treaty, the convention does not apply in the territories of Akrotiri and Dhekelia, Gibraltar, Guernsey and Tokelau. Canada became a signatory to the Convention on 28 May 1990, Youth criminal laws in Canada underwent major changes resulting in the Youth Criminal Justice Act which went into effect on 1 April 2003. The Act specifically references Canadas different commitments under the Convention, the convention was influential in the administrative Law decision of Baker v Canada. India ratified UNCRC on 11 December 1992, agreeing in principles all articles except with certain reservations on issues relating to child labor
Convention on the Rights of the Child
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Parties to the convention
6.
Fair Labor Standards Act
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The Fair Labor Standards Act of 1938 is a federal statute of the United States. Several exemptions exist that relieve an employer from having to meet the minimum wage, overtime. The largest exceptions apply to the white collar exemptions that are applicable to professional. Exemptions are narrowly construed, as an employer must prove that the employees fit plainly and unmistakably within the exemptions terms, the Fair Labor Standards Act applies to any individual employed by an employer but not to independent contractors or volunteers because they are not considered employees under the FLSA. Some employers similarly mislabel employees as volunteers, Courts look at the economic reality of the relationship between the putative employer and the worker to determine whether the worker is an independent contractor. Courts use a similar test to determine whether a worker was concurrently employed by more than one person or entity, for example, a farm worker may be considered jointly employed by a labor contractor and a grower. If an employee is entitled to overtime, the employer must pay them one, employees employed in a ministerial role by a religiously affiliated employer are not entitled to overtime under the act. During World War II, the Army-Navy E Award for excellence in war production required maintaining the fair labor standards established under the Act, if the employees wage does not equal minimum wage, including tips, the employer must make up the difference. However, the employee must be allowed to keep all tips, a tip pool may also contain only employees who customarily and regularly receive tips. The phrase customarily and regularly signifies a frequency which must be greater than occasional, while the nomenclature of a job title is not dispositive, the job of busboy is explicitly validated for tip-pool inclusion by an authoritative source. A busboy performs a part of customer service without much direct interaction. The Fair Labor Standards Act was originally drafted in 1932 by Senator Hugo Black, Blacks proposal to require employers to adopt a thirty-hour workweek met stiff resistance. In 1938, a version of Senator Blacks proposal was passed that adopted an eight-hour day. According to the act, workers must be minimum wage. Children under eighteen cannot do certain jobs, and children under the age of sixteen cannot work during school hours. The Fair Labor Standards Act affected 700,000 workers, in response, Congress passed the Portal-to-Portal Act narrowing the Supreme Courts decision. The 1947 Portal-to-Portal Act specified exactly what type of time was considered compensable work time. In general, as long as an employee is engaging in activities that benefit the employer, regardless of when they are performed and it also specified that travel to and from the workplace was a normal incident of employment and should not be considered paid working time
Fair Labor Standards Act
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History of the federal
minimum wage in real and nominal dollars.
7.
Hammer v. Dagenhart
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Hammer v. Dagenhart,247 U. S.251, was a United States Supreme Court decision involving the power of Congress to enact child labor laws. During the Progressive Era, public sentiment in America turned against what was perceived as increasingly intolerable child labor conditions, activities of such groups as the National Child Labor Committee, investigative journalists, and labor groups called attention to unhealthy and unsafe working conditions. He saw children growing up stunted mentally and physically and he saw countless children who had been injured and permanently disabled on the job, he knew that, in the cotton mills for example, children had accident rates three times those of adults. Responding to the public concern, many states sought to impose local restrictions on child labor. In many states, however, the attempt to regulate was ineffective, unable to regulate hours and working conditions for child labor within individual states, Congress sought to regulate child labor by banning the product of that labor from interstate commerce. Roland Dagenhart, who worked in a mill in Charlotte. A district court ruled the statute unconstitutional, which caused United States Attorney W. C, Hammer to appeal to the Supreme Court. The Court reasoned that, in cases, the goods themselves were inherently immoral. In this case, however, the issue at hand was the manufacture of cotton, the Court further held that the manufacture of cotton did not in itself constitute interstate commerce. The commerce clause was not intended to give to Congress a general authority to such conditions. And to them and to the people the powers not expressly delegated to the National Government are reserved, thus the act in a two-fold sense is repugnant to the Constitution. It not only transcends the authority delegated to Congress over commerce, justice Holmes dissented strongly from the logic and ruling of the majority. The ruling of the Court was later overturned and repudiated in a series of decisions handed down in the late 1930s, specifically, Hammer v. Dagenhart was overruled in 1941 in the case of United States v. Darby Lumber Co.312 U. S.100. The Court in the Darby case sided strongly with Holmes dissent, bikle, Henry Wolf, The Commerce Power and Hammer v. Dagenhart, University of Pennsylvania Law Review and American Law Register,67, 21–36, doi,10. 2307/3314454. Sawyer, Logan E. III, “Creating Hammer v. Dagenhart, ” William and Mary Bill of Rights Journal,21, full text of decision at FindLaw
Hammer v. Dagenhart
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Supreme Court of the United States
8.
History of youth rights in the United States
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The youth rights movement in the United States has long been concerned with civil rights and intergenerational equity. Since the advent of the Internet, youth rights is gaining predominance again, Youth rights first emerged as a distinct issue in the 1930. The Great Depression kick started the radicalization and politicization of undergraduates for the first time, Youth Rights first began to emerge through the National Student League, and were furthered greatly when young people across the country banded together to form the American Youth Congress. Concerned with many issues of the times, this organization went so far as to present a Declaration of the Rights of American Youth to the U. S. Congress. The group was so successful that its executive director claimed that it was a sort of a student brain of the New Deal and this schism caused the rapid decline of the organization, and shortly after the loss of its political benefactors and member support, the AYC collapsed. In the 1960s, two landmark U. S. Supreme Court cases, with the majority opinions authored by Justice Abe Fortas were decided in favor of youths rights. The movement emerged again in the early 1960s with the arrival of Students for a Democratic Society, the effect of the movement on the national Vietnam anti-war movement is widely acknowledged, particularly for its emphasis on youth empowerment through activism. Despite a court challenge hindering her ability to be listed on the ballot, later in that year another youth rights-focused book, Birthrights by Richard Farson, was published. During the rest of the 1970s and early 1980s, youth rights faced a backlash, in March 1986 the National Child Rights Alliance was founded by seven youth and adults who had been abused and neglected as children. The organization disbanded in 1999 due to funding issues, in the mid-1990s, a youth led movement for self-determination rights began on the Internet. This reborn Youth Rights movement coalesced in 1996 into Americans for a Society Free from Age Restrictions, divisions soon emerged between radicals and moderates within ASFAR leading to the formation in 1998 of the National Youth Rights Association. NYRA, founded by leaders of ASFAR and YouthSpeak, was founded to professionalize the youth rights movement, today, the youth rights movement has become a broad-based movement, with central leadership from NYRA augmented by grassroots organizations around the world. Organizations such as The Freechild Project and Global Youth Action Network position the youth movement within the sphere of international youth activism. Other organizations, including Oblivion and Peacefire provide support for the youth rights movement, the 1990s-2000s also saw a resurgence in youth rights books. Males describes the attack on youth as a pathology, unwarranted by fact, smokescreen for the failure of adulthood. Later, in 2007, Robert Epstein published the most comprehensive book for youth rights since the 1970s with The Case Against Adolescence, the book was described by Albert Ellis as one of the most revolutionary books I have ever read. Adam Fletcher released a publication called, A Short Introduction to Youth Rights through The Freechild Project in 2014. Youth rights List of articles related to youth rights
History of youth rights in the United States
9.
Morse v. Frederick
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Morse v. Frederick,551 U. S. Frederick sued, claiming his constitutional rights to free speech were violated. His suit was dismissed by the district court, but on appeal. Chief Justice Roberts, writing for the majority, concluded that the officials did not violate the First Amendment. One scholar noted that by its language, Morses holding is narrow in that it expressly applies only to student speech promoting illegal drug use. Further, Morse arguably permits viewpoint discrimination of purely political speech whenever that speech mentions illegal drugs—a result seemingly at odds with the First Amendment. On January 23,2002, students and staff at Juneau-Douglas High School in Alaska were permitted to leave classes to watch the Olympic Torch pass by. Joseph Frederick, who was late for school day, joined some friends on the sidewalk across from the high school. Frederick and his friends waited for the cameras so they could unfurl a banner reading BONG HiTS4 JESUS. Frederick was quoted as saying hed first seen the phrase on a snowboard sticker, when they displayed the banner, then-principal Deborah Morse ran across the street and seized it. Morse initially suspended Frederick for five days for violating the school districts anti-drug policy, Frederick then appealed to the Juneau School Board, which upheld the suspension on March 19,2002. On April 25,2002, Frederick filed a civil lawsuit against Morse. He sought a relief, injunctive relief, and monetary awards. The United States District Court for the District of Alaska dismissed Fredericks case on summary judgment, the district court reasoned that Bethel School District No.403 v. Fraser, as opposed to Tinker v. Des Moines Independent Community School District, governed Fredericks school speech. The Ninth Circuit reversed the decision of the District Court, the unanimous panel decision was written by Judge Andrew Kleinfeld. First, the Court decided that the incident should be interpreted under school-speech doctrines, even though Frederick was standing across the street, the answer under controlling, long-existing precedent is plainly No. To reach this determination, the Court inquired whether Fredericks constitutional rights were violated, the Court explained, Fraser holds that high school students rights to free speech in school are not coextensive with adultss rights, and pervasive sexual innuendo that is plainly offensive. To any mature person can be marked off as impermissible incivility within the school context,12 Fraser focuses upon the sexual nature of the offensiveness in the in-school speech that can be punished, as contrasted with the political viewpoint of the speech protected in Tinker. 13 Our case differs from Fraser in that Fredericks speech was not sexual,14 The phrase Bong Hits 4 Jesus may be funny, stupid, or insulting, depending on ones point of view, but it is not plainly offensive in the way sexual innuendo is
Morse v. Frederick
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Original banner now hanging in the
Newseum in
Washington, DC
10.
Quebec Charter of Human Rights and Freedoms
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The Charter of Human Rights and Freedoms is a statutory bill of rights and human rights code passed by the National Assembly of Quebec on June 27,1975. It received Royal Assent from Lieutenant Governor Hugues Lapointe, coming into effect on June 28,1976, introduced by the Liberal government of Robert Bourassa, the charter followed extensive preparatory work that began under the Union Nationale government of Daniel Johnson. Having precedence over all legislation, the Charter of Human Rights. Only the Constitution of Canada, including the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms, the Charter of Human Rights and Freedoms consists of six parts, Part I defines fundamental human rights. Its six chapters enunciate fundamental freedoms and rights, equality rights, political rights, judicial rights, economic and social rights, Part II establishes the Commission des droits de la personne et des droits de la jeunesse. Members of the commission are appointed by the National Assembly, the commissions staff members do not belong to the Civil Service, in order to safeguard their independence. Part III provides for affirmative action programs, Part IV guarantees rights to privacy. Part V gives the government regulatory powers, Part VI establishes the Human Rights Tribunal of Quebec, whose members that hold the decision-making power are chosen from among the judiciary. Social condition has been a ground of discrimination since the charter came into force. Discrimination based on sexual orientation has been prohibited since 1977, with that change, in 2016, gender identity or expression was added to the Quebec Charter. An illicit violation of the charter, whether by a party or by the provincial Crown, may give rise to a cease-and-desist order. Punitive damages may be awarded in case of an intentional and unlawful violation and its Constitution, which includes the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms, is supreme, binding the federal parliament and the legislative assemblies of Canadas provinces and territories. The Quebec charters supremacy under its section 52 applies to the categories of rights, fundamental rights and freedoms, the right to equality, political rights. The charter provides for a specific machinery in cases of discrimination, instead of introducing litigation in court, victims of such a violation may file a complaint with the Human Rights and Youth Rights Commission. The commission will investigate the matter and attempt to foster a settlement between the parties, if those are not followed, the commission may introduce litigation before a court. Victims will be represented free of charge by the commission, the Quebec charter does not apply to federally regulated activities in Quebec. Those are subject to the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms and/or the Canadian Human Rights Act, notable cases decided under the Charter include, Ford v. Quebec,2 S. C. R. 712, Freedom of expression and signs Devine v. Quebec 2 S. C. R,790, Freedom of expression Tremblay v. Daigle 2 S. C. R
Quebec Charter of Human Rights and Freedoms
11.
Wild in the Streets
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Wild in the Streets is a 1968 film featuring Christopher Jones, Hal Holbrook, and Shelley Winters. It was produced by American International Pictures and based on a story by writer Robert Thom. The movie, described as ludicrous and cautionary, was nominated for an Academy Award and became a cult classic of the counterculture era. Wild in the Streets was first released to theaters in 1968 and its storyline was a reductio ad absurdum projection of contemporary issues of the time, taken to extremes, and played poignantly during 1968 —an election year with many controversies. The original magazine story, titled The Day It All Happened, Baby. was expanded by its author to book length. The movie features cameos from several media personalities, including Melvin Belli, Dick Clark, Pamela Mason, Army Archerd, millie Perkins and Ed Begley have supporting roles, and Bobby Sherman interviews Max as president. In a pre-Brady Bunch role, Barry Williams plays the teenaged Max Frost at the beginning of the movie, child actress Kellie Flanagan, who plays Johnny Fergus daughter, Mary, also appeared in director Barry Shears television special All Things Bright and Beautiful in the same year. She discussed filming Wild in the Streets in a 2014 interview with Adam Gerace, telling him, I get a kick out of Wild in the Streets. A soundtrack album was released on Tower Records and became successful, taken from the soundtrack and film, Shape of Things to Come and performed by the band Max Frost and the Troopers, was released as a single and also became a hit, reaching #22 on Billboard. Wild in the Streets was released on VHS home video in the late 1980s, according to filmmaker Kenneth Bowser, the part eventually played by Christopher Jones was first offered to folk singer Phil Ochs. After reading the screenplay, Ochs rejected the offer, claiming the story distorted the actual nature of the counterculture of the period. Christopher Jones stars as popular singer and aspiring revolutionary Max Frost. Frosts band, the Troopers, live together with him, their women, Maxs band performs a song noting that 52% of the population is 25 or younger, making young people the majority in the country. And a call for a demonstration, Maxs fans stir to action, and within 24 hours protests have begun in cities around the United States. Max agrees, and the two together on television, and in person the next day using the less offensive mantra fifteen. Most states agree to lower the voting age within days, in the wake of the demonstrations, and Max Frost and the Troopers campaign for Johnny Fergus until the election, which he wins by a landslide. Taking his place in the Senate, Fergus wishes Frost and his people would now just go away, but instead they get involved with Washington politics. When a congressman from Sally LeRoys home district dies suddenly, the band enters her in the election that follows
Wild in the Streets
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Film poster by
Reynold Brown
12.
Adultcentrism
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Adultcentrism is the exaggerated egocentrism of adults, including the belief that an adult perspective is inherently better. In social work, adultcentrism has been recognized as the potential bias adults have in understanding and responding to children and this bias is said to extend from the difference in age between the child and the adult. The differences—including language, communication styles and world view—can create a hurdle to overcome, rather than allowing the adult to simply share their view, adultcentrism acknowledges the powerlessness and inability of young people to actually affect the systems of authority adults have created. In the field of occupational therapy adultcentrism has been said to lead researchers to underestimate childrens abilities, according to one researcher, This stance can be seen when researchers assume they know everything they need to know about children because they have been children. Research has also shown this leads adults to stay within their own perspective, the elderly are considered past their prime and are often seen as a burden on society. From this notion education leaders, teachers, school board members, a growing number of youth empowerment organizations and youth-led organizations identify adultcentrism as central to their analysis, as well
Adultcentrism
13.
Adultism
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Adultism is the power adults have over children. More narrowly, adultism is defined as prejudice and accompanying systematic discrimination against young people, on a more philosophical basis, the term has also been defined as bias towards adults. And the social addiction to adults, including their ideas, activities, the word adultism was used by Patterson Du Bois in 1903, and appears in French psychology literature in 1929, describing the influence of adults over children. It was seen as a condition wherein a child possessed adult-like physique and spirit, and was exemplified by, A boy of 12 and they were placed in institutions because of stealing and prostitution. These forms of precocity lead the individual into difficulties and should be recognized early in the development of the individual and this definition was superseded by a late 1970s journal article proposing that adultism is the abuse of the power that adults have over children. The author identified examples of not only in parents but in teachers, psychotherapists, the clergy, police, judges. Adultism is defined as the behaviors and attitudes based on the assumptions that adults are better than young people and it is also seen as, an addiction to the attitudes, ideas, beliefs, and actions of adults. Adultism is popularly used to any discrimination against young people and is distinguished from ageism. Adultism is ostensibly caused by fear of children and youth and it has been suggested that adultism, which is associated with a view of the self that trades on rejecting and excluding child-subjectivity, has always been present in Western culture. Fletcher suggests that adultism has three main expressions throughout society, Attitudinal Adultism, Personal feelings, assumptions, and beliefs that form a person’s attitudes about young people and this is also called internalized adultism. Cultural Adultism, The shared attitudes, including beliefs and customs, promoting the assumption that adults are superior to anyone who is not identified as an adult and this is also called social adultism. This is also referred to as institutional adultism, a study by the Crisis Prevention Institute of the prevalence of adultism found an increasing number of local youth-serving organizations addressing the issue. Adultism is used to describe the oppression of children and young people by adults and it is treated as a generalization of paternalism, allowing for the broad force of adulthood beyond males, and may be witnessed in the infantalization of children and youth. Pedophobia and ephebiphobia have been proposed as the antecedents to adultism, tokophobia, the fear of childbirth, may also be a precursor, gerontophobia, or its antonym, gerontocracy, may be extensions of adultism. Similar terms such as adult privilege, adultarchy, and adultcentrism have been proposed as alternatives which are more morphologically parallel, some activists alternatively call adultism youthism, or childism equating it to sexism and heterosexism. The opposite of adultism is jeunism, which is defined as the preference of young people, at least one prominent organization describes discrimination against youth as ageism, which is any form of discrimination against anyone due to their age. The National Youth Rights Association argues that ageism is a natural and understandable term than adultism. Advocates of using ageism also believe it makes common cause with older people fighting against their own form of age discrimination, recently, theologians Heather Eaton and Matthew Fox proposed, Adultism derives from adults repressing the inner child
Adultism
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An age restriction on operating a
waffle baker independently
14.
Ageism
–
Ageism is stereotyping and discriminating against individuals or groups on the basis of their age. This may be casual or systematic, the term was coined in 1969 by Robert Neil Butler to describe discrimination against seniors, and patterned on sexism and racism. Butler defined ageism as a combination of three connected elements, moreover, it has been pointed out that stigmatization does not only occur outside of the cohesively imagined group of the elderly but likewise takes place within the stigmatized group itself. It can also be passive and covert to drive the notion that the place is young, Ageism in common parlance and age studies usually refers to negative discriminatory practices against old people, people in their middle years, teenagers and children. There are several forms of age-related bias, adultism is a predisposition towards adults, which is seen as biased against children, youth, and all young people who are not addressed or viewed as adults. Jeunism is the discrimination against older people in favor of younger ones, adultcentricism is the exaggerated egocentrism of adults. Adultocracy is the convention which defines maturity and immaturity, placing adults in a dominant position over young people. Gerontocracy is a form of rule in which an entity is ruled by leaders who are significantly older than most of the adult population. Chronocentrism is primarily the belief that a state of humanity is superior to all previous and/or future times. Based on an analysis of ageism, a new definition of ageism was introduced by Iversen, Larsen. Ageism can be implicit or explicit and can be expressed on a micro-, meso- or macro-level, implicit ageism is the term used to refer to the implicit or subconscious thoughts, feelings, and behaviors one has about older or younger people. These may be a mixture of positive and negative thoughts and feelings, ageist stereotyping is a tool of cognition which involves categorizing into groups and attributing characteristics to these groups. Stereotypes are necessary for processing huge volumes of information which would otherwise overload a person, for example, age-based stereotypes prime one to draw very different conclusions when one sees an older and a younger adult with, say, back pain or a limp. One might well assume that the persons condition is temporary and treatable, following an accident, while the older persons condition is chronic. On average, this might be true, but plenty of people have accidents and recover quickly. Another example is when people are rude to children because of their high pitched voice, even if they are kind, a review of the research literature related to age stereotypes in the workplace was recently published in the Journal of Management. Contrary to common and more obvious forms of stereotyping, such as racism and sexism, ageism is more resistant to change. For instance, if a child believes in an ageist idea against the elderly, fewer people correct them, in other words, ageism can become a self-fulfilling prophecy
Ageism
15.
Criminalization
–
Criminalization or criminalisation, in criminology, is the process by which behaviors and individuals are transformed into crime and criminals. Previously legal acts may be transformed into crimes by legislation or judicial decision, the power of judges to make new law and retrospectively criminalise behaviour is also discouraged. In a less overt way, where laws have not been strictly enforced, there has been some uncertainty as to the nature and extent of the contribution to be made by the victims of crime. But, as Garkawe indicates, the relationship between victimology and criminology has become problematic, in formal academically published theory, the real ruling class of a society reaches a temporary view on whether certain acts or behavior are harmful or criminal. Historically this one theory will be modified by scientific, medical evidence, by change. Conversely, when local politics determines that it is no longer a crime, several principles may underpin decisions about criminalization. These include the de minimis principle, that of the minimum criminalization, under this principle, the general harm principle fails to consider the possibility of other sanctions and the effectiveness of criminalization as a chosen option. Those other sanctions include civil courts, laws of tort and regulation, having criminal remedies in place is seen as a last resort since such actions often infringe personal liberties – incarceration, for example, prevents the freedom of movement. In this sense, law making that places an emphasis on human rights. Most crimes of direct actions are not affected by such a stance. The policy of social defense can be seen as an opposing view and it argues that criminalization is used against any form of activity which threatens good order or is thought reprehensible. The minimization principle may unwittingly prevent the adaptation of the law to new situations, in general, worldwide policy makers have created a myriad of smaller offences, in contradiction to the minimization principle and more in keeping with the social defence. Leading criminal law philosophers, such as Dennis Baker and Joel Feinberg have argued that conduct should only be criminalized when it is fair to do so. In particular, such theorists assert that objective reasons are needed to demonstrate that it is fair to conduct in any given case. The commonly cited objective justification for invoking the law is harm to others. For example, people are not necessarily harmed by public nudity, Feinberg suggests that offence to others also provides an objective reason for invoking the criminal law, but it clearly does not as offence is determined according to conventional morality. Prostitution is another area, as some countries allow it in different forms. One argument may be that prostitution perpetuates the spread of sexually transmitted diseases, including HIV/AIDS, people experience a range of physical and social injuries in different contexts which will vary according to the level of economic and political development of their country
Criminalization
–
Criminology and
penology
16.
Democracy
–
Democracy, in modern usage, is a system of government in which the citizens exercise power directly or elect representatives from among themselves to form a governing body, such as a parliament. Democracy is sometimes referred to as rule of the majority, Democracy was originally conceived in Classical Greece, where political representatives were chosen by a jury from amongst the male citizens, rich and poor. The English word dates to the 16th century, from the older Middle French, in the 5th century BC, to denote the political systems then existing in Greek city-states, notably Athens, the term is an antonym to aristocracy, meaning rule of an elite. While theoretically these definitions are in opposition, in practice the distinction has been blurred historically, the political system of Classical Athens, for example, granted democratic citizenship to free men and excluded slaves and women from political participation. In 1906, Finland became the first government to harald a more inclusive democracy at the national level. Democracy contrasts with forms of government where power is held by an individual, as in an absolute monarchy, or where power is held by a small number of individuals. Nevertheless, these oppositions, inherited from Greek philosophy, are now ambiguous because contemporary governments have mixed democratic, oligarchic, and monarchic elements. Karl Popper defined democracy in contrast to dictatorship or tyranny, thus focusing on opportunities for the people to control their leaders, No consensus exists on how to define democracy, but legal equality, political freedom and rule of law have been identified as important characteristics. These principles are reflected in all eligible citizens being equal before the law, other uses of democracy include that of direct democracy. In some countries, notably in the United Kingdom which originated the Westminster system, in the United States, separation of powers is often cited as a central attribute. In India, parliamentary sovereignty is subject to the Constitution of India which includes judicial review, though the term democracy is typically used in the context of a political state, the principles also are applicable to private organisations. Majority rule is listed as a characteristic of democracy. Hence, democracy allows for political minorities to be oppressed by the tyranny of the majority in the absence of legal protections of individual or group rights. An essential part of a representative democracy is competitive elections that are substantively and procedurally fair, i. e. just. It has also suggested that a basic feature of democracy is the capacity of all voters to participate freely and fully in the life of their society. While representative democracy is sometimes equated with the form of government. Many democracies are constitutional monarchies, such as the United Kingdom, the term democracy first appeared in ancient Greek political and philosophical thought in the city-state of Athens during classical antiquity. The word comes from demos, common people and kratos, strength, led by Cleisthenes, Athenians established what is generally held as the first democracy in 508–507 BC
Democracy
–
A woman casts her vote in the second round of the
2007 French presidential election.
Democracy
–
Cleisthenes, "father of
Athenian democracy ", modern bust.
Democracy
–
Magna Carta, 1215, England.
Democracy
–
The establishment of
universal male suffrage in France in 1848 was an important milestone in the history of democracy.
17.
Ephebiphobia
–
Ephebiphobia is the fear of youth. Studies of the fear of youth occur in sociology and youth studies, the word ephebiphobia is formed from the Greek ἔφηβος éphēbos, meaning youth or adolescent and φόβος phóbos, meaning fear or phobia. The coinage of this term is attributed to a 1994 article by Kirk Astroth published in Phi Delta Kappan, the term paedophobia has gained popular acceptance in Europe to describe the aforementioned fear of youth. Pediaphobia is the fear of infants and children, similar terms include adultism, which is a predisposition towards adults that is biased against children and youth, and ageism, which describes discrimination against any person because of their age. The fear of youth, along with fear of street culture, machiavelli is said to have realized that a fear of youth is what kept the city of Florence from keeping a standing army. Ancient Venice and ancient Greece are also said to have had floundering public policy because of their fear of youth. Early American Puritanism has been seen as reliant on a fear of youth, who were seen as embodying adventure and enlightenment, post-World War II France was said to have been stricken by concern for mal de jeunesse when they created policies that reflected their fear of youth. Send them to camps, place others in reformatories, the rest should have some fresh air. Were the intentions of youth policies in that era, following World War II the United States military identified the growing number of youth in the Deep South as a problematic scenario for national security. Analysts have suggested the upswing in the popular cultures fear of youth may be attributed to policies created in response to that threat. The Seattle Weekly specifically cited the fear of youth as the factor behind Seattle. The government of Prime Minister Tony Blair introduced the Anti-Social Behaviour Order in 1998, media, marketers, politicians, youth workers and researchers have been implicated in perpetuating the fear of youth. Since young people in developed countries are expected to stay out of the workforce, the very creation of the terms youth, adolescence and teenager have all been attributed to the fear of youth. Courts have increasingly ruled against youth rights, as well, before the 1940s teenagers were not listed in newspaper headlines, because as a group they did not exist. The impact of youth since World War II on western society has been immense, in turn, youth are caused to behave in ways that appear different from adults. This has led to the phenomenon of youth, and in turn has created a fear of them. The fear of youth is thought to exist throughout the entire Western world, sociologist Ray Oldenburg has attributed the generation gap and the increasing segregation of youth from adults in American society to adult estrangement and fear of youth. At least one major economist has proposed that the fear of youth can have effects on the economic health of nations
Ephebiphobia
18.
Paternalism
–
Paternalism is behavior by an organization or state that limits some person or groups liberty or autonomy for what is presumed to be that persons or groups own good. Paternalism can also imply that the behavior is against or regardless of the will of a person, Paternalism, paternalistic and paternalist have all been used as a pejorative. The word paternalism is from the Latin pater father via the adjective paternus fatherly and we are not speaking of children, or of young persons below the age which the law may fix as that of manhood or womanhood. Paternalism towards adults is sometimes thought to them as if they were children. Soft Paternalism is the view that paternalism is justified if an action to be committed is involuntary. John Stuart Mill gives the example of a person about to walk across a damaged bridge and we cant tell the person the bridge is damaged as he doesnt speak your language. According to Soft paternalism we would be justified in forcing him to not cross the bridge so we could find out whether he knows about the damage, if he knows and wants to jump off the bridge and commit suicide then we should allow him to. Hard paternalists say that at least sometimes we are entitled to prevent him crossing the bridge. Pure paternalism is where the person having their liberty or autonomy taken away is those being protected, impure paternalism is where the persons that have their liberty or autonomy violated is not just the persons being protected. Moral paternalism is where paternalism is justified to promote the well being of a person even if their welfare wouldnt improve. For example it would be argued that someone should be prevented from even if they make a decent living off it. A moral paternalist would argue that it is ethical considering prostitution is morally corrupting, thomas Pogge argues that there are a number of criteria for paternalism. The concept should work within human flourishing, generally accepted items such as nutrition, clothing, shelter, certain basic freedoms may be acceptable by a range of religious and social backgrounds. The criteria should be minimally intrusive, the requirements of the criteria should not be understood as exhaustive, leaving societies the ability to modify the criteria based on their own needs. The supplementary considerations introduced by more ambitious criteria of justice must not be allowed to outweigh the modest considerations. In his Two Treatises of Government, John Locke argues that political and paternal power cannot be identified. In On Liberty he writes. the only purpose for which power can be exercised over any member of a civilized community. His own good, either physical or moral, is not a sufficient warrant, contemporary opponents of paternalism often appeal to the ideal of personal autonomy
Paternalism
19.
Social class
–
Class is an essential object of analysis for sociologists, political scientists, anthropologists, and social historians. However, there is not a consensus on the best definition of the class, the precise measurements of what determines social class in society has varied over time. According to philosopher Karl Marx, class is determined entirely by ones relationship to the means of production, the term class is etymologically derived from the Latin classis, which was used by census takers to categorize citizens by wealth, in order to determine military service obligations. In the late 18th century, the class began to replace classifications such as estates, rank. Historically social class and behavior was sometimes laid down in law, definitions of social classes reflect a number of sociological perspectives, informed by anthropology, economics, psychology, and sociology. The major perspectives historically have been Marxism and Structural functionalism, the common stratum model of class divides society into a simple hierarchy of working class, middle class and upper class. For Marx, class is a combination of objective and subjective factors, objectively, a class shares a common relationship to the means of production. Subjectively, the members will necessarily have some perception of their similarity, Class consciousness is not simply an awareness of ones own class interest but is also a set of shared views regarding how society should be organized legally, culturally, socially and politically. These class relations are reproduced through time and this is the fundamental economic structure of work and property, a state of inequality that is normalized and reproduced through cultural ideology. Marxists explain the history of civilized societies in terms of a war of classes between those who control production and those who produce the goods or services in society, in the Marxist view of capitalism, this is a conflict between capitalists and wage-workers. Furthermore, in countries where modern civilisation has become fully developed, an industrial army of workmen, under the command of a capitalist, requires, like a real army, officers and sergeants who, while the work is being done, command in the name of the capitalist. This would mark the beginning of a society in which human needs rather than profit would be motive for production. In a society with democratic control and production for use, there would be no class, no state and no need for financial and banking institutions and money. Max Weber formulated a three-component theory of stratification, that saw social class as emerging from an interplay between class, status and power. Weber believed that class position was determined by a relationship to the means of production. Weber derived many of his key concepts on social stratification by examining the structure of many countries. He noted that contrary to Marxs theories, stratification was based on more than simply ownership of capital, Weber pointed out that some members of the aristocracy lack economic wealth yet might nevertheless have political power. Likewise in Europe, many wealthy Jewish families in lack prestige and honor, Class, A persons economic position in a society
Social class
–
Burmese nobles and servants
Social class
–
A symbolic image of three orders of feudal society in Europe prior to the
French Revolution: The rural third estate carrying the clergy and the nobility.
Social class
–
In the United States the lowest stratum of the working class, the
underclass, often lives in urban areas with low-quality
civil services.
Social class
–
Members of the working class, and particularly peasantries,
starve to death at a much higher rate than petits-bourgeois professionals or capitalists.
20.
Suffrage
–
Suffrage, political franchise, or simply franchise is the right to vote in public, political elections. The right to run for office is sometimes called candidate eligibility, in many languages, the right to vote is called the active right to vote and the right to run for office is called the passive right to vote. In English, these are called active suffrage and passive suffrage. Suffrage is often conceived in terms of elections for representatives, however, suffrage applies equally to referenda and initiatives. Suffrage describes not only the right to vote, but also the practical question of whether a question will be put to a vote. The utility of suffrage is reduced when important questions are decided unilaterally by elected or non-elected representatives, in most democracies, eligible voters can vote in elections of representatives. Voting on issues by referendum may also be available, for example, in Switzerland this is permitted at all levels of government. The United States federal government does not offer any initiatives at all, Suffrage is granted to qualifying citizens once they have reached the voting age. What constitutes a qualifying citizen depends on the governments decision, resident non-citizens can vote in some countries, which may be restricted to citizens of closely linked countries. The word suffrage comes from Latin suffragium, meaning vote, political support, and the right to vote. The etymology of the Latin word is uncertain, with sources citing Latin suffragari lend support, vote for someone, from sub under + fragor crash, din, shouts. Other sources say that attempts to connect suffragium with fragor cannot be taken seriously, some etymologists think the word may be related to suffrago and may have originally meant an ankle bone or knuckle bone. Universal suffrage consists of the right to vote without restriction due to sex, race, social status, education level, or wealth. It typically does not extend the right to vote to all residents of a region, distinctions are made in regard to citizenship, age. The short-lived Corsican Republic was the first country to grant limited universal suffrage to all citizens over the age of 25 and this was followed by other experiments in the Paris Commune of 1871 and the island republic of Franceville. The 1840 constitution of the Kingdom of Hawaii granted universal suffrage to all male and female adults, so Finland was the first country in the world to give all citizens full suffrage, in other words the right to vote and to run for office. New Zealand was the first country in the world to grant all citizens the right to vote, Womens suffrage is, by definition, the right of women to vote. This was the goal of the suffragists in the United States, short-lived suffrage equity was drafted into provisions of the State of New Jerseys first,1776 Constitution, which extended the Right to Vote to unwed female landholders & black land owners
Suffrage
–
Suffrage universel dédié à
Ledru-Rollin, Frédéric Sorrieu, 1850
Suffrage
–
German election poster from 1919: Equal rights - equal duties!
21.
Taking Children Seriously
–
It was founded in 1994 as an on-line mailing-list by the libertarians Sarah Fitz-Claridge and David Deutsch. Deutsch is also a theoretical physicist at Oxford University, T. C. S. begins with the observation that most traditional interactions between adults and youth are based on coercion. Model of parenting and education rejects this coercion as infringing on the will of the child, advocates that parents and children work to find a common preference, a solution all parties genuinely prefer to all other candidate solutions they can think of. Philosophy was inspired by the epistemology of Karl Popper, Popper was a professional educator himself before he started to do philosophy. In fact, philosophy was only an option for him at that time. He was active in the Wiener Schulreform movement, and there are connections between the psychology of learning, on which he did his thesis, and his philosophy. However, as a philosopher, he did not advocate any concrete pedagogy, views Poppers epistemology, as Popper himself, as a universal theory of how knowledge grows, and tries to work out its profound implications for educational theory. Bound to be Free, A Positive Alternative to Paying the Hidden Costs of Free Education, Fallible Ideas Fallible Living TCS Essays Brain, Child Magazine. Reprinted in the Utne Reader Taking Children Seriously and Anarchy by An-ok in Green Anarchy #10 pp. 20–1, internet archive Pedagogy > Taking Children Seriously
Taking Children Seriously
22.
Universal suffrage
–
The concept of universal suffrage, also known as general suffrage or common suffrage, consists of the right to vote of all except a small number of adult citizens. As minors are excluded, the concept is frequently described as universal adult suffrage. Many countries make an exception for small numbers of adults that are considered incapable of voting. Other countries also exclude people convicted of crimes or people in jail. In some countries, including the United States, it is very difficult, in any case, where universal suffrage exists, the right to vote is not restricted by race, sex, belief, wealth, or social status. The term active suffrage is sometimes used for the right to vote, passive suffrage for the right to run for office, the equivalent term when talking about both genders would then be universal full suffrage, or full universal suffrage. Greece recognized full male suffrage in 1830 and France and Switzerland have continuously done so since the 1848 Revolution, the German Empire implemented full male suffrage in 1871. In 1893, the self-governing colony New Zealand became the first country in the world to grant active universal suffrage by giving women the right to vote and it did not grant universal full suffrage until 1919. In 1902 Australia become the first country to grant full suffrage for women, however, universal suffrage was not implemented, as aboriginals didnt get the right to vote until 1962. It also elected the worlds first female members of parliament the following year, in most countries, universal suffrage followed about a generation after universal male suffrage. Notable exceptions in Europe were France, where women could not vote until 1944, Greece and it is worth noting that countries that took a long time to adopt womens suffrage had previously often been pioneers in granting universal male suffrage. In the first modern democracies, governments restricted the vote to those with property and wealth, in some jurisdictions, other restrictions existed, such as requiring voters to practice a given religion. In all modern democracies, the number of people who could vote has increased progressively with time, in the 19th century in Europe, Great Britain and North America, there were movements advocating universal suffrage. The democratic movement of the late 19th century, unifying liberals and social democrats, particularly in northern Europe, used the slogan Equal, the concept of universal suffrage requires the right to vote to be granted to all its residents. All countries, however, do not allow certain categories of citizens to vote, saudi Arabia was the last major country that did not allow women to vote, but admitted women both to voting and candidacy in the 2015 municipal elections. France, under the 1793 Jacobin constitution, was the first major country to enact suffrage for all adult males, the Second French Republic did institute adult male suffrage after the revolution of 1848. In 1867, Germany enacted suffrage for all adult males, in the United States following the American Civil War, slaves were freed and granted rights of citizens, including suffrage for adult males. Several European nations that had enacted universal suffrage had their legal process, or their status as an independent nation, interrupted during
Universal suffrage
–
Voting is an important part of the formal
democratic process.
Universal suffrage
–
The
European Parliament is the only supranational organ elected with universal suffrage (since 1979).
23.
Unschooling
–
Unschooling is an educational method and philosophy that advocates learner-chosen activities as a primary means for learning. The term unschooling was coined in the 1970s and used by educator John Holt, while often considered a subset of homeschooling, unschoolers may be as philosophically separate from other homeschoolers as they are from advocates of conventional schooling. While homeschooling has been subject to public debate, little media attention has been given to unschooling in particular. A fundamental premise of unschooling is that curiosity is innate and that children want to learn, unschoolers note that psychologists have documented many differences between children in the way they learn, and assert that unschooling is better equipped to adapt to these differences. People vary in their styles, that is, the preference in how they acquire new information. However, research has demonstrated that this preference is not related to increased learning or improved performance, developmental psychologists note that just as children reach growth milestones at different ages from each other, children are also prepared to learn different things at different ages. Unschoolers sometimes state that any specific subject is less important than learning how to learn. They assert, in the words of Holt, Since we cant know what knowledge will be most needed in the future, it is senseless to try to teach it in advance. Instead, we should try to out people who love learning so much. Many unschoolers disagree that there is a body of knowledge that every person, regardless of the life they lead. Parents of unschoolers provide resources, support, guidance, information, and advice to facilitate experiences that aid their children in accessing, navigating, unschoolings interest-based nature does not mean that it is a hands off approach to education. Parents tend to themselves, especially with younger children. Often those in school have a community consisting mainly of a group, of which the parent has little influence. Unschoolers may have time to share a role in their community, therefore relating more to older and younger individuals. According to unschooling pioneer John Holt, unschoolers may question the school environment as one that is optimal for daily learning. Others point out that some schools can be non-coercive and cooperative, success and schooling also show little correlation according to some studies, and this is a subject for debate. The term unschooling probably derives from Ivan Illichs term deschooling, and was popularized through John Holts newsletter Growing Without Schooling. In an early essay, Holt contrasted the two terms, GWS will say unschooling when we mean taking children out of school, at this point the term was equivalent with home schooling
Unschooling
–
Unschooling emphasizes free, undirected
play as a major component of children's education.
Unschooling
–
Unschooling
24.
Youth suffrage
–
Youth suffrage, or childrens suffrage, is the right of youth to vote and forms part of the broader youth rights movement. Until recently Iran had an age of 15, Argentina, Austria, Brazil, Cuba, Ecuador and Nicaragua have a voting age of 16, and Indonesia, East Timor, Sudan. The Twenty-sixth Amendment to the United States Constitution, ratified on July 1,1971, the primary impetus for this change was the fact that young men were being drafted to fight in the Vietnam War before they were old enough to vote. There have been proposals to lower the voting age even further. In 2013, Takoma Park, Maryland became the first U. S. city to allow 16-, on January 5,2015, Hyattsville, Maryland joined Takoma Park in lowering the voting age to 16. A proposal to lower the age from 18 to 16 was defeated in the Venezuelan constitutional referendum,2007. People of all ages are required to pay income and sales taxes, therefore, children are legally permitted to have sex or drive a car in some countries, which are more dangerous and difficult than voting. Education for and about democracy would be served if there were no voting age. Government entitlements suppress fertility, which means the youth demographic is systematically suppressed, governments derive their just authority from the consent of the governed. To be legitimate, those who govern and those who legislate must be elected by the people, not a subset of the people. Some youth are believed by some to not to have sufficient understanding of the realities of life to participate in voting. In response to this, most youth suffrage advocates point out these are the arguments used against womens suffrage, as well as the abolition of property requirements. Likewise, mental capacity or knowledge is not a bar to the elective franchise. Demeny voting is the idea that parents would cast votes on behalf of their children thereby ensuring that the interests of children were properly accounted for in the voting system, essentially, a case for no taxation without representation. Youth Suffrage - Lowering the Voting Age, The Freechild Project Survey of North American Youth Rights, Lowering the Voting Age Resources, National Youth Rights Association Youth Youth rights Age of candidacy Voting age Demeny voting
Youth suffrage
25.
Youth voice
–
Youth voice refers to the distinct ideas, opinions, attitudes, knowledge, and actions of young people as a collective body. The term youth voice often groups together a diversity of perspectives and experiences, regardless of backgrounds, identities and it is frequently associated with the successful application of a variety of youth development activities, including service learning, youth research, and leadership training. Additional research has shown that engaging youth voice is an element of effective organizational development among community. Many youth organizations and community activities cite youth voice as an important factor to their successful operations, the field of Positive Youth Development also promotes youth voice by striving to inspire confidence and social engagement for young people. Examples of School-oriented youth voice include the VicSRC, an Australian student voice organization. The United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child was the first international mechanism to stipulate the systemic engagement of youth voice, annual events which center on youth voice include Global Youth Service Day and the National Service Learning Conference. Ephebiphobia and adultism have been identified as the factors preventing widespread recognition of youth voice throughout communities, Youth voice also faces criticism from the youth rights movement that it does not go far enough, or that it is using youth. Critics claim that youth voice advocates only advance a shallow analysis of ageism, coupled with youth service this can lead to young people being pressured to help fix adult problems without ever addressing the problems youth face
Youth voice
26.
Age of candidacy
–
Age of candidacy is the minimum age at which a person can legally qualify to hold certain elected government offices. In many cases, it determines the age at which a person may be eligible to stand for an election or be granted ballot access. The first known example of a law enforcing age of candidacy was the Lex Villia Annalis, many youth rights groups view current age of candidacy requirements as unjustified age discrimination. Occasionally people who are younger than the age will run for an office in protest of the requirement or because they dont know that the requirement exists. On extremely rare occasions, young people have elected to offices they do not qualify for and have been deemed ineligible to assume the office. In 1934, Rush Holt of West Virginia was elected to the Senate of the United States at the age of 29. Constitution requires senators to be at least 30, Holt was forced to wait until his 30th birthday, six months after the start of the session, in 1954, Richard Fulton won election to the Tennessee Senate. Shortly after being sworn in, Fulton was ousted from office because he was only 27 years old at the time, the Tennessee State Constitution required that senators be at least 30. Rather than hold a new election, the incumbent, Clifford Allen, was allowed to resume his office for another term. Fulton went on to win the next State Senate election in 1956 and was elected to the US House of Representatives where he served for 10 years. In South Carolina, two Senators aged 24 were elected, but were too young according to the State Constitution, Mike Laughlin in 1969, on several occasions, the Socialist Workers Party has nominated candidates too young to qualify for the offices they were running for. In 1972, Linda Jenness ran as the SWP presidential candidate, Constitution requires that the President and Vice President be at least 35 years old, Jenness was not able to receive ballot access in several states in which she otherwise qualified. Despite this handicap, Jenness still received 83,380 votes, in 2004, the SWP nominated Arrin Hawkins as the partys vice-presidential candidate, although she was only 28 at the time. Hawkins was also unable to receive ballot access in several states due to her age, in the United States, many groups have attempted to lower age of candidacy requirements in various states. In 1994, South Dakota voters rejected a measure that would have lowered the age requirements to serve as a State Senator or State Representative from 25 to 18. In 1998, however, they approved a ballot measure that reduced the age requirements for those offices from 25 to 21. In 2002, Oregon voters rejected a measure that would have reduced the age requirement to serve as a State Representative from 21 to 18. During the early 2000s, the British Youth Council and other groups campaigned to lower age of candidacy requirements in the United Kingdom
Age of candidacy
–
In 1972,
Linda Jenness ran for President of the United States although she was only 31 at the time.
27.
Age of consent
–
The distinguishing aspect of the age of consent laws is that the person below the minimum age is regarded as the victim, and their sex partner as the offender. The term age of consent rarely appears in legal statutes, generally, a law will instead establish the age below which it is illegal to engage in sexual activity with that person. It has sometimes used with other meanings, such as the age at which a person becomes competent to consent to marriage. It should not be confused with the age of majority, age of responsibility, the voting age, the drinking age. Age of consent laws vary widely from jurisdiction to jurisdiction, though most jurisdictions set the age of consent in the range 14 to 18. Charges resulting from a breach of laws may range from a misdemeanor such as corruption of a minor. These factors all make age of consent an often confusing subject, in traditional societies, the age of consent for a sexual union was a matter for the family to decide, or a tribal custom. In most cases, this coincided with signs of puberty, menstruation for a woman, the ancient Greek poet Hesiod in Works and Days suggests that a man should marry around the age of thirty, and that he should take a wife who is five years past puberty. Reliable data for ages at marriage is scarce, in England, for example, the only reliable data in the early modern period comes from property records made after death. Modern historians have shown reluctance to accept evidence of young ages of marriage. There were authorities that said that consent could take place earlier, marriage would then be valid as long as neither of the two parties annulled the marital agreement before reaching puberty, or if they had already consummated the marriage. Judges sometimes honored marriages based on mutual consent at ages younger than 7, in contrast to established canon, the phrase within age was later interpreted by jurist Sir Edward Coke as meaning the age of marriage, which at the time was 12 years of age. The American colonies followed the English tradition, and the law was more of a guide, for example, Mary Hathaway was only 9 when she was married to William Williams. In the 16th century, a number of Italian and German states set the minimum age for sexual intercourse for girls. Towards the end of the 18th century, other European countries also began to enact similar laws, the first French Constitution of 1791 established the minimum age at 11 years. Portugal, Spain, Denmark and the Swiss cantons initially set the age at 10–12 years. In Christian societies, sex outside marriage was forbidden, older children were often punished themselves for being complicit in sexual interaction with an adult. Until the late 18th century, there was understanding of childhood as a concept
Age of consent
–
Several articles written by investigative journalist
William Thomas Stead in the late 19th century on the issue of
child prostitution in
London led to public outrage and ultimately to the raising of the age of consent to 16.
28.
Age of majority
–
The age of majority is the threshold of adulthood as recognized or declared in law. Most countries set the age of majority at 18, the word majority here refers to having greater years and being of full age as opposed to minority, the state of being a minor. The law in a jurisdiction may not actually use the term age of majority. The term typically refers to a collection of laws bestowing the status of adulthood, the age of majority does not necessarily correspond to the mental or physical maturity of an individual. Age of majority can be confused with the concept of the age of license. As a legal term of art, license means permission, thus, an age of license is an age at which one has legal permission from government to do something. The age of majority, on the hand, is legal recognition that one has grown into an adult. Many ages of license are correlated to the age of majority, one need not have attained the age of majority to have permission to exercise certain rights and responsibilities. Some ages of license are actually higher than the age of majority, for example, the age of license to purchase alcoholic beverages is 21 in all U. S. states. Another example is the age, which prior to the 1970s was 21. In the Republic of Ireland the age of majority is 18, also, in Portugal the age of majority is 18, but one must be at least 25 years of age to run for public office. A child who is legally emancipated by a court of competent jurisdiction automatically attains to their maturity upon the signing of the court order, only emancipation confers the status of maturity before a person has actually reached the age of majority. In almost all places, minors who are married are automatically emancipated, some places also do the same for minors who are in the armed forces or who have a certain degree or diploma. In the United States, all states have some form of emancipation of minors, judaism,13 years of age for males and 12 years of age for females, such persons are considered adults Roman Catholic Church,18 years of age
Age of majority
29.
Behavior modification facility
–
A behavior modification facility is a residential educational and treatment institution enrolling adolescents who are perceived as displaying antisocial behavior, in an attempt to alter their conduct. As of 2008 there were about 650 nongovernmental, residential programs in the United States offering treatment services for adolescents, some similar institutions are operated as components of governmental education or correctional systems. Practices and service quality in such program vary greatly, the behavior modification methodologies used vary, but a combination of positive and negative reinforcement is typically used. Often these methods are delivered in a contingency management format such as a point system or level system, such methodology has been found to be highly effective in the treatment of disruptive disorders (see meta-analysis of Chen & Ma. Research showed that time out length was not a factor and suggestions were made to limit time out to five minute durations, a newer approach uses graduated sanctions. Staff appear easily trained in behavioral intervention, such training is maintained and does lead to improved consumer outcomes, more restrictive punishment procedures in general are less appealing to staff and administrators. Behavioral programs were found to lessen the need for medication Several studies have found that made in residential treatment programs are maintained from 1–5 years post discharge. Some schools are accredited as Residential treatment centers, Behavioral residential treatment became so popular in the 1970s and 1980s that a journal was formed called Behavioral residential Treatment, which later changed its name to Behavioral Intervention. Behavioral Intervention continues to be published today, in the late 1960s, behavior modification or practice referred to as applied behavior analysis began to move rapidly into residential treatment facilities. This book even contained an introduction from the leading behaviorist at the time, over time interest faded in Cohens CASE project Other studies found that in proper supervision of staff in behavior modification facilities could lead to greater use of punishment procedures. Under the leadership of Montrose Wolf, Achievement place, the first Teaching Family Home became the prototype for behavioral programs, each home has from 6-8 boys in it with two parents trained in behavior modification principles. The token system for the program was divided into 3 levels, outcome studies have found that Achievement place and other teaching family homes reduce recidivism and increase pro-social behavior, as well as self-esteem. While initial research suggested the effects of the program lasted for one year post discharge. Crime and recent focus on reduction of recidivism have given such programs a second look, indeed, because of societal needs the number of youth residential facilities has grown over recent years to close to 39,950 in 2000. The use of analysis has been shown to be teachable to staff. Rutherfords review from interviews and archival materials documents the decline from treatment of behavior analysis with criminal justice populations, one recent acknowledgement has been that long term care does not equate with better outcomes. To reduce the tendency for abuse, a push has occurred to certify or license behavior modifiers or to have such practices limited to licensed psychologists. In particular psychologists with behavioral training American psychological association offers a diplomat in behavioral psychology, often the practice of behavior modification in facilities comes into question
Behavior modification facility
30.
Child labour
–
This practice is considered exploitative by many international organisations. Legislation across the world prohibit child labour, Child labour has existed to varying extents, through most of history. During the 19th and early 20th centuries, many children aged 5–14 from poorer families still worked in Europe and these children mainly worked in agriculture, home-based assembly operations, factories, mining and in services such as news boys. Some worked night shifts lasting 12 hours, with the rise of household income, availability of schools and passage of child labour laws, the incidence rates of child labour fell. In developing countries, with poverty and poor schooling opportunities. In 2010, sub-saharan Africa had the highest incidence rates of child labour, worldwide agriculture is the largest employer of child labour. Vast majority of labour is found in rural settings and informal urban economy, children are predominantly employed by their parents. Poverty and lack of schools are considered as the cause of child labour. Globally the incidence of child labour decreased from 25% to 10% between 1960 and 2003, according to the World Bank. Nevertheless, the number of child labourers remains high, with UNICEF. Child labour forms a part of pre-industrial economies. In pre-industrial societies, there is rarely a concept of childhood in the modern sense, Children often begin to actively participate in activities such as child rearing, hunting and farming as soon as they are competent. In many societies, children as young as 13 are seen as adults, the work of children was important in pre-industrial societies, as children needed to provide their labour for their survival and that of their group. In pre-industrial societies, there was little need for children to attend school and this is especially the case in non literate societies. Most pre-industrial skill and knowledge were amenable to being passed down through direct mentoring or apprenticing by competent adults, with the onset of the Industrial Revolution in Britain in the late 18th century, there was a rapid increase in the industrial exploitation of labour, including child labour. Industrial cities such as Birmingham, Manchester and Liverpool rapidly grew from small villages into large cities and these cities drew in the population that was rapidly growing due to increased agricultural output. This process was replicated in other industrialising counties, the Victorian era in particular became notorious for the conditions under which children were employed. Children as young as four were employed in factories and mines working long hours in dangerous, often fatal
Child labour
–
Early 20th century witnessed many home-based enterprises involving child labour. An example is shown above from New York, USA (1912).
Child labour
–
A succession of laws on child labour, the so-called
Factory Acts, were passed in Britain in the 19th century. Children younger than nine were not allowed to work, those aged 9–16 could work 16 hours per day per
Cotton Mills Act. In 1856, the law permitted child labour past age 9, for 60 hours per week, night or day. In 1901, the permissible child labour age was raised to 12.
Child labour
–
Child labourers,
Macon, Georgia, 1909
Child labour
–
Children going to a 12-hour night shift in the United States (1908).
31.
Compulsory education
–
Compulsory education refers to a period of education that is required of all people and is imposed by law. Depending on the country, this education may take place at a school or at home. Compulsory education was not unheard of in ancient times, however instances are generally tied to royal, religious or military organization—substantially different from modern notions of compulsory education. Platos The Republic is credited with having popularized the concept of education in Western intellectual thought. The ideal city would require ideal individuals, and ideal individuals would require an ideal education, popularization of Platos ideas began with the wider Renaissance and the translation of Platos works by Marsilio Ficino, culminating in the Enlightenment. The Enlightenment philosopher Jean-Jacques Rousseau, known for his own work on education, Emile, or On Education had said To get an idea of public education. It is not a treatise, as those who merely judge books by their title think. In Sparta boys between the age 6 and 7 left their homes and were sent to military school, School courses were harsh and have been described as a brutal training period. Between the age of 18 and 20, Spartan males had to pass a test that consisted of fitness, military ability, a students failure meant a forfeiture of citizenship and political rights. Every parent in Judea since ancient times was required to teach their children at least informally, over the centuries, as cities, towns and villages developed, a class of teachers called Rabbis evolved. The Aztec Triple Alliance, which ruled from 1428 to 1521 in what is now central Mexico, is considered to be the first state to implement a system of compulsory education. The Protestant Reformation prompted the establishment of compulsory education for boys and girls, first in regions that are now part of Germany, and later in Europe and in the United States. Martin Luthers seminal text An die Ratsherren aller Städte deutschen Landes called for establishing compulsory schooling so that all parishioners would be able to read the Bible by themselves, the Protestant South-West of the Holy Roman Empire soon followed suit. In 1559, the German Duchy Württemberg established an education system for boys. In Scotland, the School Establishment Act of 1616 commanded every parish to establish a school for everyone paid for by parishioners, the Parliament of Scotland confirmed this with the Education Act of 1633 and created a local land-based tax to provide the required funding. The required majority support of parishioners, however, provided a tax evasion loophole which heralded the Education Act of 1646, the turmoil of the age meant that in 1661 there was a temporary reversion to the less compulsory 1633 position. In the United States, following Luther and other Reformers, the Separatist Congregationalists who founded Plymouth Colony in 1620, obliged parents to teach their children how to read and write. The 1647 law, in particular, required every town having more than 50 families to hire a teacher, the Puritan zeal for learning was reflected in the early and rapid rise of educational institutions, e. g. Harvard College was founded as early as 1636
Compulsory education
32.
Conscription
–
Conscription, or drafting, is the compulsory enlistment of people in a national service, most often a military service. Conscription dates back to antiquity and continues in countries to the present day under various names. The modern system of national conscription for young men dates to the French Revolution in the 1790s. Most European nations later copied the system in peacetime, so that men at a certain age would serve 1–8 years on active duty and those conscripted may evade service, sometimes by leaving the country. As of the early 21st century, many no longer conscript soldiers. The ability to rely on such an arrangement, however, presupposes some degree of predictability with regard to both war-fighting requirements and the scope of hostilities, many states that have abolished conscription therefore still reserve the power to resume it during wartime or times of crisis. Around the reign of Hammurabi, the Babylonian Empire used a system of conscription called Ilkum, under that system those eligible were required to serve in the royal army in time of war. During times of peace they were required to provide labour for other activities of the state. In return for service, people subject to it gained the right to hold land. It is possible that this right was not to hold land per se, various forms of avoiding military service are recorded. While it was outlawed by the Code of Hammurabi, the hiring of substitutes appears to have practiced both before and after the creation of the code. Later records show that Ilkum commitments could become regularly traded, in other places, people simply left their towns to avoid their Ilkum service. Another option was to sell Ilkum lands and the commitments along with them, with the exception of a few exempted classes, this was forbidden by the Code of Hammurabi. The levies raised in this way fought as infantry under local superiors, although the exact laws varied greatly depending on the country and the period, generally these levies were only obliged to fight for one to three months. Most were subsistence farmers, and it was in everyones interest to send the men home for harvest-time, the bulk of the Anglo-Saxon English army, called the fyrd, was composed of part-time English soldiers drawn from the landowning minor nobility. These thegns were the aristocracy of the time and were required to serve with their own armour. Medieval levy in Poland was known as the pospolite ruszenie, the system of military slaves was widely used in the Middle East, beginning with the creation of the corps of Turkish slave-soldiers by the Abbasid caliph al-Mutasim in the 820s and 830s. In the middle of the 14th century, Ottoman Sultan Murad I developed personal troops to be loyal to him, the new force was built by taking Christian children from newly conquered lands, especially from the far areas of his empire, in a system known as the devşirme
Conscription
–
Ottoman
janissaries
Conscription
–
Conscription of Poles to the Russian Army in 1863.
Conscription
–
Young men registering for conscription during
World War I, New York City, June 5, 1917.
Conscription
–
Soviet conscripts. Moscow, 1941.
33.
Corporal punishment
–
Corporal punishment or physical punishment is a punishment intended to cause physical pain on a person. It is most often used where there is a disparity of power between punisher and punished. Corporal punishment is commonly practiced on minors, especially in home and also school settings, common methods in this regard often include spanking or paddling. It is however used on adults, particularly prisoners in some countries. In history most cultures have practiced corporal punishment on adults in settings of imprisonment or slavery, frequently employed methods are flagellation and caning. In some countries bastinado is still practiced on prisoners as well, official punishment for crime by inflicting pain or injury, including flogging, branding and even mutilation, was practised in most civilizations since ancient times. However, with the growth of humanitarian ideals since the Enlightenment, by the late 20th century, corporal punishment had been eliminated from the legal systems of most developed countries. The legality in the 21st century of corporal punishment in various settings differs by jurisdiction,52 countries, most of them in Europe and Latin America, have banned the practice as of April 2017. School corporal punishment—of students by teachers or school administrators—has been banned in countries, including Canada, Kenya, South Africa, New Zealand. It remains legal, if increasingly less common, in the United States, judicial corporal punishment, as part of a criminal sentence ordered by a court of law, has long disappeared from European countries. However, it remains lawful in parts of Africa, Asia, closely related is prison corporal punishment or disciplinary corporal punishment, ordered by prison authorities or carried out directly by staff. Corporal punishment is also allowed in some settings in a few jurisdictions. Other uses of corporal punishment have existed, for instance as once practised on apprentices by their masters, in many Western countries, medical and human-rights organizations oppose corporal punishment of children. Campaigns against corporal punishment have aimed to bring about legal reform to ban the use of punishment against minors in homes. Corporal punishment of children has traditionally used in the Western world by adults in authority roles. Withhold not correction from a child, for if thou strike him with the rod, thou shalt beat him with the rod, and deliver his soul from hell. It was certainly present in civilizations, being used in Greece, Rome. Some states gained a reputation for using such punishments cruelly, Sparta, in particular, used them as part of a disciplinary regime designed to build willpower, although the Spartan example was extreme, corporal punishment was possibly the most frequent type of punishment
Corporal punishment
–
Depiction of a flogging at Oregon State Penitentiary, 1908
Corporal punishment
–
Foot whipping an offender,
Iran, 1920s
Corporal punishment
–
Husaga (the right of the master of the household to corporally punish his servants) was outlawed in
Sweden for adults in 1858.
34.
Curfew
–
A curfew is an order specifying a time during which certain regulations apply. The word curfew comes from the French phrase couvre-feu, which means fire cover and it was later adopted into Middle English as curfeu, which later became the modern curfew. An order issued by the authorities or military forces requiring everyone or certain people to be indoors at certain times. It can be imposed to maintain order, or suppress targeted groups. An order by the guardians of a teenager to return home by a specific time. This may apply daily, or vary with the day of the week, a daily requirement for guests to return to their hostel before a specified time, usually in the evening or night. In baseball, a time after which a game must end, for example, in the American League the curfew rule for many years decreed that no inning could begin after 1 am local time. In aeronautics, night flying restrictions may restrict aircraft operations over a period in the nighttime. Notable examples are the London airports of Heathrow, Gatwick and Stansted, in a few locations in the UK patrons of licensed premises may not enter after a curfew time. In Inverclyde for example this is set at 12,00 am. On 28 January 2011, and following the collapse of the police system, however, it was ignored by demonstrators who continued their sit-in in Tahrir Square. Concerned residents formed vigilante groups to defend their communities against looters. In defiance, the locals took to the streets during the curfew, organizing football tournaments and street festivals, prohibiting police, under Icelands Child Protection Act, children aged 12 and under may not be outdoors after 20,00 unless accompanied by an adult. Children aged 13 to 16 may not be outdoors after 22,00, unless on their way home from an event organized by a school. During the period 1 May to 1 September, children may be outdoors for two hours longer, children and teenagers that break curfew are taken to the local police station and police officers inform their parents to get them. The age limits stated here shall be based upon year of birth, if a parent cannot be reached, the child or teenager is taken to a shelter. The United Kingdoms 2003 Anti-Social Behaviour Act created zones that allow police from 9 PM to 6 AM to hold and escort home unaccompanied minors under the age of 16, whether badly behaved or not. Although hailed as a success, the High Court ruled in one case that the law did not give the police a power of arrest
Curfew
–
Haditha Dam,
Iraq, (September 16, 2007) – A Riverine Patrol Boat with Riverine Squadron 1, Riverine Group 1, Navy Expeditionary Combat Command, in support of Regimental Combat Team 2, tows several boats the riverines seized in support of the new 24-hour curfew enforcement of the waterway near the dam. The riverines warned locals of the new curfew for several days before seizing the boats of repeat curfew offenders
Curfew
–
British paratroopers enforce curfew in
Tel Aviv after
King David Hotel bombing, July 1946. Photographer: Haim Fine, Russian Emmanuel collection, from collections of the
National Library of Israel.
Curfew
–
Movement and curfew pass, issued under the authority of the British Military Commander, East Palestine, 1946
35.
Child abuse
–
Child abuse or child maltreatment is physical, sexual, or psychological mistreatment or neglect of a child or children, especially by a parent or other caregiver. Different jurisdictions have developed their own definitions of what constitutes child abuse for the purposes of removing a child from his/her family and/or prosecuting a criminal charge, definitions of what constitutes child abuse vary among professionals, and between social and cultural groups, as well as across time. The terms abuse and maltreatment are often used interchangeably in the literature, Child maltreatment can also be an umbrella term covering all forms of child abuse and child neglect. Defining child maltreatment depends on prevailing cultural values as they relate to children, child development, in general, abuse refers to acts of commission while neglect refers to acts of omission. Child maltreatment includes both acts of commission and acts of omission on the part of parents or caregivers that cause actual or threatened harm to a child. Delayed effects of abuse and neglect, especially emotional neglect. The World Health Organization distinguishes four types of maltreatment, physical abuse, sexual abuse, emotional and psychological abuse. Among professionals and the public, people often do not agree on what behaviors constitute physical abuse of a child. Physical abuse often does not occur in isolation, but as part of a constellation of behaviors including authoritarian control, anxiety-provoking behavior, and this includes hitting, beating, kicking, shaking, biting, strangling, scalding, burning, poisoning and suffocating. Much physical violence against children in the home is inflicted with the object of punishing, joan Durrant and Ron Ensom write that most physical abuse is physical punishment in intent, form, and effect. Overlapping definitions of abuse and physical punishment of children highlight a subtle or non-existent distinction between abuse and punishment. Multiple injuries or fractures at different stages of healing can raise suspicion of abuse, physical abuse in childhood has also been linked to homelessness in adulthood. Child sexual abuse is a form of abuse in which an adult or older adolescent abuses a child for sexual stimulation. Sexual abuse refers to the participation of a child in an act aimed toward the physical gratification or the financial profit of the person committing the act. Selling the sexual services of children may be viewed and treated as child abuse rather than simple incarceration, Children who are the victims are also at an increased risk of sexually transmitted infections due to their immature immune systems and a high potential for mucosal tears during forced sexual contact. In the United States, approximately 15% to 25% of women, in over one-third of cases, the perpetrator is also a minor. In 2014, the APA stated that, Childhood psychological abuse as harmful as sexual or physical abuse, nearly 3 million U. S. children experience some form of maltreatment annually. Psychological maltreatment is the most challenging and prevalent form of child abuse, victims of emotional abuse may react by distancing themselves from the abuser, internalizing the abusive words, or fighting back by insulting the abuser
Child abuse
–
Rib fractures in an infant secondary to child abuse
Child abuse
–
A child soldier of the
Sudanese People's Liberation Army (2007). In parts of the world, children are used in military conflicts.
36.
Emancipation of minors
–
In some cases, emancipation can be granted without due court process when the minor is bound to make a decision alone in the absence of the parents, who might be dead or have abandoned the minor. Parents have a number of legal and equitable duties while bringing up their biological child, children have expectations from parents but legally they owe nothing to their parents. Although rules vary in different households, legally the child does not have to comply, minors are under the control of their parents or legal guardians, until they attain the age of majority, at which point they become legal adults. In most states this is upon turning 18 years of age, however, in special circumstances, minors can be freed from control by their guardian before turning 18. The exact laws and protocols for obtaining emancipation vary from state to state, in most states, minors must file a petition with the family court in the applicable jurisdiction, formally requesting emancipation and citing reasons it is in their best interest to be emancipated. These minors must prove financial self-sufficiency, in some states, free legal aid is available to minors seeking emancipation, through children law centers. This can be a resource for minors trying to create a convincing emancipation petition. Students are able to stay with a guardian if necessary, Emancipation is not easily granted because of the subjectivity and narrowness of the definition of best interest. Some are minors have been victims of abuse, in most cases, the states department of child services will be notified and the child placed in foster care. Others are minors who are seeking emancipation for reasons such as being dissatisfied with their parents or guardians rules, where a statute of limitations for bringing a legal action is tolled while a person is a minor, emancipation will usually end that tolling. In this context, the fallibility argument is applied to making assumptions about the people in their custody. Age of consent Mature minor doctrine Age of majority Marriageable age Youth rights Disownment Child abuse Emancipation laws in the United States
Emancipation of minors
37.
Homeschooling
–
Homeschooling, also known as home education, is the education of children inside the home. Home education is conducted by a parent or tutor. Many families that start out with a formal structure at home often switch to less formal ways of imparting education outside of school. Homeschooling is the commonly used in North America, whereas home education is more commonly used in the United Kingdom, elsewhere in Europe. Before the introduction of school attendance laws, most childhood education was imparted by the family or community. In several countries homeschooling, in the sense, is considered to be an alternative to attending public or private schools and is a legal option for parents. In other nations, homeschooling is considered illegal or restricted to conditions, as noted in the Homeschooling international status. According to the US National Household Education Surveys, about three percent of all children in the US were homeschooled in the 2011 and 2012 school year, and as of 2016, there are about 2.3 million home-schooled students in the United States. The studies found that of children,83 percent were White,5 percent were Black,7 percent were Hispanic. For much of history and in cultures, enlisting professional teachers was an option available only to the elite social classes. Thus, until recently, the vast majority of people, especially during early childhood, were educated by family members, family friends. The earliest public schools in modern Western culture were established in the early 16th century in the German states of Gotha and Thuringia. However, even in the 18th century, the majority of people in Europe lacked formal schooling, meaning they were homeschooled, tutored, in the middle colonies, the educational situation varied when comparing New York with New England until the 1850s. Formal schooling in a classroom setting has been the most common means of schooling throughout the world, especially in developed countries, since the early-, native Americans, who traditionally used homeschooling and apprenticeship, vigorously resisted compulsory education in the United States. Rushdoony was frequently called as a witness by the Home School Legal Defense Association in court cases. During this time, American educational professionals Raymond and Dorothy Moore began to research the academic validity of the rapidly growing Early Childhood Education movement. This research included independent studies by researchers and a review of over 8,000 studies bearing on early childhood education. They asserted that formal schooling before ages 8–12 not only lacked the anticipated effectiveness, the Moores published their view that formal schooling was damaging young children academically, socially, mentally, and even physiologically
Homeschooling
–
Frontispiece to Fireside Education,
Samuel Griswold (Goodrich).
Homeschooling
–
Lecture about
unschooling
38.
Human rights and youth sport
–
The universality of sport allows it to encompass several different rights. Most sporting events have a impact on human rights. In particular youth sport which concerns the rights of children, the practice of sport is beneficial to children as it can have a positive impact on their physical, mental, psycho-motor and social development skills. Sport is helpful in a human rights context as it encourages the integration of children from different cultural or economic backgrounds, the practice of sport is seen to be important to the development of young people as it fosters their physical and emotional health and builds valuable social connections. It offers opportunities for play and self-expression that is especially for young people with few other opportunities. Within schools physical education is a component of quality education as it promotes physical activity. Convention on the Rights of the Child, The United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child 1990 does not include any reference in relation to sports in its make-up. The Articles provided in the Convention are applicable in the context of youth sport. Article 31 does provide some reference in relation to the rights of the child when it comes to cultural, artistic, recreational, Sport and games are an asset in reaching the objectives found in the Convention. Youth sport can help to combat discrimination by promoting the integration of race, gender, religion, children from different economic and social backgrounds, age, provide social and participative opportunities for children and also provide access to those with disabilities, from difference social or economic situations. United Nations Office for Sport Development and Peace, The United Nations Office Sport Development and they address the areas of child protection in sport and sport to strengthen child and youth education. Council of Europe, The Council of Europe is one of the most active intergovernmental institutions for the protection of rights of athletes. The Council has established norms and standards which encourage member states to adopt laws, there is a need for child’s rights to be protected in organised sports as abuses can take place. The United Nations Office on Sport for Development and Peace has a strategy in place to protect the rights of the child when it comes to abuse, also emotional and psychological abuse such as neglect and bullying. Abuses in youth sport can happen for numerous reasons, abuses can occur because children feel a sense of dependency. Lack of qualified trainer’s, often trainers are sports people who may have gone through a sports career. Educating children about the risks of abuse in sport, their rights, the Canadian Red Cross RespectedED teaches children and adults how healthy relationships look and feel, detecting signs of abuse or harassment and how to get help. This provides children with the direction and guidance and allows for competent supervision
Human rights and youth sport
39.
Juvenile delinquency
–
Juvenile delinquency, also known as juvenile offending, is participation in illegal behavior by minors. Most legal systems prescribe specific procedures for dealing with juveniles, such as detention centers. A juvenile delinquent in the United States is a person who is typically below 18 years of age, depending on the type and severity of the offense committed, it is possible for people under 18 to be charged and treated as adults. Juvenile crimes can range from status offenses, to property crimes, however, juvenile offending can be considered normative adolescent behavior. This is because most teens tend to offend by committing non-violent crimes, only once or a few times, repeated and/or violent offending is likely to lead to later and more violent offenses. When this happens, the offender often displayed antisocial behavior even before reaching adolescence, according to the developmental research of Moffitt, there are two different types of offenders that emerge in adolescence. Juvenile delinquency occurrences by males are largely disproportionate to the rate of occurrences by females and this great gap between the crimes reinforce the connotations of traditional masculinity to be the center of violence, aggression, and competition. This is largely based on the notion that as males, it is their duty to take what they feel they deserve through these means to define themselves and play the role of provider and independent figure. Because aggression is not a characteristic, it has caused more commotion when females perform crimes that are often attributed to males. The acts of delinquency begin with the expectations of their perceived roles through the direction of adults of both genders. Sandra Lee Bartky expresses these claims thoroughly in her work Foucault, Femininity, and the Modernization of Patriarchal Power by examining close observation of diction, action, and decorum. Boys learn to take as much space as possible when sitting, dress appropriately to stand out, thus, delinquent behavior is expressed as an outlet especially to those of lower socioeconomic backgrounds that cannot gain precedence through conventional means. Gender role for females is to become more unnoticeable, a follower that does not need to stand out, because of their condition to be more docile and dependent, the instinctive need to gain precedence is not as highly valued. Even respect comes in the form of different terms, as it is through how appropriately she conducts herself that seems innocent and this is also influenced by fellow peers such as mothers and other female figures apart from the authoritative male figure. In this instance, there is no need to urge to commit delinquency as the female is expected to rely on the male for his role as provider. It is through the act of needing to become dependent that enforces the feminine characteristics to seem as an alternative to delinquency, in fact, it has been largely stated that while masculinity induces such violent behavior, femininity is seen as the antithesis to delinquency. The answers were predominantly that males were to provide through aggressive terms, while females should be the more docile, the bipolarity assumption suggests that masculinity and femininity are opposites, and the assumption of unidimensionality implies that gender differences form a single scale. Interestingly, the impact of feminism has because the formation of a new trend as female delinquency has gone up
Juvenile delinquency
–
Criminology and
penology
Juvenile delinquency
–
1936 poster promoting planned housing as a method to deter juvenile delinquency, showing silhouettes of a child stealing a piece of fruit and a child involved in armed robbery.
40.
Juvenile court
–
A juvenile court is a tribunal having special authority to pass judgments for crimes that are committed by children or adolescents who have not attained the age of majority. In most modern systems, children and teens who commit a crime are treated differently from legal adults that have committed the same offense. Industrialized countries differ in whether juveniles should be tried as adults for serious crimes or considered separately, since the 1970s, minors have been tried increasingly as adults in response to increases in violent juvenile crime. Young offenders may still not be prosecuted as adults, serious offenses, such as murder or rape, can be prosecuted through adult court in England. However, as of 2007, no United States data reported any exact numbers of juvenile offenders prosecuted as adults, in contrast, countries such as Australia and Japan are in the early stages of developing and implementing youth-focused justice initiatives as a deferment from adult court. The hope was to create a more child-friendly justice, despite all the changes made by the United Nations, the rules in practice are less clear cut. Issues of juvenile justice have become global in several cultural contexts. As globalization has occurred in recent centuries, issues of justice, global policies regarding this issue have become more widely accepted, and a general culture of treatment of children offenders has adapted to this trend. Juvenile court is a court or department of a trial court that deals with under-age defendants who are charged with crimes, are neglected. The normal age of these defendants is under 18, but the age of majority changes based on the state or nation, Juvenile court does not have jurisdiction in cases in which minors are charged as adults. The procedure in court is not always adversarial, although the minor is entitled to legal representation by a lawyer. Parents or social workers and probation officers may be involved in the process to achieve positive results, where parental neglect or loss of control is a problem, the juvenile court may seek out foster homes for the juvenile, treating the child as a ward of the court. A juvenile court handles cases of delinquency and dependency. Delinquency refers to crimes committed by minors, and dependency includes cases where a person is chosen to care for a minor. When looking at juvenile justice as a two types of models tend to be used, restorative justice and criminal justice. Within the United States, there are systematic shifts towards a more restorative model of justice especially surrounding juveniles, in addition to these countries, Austria has taken an initiative to implement victim-offender mediation programs geared towards a more restorative form of justice. New Zealand completely restructured their system with an emphasis on what the people, Māori. This includes a focus that lowers youth incarceration
Juvenile court
41.
Legal drinking age
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The legal drinking age is the age at which a person can legally consume or purchase alcoholic beverages. These laws cover a range of issues and behaviors, addressing when. The minimum age alcohol can be legally consumed can be different from the age when it can be purchased in some countries and these laws vary among different countries and many laws have exemptions or special circumstances. Most laws apply only to drinking alcohol in public places, with consumption in the home being mostly unregulated. Some countries also have different age limits for different types of alcoholic drinks, some Islamic nations prohibit Muslims, or both Muslims and non-Muslims, from drinking alcohol at any age, due to the Quraan forbidding the consumption of wine. In other countries, it is not illegal for minors to drink alcohol, in some cases, it is illegal to sell or give alcohol to minors. The following list indicates the age of the person for whom it is legal to consume, austria, Belgium, Denmark, Germany, Georgia, Luxembourg, Moldova, Morocco, and Western Sahara have the lowest set drinking ages. ARA Industry Association for Responsible Alcohol Use Association established in 1989 of major manufacturers of alcohol beverages in South Africa, IARD International Alliance for Responsible Drinking
Legal drinking age
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Illegal
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Marriageable age
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Marriageable age is the minimum age at which a person is allowed by law to marry, either as a right or subject to parental or other forms of consent. Age and other prerequisites to marriage vary between jurisdictions, but marriage age is set at 18. Until recently, the age for women was lower in many jurisdictions than for men. Most jurisdictions allow marriage at an age with parental or judicial approval. The marriage age should not be confused with the age of majority or the age of consent, in many developing countries, the official age prescriptions stand as mere guidelines. In some societies, a marriage by a person below the age of 18 is regarded as a child marriage, when the marriageable age under a law of a religious community is lower than that under the law of the land, the state law prevails. However, some religious communities do not accept the supremacy of law in this respect. The 123 parties to the 1956 Supplementary Convention on the Abolition of Slavery have agreed to adopt a minimum age for marriage, historically, the age of consent for a sexual union was determined by tribal custom, or was a matter for families to decide. In most cases, this coincided with signs of puberty, such as menstruation for a girl, in Jewish oral tradition, men cannot consent to marriage until they reach the age of majority of 14 years and one day and have undergone puberty. With no signs of puberty, they are considered minors until the age of twenty, after twenty, they are not considered adults if they show signs of impotence. If they show no signs of puberty or do show impotence, they become adults by age 35. The same rules apply to women, except their age of majority is 13 years, however, a woman could be contractually married by her father while a minor, as early as three. Sexual relations with her were still forbidden and she could annul the marriage at any time, in Ancient Rome, it was very common for girls to marry and have children shortly after the onset of puberty. Roman law required brides to be at least 12 years old, the Catholic canon law followed the Roman law. Parish studies have confirmed that late medieval women did sometimes marry without their parents approval, the Church prohibited consanguineous marriages, a marriage pattern that had been a means to maintain clans throughout history. The church also forbade marriages in which the bride did not clearly agree to the union, as the peasants and serfs lived and worked on farms that they rented from the lord of the manor, they also needed the permission of the lord to marry. The first recorded age-of-consent law dates back 800 years, in 1275, in England, as part of the rape law, the Statute of Westminster 1275, made it a misdemeanour to ravish a maiden within age, whether with or without her consent. The phrase within age was interpreted by jurist Sir Edward Coke as meaning the age of marriage, some authorities claimed that consent could take place earlier
Marriageable age
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The sign painted on a building in a village in
Hubei, China, informs of the marriageable age in the country (22 for men, 20 for women).
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Minor (law)
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In law, a minor is a person under a certain age—usually the age of majority—which legally demarcates childhood from adulthood. The age of majority depends upon jurisdiction and application, but is generally 18, minor may also be used in contexts unconnected to the overall age of majority. For example, the age in the United States is usually 21. These age limits are different from the age of majority. The concept of minor is not sharply defined in most jurisdictions, in many countries, including Australia, India, Philippines, Brazil, Croatia, and Colombia, a minor is defined as a person under the age of 18. In Japan, Taiwan and Thailand, a minor is a person under 20 years of age, for all provincial laws, the provincial and territorial governments have the power to set the age of majority in their respective province or territory, and the age varies across Canada. In Saskatchewan, the legal gaming age and the drinking age are both 19. For Federal Law, the age of majority is 18, in Italy, law nr.39 of March 8,1975, states that a minor is a person under the age of 18. Citizens under the age of 18 may not vote, be elected, crimes committed in Italy by minors are tried in a juvenile court. In all 31 states, a minor is referred to as someone under the age of 18, minors aged 16 or 17 who are charged with crimes could sometimes be treated as an adult. A minor is restricted from doing juristic acts—for example, sign contracts, when a minor wishes to do a juristic act, he has to obtain the consent from his legal representative, usually the parents and otherwise the act is voidable. A minor can make a will at the age of fifteen, in England and Wales and in Northern Ireland a minor is a person under the age of 18, in Scotland, under the age of 16. The age of responsibility in England and Wales and in Northern Ireland is 10, and 12 in Scotland, formerly 8. In England and Wales, cases of breaking the law are often dealt with by the Youth Offending Team. If they are incarcerated, they are sent to a Young Offender Institution, driving certain large vehicles, acting as personal license holder for licensed premises, and adopting a child are only permitted after the age of 21. The minimum age to drive a HGV1 vehicle was reduced to 18, however, certain vehicles, e. g. steamrollers, require that someone be 21 years of age to obtain an operating license. In the United States as of 1995, minor is generally defined as a person under the age of 18. Although in the context of alcohol or gambling laws, people under the age of 21 may also sometimes be referred to as minors, however, not all minors are considered juveniles in terms of criminal responsibility
Minor (law)
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Status offense
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A status offense is an action that is prohibited only to a certain class of people, and most often applied only to offenses committed by minors. In the United States, the status offense also refers to an offense such as a traffic violation where motive is not a consideration in determining guilt. In the United Kingdom and Europe, this type of status offense may be termed a regulatory offense. A neutral definition may be type of crime that is not based upon prohibited action or inaction, the Federal Sentencing Guidelines states that a juvenile status offense is a crime which cannot be committed by an adult. For example, possession of a firearm by a minor, by definition, in some states the term status offense does not apply to adults at all, according to Wyoming law, status offenses can be committed only by people under 18 years of age. Status offenses may include consumption of alcohol, truancy, and running away from home and these acts may be illegal for persons under a certain age, while remaining legal for all others, which makes them status offenses. Status offense may also apply to other classes, including laws forbidding ownership of firearms by felons, Laws that prohibit certain actions to certain persons based on their sex, race, nationality, religion, etc. are also status offenses. A law that prohibits men from using public toilets intended for women, status offenses from the past that are no longer operative include, The Nuremberg Laws banned sexual relations between Jews and non-Jewish Germans. Various laws in the United States prohibited marriage between people and African-Americans. These were enacted at the level, some states had anti-miscegenation laws. The first of these laws was enacted in 1691 in Virginia, south Africas Prohibition of Mixed Marriages Act prohibited sexual relations between people of different races. Various other places, at times, have promulgated anti-miscegenation laws prohibiting sexual relations between members of specified different races. Person In Need of Supervision Quasi-criminal Regulatory offences Victimless crime Youth rights
Status offense
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Alcohol consumption by youth in the United States
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Alcohol consumption by youth in the United States of America is an umbrella term for alcohol consumption by individuals under the age of 21 in the country. Although the minimum age to purchase alcohol is 21 in all states. While a few states completely ban alcohol usage for people under 21, underage drinking has become an activity primarily done behind closed doors. Typically, underage drinkers hide their alcohol consumption by drinking quickly before they go out, brittany Levine explained in her article Pre-Gaming in USA Today that of all drinking events involving pre-partying, 80% involved additional drinking afterward. Some parents are willing to provide alcohol for their children if they drink it in a controlled environment, furnishing alcohol to ones own children is permitted in 31 states, while its illegal to do so for other peoples children in all fifty states. Social host ordinances have been enacted in a number of jurisdictions to attempt to limit the parties where adults may permit minors to drink. Before one is eligible to buy, possess and consume alcohol, if a teen has any alcohol-related law violations before they turn 18, they will have a minimum of one year per violation before they are eligible to be licensed. In 2008, McCardell and the presidents of over 100 U. S. colleges and universities launched the Amethyst Initiative, in 2008, Gallup reported that 77% of the population over 21 supported the 21-year drinking age. As it stands, any state that lowers its alcohol purchase or possession age would lose ten percent of its federal highway funding and this could range from a $6 million–150 million loss for any single state. Most states in the U. S. regulate the use of alcohol by those under the age of 21, many believe that anyone under the age of twenty-one can not consume alcohol in the United States. However, this is incorrect because underage drinking is allowed in 31 states with parental consent and 17 states with spousal consent, many parallel State constitutional provisions similar to those contained in the 14th Amendment exist, and State constitutions often have explicit prohibitions against age discrimination, as well. These questions were litigated before the Supreme Court of Louisiana, in Manuel v. State,692 So. 2d 320, 324–25, the Court originally found such laws criminalizing the possession of alcohol by persons between the ages of 18 and 20 to be repugnant to the Constitution of said State, however, this decision only applies to the State of Louisiana. Other challenges to the questions of the constitutionality of underage drinking laws have not been made, either in the Courts of the several other States, the prerogative held by police to enforce underage drinking laws is also debatable under certain circumstances. Since a hunch is not considered probable cause to detain someone in the United States, according to Frances M. Harding of the Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administrations Center for Substance Abuse Prevention, the SAMHSAs goal is to change social norms. The Brief Alcohol Screening and Intervention for College Students program consists of a survey given to students to help them assess their alcohol usage against other students. It also consists of one or two counseling sessions granted to the students to support and not be confrontational regarding their alcohol use. The Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration created the Talk and they Hear You campaign that involved a mobile app to assist parents with having conversations about alcohol usage to their children
Alcohol consumption by youth in the United States
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Current Alcohol Use among Persons Aged 12 to 20 in the United States. Source:
SAMHSA
Alcohol consumption by youth in the United States
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Exceptions to Minimum Age of 21 for Consumption of Alcohol as of January 1, 2007
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Voting age
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A voting age is a minimum age established by law that a person must attain to be eligible to vote in a public election. Typically, the age is set at 18 years, however, ages as low as 16, most countries have set a minimum voting age, often set in their constitution. When the right to vote was first accorded in democracies the voting age was set at 21 or higher. In the 1970s the voting age was reduced to 18 in many countries, debate is currently under way in many places on proposals to reduce the voting age to or below 16. In May 2009, Danish Member of Parliament Mogens Jensen presented an initiative to the Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe in Strasbourg to lower the age in Europe to 16. Before the Second World War, almost all countries had voting ages of 21 or higher, czechoslovakia was early to act, reducing its age to 18 in 1946, and by 1968 a total of 17 states had made the same reduction. A large number of countries, particularly in Western Europe, reduced their voting ages to 18 during the 1970s, the USA, Canada, Australia, France and others followed soon afterwards. By the end of the 20th century,18 had become by far the most common age at which citizens acquired the right to vote, however, a few countries maintained voting ages of 20 years or higher. Eighteen-year-old men could be drafted to go to war, so people felt they should be able to vote at the age of 18. Consideration of a reduction to 18 continued into the late 20th, reductions were seen in India, Switzerland, Austria and Morocco during this time. Japan is due to make the change to 18 in 2016, a dispute is continuing in the Maldives. Around the year 2000 a number of countries began to consider whether the voting age ought to be reduced further, the earliest moves came during the 1990s, when the voting age for municipal elections in some States of Germany was lowered to 16. Lower Saxony was the first state to such a reduction, in 1995. During the 2000s several proposals for a voting age were put forward in U. S. states, including California, Florida and Alaska. A national reduction was proposed in 2005 in Canada and a reduction in New South Wales, Australia. In 2007 Austria became the first member of the European Union to adopt a voting age of 16 for most purposes, the voting age had been reduced in Austria from 19 to 18 at all levels in 1992. At that time an age of 16 was proposed by the Green Party. The voting age for elections in some states was lowered to 16 shortly after 2000
Voting age
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Demonstration in favor of lowering the voting age by members of
NYRA Berkeley, California, 2004.
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Youth-adult partnership
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Youth-adult partnership is the title of a conscious relationship which establishes and sustains intergenerational equity between young people and adults. These relationships usually occur within organizations, where they are typified by youth voice, and in democratic schools. Youth/adult partnerships often display a degree of youth rights and autonomy. Youth voice is recognized as an essential element of effective youth/adult partnerships. By elevating the role of youth voice, the relationships formed by youth/adult partnerships are said to combat ephebiphobia, a broad number of parties benefit from said partnerships, including the organizations where the partnerships occur, adults who are involved, and youth themselves. Actual benefits range from increased commitment to higher feelings of self-efficacy, as well as increased organizational effectiveness, youth/adult partnerships have been found to be particularly effective in addressing school improvement, promoting Global Health Initiatives, and integrating technology in the classroom. Intergenerational equity Youth participation Community youth development Positive psychology Service learning Youth/Adult Partnerships Factsheet University of Arizona website, Youth/Adult Partnerships Tip Sheet The Freechlid Project
Youth-adult partnership
