1.
Houston
–
Houston is the most populous city in the state of Texas and the fourth-most populous city in the United States. With a census-estimated 2014 population of 2.239 million within an area of 667 square miles, it also is the largest city in the southern United States and the seat of Harris County. Located in Southeast Texas near the Gulf of Mexico, it is the city of Houston–The Woodlands–Sugar Land. Houston was founded on August 28,1836, near the banks of Buffalo Bayou and incorporated as a city on June 5,1837. The city was named after former General Sam Houston, who was president of the Republic of Texas and had commanded, the burgeoning port and railroad industry, combined with oil discovery in 1901, has induced continual surges in the citys population. Houstons economy has an industrial base in energy, manufacturing, aeronautics. Leading in health care sectors and building equipment, Houston has more Fortune 500 headquarters within its city limits than any city except for New York City. The Port of Houston ranks first in the United States in international waterborne tonnage handled, the city has a population from various ethnic and religious backgrounds and a large and growing international community. Houston is the most diverse city in Texas and has described as the most diverse in the United States. It is home to cultural institutions and exhibits, which attract more than 7 million visitors a year to the Museum District. Houston has a visual and performing arts scene in the Theater District. In August 1836, two real estate entrepreneurs from New York, Augustus Chapman Allen and John Kirby Allen, purchased 6,642 acres of land along Buffalo Bayou with the intent of founding a city. The Allen brothers decided to name the city after Sam Houston, the general at the Battle of San Jacinto. The great majority of slaves in Texas came with their owners from the slave states. Sizable numbers, however, came through the slave trade. New Orleans was the center of trade in the Deep South. Thousands of enslaved African Americans lived near the city before the Civil War, many of them near the city worked on sugar and cotton plantations, while most of those in the city limits had domestic and artisan jobs. Houston was granted incorporation on June 5,1837, with James S. Holman becoming its first mayor, in the same year, Houston became the county seat of Harrisburg County and the temporary capital of the Republic of Texas
2.
Criminal justice
–
Those accused of crime have some protections against abuse of investigatory and prosecution powers. This report made more than 200 recommendations as part of an approach toward the prevention. Some of those recommendations found their way into the Omnibus Crime Control, the Commission advocated a systems approach to criminal justice, with improved coordination among law enforcement, courts, and correctional agencies. The Presidents Commission defined the criminal justice system as the means for society to enforce the standards of conduct necessary to protect individuals, in Canada, the criminal justice system aims to balance the goals of crime control and prevention, and justice. In Sweden, the goal for the criminal justice system is to reduce crime. In China, the system aims to keep the society function well. Overall, criminal justice plays a role throughout society as a whole in any place. ==Law== LINARES, DIANA The Law From Old English lagu, legal comes from Latin legalis, from lex law, the purpose of law is to provide an objective set of rules for governing conduct and maintaining order in a society. The oldest known codified law is the Code of hammurabi, dating back to about 1754 BC, the preface directly credits the laws to the code of hammurabi of Ur. In different parts of the world, law could be established by philosophers or religion, in the modern world, laws are typically created and enforced by governments. These codified laws may coexist with or contradict other forms of control, such as religious proscriptions, professional rules and ethics, or the cultural mores. Within the realm of codified law, there are two forms of law that the courts are concerned with. Civil laws are rules and regulations which govern transactions and grievances between individual citizens, Criminal law is concerned with actions which are dangerous or harmful to society as a whole, in which prosecution is pursued not by an individual but rather by the state. The purpose of law is to provide the specific definition of what constitutes a crime. No criminal law can be valid unless it includes both of these factors, the subject of criminal justice is, of course, primarily concerned with the enforcement of criminal law. ### The criminal justice system consists of three parts, Legislative, adjudication, and corrections. In the criminal justice system, these distinct agencies operate together both under the rule of law and as the means of maintaining the rule of law within society. When warranted, law enforcement agencies or police officers are empowered to use force and other forms of coercion and means to effect public
3.
Age of majority
–
The age of majority is the threshold of adulthood as recognized or declared in law. Most countries set the age of majority at 18, the word majority here refers to having greater years and being of full age as opposed to minority, the state of being a minor. The law in a jurisdiction may not actually use the term age of majority. The term typically refers to a collection of laws bestowing the status of adulthood, the age of majority does not necessarily correspond to the mental or physical maturity of an individual. Age of majority can be confused with the concept of the age of license. As a legal term of art, license means permission, thus, an age of license is an age at which one has legal permission from government to do something. The age of majority, on the hand, is legal recognition that one has grown into an adult. Many ages of license are correlated to the age of majority, one need not have attained the age of majority to have permission to exercise certain rights and responsibilities. Some ages of license are actually higher than the age of majority, for example, the age of license to purchase alcoholic beverages is 21 in all U. S. states. Another example is the age, which prior to the 1970s was 21. In the Republic of Ireland the age of majority is 18, also, in Portugal the age of majority is 18, but one must be at least 25 years of age to run for public office. A child who is legally emancipated by a court of competent jurisdiction automatically attains to their maturity upon the signing of the court order, only emancipation confers the status of maturity before a person has actually reached the age of majority. In almost all places, minors who are married are automatically emancipated, some places also do the same for minors who are in the armed forces or who have a certain degree or diploma. In the United States, all states have some form of emancipation of minors, judaism,13 years of age for males and 12 years of age for females, such persons are considered adults Roman Catholic Church,18 years of age
4.
Juvenile delinquency
–
Juvenile delinquency, also known as juvenile offending, is participation in illegal behavior by minors. Most legal systems prescribe specific procedures for dealing with juveniles, such as detention centers. A juvenile delinquent in the United States is a person who is typically below 18 years of age, depending on the type and severity of the offense committed, it is possible for people under 18 to be charged and treated as adults. Juvenile crimes can range from status offenses, to property crimes, however, juvenile offending can be considered normative adolescent behavior. This is because most teens tend to offend by committing non-violent crimes, only once or a few times, repeated and/or violent offending is likely to lead to later and more violent offenses. When this happens, the offender often displayed antisocial behavior even before reaching adolescence, according to the developmental research of Moffitt, there are two different types of offenders that emerge in adolescence. Juvenile delinquency occurrences by males are largely disproportionate to the rate of occurrences by females and this great gap between the crimes reinforce the connotations of traditional masculinity to be the center of violence, aggression, and competition. This is largely based on the notion that as males, it is their duty to take what they feel they deserve through these means to define themselves and play the role of provider and independent figure. Because aggression is not a characteristic, it has caused more commotion when females perform crimes that are often attributed to males. The acts of delinquency begin with the expectations of their perceived roles through the direction of adults of both genders. Sandra Lee Bartky expresses these claims thoroughly in her work Foucault, Femininity, and the Modernization of Patriarchal Power by examining close observation of diction, action, and decorum. Boys learn to take as much space as possible when sitting, dress appropriately to stand out, thus, delinquent behavior is expressed as an outlet especially to those of lower socioeconomic backgrounds that cannot gain precedence through conventional means. Gender role for females is to become more unnoticeable, a follower that does not need to stand out, because of their condition to be more docile and dependent, the instinctive need to gain precedence is not as highly valued. Even respect comes in the form of different terms, as it is through how appropriately she conducts herself that seems innocent and this is also influenced by fellow peers such as mothers and other female figures apart from the authoritative male figure. In this instance, there is no need to urge to commit delinquency as the female is expected to rely on the male for his role as provider. It is through the act of needing to become dependent that enforces the feminine characteristics to seem as an alternative to delinquency, in fact, it has been largely stated that while masculinity induces such violent behavior, femininity is seen as the antithesis to delinquency. The answers were predominantly that males were to provide through aggressive terms, while females should be the more docile, the bipolarity assumption suggests that masculinity and femininity are opposites, and the assumption of unidimensionality implies that gender differences form a single scale. Interestingly, the impact of feminism has because the formation of a new trend as female delinquency has gone up
5.
Juvenile court
–
A juvenile court is a tribunal having special authority to pass judgments for crimes that are committed by children or adolescents who have not attained the age of majority. In most modern systems, children and teens who commit a crime are treated differently from legal adults that have committed the same offense. Industrialized countries differ in whether juveniles should be tried as adults for serious crimes or considered separately, since the 1970s, minors have been tried increasingly as adults in response to increases in violent juvenile crime. Young offenders may still not be prosecuted as adults, serious offenses, such as murder or rape, can be prosecuted through adult court in England. However, as of 2007, no United States data reported any exact numbers of juvenile offenders prosecuted as adults, in contrast, countries such as Australia and Japan are in the early stages of developing and implementing youth-focused justice initiatives as a deferment from adult court. The hope was to create a more child-friendly justice, despite all the changes made by the United Nations, the rules in practice are less clear cut. Issues of juvenile justice have become global in several cultural contexts. As globalization has occurred in recent centuries, issues of justice, global policies regarding this issue have become more widely accepted, and a general culture of treatment of children offenders has adapted to this trend. Juvenile court is a court or department of a trial court that deals with under-age defendants who are charged with crimes, are neglected. The normal age of these defendants is under 18, but the age of majority changes based on the state or nation, Juvenile court does not have jurisdiction in cases in which minors are charged as adults. The procedure in court is not always adversarial, although the minor is entitled to legal representation by a lawyer. Parents or social workers and probation officers may be involved in the process to achieve positive results, where parental neglect or loss of control is a problem, the juvenile court may seek out foster homes for the juvenile, treating the child as a ward of the court. A juvenile court handles cases of delinquency and dependency. Delinquency refers to crimes committed by minors, and dependency includes cases where a person is chosen to care for a minor. When looking at juvenile justice as a two types of models tend to be used, restorative justice and criminal justice. Within the United States, there are systematic shifts towards a more restorative model of justice especially surrounding juveniles, in addition to these countries, Austria has taken an initiative to implement victim-offender mediation programs geared towards a more restorative form of justice. New Zealand completely restructured their system with an emphasis on what the people, Māori. This includes a focus that lowers youth incarceration
6.
Police custody
–
Detention is the process when a state or private citizen lawfully holds a person by removing his or her freedom of liberty at that time. This can be due to charges being raised against the individual as part of a prosecution or to protect a person or property. Being detained does not always result in being taken to an area, either for interrogation. The term can also be used in reference to the holding of property, the process of detainment may or may not have been preceded or followed with an arrest. The prisoners in Guantánamo Bay are for example referred to as detainees and it is used to refer to any person captured or otherwise detained by an armed force. More generally, it is held in custody. Article 9 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights states that, No one shall be subjected to arbitrary arrest, in wars between nations, detainees are referenced in the Fourth Geneva Convention. Being detained for the purposes of a search is tantamount to a temporary arrest, as it is not yet known whether charges can be brought against an individual. The term detained often refers to the immediacy when someone has their liberty deprived, for example, a shoplifter being pursued and restrained, but not yet informed he/she is under arrest or read his rights would be classed as detained. The detention of suspects is the process of keeping a person who has arrested in a police-cell. The Terrorism Act 2006 in the United Kingdom lengthened the 14-day limit for detention without an arrest warrant or an indictment from the Terrorism Act 2000 to 28 days, a controversial Government proposal for an extension to 90 days was rejected by the House of Commons. English criminal law requires the detainer/arrestor to have grounds to suspect when detaining someone. Indefinite detention of an individual occurs frequently in wartime under the laws of war and this has been applied notably by the United States after the September 11,2001 attacks. The U. S. military regulates treatment of detainees in the manual Military Police, Enemy Prisoners of War, Retained Personnel, Civilian Internees and Other Detainees and this had generated considerable debate around the globe. The U. S. government refers to these captured enemy combatants as detainees because they did not qualify as prisoners of war under the definition found in the Geneva Conventions. Under the Obama administration the term enemy combatants was also removed from the lexicon and further defined under the 2010 Defense Omnibus Bill, article 9, part 1a of Wetboek van Strafrecht states that there are 4 kinds of primary punishment. Two of them are two kinds of detentions, which are called gevangenisstraf and hechtenis, where the first is a punishment than the second. The two other kinds of punishment is light community service and fines, prisons are designed in several ways and there are 5 levels of regimes
7.
Jurisdiction
–
Jurisdiction is the practical authority granted to a legal body to administer justice within a defined area of responsibility, e. g. Michigan tax law. In federations like the U. S. areas of jurisdiction apply to local, state, colloquially it is used to refer to the geographical area to which such authority applies, e. g. the court has jurisdiction over all of Colorado. The legal term refers only to the authority, not to a geographical area. International laws and treaties provide agreements which nations agree to be bound to, supranational organizations provide mechanisms whereby disputes between nations may be resolved through arbitration or mediation. When a country is recognized as de jure, it is an acknowledgment by the de jure nations that the country has sovereignty. However, it is often at the discretion of each nation whether to co-operate or participate, if a nation does agree to participate in activities of the supranational bodies and accept decisions, the nation is giving up its sovereign authority and thereby allocating power to these bodies. The fact that organizations, courts and tribunals have been created raises the difficult question of how to co-ordinate their activities with those of national courts. But, to invoke the jurisdiction in any case, all the parties have to accept the prospective judgment as binding. This reduces the risk of wasting the Courts time, each such group may form transnational institutions with declared legislative or judicial powers. For example, in Europe, the European Court of Justice has been given jurisdiction as the appellate court to the member states on issues of European law. This jurisdiction is entrenched and its authority could only be denied by a member if that member nation asserts its sovereignty. Hence, in the Netherlands, all treaties and the orders of international organizations are effective without any action being required to convert international into municipal law, in nations adopting this theory, the local courts automatically accept jurisdiction to adjudicate on lawsuits relying on international law principles. Otherwise the courts have a discretion to apply international law where it does not conflict with statute or the common law. According to the Supreme Court of the United States, the treaty power authorizes Congress to legislate under the Necessary and this concerns the relationships both between courts in different jurisdictions, and between courts within the same jurisdiction. The usual legal doctrine under which questions of jurisdiction are decided is termed forum non conveniens, to deal with the issue of forum shopping, nations are urged to adopt more positive rules on conflict of laws. In addition, the Lugano Convention binds the European Union and the European Free Trade Association, council Regulation 44/2001 now also applies as between the rest of the EU Member States and Denmark due to an agreement reached between the European Community and Denmark. In some legal areas, at least, the CACA enforcement of judgments is now more straightforward. At a national level, the rules still determine jurisdiction over persons who are not domiciled or habitually resident in the European Union or the Lugano area
8.
Status offense
–
A status offense is an action that is prohibited only to a certain class of people, and most often applied only to offenses committed by minors. In the United States, the status offense also refers to an offense such as a traffic violation where motive is not a consideration in determining guilt. In the United Kingdom and Europe, this type of status offense may be termed a regulatory offense. A neutral definition may be type of crime that is not based upon prohibited action or inaction, the Federal Sentencing Guidelines states that a juvenile status offense is a crime which cannot be committed by an adult. For example, possession of a firearm by a minor, by definition, in some states the term status offense does not apply to adults at all, according to Wyoming law, status offenses can be committed only by people under 18 years of age. Status offenses may include consumption of alcohol, truancy, and running away from home and these acts may be illegal for persons under a certain age, while remaining legal for all others, which makes them status offenses. Status offense may also apply to other classes, including laws forbidding ownership of firearms by felons, Laws that prohibit certain actions to certain persons based on their sex, race, nationality, religion, etc. are also status offenses. A law that prohibits men from using public toilets intended for women, status offenses from the past that are no longer operative include, The Nuremberg Laws banned sexual relations between Jews and non-Jewish Germans. Various laws in the United States prohibited marriage between people and African-Americans. These were enacted at the level, some states had anti-miscegenation laws. The first of these laws was enacted in 1691 in Virginia, south Africas Prohibition of Mixed Marriages Act prohibited sexual relations between people of different races. Various other places, at times, have promulgated anti-miscegenation laws prohibiting sexual relations between members of specified different races. Person In Need of Supervision Quasi-criminal Regulatory offences Victimless crime Youth rights
9.
Special education
–
Special education is the practice of educating students with special educational needs in a way that addresses their individual differences and needs. Ideally, this involves the individually planned and systematically monitored arrangement of teaching procedures, adapted equipment and materials. Common special needs include learning disabilities, communication disorders, emotional and behavioral disorders, physical disabilities, for example, even people of high intelligence can be under prepared if their education was disrupted, for example, by internal displacement during civil disorder or a war. In most developed countries, educators modify teaching methods and environments so that the number of students are served in general education environments. Therefore, special education in developed countries is often regarded as a rather than a place. Integration can reduce social stigmas and improve academic achievement for many students, the opposite of special education is general education. General education is the standard curriculum presented without special teaching methods or supports, some children are easily identified as candidates for special needs due to their medical history. The discrepancy model depends on the teacher noticing that the achievements are noticeably below what is expected. The response to intervention model advocates earlier intervention, although the discrepancy model has dominated the school system for many years, there has been substantial criticism of this approach among researchers. One reason for criticism is that diagnosing SLDs on the basis of the discrepancy between achievement and IQ does not predict the effectiveness of treatment. Low academic achievers who also have low IQ appear to benefit from treatment just as much as low academic achievers who have normal or high intelligence. The alternative approach, response to intervention, identifies children who are having difficulties in school in their first or second year after starting school and they then receive additional assistance such as participating in a reading remediation program. The response of the children to this intervention then determines whether they are designated as having a learning disability and those few who still have trouble may then receive designation and further assistance. Sternberg has argued that early remediation can greatly reduce the number of children meeting diagnostic criteria for learning disabilities, a special education program should be customised to address each individual students unique needs. Special educators provide a continuum of services, in which students with special needs receives varying degrees of support based on their individual needs, Special education programs need to be individualised so that they address the unique combination of needs in a given student. In the United States, Canada, and the UK, educational professionals use a student’s Individualized Education Program, the IEP is meant to address each child’s unique learning issues and include specific educational goals. It is a legally binding document, the school must provide everything it promises in the IEP. To ensure that federal law is obeyed, the government requires every school system provide this type of education to each student in order to receive federal funding
10.
Vocational education
–
Craft vocations are usually based on manual or practical activities and are traditionally non-academic but related to a specific trade or occupation. Vocational education is referred to as career education or technical education. Vocational education can take place at the secondary, post-secondary, further education, and higher education level, however, online vocational education has grown in popularity, and made it easier than ever for students to learn various trade skills and soft skills from established professionals in the industry. Wilhelm von Humboldts educational model goes beyond vocational training, if this basis is laid through schooling, vocational skills are easily acquired later on, and a person is always free to move from one occupation to another, as so often happens in life. In Australia vocational education and training is mostly post-secondary and provided through the vocational education, however some senior schools do offer school-based apprenticeships and traineeships for students in years 10,11 and 12. Australia’s apprenticeship system includes both apprenticeships in trades and traineeships in other more service-oriented occupations. Both involve a legal contract between the employer and the apprentice or trainee and provide a combination of school-based and workplace training, Apprenticeships typically last three to four years, traineeships only one to two years. Apprentices and trainees receive a wage which increases as they progress through the training scheme and this allows national portability of qualifications and units of competency. A crucial feature of the package is that the content of the vocational qualifications is theoretically defined by industry. A Training Package is owned by one of 11 Industry Skills Councils which are responsible for developing and reviewing the qualifications, the National Centre for Vocational Education Research or NCVER is a not-for-profit company owned by the federal, state and territory ministries responsible for training. It is responsible for collecting, managing, analysing, evaluating and communicating research and statistics about vocational education, the boundaries between vocational education and tertiary education are becoming more blurred. A number of training providers such as Melbourne Polytechnic, BHI. Such applied courses include equine studies, winemaking and viticulture, aquaculture, information technology, music, illustration, culinary management, the largest and the most unified system of vocational education was created in the Soviet Union with the professionalno-tehnicheskoye uchilische and Tehnikum. But it became effective with the transition of the economies of post-Soviet countries to a market economy. Education and training is the responsibility of states, but the single European labour market makes some cooperation on education imperative, including on vocational education. The process is based on mutually agreed priorities that are reviewed periodically, much of the activity is monitored by Cedefop, the European Centre for the Development of Vocational Training. In Finland, vocational education belongs to secondary education, after the nine-year comprehensive school, almost all students choose to go to either a lukio, which is an institution preparing students for tertiary education, or to a vocational school. Both forms of secondary education last three years, and give a qualification to enter university or ammattikorkeakoulu, i. e. Finnish polytechnics
11.
Mental health
–
Mental health is a level of psychological well-being, or an absence of mental illness. It is the state of someone who is functioning at a satisfactory level of emotional and behavioral adjustment. Cultural differences, subjective assessments, and competing professional theories all affect how mental health is defined, a widely accepted definition of health by mental health specialists is psychoanalyst Sigmund Freuds definition, the capacity to work and to love. In the mid-19th century, William Sweetser was the first to coin the term mental hygiene, dorothea Dix was an important figure in the development of mental hygiene movement. Dix was a teacher who endeavored throughout her life to help people with mental disorders. This was known as the mental hygiene movement, emil Kraepelin in 1896 developed the taxonomy mental disorders which has dominated the field for nearly 80 years. Later the proposed model of abnormality was subjected to analysis. Mental illnesses are more common than cancer, diabetes, or heart disease, over 26 percent of all Americans over the age of 18 meet the criteria for having a mental illness. Serious mental disorders affect an estimated 6 percent of the adult population, a little more than half receive treatment. A WHO report estimates the global cost of illness at nearly $2.5 trillion in 2010. An individuals emotional health can also impact physical health and poor mental health can lead to such as substance abuse. Maintaining good mental health is crucial to living a long and healthy life, good mental health can enhance ones life, while poor mental health can prevent someone from living an enriching life. According to Richards, Campania, & Muse-Burke, There is growing evidence that is showing emotional abilities are associated with prosocial behaviors such as stress management and physical health. Their research also concluded that people who lack emotional expression are inclined to anti-social behaviors, Mental health can be seen as an unstable continuum, where an individuals mental health may have many different possible values. Mental wellness is generally viewed as an attribute, even if the person does not have any diagnosed mental health condition. This definition of mental health highlights emotional well-being, the capacity to live a full and creative life, some discussions are formulated in terms of contentment or happiness. Many therapeutic systems and self-help books offer methods and philosophies espousing strategies and techniques vaunted as effective for improving the mental wellness. Positive psychology is increasingly prominent in mental health, an example of a wellness model includes one developed by Myers, Sweeney and Witmer
12.
Individuals with Disabilities Education Act
–
IDEA was previously known as the Education for All Handicapped Children Act from 1975 to 1990. In 1990, the United States Congress reauthorized EHA and changed the title to IDEA, overall, the goal of IDEA is to provide children with disabilities the same opportunity for education as those students who do not have a disability. IDEA is composed of four parts, the two being part A and part B. Each part of the law has remained largely the same since the enactment in 1975. In practice, IDEA is composed of six elements that illuminate its main points. To go along with six main elements there are also a few other important components that tie into IDEA, Confidentiality of Information, Transition Services. Throughout the years of IDEA being reauthorized these components have become key concepts when learning about IDEA, before the Education for All Handicapped Children Act was enacted in 1975, U. S. public schools accommodated only 1 out of 5 children with disabilities. At the time the EHA was enacted, more than 1 million children in the U. S. had no access to the school system. Many of these lived at state institutions where they received limited or no educational or rehabilitation services. Another 3.5 million children attended school but were “warehoused” in segregated facilities, as of 2006, more than 6 million children in the U. S. receive special education services through IDEA. Board of Education of Topeka,347 U. S.483 and this caused a great deal of unrest in the political sphere and marks a gateway moment in the Civil Rights Movement. Education was an important aspect of the Civil Rights Movement, on top of those events, the Civil Rights Movement was in full force in the United States. From schools being integrated to the Montgomery Bus Boycott, from Greensboro sit-ins to marches on Washington, President John F. Kennedy showed interest in mental retardation studies and President Lyndon Johnson used Federal funds to increase research on “at-risk” youth. Early intervention programs for children living in low situations, such as the Head Start Program. Education was soon at the forefront of political agendas. The first legislation which provided relief was the Rehabilitation Act of 1973, separate schooling may only occur when the nature or severity of the disability is such that instructional goals cannot be achieved in the regular classroom. Finally, the law contains a due process clause that guarantees an impartial hearing to resolve conflicts between the parents of disabled children to the school system. The act also required school districts provide administrative procedures so that parents of disabled children could dispute decisions made about their children’s education
13.
Office of Special Education Programs
–
Originally created as the Bureau of the Education of the Handicapped, the Office of Special Education Programs is part of the U. S. Department of Education. OSEP provides leadership and support for working with children with disabilities. Another critical role of OSEP is to protect the rights of children with disabilities from age three through twenty-one. OSEP is supervised by the Office of the Deputy Secretary of Education through the Office of Special Education, the Office of Special Education Programs is a unit within the U. S Department of Education. Originally created as the Bureau of the Education of the Handicapped in 1967, its purpose is to strengthen, OSEP activities are authorized through the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act. OSEP programs are intended to ensure that the rights of infants, toddlers, children, OSEP is under the auspices of the Office of the Deputy Secretary of Education through the Office of Special Education and Rehabilitative Services. OSEP consists of the Office of the Director, Program Support Services Group, Monitoring and State Improvement Planning Division, the Early Childhood Team, Elementary and Middle School Team, Secondary/Transition/Postsecondary Team and National Initiatives Team make up the Research to Practice Division. OSEP Directors 1967 Jim Gallagher 1990 Judy A
14.
Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990
–
The Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 is a US labor law that prohibits unjustified discrimination based on disability. The final version of the bill was signed into law on July 26,1990 and it was later amended in 2008 and signed by President George W. Bush with changes effective as of January 1,2009. ADA disabilities include both mental and physical medical conditions, a condition does not need to be severe or permanent to be a disability. Additionally, other conditions, such as gender identity disorders, are also excluded under the definition of disability. The ADA states that an entity shall not discriminate against a qualified individual with a disability. This applies to job application procedures, hiring, advancement and discharge of employees, job training, and other terms, conditions, covered entities include employers with 15 or more employees, as well as employment agencies, labor organizations, and joint labor-management committees. Prohibited discrimination may include, among other things, firing or refusing to hire someone based on a real or perceived disability, segregation, covered entities are also required to provide reasonable accommodations to job applicants and employees with disabilities. An employee or applicant who currently engages in the use of drugs is not considered qualified when a covered entity takes adverse action based on such use. There are many ways to discriminate against people based on disabilities, anyone known to have a history of mental disorders can be considered disabled. Employers with more than 15 employees must take care to all employees fairly. Even when an employee is doing a job well, she or he is not necessarily no longer disabled. The Court determined that state employees cannot sue their employer for violating ADA rules, state employees can, however, file complaints at the Department of Justice or the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission, who can sue on their behalf. Title II prohibits disability discrimination by all entities at the local level, e. g. school district, municipal, city, or county. Public entities must comply with Title II regulations by the U. S. Department of Justice and these regulations cover access to all programs and services offered by the entity. Access includes physical access described in the ADA Standards for Accessible Design, Title II applies to public transportation provided by public entities through regulations by the U. S. Department of Transportation. It includes the National Railroad Passenger Corporation, along all other commuter authorities. This section requires the provision of services by public entities that provide fixed route services. ADA also sets minimum requirements for space layout in order to facilitate wheelchair securement on public transport, Title II also applies to all state and local public housing, housing assistance, and housing referrals
15.
Recidivism
–
Recidivism is the act of a person repeating an undesirable behavior after they had either experienced negative consequences of that behavior, or had been trained to extinguish that behavior. It is also used to refer to the percentage of prisoners who are rearrested for a similar offense. The term is used in conjunction with criminal behavior and substance abuse. To be counted as recidivism, the re-offending requires voluntary disclosure of arrest and conviction, as another example, alcoholic recidivism might refer to the proportion of people who, after successful treatment, report having, or are determined to have, returned to the abuse of alcohol. The effect of incarceration on former prisoners has been a common topic of discussion for many years. In most cases, it is believed that prisoners will find themselves right back where they started. According to an April 2011 report by the Pew Center on the States, in recent history, the rate of incarceration in the U. S. has increased dramatically, resulting in prisons being filled to capacity with bad conditions and environments for inmates. In many prisons, crime continues inside the prison walls, gangs exist and flourish on the inside, often with many key tactical decisions being made by leaders who are in jail. This is a significant issue because ninety-five percent of prisoners will be released back into the community at some point. According to a study published in 2003 by The Urban Institute. The study says this happens due to personal and situation characteristics, including the social environment of peers, family, community. One of the reasons why they find themselves back in jail is because it is difficult for the individual to fit back in with ‘normal’ life. They have to reestablish ties with their family, return to places and secure formal identification, they often have a poor work history. Many prisoners report being anxious about their release, they are excited about how their life will be different “this time” which does not always end up being the case, more broadly, however, recidivism affects everyone. Crime is a problem in community and anyone can be a victim. Victimization can take many forms—from being directly injured in a violent crime, to being robbed, furthermore, all taxpayers are greatly impacted by the economic costs of crime. It is estimated that three quarters of those returning from prison have a history of substance abuse, over 70 percent of prisoners with serious mental illnesses also have a substance use disorder. Furthermore, inmates who receive aftercare have a greater chance of not recidivating
16.
Middletown, Connecticut
–
Middletown is a city located in Middlesex County, Connecticut, along the Connecticut River, in the central part of the state,16 miles south of Hartford. In 1650, it was incorporated as a town under its original Indian name and it received its present name in 1653. Middletown was included within Hartford County upon its creation on May 10,1666, in 1784, the central settlement was incorporated as a city distinct from the town. Both were included within newly formed Middlesex County in May 1785, in 1923, the City of Middletown was consolidated with the Town, making the city limits of the city quite extensive. Middletown was the county seat of Middlesex County from its creation in 1785 until the elimination of county government in 1960, as of the 2010 census, the city had a total population of 47,648. Middletown, Connecticut is considered the southernmost city in the Hartford-Springfield Knowledge Corridor Metropolitan Region, at the time the first European settlers arrtived in the region, the Mattabesetts were a part of the group of tribes in the Connecticut Valley, under a single chief named Sowheag. Plans for the settlement of Mattabesett were drawn up by the General Court in 1646. The Name Middletown was chosen because the site was approximate halfway between Windsor and Saybrook on the Great River, life was not easy among these early colonial Puritans, clearing the land and building homes, and tending farms in the rocky soil of New England was a labor-intensive ordeal. The Mattabesett and other referred to the Mohegan as destroyers of men. Sowheag hoped that the colonists would intervene, smallpox, too, afflicted the Mattabesett, significantly lessening their ability to resist and their cohesion as a tribe. Records show that, over time, Sowheag was forced to sell off most of the Mattabesett property to the local colonists, similar milieus of tragic interaction between Native Americans and colonists were common in 17th century New England. During the 18th century, Middletown became the largest and most prosperous settlement in Connecticut, by the time of the American Revolution, Middletown was a thriving port with one-third of its citizens involved in merchant and maritime activities. Middletown merchant traders pushed for the clearance of the Saybrook Bar at the mouth of the Connecticut River, and later sought the creation of Middlesex County in 1785. The name Middlesex was chosen because the intention was to make Middletown the head of a river port, much as London was at the head of its long river port in Middlesex County. The same persons also established the Middlesex Turnpike to link all the settlements on the side of the Connecticut. The ports decline began in the early 19th century with strained American-British relations and resulting trade restrictions, during this period, Middletown became a major center for firearms manufacturing. Numerous gun manufacturers in the area supplied the majority of pistols to the United States government during the War of 1812, after that war, however, the center of this business passed to Springfield, Massachusetts, Hartford, Connecticut, and New Haven, Connecticut. 1831 saw the establishment of Wesleyan University which was to one of the United States leading liberal arts institutions
17.
Jodi Rell
–
Mary Jodi Rell is an American former Republican politician and the 87th Governor of the U. S. state of Connecticut from 2004 until 2011. Rell also served as the states 85th Lieutenant Governor, during Governor John G. Rowlands administration, Rell was Connecticuts second female Governor, after Ella T. Grasso. Rell stepped down from office at the end of her term, born Mary Carolyn Reavis in Norfolk, Virginia, Rell attended Old Dominion University, but left in 1967 to marry Lou Rell, a U. S. Navy pilot. The couple first moved to New Jersey, where Lou Rell took a position as an airline pilot with Trans World Airlines. The family then moved to a 19th Century farmhouse in Brookfield, Jodi Rell later attended, but did not graduate from, Western Connecticut State University. She received honorary law doctorates from the University of Hartford in 2001, in 2015 she received an honorary doctorate degree of humane letters from Western Connecticut State University. In her early career, she tutored and did work for the Hartford Public Schools. Jodi Rells political career began as a worker for Connecticut state Rep. David Smith during several of his campaigns. Smith, a pilot for Eastern Airlines, declined to seek re-election to a 5th term in the Connecticut House of Representatives in the 1984 election and he encouraged Rell to enter the race to succeed him. Rell served as a Connecticut State Representative for the 107th District in Brookfield from 1985 until 1995 and she became Lieutenant Governor after the 1994 election and won re-election in 1998 and 2002, becoming governor in 2004 after John Rowlands resignation. She announced in October 2005 she would seek a four-year term in 2006, stamford businessman and former state representative Michael Fedele was nominated as her running mate as Lieutenant Governor. Rell defeated her Democratic opponent, New Haven Mayor John DeStefano and she received approximately 710,000 votes, the highest total for any gubernatorial candidate in Connecticut history. On April 20,2005, Rell signed into law a bill that made Connecticut the first state to civil unions for same-sex couples without being directed to do so by a court. The bill was amended to define marriage as between a man and a woman after Rell threatened a veto, Rell signed the bill despite some Republican opposition to it, including from the Chairman of the State Republicans at the time. Rell had announced that were the legislature to pass a bill establishing gay marriage in Connecticut, on October 10,2008, Connecticut courts ruled that the ban of gay marriage violated citizens rights guaranteed to them by the constitution. Governor Jodi Rell responded by saying she would not fight the decision, “The Supreme Court has spoken, ” she stated “I do not believe their voice reflects the majority of the people of Connecticut. However, I am also convinced that attempts to reverse this decision, either legislatively or by amending the state Constitution, will not meet with success. ”However, on April 23,2009. It also provided for civil unions to be transformed into marriages on October 1,2010
18.
Boys & Girls Clubs of America
–
Boys & Girls Clubs of America is a national organization of local chapters which provide after-school programs for young people. BGCA is tax-exempt and partially funded by the federal government, the Clubs former president, Roxanne Spillett, received a base salary in 2011 of $455,829 with an additional $116,000 bonus and $1.2 million in deferred compensation and retirement. The first Boys Club was founded in 1860 in Hartford, Connecticut by three women, Elizabeth Hamersley and sisters Mary and Alice Goodwin, in 1906,53 independent Boys Clubs came together in Boston to form a national organization, the Federated Boys Clubs. In 1931, the organization renamed itself Boys Clubs of America, as of 2010, there are over 4,000 autonomous local clubs, which are affiliates of the national organization. In total these clubs serve over four million boys and girls, Clubs can be found in all fifty states as well as locations in Puerto Rico, the Virgin Islands, and US military bases. In total, Boys & Girls Clubs of America employ about 50,000 staff members, the Chronicle of Philanthropy ranked Boys & Girls Clubs of America number one among youth organizations for the 13th consecutive year, and number 12 among all nonprofit organizations. The Boys & Girls Clubs of America is the charity of Major League Baseball. Denzel Washington, a club member, has been the spokesperson for Boys & Girls Clubs of America since 1993. As of 2012, Boys & Girls Clubs of America served some 4 million youth through club membership and these people came together in 1956 to create the Boys Clubs of America, Herbert Hoover, 31st president of the United States William E. Hall, U. S. Medal of Honor recipient Albert L. Cole, CEO. of Readers Digest James A. Farley, United States Postmaster General Albert C
19.
District of Columbia
–
Washington, D. C. formally the District of Columbia and commonly referred to as Washington, the District, or simply D. C. is the capital of the United States. The signing of the Residence Act on July 16,1790, Constitution provided for a federal district under the exclusive jurisdiction of the Congress and the District is therefore not a part of any state. The states of Maryland and Virginia each donated land to form the federal district, named in honor of President George Washington, the City of Washington was founded in 1791 to serve as the new national capital. In 1846, Congress returned the land ceded by Virginia, in 1871. Washington had an population of 681,170 as of July 2016. Commuters from the surrounding Maryland and Virginia suburbs raise the population to more than one million during the workweek. The Washington metropolitan area, of which the District is a part, has a population of over 6 million, the centers of all three branches of the federal government of the United States are in the District, including the Congress, President, and Supreme Court. Washington is home to national monuments and museums, which are primarily situated on or around the National Mall. The city hosts 176 foreign embassies as well as the headquarters of international organizations, trade unions, non-profit organizations, lobbying groups. A locally elected mayor and a 13‑member council have governed the District since 1973, However, the Congress maintains supreme authority over the city and may overturn local laws. D. C. residents elect a non-voting, at-large congressional delegate to the House of Representatives, the District receives three electoral votes in presidential elections as permitted by the Twenty-third Amendment to the United States Constitution, ratified in 1961. Various tribes of the Algonquian-speaking Piscataway people inhabited the lands around the Potomac River when Europeans first visited the area in the early 17th century, One group known as the Nacotchtank maintained settlements around the Anacostia River within the present-day District of Columbia. Conflicts with European colonists and neighboring tribes forced the relocation of the Piscataway people, some of whom established a new settlement in 1699 near Point of Rocks, Maryland. 43, published January 23,1788, James Madison argued that the new government would need authority over a national capital to provide for its own maintenance. Five years earlier, a band of unpaid soldiers besieged Congress while its members were meeting in Philadelphia, known as the Pennsylvania Mutiny of 1783, the event emphasized the need for the national government not to rely on any state for its own security. However, the Constitution does not specify a location for the capital, on July 9,1790, Congress passed the Residence Act, which approved the creation of a national capital on the Potomac River. The exact location was to be selected by President George Washington, formed from land donated by the states of Maryland and Virginia, the initial shape of the federal district was a square measuring 10 miles on each side, totaling 100 square miles. Two pre-existing settlements were included in the territory, the port of Georgetown, Maryland, founded in 1751, many of the stones are still standing
20.
District of Columbia Public Schools
–
District of Columbia Public Schools is the local, traditional public school system of Washington, D. C. in the United States. These schools have a span of prekindergarten to twelfth grade and, as of 2000. School is compulsory for DCPS students between the ages of 5 and 18, DCPS schools typically start the last Monday in August. The school day is approximately six hours. The ethnic breakdown of students enrolled in 2014 was 67% Black, 17% Hispanic, 12% non-Hispanic White, as of 2014, the District itself has a population that is 44% White, 49% Black and 10% Hispanic. Gentrification and demographic changes in many DC neighborhoods has increased the White and Hispanic populations in the city, in 2008, DCPS was 84. 4% Black,9. 4% Hispanic,4. 6% non-Hispanic White, and 1. 6% of other races. Facilities reform legislation in DC has led to many openings and closings. The most recent closure announcement is that River Terrace Elementary School and Shaed Education Campus are shutting their doors at the end of the 2010–2011 and 2011–2012 school years, students attending River Terrace Elementary School will transition with Emery Education Campus to the Langley Building. In addition, the Montessori program is expanding into the Montessori School, a part of this will be the Jefferson 6th Grade Academy, which will only house 6th grade students. As of the 2009–2010 school year, there was an enrollment of 43,866 students and 4,017 classroom teachers. The current student to teacher ratio is 10.92, an improvement from the 2006–07 ratio of 13.5, however, student enrollment was at a peak of 72,850 students with a much larger staff totaling 12,000. The reason for this sudden enrollment drop in DCPS is that the Public Education Reform Amendment Act of 2007 separated DC Public Charter Schools from District of Columbia Public Schools, the District of Columbia passed charter school legislation in 1996, which went into effect in September 1999. The legislation gave the District the power to grant charters for 15 years, although this is longer than the traditional 3–5 year term observed in 31 other states, a required review takes place every 5 years. 4. 4% of public school students enrolled in a school for the 1999 academic school year. After legislation was enacted in 2007, chartering authority was placed under the D. C, Public Charter School Board and disaffiliated from DCPS. The governance of DCPS was also restructured, and the district was placed under the control of the Mayor, in 2010 about 38% of Washington, D. C. public school students attended 60 charter schools. There are 52 public charter schools in the District, with 93 campuses and 30,000 students, the total number of public charter schools has been reduced from 60 schools on 96 campuses in 2008–09 to 53 schools on 98 campuses as of the 2011–12 school year. However, the addition of grades to the schools are still increasing enrollment
21.
Unincorporated area
–
Occasionally, municipalities dissolve or disincorporate, which may happen if they become fiscally insolvent, and services become the responsibility of a higher administration. In some countries, such as in Brazil, Japan, France or the United Kingdom, unlike many other countries, Australia has only one level of local government immediately beneath state and territorial governments. A local government area often contains several towns and even entire cities, thus, aside from very sparsely populated areas and a few other special cases, almost all of Australia is part of an LGA. Unincorporated areas are often in locations, cover vast areas or have very small populations. Postal addresses in unincorporated areas, as in parts of Australia. Thus, there is any ambiguity regarding addresses in unincorporated areas. The Australian Capital Territory has no municipalities and is in some sense an unincorporated area, the territorial government is directly responsible for matters normally carried out by local government. The far west and north of New South Wales constitutes the Unincorporated Far West Region, a civil servant in the state capital manages such matters as are necessary. The second unincorporated area of state is Lord Howe Island. In the Northern Territory,1. 45% of the area and 4. In South Australia, 60% of the area is unincorporated and communities located within can receive services provided by a state agency. Firstly, the remote area that is unincorporated is the Abrolhos Islands. Secondly, the unincorporated areas are A-class reserves either in, or close to. In Canada, depending on the province, a settlement is one that does not have a municipal council that governs solely over the settlement. It is usually, but not always, part of a municipal government. This can range from hamlets to large urbanized areas that are similar in size to towns. In British Columbia, unincorporated settlements lie outside municipal boundaries entirely, Unincorporated settlements with a population of between 100 and 1,000 residents may have the status of designated place in Canadian census data. In some provinces, large tracts of undeveloped wilderness or rural country are unorganized areas that fall directly under the provincial jurisdiction
22.
Anne Arundel County, Maryland
–
Anne Arundel County /ˌænəˈrʌndəl/ is a county located in the U. S. state of Maryland. As of the 2010 census, its population was 537,656 and its county seat is Annapolis, which is also the capital of the state. The County was named for Lady Ann Arundell, the daughter of Thomas Arundell, 1st Baron Arundell of Wardour, members of the ancient family of Arundells in Cornwall, England. She married Cecilius Calvert, second Lord Baltimore, and the first Lord Proprietor of the colony, Province of Maryland, in an arranged marriage contract in 1627 or 1628. Anne Arundel County was originally part of St. Marys County in the portion of the Province of Maryland which had first been settled by the arriving settlers in 1634. In 1650, the year after Lady Ann Arundells death, the County separated from St. Marys and erected into its own jurisdiction, between 1654 and 1658, the County was known as Providence by many of its early settlers. The Commonwealth forces under William Fuller were victorious, prior to the move, Annapolis was known as Providence. During the American Revolutionary War, citizens of Anne Arundel County supported the Continental Army by providing troops for three regiments, the 3rd Maryland Regiment, the 4th Maryland Regiment, and the 6th Maryland Regiment were recruited in the county. During the War of 1812, the one of the six heavy frigates of the recently reestablished United States Navy. Constitution sailed from Annapolis prior to its victorious engagement with the H. M. S, guerriere of the British Royal Navy. This was the first regular passenger service in the United States. In 1831, land west of the railroad was considered the Howard District of Anne Arundel County, in 1851, The Howard District was broken off to form Howard County, now the 21st county in Maryland. The County has a number of properties on the National Register of Historic Places, according to the U. S. Census Bureau, the county has a total area of 588 square miles, of which 415 square miles is land and 173 square miles is water. Anne Arundel County is located to the south of the city of Baltimore, most of the Countys borders are defined by water. The largest of these include, the Magothy River, Severn River, South River. Further south, the upper Patuxent River forms the border of Anne Arundel with Prince Georges County to the west, deep Run forms part of the northwestern border with Howard County, and Lyons Creek forms part of the southern border with Calvert County. Anne Arundel County originally included all of the land between the Patuxent River and the Patapsco River upstream to their headwaters on Parrs Ridge. The northwestern section of this long tract later became Howard County, as a result, Anne Arundel County lies almost entirely within the Atlantic Coastal Plain while Howard County is almost entirely within the Piedmont province
23.
Laurel, Maryland
–
Laurel is a city in northern Prince Georges County, Maryland, in the United States, located midway between Washington, D. C. and Baltimore on the Patuxent River. Largely residential today, the city maintains a district centered on its Main Street. Laurel Park, a horse racetrack, is located just outside city limits. Many dinosaur fossils from the Cretaceous Era are preserved in a 7. 5-acre park in Laurel, the site, which among other finds has yielded fossilized teeth from Astrodon and Priconodon species, has been called the most prolific in the eastern United States. From the Late Glacial age in 10,700 B. C. to 8,500 B. C, Laurels climate warmed and changed from a Spruce forest to a hardwood forest. In the Late Archaic period from 4,000 to 1,000 B. C, Laurel would have been covered primarily with an Oak and Hickory forest. Laurel was formed from land on the line of the Patuxent River patented by the Snowden family in 1658 as part of the 12, 250-acre New Birmingham plantation. The Washington Turnpike Road Company built Route 1 between 1796 and 1812, creating a major North-South land route with George Washington as a regular traveler, milsteads Hotel halfway house was built in town to serve four stage lines a day in 1816. Nicholas Snowden built a grist mill on the site circa 1811 which grew to a cotton mill by the 1820s. In 1828, a survey was conducted to build a canal from Baltimore to Georgetown to connect to the proposed C&O canal. Tiffany and the mill expanded greatly with the addition of the Avondale Mill building in 1844, Mill president Horace Capron with his partners built housing for close to 300 workers, and a bigger cotton mill. Cotton duck from the mill was shipped down what would become Laurel’s Main Street, a substantial dam was built in 1850. As a mill town, Laurel was somewhat unusual in Prince George’s County and was surrounded by agricultural endeavors, during the 1840s, three historic churches in the community—the Methodist Est. 1842, St. Mary of the Mills Est,1845, and St. Philips Est.1839 —established what are still vigorous congregations. During the Civil War, Laurel Factory, like much of Maryland, was a divided community, Union soldiers patrolled the railroad, and for a time there was also a Union hospital. During the latter half of the 19th century, while it operated its factories. Laurel evolved into a suburban town. Many of its residents commuted by rail to jobs in Washington or Baltimore, the town was incorporated in 1870 and reincorporated in 1890 to coincide with a new electric power plant and paved streets and boarded sidewalks
24.
Kids for cash scandal
–
Conahan entered a revised guilty plea to one count of racketeering conspiracy in July 2010. In a verdict reached at the conclusion of a jury trial, the Center has maintained a list of related court documents. The FBI was tipped off about Conahan and nepotism in the county courts in 2006, Attorneys from the center determined that several hundred cases were tried without the defendants receiving proper counsel. In April 2008, the Center petitioned the Pennsylvania Supreme Court seeking relief for alleged violation of the civil rights. The application of relief was denied, then reconsidered in January 2009 when charges of corruption against the judges surfaced. Part of the investigation was revealed to have occurred during disciplinary hearings over the conduct of another former Luzerne County judge, the board ruled against Lokuta in November 2008, and she was removed from the bench. During the course of the hearings, Lokuta accused Conahan of bullying behavior. During the Lokuta hearing, Conahan testified that there were no social relationships amongst the county judges, however, Judge Michael Toole, who was later convicted of case fixing, as well as another judge, had each stayed at a Florida condo jointly owned by Conahan and Ciavarella. The state Supreme Court decided to uphold Lokutas removal from the bench in January 2011, finding she had received a fair trial and it also ordered the expungements of the records of 2,401 of those juveniles who were affected. A statement from the office of the United States Attorney for the Middle District of Pennsylvania outlined the charges against the two judges on January 26,2009. The U. S. Attorney charged that in 2002 Conahan, the methods used to conceal the payments involved several parties and transactions which resulted in allegations of tax evasion against the two. Original, negotiated agreements called for both judges to serve up to seven years in prison, pay fines and restitution. However, on July 30,2009, Judge Edwin M. Attorneys for the two brought a motion requesting reconsideration of the judges rejection of the plea agreement. Both judges were arraigned on the charges on September 15,2009, Ciavarella and Conahan entered pleas of not guilty on all counts and remained free on $1 million in bail, despite federal prosecutors contentions that their bail should be raised. Prosecutors argued the judges bail should have higher, since they faced the possibility of substantially more prison time. The Pennsylvania Supreme Court temporarily suspended Powell’s law license on September 1, Robert Mericle, the prominent real estate developer who built the two juvenile facilities, pleaded guilty on September 3,2009, to failing to disclose a felony. Mericle had failed to tell a jury he had paid $2.1 million to Ciavarella. As part of his plea, Mericle agreed to pay $2.15 million to local childrens health
25.
Youth incarceration in the United States
–
In 2010, approximately 70,800 juveniles were incarcerated in youth detention facilities alone. Approximately 500,000 youth are brought to detention centers in a given year and this data does not reflect juveniles tried as adults. Around 40% are incarcerated in privatized, for-profit facilities, the system that is currently operational in the United States was created under the 1974 Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention Act. The Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention Act called for a deinstitutionalization of juvenile delinquents, the act required that states holding youth within adult prisons for status offenses remove them within a span of two years. The act also provided grants to states, based on their youth populations. Through reauthorization amendments, additional programs have added to the original Juvenile Justice. The following list highlights a few of these additions,1977 - Programs were developed to assist children with learning disabilities who entered the juvenile justice system,1984 - A new missing and exploited children program was added. 1984 - Strong support was given to programs that strengthened families,1988 - Studies on prison conditions within the Indian justice system. 1990 - The OJJDP began funding child abuse training programs to instruct judicial personnel,1992 - A juvenile boot camp program was designed to introduce delinquent youth to a lifestyle of structure and discipline. 1992 - A community prevention grants program gave start-up money to communities for local crime prevention plans. Some inmates of the system are or were status offenders, children who committed acts that are not crimes for adults. Recently, forty seven states have made it easier to be tried as an adult, the “tough on crime” attitudes of these recent legislative events reflect the stances popularity in public opinion. This is true of the majority of justice reform policies in the past couple decades. Reforms in criminal justice reforms, and juvenile justice in particular, are fought in the court of public opinion. The popular news media plays a role in promoting the myth of a new generation of young “super-predators” threatening the public. Despite documented decreases in crime, particularly in violent crime which indicate a 68% decline in youth homicide in the 1990s. Despite evidence to the contrary, 62% of respondents in a 1999 survey on youth delinquency believed that crime increased. Advocates for juvenile justice reform focus considerable attention on amending public opinion, the reports findings include, 70% of youth in custody reported that they had “had something very bad or terrifying” happen to them in their lives
26.
Youth Offending Team
–
In England and Wales a Youth Offending Team is a multi-agency team that is coordinated by a local authority, which is overseen by the Youth Justice Board. It deals with young offenders, sets up community services and reparation plans, Youth Offending Teams engage in a wide variety of work with young offenders in order to achieve their aims. YOTs supervise young people who have ordered by the court to serve sentences in the community or in the secure estate. Sometimes, teams organise meetings between offenders and victims to encourage apologies and reparation, Youth Offending Teams also arrange for Appropriate Adults to accompany under 17s after their arrest in order to advise and support the young person, and observe that they are treated fairly. When a youth is arrested and unaccompanied by an adult, the station calls the local YOT to request an appropriate adult to come to the relevant station. Youth Offending Teams can also provide important information relevant to a persons case to police officers. All members of Youth Offending Teams have expertise in areas relevant to the care and these may include areas such as the Police Service, Probation Service, Social Services, the Health Service, Education, and Psychology. Education workers are some of the most important in Youth Offending Teams since most young offenders should be engaged with statutory full-time education. These workers liaise with schools and the department where a young person is experiencing difficulties at school. Education workers also arrange for the education of young people who go into custody. If possible, the workers ensure that the work done in school and custody are of equal content, school leavers also work with education workers if they need to acquire skills to apply for jobs, for example CV writing, form filling, interview advice and so on. Some educational workers also encourage people to express their feelings in writing as a way to vent aggravation or to comprehend their difficult situation. Meetings between psychologists and the person, their family, and the victim in any combination or separately. These meetings base themselves on the idea that a persons behaviour. The meetings are informal and typically last an hour but can vary in length depending on the preference of the young person, while these meetings are primarily for conversation, the psychologist will sometimes employ drawing or other tests to explore problems. Occasionally the psychologist will include other members if relevant. Sessions with the YOT psychologist normally occur two to three weeks. Reports made by the psychologist on the person are included in that persons file
27.
CRC Press
–
The CRC Press, LLC is a publishing group based in the United States that specializes in producing technical books. Many of their books relate to engineering, science and mathematics and their scope also includes books on business, forensics and information technology. CRC Press is now a division of Taylor & Francis, itself a subsidiary of Informa, the company gradually expanded to include sales of laboratory equipment to chemists. In 1913 the CRC offered a manual called the Rubber Handbook as an incentive for any purchase of a dozen aprons. Since then the Rubber Handbook has evolved into the CRCs flagship book, in 1986 CRC Press was bought by the Times Mirror Company. Times Mirror began exploring the possibility of a sale of CRC Press in 1996, in 2003, CRC became part of Taylor & Francis, which in 2004 became part of the UK publisher Informa. Chapman & Hall CRC Press website
28.
Wayback Machine
–
The Internet Archive launched the Wayback Machine in October 2001. It was set up by Brewster Kahle and Bruce Gilliat, and is maintained with content from Alexa Internet, the service enables users to see archived versions of web pages across time, which the archive calls a three dimensional index. Since 1996, the Wayback Machine has been archiving cached pages of websites onto its large cluster of Linux nodes and it revisits sites every few weeks or months and archives a new version. Sites can also be captured on the fly by visitors who enter the sites URL into a search box, the intent is to capture and archive content that otherwise would be lost whenever a site is changed or closed down. The overall vision of the machines creators is to archive the entire Internet, the name Wayback Machine was chosen as a reference to the WABAC machine, a time-traveling device used by the characters Mr. Peabody and Sherman in The Rocky and Bullwinkle Show, an animated cartoon. These crawlers also respect the robots exclusion standard for websites whose owners opt for them not to appear in search results or be cached, to overcome inconsistencies in partially cached websites, Archive-It. Information had been kept on digital tape for five years, with Kahle occasionally allowing researchers, when the archive reached its fifth anniversary, it was unveiled and opened to the public in a ceremony at the University of California, Berkeley. Snapshots usually become more than six months after they are archived or, in some cases, even later. The frequency of snapshots is variable, so not all tracked website updates are recorded, Sometimes there are intervals of several weeks or years between snapshots. After August 2008 sites had to be listed on the Open Directory in order to be included. As of 2009, the Wayback Machine contained approximately three petabytes of data and was growing at a rate of 100 terabytes each month, the growth rate reported in 2003 was 12 terabytes/month, the data is stored on PetaBox rack systems manufactured by Capricorn Technologies. In 2009, the Internet Archive migrated its customized storage architecture to Sun Open Storage, in 2011 a new, improved version of the Wayback Machine, with an updated interface and fresher index of archived content, was made available for public testing. The index driving the classic Wayback Machine only has a bit of material past 2008. In January 2013, the company announced a ground-breaking milestone of 240 billion URLs, in October 2013, the company announced the Save a Page feature which allows any Internet user to archive the contents of a URL. This became a threat of abuse by the service for hosting malicious binaries, as of December 2014, the Wayback Machine contained almost nine petabytes of data and was growing at a rate of about 20 terabytes each week. Between October 2013 and March 2015 the websites global Alexa rank changed from 162 to 208, in a 2009 case, Netbula, LLC v. Chordiant Software Inc. defendant Chordiant filed a motion to compel Netbula to disable the robots. Netbula objected to the motion on the ground that defendants were asking to alter Netbulas website, in an October 2004 case, Telewizja Polska USA, Inc. v. Echostar Satellite, No.02 C3293,65 Fed. 673, a litigant attempted to use the Wayback Machine archives as a source of admissible evidence, Telewizja Polska is the provider of TVP Polonia and EchoStar operates the Dish Network
29.
International Standard Book Number
–
The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
