1.
Whitehorse, Yukon
–
Whitehorse is the capital, largest, and only city of Yukon and the largest city in northern Canada. It was incorporated in 1950 and is located at kilometre 1426 on the Alaska Highway in southern Yukon, Whitehorses downtown and Riverdale areas occupy both shores of the Yukon River, which originates in British Columbia and meets the Bering Sea in Alaska. The city was named after the White Horse Rapids for their resemblance to the mane of a horse, near Miles Canyon. Because of the location in the Whitehorse valley, the climate is milder than comparable northern communities such as Yellowknife. At this latitude winter days are short and summer days have up to about 19 hours of daylight, Whitehorse, as reported by Guinness World Records, is the city with the least air pollution in the world. Archeological research south of the area, at a location known as Canyon City, has revealed evidence of use by First Nations for several thousand years. The surrounding area had seasonal camps and Frederick Schwatka, in 1883. Before the Gold Rush, several different tribes passed through the area seasonally, the discovery of gold in the Klondike in August,1896, by Skookum Jim, Tagish Charlie and George Washington Carmack set off a major change in the historical patterns of the region. Early prospectors used the Chilkoot Pass, but by July 1897, by June 1898, there was a bottleneck of stampeders at Canyon City, many boats had been lost to the rapids as well as five people. Samuel Steele of the North-West Mounted Police said, why more casualties have not occurred is a mystery to me, on their way to find gold, stampeders also found copper in the copper belt in the hills west of Whitehorse. The first copper claims were staked by Jack McIntyre on July 6,1898, a small settlement was developing at Canyon City but the completion of the railway to Whitehorse in 1900 put a halt to it. The White Pass and Yukon Route narrow-gauge railway linking Skagway to Whitehorse had begun construction in May 1898, construction began again at the north end of Bennett lake to Whitehorse. It was only in June–July 1900 that construction finished the difficult Bennett lake section itself, by 1901, the Whitehorse Star was already reporting on daily freight volumes. That summer there were four trains per day, in 1920 the first planes landed in Whitehorse and the first air mail was sent in November 1927. The entire 2,500 km project was accomplished between March and November 1942, the Canadian portion of the highway was only returned to Canadian sovereignty after the war. The Canol pipeline was constructed to supply oil to the north with a refinery in Whitehorse. In 1950 the city was incorporated and by 1951, the population had doubled from its 1941 numbers, on April 1,1953, the city was designated the capital of the Yukon Territory when the seat was moved from Dawson City after the construction of the Klondike Highway. On March 21,1957, the name was changed from White Horse to Whitehorse
Whitehorse, Yukon
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Downtown Whitehorse and Yukon River, June 2008
Whitehorse, Yukon
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View of
Erik Nielsen Whitehorse International Airport and downtown (July 1990).
Whitehorse, Yukon
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Whitehorse, Yukon in Autumn of 2008.
Whitehorse, Yukon
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Whitehorse Cadet Summer Training Centre opened in July, 1984 at Boyle Barracks, a compound previously occupied by the Wolf Creek Juvenile Corrections Centre, located between the subdivisions of Wolf Creek and Mary Lake.
2.
United States
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Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
United States
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Native Americans meeting with Europeans, 1764
United States
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Flag
United States
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The signing of the
Mayflower Compact, 1620.
United States
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The
Declaration of Independence: the
Committee of Five presenting their draft to the
Second Continental Congress in 1776
3.
Alaska
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Alaska is a U. S. state located in the northwest extremity of North America. To the north are the Chukchi and Beaufort seas–the southern parts of the Arctic Ocean, the Pacific Ocean lies to the south and southwest. Alaska is the largest state in the United States by area, the 3rd least populous, approximately half of Alaskas residents live within the Anchorage metropolitan area. Alaskas economy is dominated by the fishing, natural gas, military bases and tourism are also a significant part of the economy. The United States purchased Alaska from the Russian Empire on March 30,1867, the area went through several administrative changes before becoming organized as a territory on May 11,1912. It was admitted as the 49th state of the U. S. on January 3,1959, the name Alaska was introduced in the Russian colonial period when it was used to refer to the peninsula. It was derived from an Aleut, or Unangam idiom, which refers to the mainland of Alaska. Literally, it means object to which the action of the sea is directed, Alaska is the northernmost and westernmost state in the United States and has the most easterly longitude in the United States because the Aleutian Islands extend into the Eastern Hemisphere. Alaska is the only non-contiguous U. S. state on continental North America and it is technically part of the continental U. S. but is sometimes not included in colloquial use, Alaska is not part of the contiguous U. S. often called the Lower 48. The capital city, Juneau, is situated on the mainland of the North American continent but is not connected by road to the rest of the North American highway system. Alaskas territorial waters touch Russias territorial waters in the Bering Strait, as the Russian Big Diomede Island, Alaska has a longer coastline than all the other U. S. states combined. Alaska is the largest state in the United States by total area at 663,268 square miles, over twice the size of Texas, Alaska is larger than all but 18 sovereign countries. Counting territorial waters, Alaska is larger than the area of the next three largest states, Texas, California, and Montana. It is also larger than the area of the 22 smallest U. S. states. Also referred to as the Panhandle or Inside Passage, this is the region of Alaska closest to the rest of the United States, as such, this was where most of the initial non-indigenous settlement occurred in the years following the Alaska Purchase. The region is dominated by the Alexander Archipelago as well as the Tongass National Forest and it contains the state capital Juneau, the former capital Sitka, and Ketchikan, at one time Alaskas largest city. The Alaska Marine Highway provides a vital transportation link throughout the area. The Interior is the largest region of Alaska, much of it is uninhabited wilderness, Fairbanks is the only large city in the region
Alaska
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Denali is the highest peak in North America.
Alaska
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Flag
Alaska
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Grizzly bear fishing for
salmon at
Brooks Falls, part of
Katmai National Park and Preserve.
Alaska
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Augustine Volcano erupting on January 12, 2006
4.
British Columbia
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British Columbia is the westernmost province of Canada, with a population of more than four million people located between the Pacific Ocean and the Rocky Mountains. British Columbia is also a component of the Pacific Northwest and the Cascadia bioregion, along with the U. S. states of Idaho, Oregon, Washington and Alaska. The first British settlement in the area was Fort Victoria, established in 1843, subsequently, on the mainland, the Colony of British Columbia was founded by Richard Clement Moody and the Royal Engineers, Columbia Detachment, in response to the Fraser Canyon Gold Rush. Port Moody is named after him, in 1866, Vancouver Island became part of the colony of British Columbia, and Victoria became the united colonys capital. In 1871, British Columbia became the province of Canada. Its Latin motto is Splendor sine occasu, the capital of British Columbia remains Victoria, the fifteenth-largest metropolitan region in Canada, named for the Queen who created the original European colonies. The largest city is Vancouver, the third-largest metropolitan area in Canada, the largest in Western Canada, in October 2013, British Columbia had an estimated population of 4,606,371. British Columbia evolved from British possessions that were established in what is now British Columbia by 1871, First Nations, the original inhabitants of the land, have a history of at least 10,000 years in the area. Today there are few treaties and the question of Aboriginal Title, notably, the Tsilhqotin Nation has established Aboriginal title to a portion of their territory, as a result of the recent Supreme Court of Canada decision. BCs economy is diverse, with service producing industries accounting for the largest portion of the provinces GDP and it is the endpoint of transcontinental railways, and the site of major Pacific ports that enable international trade. Though less than 5% of its vast 944,735 km2 land is arable and its climate encourages outdoor recreation and tourism, though its economic mainstay has long been resource extraction, principally logging, farming, and mining. Vancouver, the provinces largest city and metropolitan area, also serves as the headquarters of many western-based natural resource companies and it also benefits from a strong housing market and a per capita income well above the national average. The Northern Interior region has a climate with very cold winters. The climate of Vancouver is by far the mildest winter climate of the major Canadian cities, the provinces name was chosen by Queen Victoria, when the Colony of British Columbia, i. e. the Mainland, became a British colony in 1858. The current southern border of British Columbia was established by the 1846 Oregon Treaty, British Columbias land area is 944,735 square kilometres. British Columbias rugged coastline stretches for more than 27,000 kilometres and it is the only province in Canada that borders the Pacific Ocean. British Columbias capital is Victoria, located at the tip of Vancouver Island. Only a narrow strip of the Island, from Campbell River to Victoria, is significantly populated, much of the western part of Vancouver Island and the rest of the coast is covered by thick, tall and sometimes impenetrable temperate rainforest
British Columbia
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Strait of Georgia, near
Vancouver.
British Columbia
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Flag
British Columbia
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The Okanagan region has a climate suitable to vineyards.
British Columbia
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Mount Robson,
Canadian Rockies, BC
5.
Yukon
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Yukon is the smallest and westernmost of Canadas three federal territories. The territory has the smallest population of any province or territory in Canada, Whitehorse is the territorial capital and Yukons only city. The territory was split from the Northwest Territories in 1898 and was named the Yukon Territory, though officially bilingual, the Yukon Government also recognizes First Nations languages. At 5,959 m, Yukons Mount Logan, in Kluane National Park and Reserve, is the highest mountain in Canada, most of Yukon has a subarctic climate, characterized by long cold winters and brief warm summers. The Arctic Ocean coast has a tundra climate, notable rivers include the Yukon River, after which the territory was named, as well as the Pelly, Stewart, Peel, White and Tatshenshini rivers. Long before the arrival of Europeans, central and southern Yukon was populated by First Nations people, sites of archeological significance in Yukon hold some of the earliest evidence of the presence of human occupation in North America. The sites safeguard the history of the first people and the earliest First Nations of the Yukon, the volcanic eruption of Mount Churchill in approximately 800 AD in what is now the U. S. Coastal and inland First Nations had extensive trading networks, European incursions into the area only began early in the 19th century with the fur trade, followed by missionaries. By the 1870s and 1880s gold miners began to arrive and this drove a population increase that justified the establishment of a police force, just in time for the start of the Klondike Gold Rush in 1897. The increased population coming with the gold led to the separation of the Yukon district from the Northwest Territories. Its northern coast is on the Beaufort Sea and its ragged eastern boundary mostly follows the divide between the Yukon Basin and the Mackenzie River drainage basin to the east in the Mackenzie mountains. Most of the territory is in the watershed of its namesake, the southern Yukon is dotted with a large number of large, long and narrow glacier-fed alpine lakes, most of which flow into the Yukon River system. The larger lakes include Teslin Lake, Atlin Lake, Tagish Lake, Marsh Lake, Lake Laberge, Kusawa Lake, bennett Lake on the Klondike Gold Rush trail is a lake flowing into Nares Lake, with the greater part of its area within Yukon. Canadas highest point, Mount Logan, is in the territorys southwest, Mount Logan and a large part of the Yukons southwest are in Kluane National Park and Reserve, a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Other national parks include Ivvavik National Park and Vuntut National Park in the north, other watersheds include the Mackenzie River, the Peel Watershed and the Alsek–Tatshenshini, and a number of rivers flowing directly into the Beaufort Sea. The two main Yukon rivers flowing into the Mackenzie in the Northwest Territories are the Liard River in the southeast, notable widespread tree species within Yukon are the black spruce and white spruce. Many trees are stunted because of the growing season and severe climate. The capital, Whitehorse, is also the largest city, with about three-quarters of the population, the second largest is Dawson City, which was the capital until 1952
Yukon
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Downtown
Whitehorse along the
Yukon River
Yukon
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Flag
Yukon
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Mount Logan from the southeast
Yukon
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Yukon welcome sign
6.
White River (Yukon)
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The White River is a tributary, about 200 miles long, of the Yukon River in the U. S. state of Alaska and the Canadian territory of Yukon. The Alaska Highway crosses the White River near Beaver Creek, the White River is glacier-fed and contains large amounts of suspended sediment. It transports 19 million tons of sediment per year in the part of its basin. This dramatically changes the clarity of the Yukon River, which remains sediment laden from the confluence to its mouth, List of rivers of Alaska List of rivers of Yukon
White River (Yukon)
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Location of the mouth of the White River in Yukon
7.
Tanana River
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The Tanana River /ˈtænənɑː/ is a 584-mile tributary of the Yukon River in the U. S. state of Alaska. According to linguist and anthropologist William Bright, the name is from the Koyukon tene no, tenene, the rivers headwaters are located at the confluence of the Chisana and Nabesna rivers just north of Northway in eastern Alaska. The Tanana flows in a northwest direction from near the border with the Yukon Territory, in central Alaska, it emerges into a lowland marsh region known as the Tanana Valley and passes south of the city of Fairbanks. In the marsh regions it is joined by several tributaries, including the Nenana. It passes the village of Manley Hot Springs and empties into the Yukon near the town of Tanana, Ice on the river accumulates each winter to an average maximum thickness of 43 inches at Nenana. The Nenana Ice Classic, begun in 1917, is a guessing game about the date of the ice break-up. In October or November, after the freeze has begun, a tripod is planted in ice in the middle of the river, the tripod is connected to an on-shore clock that stops when the tripod begins to move during the spring thaw. Over the years, the date has varied from April 20 to May 20. Betting on the time of the break-up takes the form of a lottery. Human habitation of the Yukon basin, including the Tanana watershed, several sites in the watershed have produced evidence of occupation by Paleo-Arctic people. Later residents include people of the Tanana tribe, which has had a presence in the region for 1,200 years, in the summer of 1885, Lieutenant Henry Tureman Allen of the U. S. Army undertook the first recorded exploration of the Tanana River. In 1883, Lieutenant Frederick Schwatka and his party had entered the Yukon watershed by way of Canada, allens goal was to find an all-Alaska route to the Yukon River. He and his men ascended the Copper River, crossed into Tanana River drainage, during the five-month trip, the Allen party mapped the courses of the Copper, Tanana, and Koyukuk rivers. In the early 21st century, the basin is largely unchanged by human activity. Fairbanks, an area with about 80,000 residents in 2005, is a center of placer gold mining. Limited farming also occurs in the valley near Fairbanks, since the early 1900s, Alaskans have been gambling on when the river would melt. Each year, thousands pay $2.50 to guess the date and minute the Tanana River ice will go out in Nenana. The Nenana Ice Classic is a fundraiser for charities and has awarded some large prizes
Tanana River
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Tanana River near
Fairbanks, Alaska
Tanana River
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The
Trans-Alaska Pipeline crosses beneath several rivers, but has a pipeline bridge where it crosses the Tanana just north of Delta Junction.
Tanana River
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Tanana River in winter, 10 miles (16 km) west of Fairbanks
8.
Takhini River
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The Takhini River is a watercourse in Yukon, Canada. The river is located just north of Whitehorse, Yukon, and flows from west to east, during the winter, the river freezes and serves as part of the route of the Yukon Quest sled dog race. The Alaska Highway parallels the Takhini River, and the Klondike Highway crosses it near its junction with the Yukon, the river is a popular tourist destination and particularly popular with kayakers and canoeists
Takhini River
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Takhini River
9.
Teslin River
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The English name of the Teslin River is derived from native names. Spoken north of the lake it was called Délin Chú and the Chilkat Tlingit called it Deisleen Héeni, in the Tlingit language the local kwaan or tribe of Inland Tlingit call themselves Deisleen Kwáan, meaning Big Sinew Tribe. Prospectors and explorers passing through the region recorded that the natives called the river Teslin-tuh or Teslin-too. The portion of the upstream of the lake was officially designated the Whiteswan River from 1904 to 1951. The other major streams of the system, via Teslin Lake, are the Jennings River, from the southeast. Black Spruce is a significant tree within the Teslin River watershed, map of Tlingit Kwaans and Territories Parks Canada. Wild Rivers, Yukon Territory, Published by Wild Rivers Survey, Planning Division, Parks Canada,84 pages
Teslin River
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Teslin River at Johnson's crossing
10.
Pelly River
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The Pelly River is a river in Canada, and is a headstream of the Yukon River. The river originates west of the Mackenzie Mountains and flows 530 km long through the south central Yukon, the Pelly has two main tributaries, the Ross and Macmillan rivers. The river was named by Robert Campbell in honour of Sir John Henry Pelly, the restored Hudsons Bay Company trading post of Fort Selkirk is at the juncture of the Pelly and Yukon Rivers. The Pelly rises in glaciers on the slopes of the Selwyn Mountains above 1,400 metres in elevation. It flows south and west through a valley, receiving many small tributaries from the east. It passes the Pelly Lakes, out of which flows the Woodside River, the Pelly then assumes a northwesterly course through the Tintina Trench. It flows northwest to receive the Ross River at the town of Ross River and it then merges with the Lapie River from the left and passes the community of Faro, after which it runs south of Rose Mountain and receives the Glenlyon River from the left. At the Glenlyon River confluence, the narrows and the walls grow higher and steeper. Several kilometers after, it turns north and receives the Earn River, the river soon exits out of the canyon and winds across a plain, where it receives the Tummel River from the left. The river continues west for about 25 kilometres to merge with the Yukon River near old Fort Selkirk, one of two major headwaters of the Yukon River, the Pelly Rivers drainage basin, measured above the town of Pelly Crossing, is 49,000 square kilometres in size. It drains a part of the sparsely-populated Yukon Plateau of the central Yukon Territory west of the Mackenzie Mountains. The Tintina Trench, which the majority of the waters flow in, is the northernmost extension of the Rocky Mountain Trench. The river is navigable by small and medium-sized craft for over 320 kilometres, from its mouth to Hoole Rapids, the Yukon communities of Ross River, Faro and Pelly Crossing are all on the Pelly River. There are bridges across the Pelly in Pelly Crossing and in Faro, the rivers average discharge is about 700 cubic metres per second and it drains about 49,000 square kilometres of land. Volcanoes near the Pelly River, such as Volcano Mountain, may have once partly blocked or at least altered the Pelly River, any future activity in this area could disrupt the course of the river and could have a serious impact on people living or working downstream. List of longest rivers of Canada List of rivers of Yukon
Pelly River
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Pelly River at Pelly Crossing
Pelly River
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Map of the Pelly River
11.
Klondike River
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The Klondike River is a tributary of the Yukon River in Canada that gave its name to the Klondike Gold Rush. The Klondike River has its source in the Ogilvie Mountains and flows into the Yukon River at Dawson City and its name comes from the Hän word Trondëk meaning hammerstone, a tool which was used to hammer down stakes used to set salmon nets. Gold was discovered in tributaries of the Klondike River in 1896 which started the Klondike gold rush, in Jack Londons story A Relic of the Pliocene, this river was mentioned as Reindeer River
Klondike River
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Klondike River crossing Dempster Highway (upstream)
Klondike River
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Klondike River (left) flowing into the
Yukon River (top and right) at Dawson City
Klondike River
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Mouth of the Klondike River to the Yukon River at Dawson City
12.
Birch Creek (Alaska)
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Birch Creek is a 150-mile tributary of the Yukon River in the U. S. state of Alaska. Beginning at the confluence of Ptarmigan and Eagle creeks near Porcupine Dome, it flows southwest, then south under the Steese Highway and it then turns east, then north, again passing under the Steese Highway and entering the Yukon Flats National Wildlife Refuge. Turning northwest, it ends where it splits into two distributaries, Lower Mouth Birch Creek and Upper Mouth Birch Creek, near Birch Creek, the distributaries flow into the Yukon River at separate locations downstream of Fort Yukon. The first human inhabitants of the region were probably Gwichin people who hunted and fished along the creek, gold was found along the creek in 1893. Circle City sprang up as the Alaska Interiors first gold town, old mining and trapping cabins are part of the Birch Creek landscape, and mining continues in the 21st century. Upper Mouth Birch Creek flows 35 miles northwest from Birch Creek to enter the Yukon River 25 miles southwest of Fort Yukon, the coordinates of the mouth of the Upper Mouth are 66°31′15″N 146°09′09″W. Lower Mouth Birch Creek flows 50 miles southwest from Birch Creek to enter Lower Birch Creek Slough 39 miles southwest of Fort Yukon, an anabranch of the Yukon River, the slough flows southwest roughly parallel to the main stem for 15 miles. The coordinates for the mouth of Lower Mouth Birch Creek are 66°26′46″N 146°38′18″W, the Bureau of Land Management oversees 126 miles of Birch Creek declared wild in 1980 as part of the National Wild and Scenic Rivers System. People floating the stream in canoes, kayaks, or rafts can put in at a BLM wayside, both are along the Steese Highway. Between these two points, the creek is rated mostly Class I on the International Scale of River Difficulty, sports fishing for northern pike and Arctic grayling along Birch Creek can be outstanding, according Alaska Fishing. The larger pike frequent the lower reaches of the creek as well as sloughs, ponds, the stream corridor has no developed camping sites. Gravel bars in the creek are used for camping. In February, the creek serves as a part of the trail for the Yukon Quest 1, other winter activities along the stream include dog mushing, trapping, and cross-country skiing. List of rivers of Alaska Orth, Donald J. United States Geological Survey, dictionary of Alaska Place Names, Geological Survey Professional Paper 567
Birch Creek (Alaska)
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Rain along Birch Creek
13.
Koyukuk River
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The Koyukuk River is a 425-mile tributary of the Yukon River, in the U. S. state of Alaska. It is the last major tributary entering the Yukon before the river empties into the Bering Sea. Rising at the confluence of the North Fork Koyukuk River with the Middle Fork Koyukuk River, the main stem of the river is lined by the communities of Evansville, Bettles, Alatna, Allakaket, Hughes, and Huslia before reaching Koyukuk. Its headwaters tributaries include the Koyukuks south, middle, and north forks, the Alatna River, major tributaries further downstream include the Kanuti, Batzu, Hogatza, Huslia, Dulbi, Kateel, and Gisasa rivers. Of these, the Alatna, John, and North Fork are National Wild and Scenic Rivers, as is the Tinayguk River, Koyukuk was derived from the Central Yup’ik phrase kuik-yuk, meaning a river. The Koyukuk River was given this generic C, Yup’ik name by Russian explorer Petr Vasilii Malakhov, because he did not know the local Koyukon name for it. The Western Union Telegraph Expedition used the spelling of Coyukuk before the United States Board on Geographic Names settled on Koyukuk, the Russian Petr Vasilii Malakhov reached the river at its confluence with the Yukon in 1838. In 1929, Robert Bob Marshall explored the North Fork of the Koyukuk River while studying plant life in the region for his PhD and he gave the name Gates of the Arctic to the high Brooks Range along the river. In 1994 the river flooded, sweeping away three villages, forcing the relocation of the population. Vegetation along the Koyukuk River, sparse along the upper reaches, consists of plants such as dwarf willows and other shrubs, sedges. Trees found in more well-drained areas along the river include mountain alder, trembling aspen, white, fish species frequenting the lower Koyukuk include Arctic lamprey and sockeye salmon. The sockeye and other species, including Chinook and chum. Caribou migrate across the part of the Koyukuk watershed. Other major vertebrates in the region include bald eagles, brown and black bears, mink, beaver, marten, beluga whales sometimes visit the lower Koyukuk. Moose herds, which thrive in parts of the watershed, especially in riparian zones downstream of Hughes, attract local and non-local hunters, bears, a consortium of moose hunters and state wildlife officials work to keep the moose population at sustainable levels. Through 2005, no one had published a study of invertebrates of the Koyukuk or its larger tributaries. List of rivers of Alaska List of National Wild and Scenic Rivers Reuben DAigle Benke, Arthur C. ed. and Cushing, Colbert E. ed. Bailey, chapter 17, Yukon River Basin in Rivers of North America. NPS, Koyukuk Wild and Scenic River Koyukuk National Wildlife Refuge Koyukuk River Floods in Alaska History in Gates of the Arctic National Park and Preserve
Koyukuk River
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Flowing through the
Kanuti National Wildlife Refuge
Koyukuk River
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Lower course of the Koyukuk in winter
Koyukuk River
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Zane Hills and Koyukuk River
14.
Juneau Icefield
–
The icefield is the source of many glaciers including the Mendenhall Glacier and the Taku Glacier. The icefield is home to over 40 large valley glaciers and 100 smaller ones, the Icefield serves as a tourist attraction with many travellers flown in by helicopter for quick walks on the 240-to-1, 400-metre deep ice and the massive, awe-inspiring crevasses. The icefield, like many of its glaciers, reached its maximum glaciation point around 1700 and has been in retreat since, in fact, of the icefields 19 notable glaciers, the Taku Glacier is the only one presently advancing. Much of the icefield is contained within the Tongass National Forest, since 1948, the Juneau Icefield Research Program has monitored glaciers of the Juneau Icefield. On the west side of the icefield, from 1946-2009, the terminus of the Mendenhall Glacier has retreated over 700 metres. Eight kilometers to the north, the Herbert Glacier has retreated 540 m, while Eagle Glacier retreated 700 m, Gilkey Glacier 3,500 m and Llewellyn Glacier 2,800 m. On the south side of the icefield, the Norris Glacier retreated 1,740 m, the East Twin Glacier 1,100 m, surveys reveal the Taku as one of the deepest glaciers of the sub-temperate icefields surveyed at nearly 1,370 metres thick. This glacier was advancing in 1890 when viewed by John Muir and had a calving front. By 1963 the glacier had advanced 5.6 km, in 1948 the Taku Fjord had been completely filled in with glacial sediment and the glacier no longer calved. From 1948–1986 the glacier had a positive mass balance driving the advance. From 1987–2009 the glacier has had a negative mass balance, not enough to end the advance
Juneau Icefield
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View of the Juneau Icefield
15.
Atlin Lake
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Atlin Lake is a lake in northwestern British Columbia and is that provinces largest natural lake, covering 300 sq mi. The northern tip of the lake is in Yukon, as is Little Atlin Lake, however, most of the lake lies within the Atlin District of British Columbia. Atlin Lake is considered the source of the Yukon River although it is drained via the short Atlin River into Tagish Lake, the name comes from Áa Tlein, the Tlingit name meaning simply big lake. The community of Atlin, British Columbia, is located on the shore of the lake. The southern part of the lake is in the Atlin Provincial Park and Recreation Area
Atlin Lake
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A portion of Atlin Lake (on the right half of the image) during the winter, as seen from space. The lake seen on the left half of the image is
Tagish Lake
Atlin Lake
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View of Atlin Lake.
16.
Bering Sea
–
The Bering Sea is a marginal sea of the Pacific Ocean. It comprises a deep basin, which then rises through a narrow slope into the shallower water above the continental shelves. The Bering Sea is separated from the Gulf of Alaska by the Alaska Peninsula, Bristol Bay is the portion of the Bering Sea which separates the Alaska Peninsula from mainland Alaska. The Bering Sea ecosystem includes resources within the jurisdiction of the United States and Russia, the interaction between currents, sea ice, and weather makes for a vigorous and productive ecosystem. Most scientists believe that during the most recent ice age, sea level was low enough to humans to migrate east on foot from Asia to North America across what is now the Bering Strait. Other animals including megafauna migrated in both directions and this is commonly referred to as the Bering land bridge and is believed by most, though not all scientists, to be the first point of entry of humans into the Americas. There is a portion of the Kula Plate in the Bering Sea. The Kula Plate is an ancient tectonic plate that used to subduct under Alaska, the International Hydrographic Organization defines the limits of the Bering Sea as follows, On the North. The Southern limit of the Chuckchi Sea, Islands of the Bering Sea include, Pribilof Islands, including St. Paul Island Komandorski Islands, including Bering Island St. Lawrence Island Diomede Islands King Island St. The Bering Sea shelf break is the dominant driver of productivity in the Bering Sea. This zone, where the continental shelf drops off into the North Aleutians Basin is also known as the “Greenbelt”. Nutrient upwelling from the waters of the Aleutian basin flowing up the slope. The second driver of productivity in the Bering Sea is seasonal sea ice that, in part, seasonal melting of sea ice causes an influx of lower salinity water into the middle and other shelf areas, causing stratification and hydrographic effects which influence productivity. In addition to the hydrographic and productivity influence of melting sea ice, some evidence suggests that great changes to the Bering Sea ecosystem have already occurred. Warm water conditions in the summer of 1997 resulted in a bloom of low energy coccolithophorid phytoplankton. A long record of carbon isotopes, which is reflective of primary trends of the Bering Sea. Trends in carbon isotope ratios in whale baleen samples suggest that a 30–40% decline in average seasonal primary productivity has occurred over the last 50 years, the implication is that the carrying capacity of the Bering Sea is much lower now than it has been in the past. Other marine mammals include walrus, Steller sea lion, northern fur seal, orca, the Bering Sea is very important to the seabirds of the world
Bering Sea
–
Satellite photo of the Bering Sea –
Alaska is on the top right,
Siberia on the top left
Bering Sea
–
Map showing the location of the Bering Sea with latitude and longitude zones of the
Universal Transverse Mercator coordinate system
Bering Sea
–
The Russian "Rurik" sets anchor near
Saint Paul Island in the Bering sea in order to load food and equipment for the expedition to the Chukchi sea in the north. Drawing by
Louis Choris in 1817.
Bering Sea
–
Walrus (Odobenus rosmarus divergens), hauled out on Bering Sea ice, Alaska, June 1978. (Source: NOAA)
17.
Kusilvak Census Area, Alaska
–
Kusilvak Census Area, formerly known as Wade Hampton Census Area, is a census area located in the U. S. state of Alaska. As of the 2010 census, the population was 7,459 and it is part of the unorganized borough and therefore has no borough seat. Its largest community is the city of Hooper Bay, on the Bering Sea coast, the census areas per-capita income makes it the fourth poorest county-equivalent in the United States. In 2014, it had the highest percentage of unemployed people of any county or census area in the United States, the district eventually became the census area, retaining its name. S. Census Bureau that the area was being renamed after the Kusilvak Mountains. According to the U. S. Census Bureau, the area has a total area of 19,673 square miles. The population density was 0.35 people per square mile, there were 2,063 housing units at an average density of /sq mi. 0. 33% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race,50. 00% of the population reported speaking English at home, while 49. 75% spoke Yupik Eskimo. In the 2006 American community survey, the Kusilvak Census Area had the largest increase in Hispanic population since 2000 with a 1572. 73% increase. 16. 00% of all households were made up of individuals and 1. 80% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older, the average household size was 4.38 and the average family size was 4.95. In the census area the population was out with 46. 60% under the age of 18,9. 70% from 18 to 24,25. 60% from 25 to 44,13. 10% from 45 to 64. The median age was 20 years, making the Wade Hampton Census Area the youngest county in the United States, for every 100 females there were 109.00 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 107.70 males, the census areas per-capita income makes it one of the poorest places in the United States. Pitkas Point Bill Moores Slough Chuloonawick Hamilton Ohogamiut Kusilvak Census Area, Alaska topics List of mountain peaks of Alaska Census Area map, Alaska Department of Labor
Kusilvak Census Area, Alaska
–
Contents
18.
Geographic coordinate system
–
A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
Geographic coordinate system
–
Longitude lines are perpendicular and latitude lines are parallel to the equator.
19.
North America
–
North America is a continent entirely within the Northern Hemisphere and almost all within the Western Hemisphere. It can also be considered a subcontinent of the Americas. It is bordered to the north by the Arctic Ocean, to the east by the Atlantic Ocean, to the west and south by the Pacific Ocean, and to the southeast by South America and the Caribbean Sea. North America covers an area of about 24,709,000 square kilometers, about 16. 5% of the land area. North America is the third largest continent by area, following Asia and Africa, and the fourth by population after Asia, Africa, and Europe. In 2013, its population was estimated at nearly 565 million people in 23 independent states, or about 7. 5% of the worlds population, North America was reached by its first human populations during the last glacial period, via crossing the Bering land bridge. The so-called Paleo-Indian period is taken to have lasted until about 10,000 years ago, the Classic stage spans roughly the 6th to 13th centuries. The Pre-Columbian era ended with the migrations and the arrival of European settlers during the Age of Discovery. Present-day cultural and ethnic patterns reflect different kind of interactions between European colonists, indigenous peoples, African slaves and their descendants, European influences are strongest in the northern parts of the continent while indigenous and African influences are relatively stronger in the south. Because of the history of colonialism, most North Americans speak English, Spanish or French, the Americas are usually accepted as having been named after the Italian explorer Amerigo Vespucci by the German cartographers Martin Waldseemüller and Matthias Ringmann. Vespucci, who explored South America between 1497 and 1502, was the first European to suggest that the Americas were not the East Indies, but a different landmass previously unknown by Europeans. In 1507, Waldseemüller produced a map, in which he placed the word America on the continent of South America. He explained the rationale for the name in the accompanying book Cosmographiae Introductio, for Waldseemüller, no one should object to the naming of the land after its discoverer. He used the Latinized version of Vespuccis name, but in its feminine form America, following the examples of Europa, Asia and Africa. Later, other mapmakers extended the name America to the continent, In 1538. Some argue that the convention is to use the surname for naming discoveries except in the case of royalty, a minutely explored belief that has been advanced is that America was named for a Spanish sailor bearing the ancient Visigothic name of Amairick. Another is that the name is rooted in a Native American language, the term North America maintains various definitions in accordance with location and context. In Canadian English, North America may be used to refer to the United States, alternatively, usage sometimes includes Greenland and Mexico, as well as offshore islands
North America
–
Map of North America, from 1621.
North America
–
North America
North America
–
The
El Castillo pyramid, at
Chichén Itzá, Mexico.
North America
–
Benjamin West 's
The Death of General Wolfe (1771) depicting the
Battle of the Plains of Abraham.
20.
U.S. state
–
A U. S. state is a constituent political entity of the United States of America. There are 50 states, which are together in a union with each other. Each state holds administrative jurisdiction over a geographic territory. Due to the shared sovereignty between each state and the government, Americans are citizens of both the federal republic and of the state in which they reside. State citizenship and residency are flexible, and no government approval is required to move between states, except for persons covered by certain types of court orders. States range in population from just under 600,000 to over 39 million, four states use the term commonwealth rather than state in their full official names. States are divided into counties or county-equivalents, which may be assigned some local authority but are not sovereign. County or county-equivalent structure varies widely by state, State governments are allocated power by the people through their individual constitutions. All are grounded in principles, and each provides for a government. States possess a number of powers and rights under the United States Constitution, Constitution has been amended, and the interpretation and application of its provisions have changed. The general tendency has been toward centralization and incorporation, with the government playing a much larger role than it once did. There is a debate over states rights, which concerns the extent and nature of the states powers and sovereignty in relation to the federal government. States and their residents are represented in the federal Congress, a legislature consisting of the Senate. Each state is represented in the Senate by two senators, and is guaranteed at least one Representative in the House, members of the House are elected from single-member districts. Representatives are distributed among the states in proportion to the most recent constitutionally mandated decennial census, the Constitution grants to Congress the authority to admit new states into the Union. Since the establishment of the United States in 1776, the number of states has expanded from the original 13 to 50, alaska and Hawaii are the most recent states admitted, both in 1959. The Constitution is silent on the question of states have the power to secede from the Union. Shortly after the Civil War, the U. S. Supreme Court, in Texas v. White, as a result, while the governments of the various states share many similar features, they often vary greatly with regard to form and substance
U.S. state
–
U.S. states
21.
Yukon-Kuskokwim Delta
–
The Yukon–Kuskokwim Delta is a river delta located where the Yukon and Kuskokwim rivers empty into the Bering Sea on the west coast of the U. S. state of Alaska. At approximately 129,500 square kilometers in size, it is one of the largest deltas in the world and it is larger than the Mississippi Delta, and comparable in size to the entire U. S. state of Louisiana. The delta, which consists mostly of tundra, is protected as part of the Yukon Delta National Wildlife Refuge, the delta has approximately 25,000 residents. 85% of these are Alaska Natives, Yupik Eskimos and Athabaskan Indians, the main population center and service hub is the city of Bethel, with an estimated population of around 6,219. Bethel is surrounded by 49 smaller villages, with the largest villages consisting of over 1,000 people, most residents live a traditional subsistence lifestyle of hunting, fishing, and gathering. More than 30 percent have cash incomes well below the poverty threshold. The area has no roads, travel is by Bush plane, or by river boats in summer. Bethel is the location of the Yukon Kuskokwim Correctional Center, Yukon Delta National Wildlife Refuge In rural Alaska villages, families struggle to survive – CNN
Yukon-Kuskokwim Delta
–
False-color
ASTER image of the Yukon Delta.
Yukon-Kuskokwim Delta
–
Kuskokwim Delta Wetlands - Aerial View.
Yukon-Kuskokwim Delta
–
MODIS image of the delta.
Yukon-Kuskokwim Delta
–
Natural-colour satellite image of the Delta.
22.
Texas
–
Texas is the second largest state in the United States by both area and population. Other major cities include Austin, the second most populous state capital in the U. S. Texas is nicknamed the Lone Star State to signify its former status as an independent republic, and as a reminder of the states struggle for independence from Mexico. The Lone Star can be found on the Texan state flag, the origin of Texass name is from the word Tejas, which means friends in the Caddo language. Due to its size and geologic features such as the Balcones Fault, although Texas is popularly associated with the U. S. southwestern deserts, less than 10 percent of Texas land area is desert. Most of the centers are located in areas of former prairies, grasslands, forests. Traveling from east to west, one can observe terrain that ranges from coastal swamps and piney woods, to rolling plains and rugged hills, the term six flags over Texas refers to several nations that have ruled over the territory. Spain was the first European country to claim the area of Texas, Mexico controlled the territory until 1836 when Texas won its independence, becoming an independent Republic. In 1845, Texas joined the United States as the 28th state, the states annexation set off a chain of events that caused the Mexican–American War in 1846. A slave state before the American Civil War, Texas declared its secession from the U. S. in early 1861, after the Civil War and the restoration of its representation in the federal government, Texas entered a long period of economic stagnation. One Texan industry that thrived after the Civil War was cattle, due to its long history as a center of the industry, Texas is associated with the image of the cowboy. The states economic fortunes changed in the early 20th century, when oil discoveries initiated a boom in the state. With strong investments in universities, Texas developed a diversified economy, as of 2010 it shares the top of the list of the most Fortune 500 companies with California at 57. With a growing base of industry, the leads in many industries, including agriculture, petrochemicals, energy, computers and electronics, aerospace. Texas has led the nation in export revenue since 2002 and has the second-highest gross state product. The name Texas, based on the Caddo word tejas meaning friends or allies, was applied by the Spanish to the Caddo themselves, during Spanish colonial rule, the area was officially known as the Nuevo Reino de Filipinas, La Provincia de Texas. Texas is the second largest U. S. state, behind Alaska, though 10 percent larger than France and almost twice as large as Germany or Japan, it ranks only 27th worldwide amongst country subdivisions by size. If it were an independent country, Texas would be the 40th largest behind Chile, Texas is in the south central part of the United States of America. Three of its borders are defined by rivers, the Rio Grande forms a natural border with the Mexican states of Chihuahua, Coahuila, Nuevo León, and Tamaulipas to the south
Texas
–
Sam Rayburn Reservoir
Texas
–
Flag
Texas
–
Texas Hill Country
Texas
–
Big Bend National Park.
23.
Alberta
–
Alberta is a western province of Canada. With an estimated population of 4,196,457 as of July 1,2015, it is Canadas fourth-most populous province and its area is about 660,000 square kilometres. Alberta and its neighbour Saskatchewan were districts of the Northwest Territories until they were established as provinces on September 1,1905, the premier has been Rachel Notley since May 2015. Alberta is bounded by the provinces of British Columbia to the west and Saskatchewan to the east, the Northwest Territories to the north, and the U. S. state of Montana to the south. Alberta is one of three Canadian provinces and territories to only a single U. S. state and one of only two landlocked provinces. About 290 km south of the capital is Calgary, the largest city in Alberta, Calgary and Edmonton centre Albertas two census metropolitan areas, both of which have populations exceeding one million, while the province has 16 census agglomerations. Tourist destinations in the province include Banff, Canmore, Drumheller, Jasper, Alberta is named after Princess Louise Caroline Alberta, the fourth daughter of Victoria, Queen of Canada, and Albert, Prince Consort. Princess Louise was the wife of John Campbell, Marquess of Lorne, Lake Louise and Mount Alberta were also named in her honour. Alberta, with an area of 661,848 km2, is the fourth largest province after Quebec, Ontario and British Columbia. To the south, the borders on the 49th parallel north, separating it from the US state of Montana. The province extends 1,223 km north to south and 660 km east to west at its maximum width, with the exception of the semi-arid steppe of the south-eastern section, the province has adequate water resources. There are numerous rivers and lakes used for swimming, fishing, there are three large lakes, Lake Claire in Wood Buffalo National Park, Lesser Slave Lake, and Lake Athabasca which lies in both Alberta and Saskatchewan. The longest river in the province is the Athabasca River which travels 1,538 km from the Columbia Icefield in the Rocky Mountains to Lake Athabasca, the largest river is the Peace River with an average flow of 2161 m3/s. The Peace River originates in the Rocky Mountains of northern British Columbia and flows through northern Alberta and into the Slave River, Albertas capital city, Edmonton, is located approximately in the geographic centre of the province. It is the most northerly city in Canada, and serves as a gateway. The region, with its proximity to Canadas largest oil fields, has most of western Canadas oil refinery capacity, Calgary is located approximately 280 km south of Edmonton and 240 km north of Montana, surrounded by extensive ranching country. Almost 75% of the population lives in the Calgary–Edmonton Corridor. The land grant policy to the served as a means to populate the province in its early years
Alberta
–
Welcome to Alberta sign traveling from east to west
Alberta
–
Flag
Alberta
–
Topographic map of Alberta
Alberta
–
Moraine Lake in
Banff National Park
24.
Klondike Gold Rush
–
The Klondike Gold Rush was a migration by an estimated 100,000 prospectors to the Klondike region of the Yukon in north-western Canada between 1896 and 1899. Gold was discovered there by miners on August 16,1896 and. Some became wealthy, but the majority went in vain and it has been immortalized in photographs, books, films, and artifacts. To reach the fields most took the route through the ports of Dyea. Here, the Klondikers could follow either the Chilkoot or the White Pass trails to the Yukon River, each of them was required to bring a years supply of food by the Canadian authorities in order to prevent starvation. In all, their equipment weighed close to a ton, which for most had to be carried in stages by themselves, together with mountainous terrain and cold climate this meant that those who persisted did not arrive until summer 1898. Once there, they found few opportunities and many left disappointed, mining was challenging as the ore was distributed in an uneven manner and digging was made slow by permafrost. As a result, some chose to buy and sell claims, building up huge investments. To accommodate the prospectors, boom towns sprang up along the routes and at their end Dawson City was founded at the confluence of the Klondike, from a population of 500 in 1896, the town grew to house around 30,000 people by summer 1898. Built of wood, isolated and unsanitary, Dawson suffered from fires, high prices, despite this, the wealthiest prospectors spent extravagantly gambling and drinking in the saloons. The Native Hän people, on the hand, suffered from the rush, being moved into a reserve to make way for the stampeders. From 1898, the newspapers that had encouraged so many to travel to the Klondike lost interest in it. In the summer of 1899, gold was discovered around Nome in west Alaska, the boom towns declined and the population of Dawson City fell. Gold mining activity lasted until 1903 when production peaked after heavier equipment was brought in, since then the Klondike has been mined on and off, and today the legacy draws tourists to the region and contributes to its prosperity. The indigenous peoples in north-west America had traded in copper prior to European expansion. Most of the tribes were aware that gold existed in region, in the second half of the 19th century, American prospectors began to spread into the area. Making deals with the Native Tlingit and Tagish tribes, the early prospectors opened the important routes of Chilkoot and White Pass, here, they encountered the Hän people, semi-nomadic hunters and fishermen who lived along the Yukon and Klondike Rivers. The Hän did not appear to know about the extent of the deposits in the region
Klondike Gold Rush
–
Prospectors ascending the
Chilkoot Pass, 1898
Klondike Gold Rush
–
Klondikers buying miner's licenses at the Custom House in Victoria, BC, on February 12, 1898
Klondike Gold Rush
–
The S/S Excelsior leaves San Francisco on July 28, 1897, for the Klondike.
Klondike Gold Rush
–
SS Islander leaving Vancouver, bound for Skagway, 1897
25.
Lake Laberge
–
Lake Laberge is a widening of the Yukon River north of Whitehorse, Yukon in Canada. It is fifty kilometres long and ranges from two to five kilometres wide and its water is always very cold, and its weather often harsh and suddenly variable. The local Southern Tutchone called it Tàaan Män, Tagish knew it as Kluk-tas-si, and its English name comes from 1870 commemorating Michel LaBerge - born in Chateauguay, Quebec, the first French-Canadian to explore the Yukon in 1866. It was well-known to prospectors during the Klondike Gold Rush of the 1890s, jack Londons Grit of Women and The Call of the Wild, and Robert W. Services poem The Cremation of Sam McGee mention the lake. At least two methods were employed to break the ice up, Method 1, smear an abundant quantity of expended crankcase oil along the lakes icy length, causing it to melt by increasing the suns warming effect. Both warnings are owed to toxaphene contamination, resulting from pesticide use. In Spring 2009, researchers found the A. J. Goddard, underwater archaeologists are examining the ship. National Geographic has named it the top archeological find of 2009, the Yukon government has designated the shipwreck a historic site. A phonograph with three records was discovered, giving insight into songs being listened to during the Gold Rush, Lake Laberge at Natural Resources Canada latimes. com
Lake Laberge
–
Lake Laberge in August 2010; picture taken from campground
26.
Klondike Gold Rush International Historical Park
–
Klondike Gold Rush National Historical Park is a national historical park operated by the National Park Service that seeks to commemorate the Klondike Gold Rush of the late 1890s. Though the gold fields that were the goal of the stampeders lay in the Yukon Territory, the park comprises staging areas for the trek there. There are four units, including three in Municipality of Skagway Borough, Alaska and a fourth in the Pioneer Square National Historic District in Seattle, a fuller appreciation of the story of the Klondike Gold Rush requires exploration and discovery on both sides of the Canada–United States border. National historic sites in Whitehorse and Dawson City, Yukon, as well as in British Columbia, the visitor center in Skagway is located in railroad depot building at Second and Broadway and is a good place to begin tours either led by a ranger or self-guided. Junior rangers can plan their activities further and earn their badges further up Broadway at the Pantheon Saloon, White Pass & Yukon Route Railway Broadway Depot. Now serving as the parks Visitors Center and Headquarters, the depot was the first building the railway built for this purpose, the structure served this purpose at least until the 1950s. However, together with the administration building and the railway itself. It was the only railway in the United States taken over for this purpose. The building was transferred to NPS in 1976 with restoration completed in 1984, White Pass & Yukon Route Railway Administration Building. The bottom floor houses the museum while additional park offices are located upstairs. Located next to the depot, the Daily Alaskan noted during the year of its completion in its May 3,1900 edition that it the headquarters was by far the finest wooden structure in the city. As with the depot, it was vacated in 1969, transferred to NPS in 1976, the building serves as the NPS and Parks Canada Trail Center, and is one of the first structures visitors to the park arriving by ship see. Originally it stood on piers by the wharf, completed in 1902, in 1922, it was sold to Martin Itjen who had learned to profit from the summer tourist trade by greeting passers-by and selling tours of the towns attractions. Relocation of railway tracks in 1946 isolated the house, which after two intermediate moves ended up on Sixth, NPS acquired the structure in 1978, moving it to its current position 300 feet west of its original location. Restoration was completed in 1991 to return the home to the 1921-1941 period, the building was most famously used as a base of operations by con man and outlaw Jefferson Soapy Smith who ended up in Alaska by way of Denver. He and his gang defrauded and tricked miners for only three months before Smith was shot to death in spectacular fashion on the Skagway wharf, Martin Itjen bought the saloon in 1922, and outfitted it as a museum with animatronic figures of Soapy Smith and his associates. Even after selling it in 1950, the museum remained in operation until 1986, donated to NPS in 2007, the building was refurbished to its old glory as it would have been seen by visitors back in 1967, and reopened in April 2016. Verbauwhedes Cigar Store, Confectionery, and Cribs, a gunsmith, jeweler, gas station and travel agency occupied the premises at one time or another through 1977 when NPS purchased the buildings
Klondike Gold Rush International Historical Park
–
Skagway unit museum
Klondike Gold Rush International Historical Park
–
The park's Seattle Visitor's Center at the Cadillac Hotel
Klondike Gold Rush International Historical Park
–
Prior location of the Visitor's Center in the Union Trust Annex (at right)
27.
Riverboat
–
A riverboat is a watercraft designed for inland navigation on lakes, rivers, and artificial waterways. They can thus be built from composite materials. They are limited in size by width and depth of the river as well as the height of bridges spanning the river and they can be designed with shallow drafts, as were the paddle wheel steamers on the Mississippi River that could operate in water under two metres deep. While a ferry is used to cross a river, a riverboat is used to travel along the course of the river, while carrying passengers and cargo. The significance of riverboats is dependent on the number of rivers and channels as well as the condition of the road. Generally speaking, riverboats provide slow but cheap transport especially suited for bulk cargo, as early as 20,000 BC people started fishing in rivers and lakes using rafts and dugouts. Roman sources dated 50 BC mention extensive transportation of goods and people on the river Rhine, upstream, boats were usually powered by sails or oars. In the Middle Ages, towpaths were built along most waterways to use working animals or people to pull riverboats, in the 19th century, steamboats became common. The most famous riverboats were on the rivers of the midwestern and central southern United States, on the Mississippi, Ohio, out west, riverboats were common transportation on the Colorado, Columbia, and Sacramento rivers. These American riverboats were designed to very little water. Australia has a history of riverboats, australias biggest river, the Murray, has an inland port called Echuca. Many large riverboats were working on the Murray, but now a water level is stopping them. The Kalgan River in Western Australia is one of the oldest rivers in the world, the Silver Star,1918 to 1935, would lower her funnel to get under the low bridge. Today, the Kalgan Queen riverboat takes tourists up the river to taste the local wines and she lowers her roof to get under the same bridge. This type of propulsion was an advantage as a rear paddlewheel operates in a clear of snags, is easily repaired. By burning wood, the boat could consume fuel provided by woodcutters along the shore of the river and these early boats carried a brow on the bow, so they could head in to an unimproved shore for transfer of cargo and passengers. Modern riverboats are generally screw -driven, with pairs of engines of several thousand horsepower. The standard reference for the development of the steamboat is Steamboats on Western Rivers, An Economic, many of the riverboats shown below were operating on the Yangtze River
Riverboat
–
Various service riverboats,
Belgrade
Riverboat
–
Passenger tourboat of
Köln-Düsseldorfer on the river
Rhine
Riverboat
–
A riverboat-"
container ship " with the capacity for 500
intermodal containers of the
TEU size.
Riverboat
–
A
Mississippi River System -type riverboat, from an 1850s
daguerrotype.
28.
Klondike Highway
–
The Klondike Highway is a highway that links the Alaskan coastal town of Skagway to Yukons Dawson City. Its route somewhat parallels the route used by prospectors in the 1898 Klondike Gold Rush, in Yukon, the Klondike Highway is marked as Yukon Highway 2. In Alaska, the Highway is marked as Alaska Route 98, the BC section is now maintained by the Yukon government as a natural extension of Highway 2. The highway is 712 km long, the original 53 km section known locally as the Carcross Road was actually made into a part of the Alaska Highway in 1942, until the Marsh Lake route was opened the next year. As Yukon Highway 5, it formed a road with Highway 6. It was renumbered as Highway 2 in 1978, being incorporated into the Klondike Highway designation, the road underwent alignment improvements during the 1980s. Construction of the Carcross-Skagway Road began in the 1950s, was abandoned partway up a mountain from Skagway and it was only open for a few weeks before seasonal closure. The first full season of use was in 1979. The new owners of the Faro mine secured government agreement to open the highway for trucking, the last winter closure ended in the spring of 1986. The Carcross-Skagway Road portion of the highway underwent substantial rerouting, widening and paving in the late 1980s, the quality of roads from Whitehorse to Dawson City prior to 1950 was poor and only for the hardiest of travelers and motorized vehicles. The Whitehorse-Mayo Road, Yukons original Highway 2, extended along todays route from Whitehorse to Stewart Crossing, then turned northeast to Mayo, Elsa, the last of three bridges was finished in 1960 to replace ferries at Carmacks, Pelly Crossing and Stewart Crossing. Yukons original Highway 3, the Dawson-Mayo Road, was opened in September 1955 between Stewart Crossing and Dawson City. The Dawson-Mayo Road became part of Highway 2 in 1978 and was named the Klondike Highway, while the road northeast from Stewart Crossing became Highway 11, and was later named the Silver Trail. Even as of 1979, the entire Klondike Highway was gravel, rebuilding and some rerouting was completed in the late 1980s. Approximately, the first 30 km of the North Klondike Highway are still known as the Mayo Road to the residents of Whitehorse. Although kilometric distance markers have been in place since the early 1980s, the entire route is in Skagway, Skagway Borough. List of Yukon territorial highways List of Alaska Routes List of Canadian highways by province Overland Trail Skagway - Fraser Border Crossing Internet travelog of Jim Teresco, specifically Skagway, June 23,2001, pictures 11 and 12 and their associated captions
Klondike Highway
–
Klondike Highway near Five Finger Rapids (
Yukon River)
Klondike Highway
–
Fireweed is prominent in various locations on the Klondike Highway (this is in the vicinity of Summit Lake and Bernard Lake in
British Columbia).
Klondike Highway
–
Five Finger Rapids seen from Klondike Highway
Klondike Highway
–
The bridge across the Yukon River at
Carmacks
29.
Alaska Commercial Company
–
The Alaska Commercial Company is a company that operated retail stores in Alaska during the early period of Alaskas ownership by the United States. From 1901 to 1992, it was known as the Northern Commercial Company, in 1992, it resumed business as the Alaska Commercial Company under the ownership of The North West Company. It is Alaskas largest rural retailer, after the 1867 purchase of Alaska by the United States, the firm of Hutchison, Kohl & Company, including Hayward Hutchison, William Kohl, and Louis Sloss, bought the Russian-American Company. This new company, formed in 1868, was called the Alaska Commercial Company, the original owners of the Alaska Commercial Company, Louis Sloss, Gerstle, etc. carried on the business under the name of the Northern Commercial Company. Shortly afterwards, W. J. Erskine bought some of the old Alaska Commercial Company boats, the Northern Commercial Company operated village stores in Alaska from 1868 to 1922, including during the Klondike Gold Rush. The stores often served as the courthouse and post office as well. Much trade in the stores was bartered, as few people had cash, the stores accepted such items as gold, fish and furs in exchange for merchandise. The stores were often the nucleus of small communities and communities often grew because of the stores, in 1922, the Northern Commercial Company was sold to a group of employees, who moved the headquarters to Seattle. It opened department stores, auto dealerships, and tire stores in Alaskas cities, by 1975 the Northern Commercial Company sold its department stores to Nordstrom. The Goodyear tire stores were sold to Bandag Corporation, in 1977 the remaining eleven rural stores were sold to the Community Enterprise Development Corporation of Alaska which reintroduced the old name, the Alaska Commercial Company. In November 1992, the CEDC sold the stores in turn to The North West Company, ACC now has 30 stores in 29 remote Alaska Villages, under the name AC Value Center. Maritime Fur Trade Kitchener, Lois Delano, flag over the North, the story of the Northern Commercial Company. Official website Alaska Commercial Company Records, 1868-1940 Alaska Commercial Company Records MSS234, special Collections & Archives, UC San Diego Library. The Department Store Museum, Northern Commercial
Alaska Commercial Company
–
Cover of an 1898 advertising guidebook issued by the Alaska Commercial Company for those travelling north as part of the
Klondike Gold Rush
30.
Russian-American Company
–
The Russian-American Company Under the Supreme Patronage of His Imperial Majesty was a state-sponsored chartered company formed largely on the basis of the United American Company. The company was chartered by Tsar Paul I in the Ukase of 1799 and it was Russias first joint-stock company, and came under the direct authority of the Ministry of Commerce of Imperial Russia. The Minister of Commerce Nikolai Petrovich Rumyantsev was an influence upon the early Companys affairs. In 1801, the headquarters were moved from Irkutsk to Saint Petersburg. Bodega Bay, California was initially named Rumyantsev Bay was named in his honour during the Russian-California period of Fort Ross, the Russian government appointed an official with the title correspondent to maintain oversight of company affairs, the first being Nikolai Rezanov. This role was expanded to a three-seat board of directors. Additionally the directors had to send reports of the activities directly to the tsar. Directly administering the forts, trade stations and outposts from Pavlovskaya, Alexander Andreyevich Baranov was the first chief manager, founding both New Archangel and Pavlovskaya. With the end of his service in 1818, the position was then given to appointees of the Imperial Russian Navy. The Ukase of 1799 granted the company a monopoly over trade in Russian America, Tsar Alexander I in the Ukase of 1821 asserted its domain to 45°50′ N latitude, revised by 1822 to 51° N latitude. The only attempt at enforcement of the ukase of 1821 was the seizure of the U. S. brig Pearl in 1822, the Pearl, a vessel of the maritime fur trade, was sailing from Boston to Sitka. On a protest from the U. S. government, the vessel was released, under Baranov, who governed the region between 1790 and 1818, a permanent settlement was established in 1804 at Novo-Arkhangelsk, and a thriving maritime trade was organized. During its initial years, the company had problems in maintain a pool of skilled crewmen for its ships, the limited number of Russian men proficient in naval craft in the Empire usually sought employment in the Imperial Russian Navy. Recruits for naval training by the company were sparse, in due to the continued practise of serfdom in the Empire. The Imperial government announced in 1802 for the Imperial Navy to send officers for employment in the RAC, Russian merchants were restricted from the port of Guangzhou and its valuable markets, something the RAC endeavoured to change after its creation. While the expedition was able to sell its wares at the Chinese port, due to the closed Chinese ports, furs collected by the RAC had to be shipped to the Russian port of Okhotsk. From there caravans typically spent over a year traveling to Ayan, Irkutsk, the majority of the pelts were traded in Kyakhta, where Chinese trade goods, principally cotton, porcelain and tea, were traded for. Fort Elizabeth was built in Hawaii by Georg Anton Schäffer, an agent of the company and his actions attempt to overthrow the Kingdom of Hawaii is known as the Schäffer affair
Russian-American Company
–
Russian-American Company flag, 1806 design
Russian-American Company
–
The Company's capital at New Archangel (present day
Sitka, Alaska) in 1837
Russian-American Company
–
Flag of the Russian-American Company, 1828
Russian-American Company
–
Flag of the Russian-American Company 1835
31.
Pollution
–
Pollution is the introduction of contaminants into the natural environment that cause adverse change. Pollution can take the form of chemical substances or energy, such as noise, pollutants, the components of pollution, can be either foreign substances/energies or naturally occurring contaminants. Pollution is often classed as point source or nonpoint source pollution, Air pollution has always accompanied civilizations. Pollution started from prehistoric times when man created the first fires, metal forging appears to be a key turning point in the creation of significant air pollution levels outside the home. The burning of coal and wood, and the presence of horses in concentrated areas made the cities the cesspools of pollution. The Industrial Revolution brought an infusion of untreated chemicals and wastes into local streams that served as the water supply, king Edward I of England banned the burning of sea-coal by proclamation in London in 1272, after its smoke became a problem. But the fuel was so common in England that this earliest of names for it was acquired because it could be carted away from some shores by the wheelbarrow and it was the industrial revolution that gave birth to environmental pollution as we know it today. London also recorded one of the extreme cases of water quality problems with the Great Stink on the Thames of 1858. Pollution issues escalated as population growth far exceeded view ability of neighborhoods to handle their waste problem, reformers began to demand sewer systems, and clean water. In 1870, the conditions in Berlin were among the worst in Europe. There were no toilets in the streets or squares. Visitors, especially women, often became desperate when nature called, in the public buildings the sanitary facilities were unbelievably primitive. As a metropolis, Berlin did not emerge from a state of barbarism into civilization until after 1870. Chicago and Cincinnati were the first two American cities to enact laws ensuring cleaner air in 1881, as historian Martin Melosi notes, The generation that first saw automobiles replacing the horses saw cars as miracles of cleanliness. By the 1940s, however, automobile-caused smog was an issue in Los Angeles. Other cities followed around the country early in the 20th century. Extreme smog events were experienced by the cities of Los Angeles and Donora, Pennsylvania in the late 1940s, Air pollution would continue to be a problem in England, especially later during the industrial revolution, and extending into the recent past with the Great Smog of 1952. Awareness of atmospheric pollution spread widely after World War II, with fears triggered by reports of fallout from atomic warfare. Then a non-nuclear event, The Great Smog of 1952 in London and this prompted some of the first major modern environmental legislation, The Clean Air Act of 1956
Pollution
–
The
litter problem on the coast of
Guyana, 2010
Pollution
–
Air pollution in the US, 1973
Pollution
–
Smog Pollution in
Taiwan
Pollution
–
The
Lachine Canal in
Montreal,
Quebec, Canada.
32.
United States Environmental Protection Agency
–
The EPA was proposed by President Richard Nixon and began operation on December 2,1970, after Nixon signed an executive order. The order establishing the EPA was ratified by committee hearings in the House, the agency is led by its Administrator, who is appointed by the president and approved by Congress. The current administrator is Scott Pruitt, the EPA is not a Cabinet department, but the administrator is normally given cabinet rank. The EPA has its headquarters in Washington, D. C. regional offices for each of the ten regions. The agency conducts environmental assessment, research, and education and it has the responsibility of maintaining and enforcing national standards under a variety of environmental laws, in consultation with state, tribal, and local governments. It delegates some permitting, monitoring, and enforcement responsibility to U. S. states, EPA enforcement powers include fines, sanctions, and other measures. The agency also works with industries and all levels of government in a variety of voluntary pollution prevention programs. In 2016, the agency had 15,376 full-time employees, more than half of EPAs employees are engineers, scientists, and environmental protection specialists, other employees include legal, public affairs, financial, and information technologists. Beginning in the late 1950s and through the 1960s, Congress reacted to increasing concern about the impact that human activity could have on the environment. Senator James E. Murray introduced a bill, the Resources and Conservation Act of 1959, the 1962 publication of Silent Spring by Rachel Carson alerted the public about the detrimental effects on the environment of the indiscriminate use of pesticides. In the years following, similar bills were introduced and hearings were held to discuss the state of the environment, in the colloquium, some members of Congress expressed a continuing concern over federal agency actions affecting the environment. The National Environmental Policy Act of 1969 was modeled on RCA, President Nixon signed NEPA into law on January 1,1970. The law created the Council on Environmental Quality in the Executive Office of the President, NEPA required that a detailed statement of environmental impacts be prepared for all major federal actions significantly affecting the environment. The detailed statement would ultimately be referred to as an impact statement. On July 9,1970, Nixon proposed a reorganization that consolidated many environmental responsibilities of the federal government under one agency. After conducting hearings during that summer, the House and Senate approved the proposal, the agency’s first administrator, William Ruckelshaus, took the oath of office on December 4,1970. In May 2013, Congress renamed the EPA headquarters as the William Jefferson Clinton Federal Building, the EPA is led by an Administrator of the Environmental Protection Agency. As of 2017 Scott Pruitt is the 14th administrator, each EPA regional office is responsible within its states for implementing the Agencys programs, except those programs that have been specifically delegated to states
United States Environmental Protection Agency
–
Stacks emitting smoke from burning discarded automobile batteries, photo taken in Houston in 1972 by Marc St. Gil (cs), official photographer of recently founded EPA
United States Environmental Protection Agency
–
Seal of the Environmental Protection Agency
United States Environmental Protection Agency
–
Same smokestacks in 1975 after the plant was closed in a push for greater environmental protection
United States Environmental Protection Agency
–
Ruckelshaus sworn in as first EPA Administrator.
33.
U.S. Geological Survey
–
The United States Geological Survey is a scientific agency of the United States government. The scientists of the USGS study the landscape of the United States, its resources. The organization has four science disciplines, concerning biology, geography, geology. The USGS is a research organization with no regulatory responsibility. The USGS is a bureau of the United States Department of the Interior, the USGS employs approximately 8,670 people and is headquartered in Reston, Virginia. The USGS also has major offices near Lakewood, Colorado, at the Denver Federal Center, the current motto of the USGS, in use since August 1997, is science for a changing world. The agencys previous slogan, adopted on the occasion of its anniversary, was Earth Science in the Public Service. Prompted by a report from the National Academy of Sciences, the USGS was created, by a last-minute amendment and it was charged with the classification of the public lands, and examination of the geological structure, mineral resources, and products of the national domain. This task was driven by the need to inventory the vast lands added to the United States by the Louisiana Purchase in 1803, the legislation also provided that the Hayden, Powell, and Wheeler surveys be discontinued as of June 30,1879. Clarence King, the first director of USGS, assembled the new organization from disparate regional survey agencies, after a short tenure, King was succeeded in the directors chair by John Wesley Powell. Administratively, it is divided into a Headquarters unit and six Regional Units, Other specific programs include, Earthquake Hazards Program monitors earthquake activity worldwide. The National Earthquake Information Center in Golden, Colorado on the campus of the Colorado School of Mines detects the location, the USGS also runs or supports several regional monitoring networks in the United States under the umbrella of the Advanced National Seismic System. The USGS informs authorities, emergency responders, the media, and it also maintains long-term archives of earthquake data for scientific and engineering research. It also conducts and supports research on long-term seismic hazards, USGS has released the UCERF California earthquake forecast. The USGS National Geomagnetism Program monitors the magnetic field at magnetic observatories and distributes magnetometer data in real time, the USGS operates the streamgaging network for the United States, with over 7400 streamgages. Real-time streamflow data are available online, since 1962, the Astrogeology Research Program has been involved in global, lunar, and planetary exploration and mapping. USGS operates a number of related programs, notably the National Streamflow Information Program. USGS Water data is available from their National Water Information System database
U.S. Geological Survey
–
Clarence King, founder of the USGS
U.S. Geological Survey
–
Seal of the United States Geological Survey
U.S. Geological Survey
–
The USGS headquarters in
Reston, Virginia
U.S. Geological Survey
–
USGS gauging station 03221000 on the
Scioto River below
O'Shaughnessy Dam near
Dublin, Ohio
34.
First Nations
–
The First Nations are the predominant Aboriginal peoples of Canada south of the Arctic. Those in the Arctic area are distinct and known as Inuit, the Métis, another distinct ethnicity, developed after European contact and relations primarily between First Nations people and Europeans. There are currently 634 recognized First Nations governments or bands spread across Canada, roughly half of which are in the provinces of Ontario and British Columbia. Under the Employment Equity Act, First Nations are a group, along with women, visible minorities. First Nations are not defined as a minority under the Act or by the criteria of Statistics Canada. Within Canada, First Nations has come into general use—replacing the deprecated term Indians—for the indigenous peoples of the Americas, individuals using the term outside Canada include supporters of the Cascadian independence movement, as well as U. S. tribes within the Pacific Northwest. The singular, commonly used on culturally politicized reserves, is the term First Nations person, North American indigenous peoples have cultures spanning thousands of years. Some of their oral traditions accurately describe historical events, such as the Cascadia earthquake of 1700, written records began with the arrival of European explorers and colonists during the Age of Discovery, beginning in the late 15th century. European accounts by trappers, traders, explorers, and missionaries give important evidence of early contact culture, in addition, archeological and anthropological research, as well as linguistics, have helped scholars piece together understanding of ancient cultures and historic peoples. Combined with later development, this relatively non-combative history has allowed First Nations peoples to have an influence on the national culture. Collectively, First Nations, Inuit, and Métis peoples constitute Aboriginal peoples in Canada, Indigenous peoples of the Americas, First Nations came into common usage in the 1980s to replace the term Indian band in referring to groups of Indians with common government and language. Elder Sol Sanderson says that he coined the term in the early 1980s, others say that the term came into common usage in the 1970s to avoid using the word Indian, which some Canadians considered offensive. No legal definition of the term exists, some Aboriginal peoples in Canada have also adopted the term First Nation to replace the word band in the formal name of their community. While the word Indian is still a term, its use is erratic. Some First Nations people consider the term offensive, while others prefer it to Aboriginal person/persons/people, the term is a misnomer given to indigenous peoples of North America by European explorers who erroneously thought they had landed on the Indian subcontinent. The use of the term Native Americans, which the United States government and it refers more specifically to the Aboriginal peoples residing within the boundaries of the United States. The parallel term Native Canadian is not commonly used, but Natives and autochthones are, under the Royal Proclamation of 1763, also known as the Indian Magna Carta, the Crown referred to indigenous peoples in British territory as tribes or nations. The term First Nations is capitalized, unlike alternative terms, bands and nations may have slightly different meanings
First Nations
First Nations
–
Squamish woman
First Nations
First Nations
–
Aboriginal peoples
in Canada
35.
Rock flour
–
Rock flour, or glacial flour, consists of fine-grained, silt-sized particles of rock, generated by mechanical grinding of bedrock by glacial erosion or by artificial grinding to a similar size. Because the material is very small, it suspended in meltwater making the water appear cloudy. When the sediments enter a river, they turn the colour grey, light brown, iridescent blue-green. If the river flows into a lake, the lake may appear turquoise in colour as a result. Examples of this phenomenon may be seen at Lake Pukaki and Lake Tekapo in New Zealand, Lake Louise, Moraine Lake and Peyto Lake in Canada, multiple cycles create a greater amount. Although clay-sized, the particles are not clay minerals, but typically ground up quartz. Rock flour is carried out from the system via meltwater streams, Rock flour particles may travel great distances either suspended in water or carried by the wind, in the latter case, forming deposits called loess. Some agronomists believe that rock flour has an effect in restoring trace minerals to soil. An early experimenter was the German miller, Julius Hensel, author of Bread from Stones and his ideas were not taken up due to technical limitations and, according to proponents of his method, because of opposition from the champions of conventional fertilisers. John D. Hamaker argued that widespread remineralization of soils with rock dust will be necessary to reverse soil depletion by current agriculture, department of Agriculture exists at the Henry A. Wallace Beltsville Agricultural Research Center. The SEER Centre in Scotland is a source of information on the use of rock dusts. The Soil Remineralization Forum was established with sponsorship from the Scottish Environment Protection Agency and has commissioned a portfolio of research into the benefits of using mineral fines, the Forum provides an interface among research, environmentalists, and industry. John D. Hamaker Diatomaceous earth Remineralize the Earth - non-profit organization incorporated to disseminate ideas, Earth Regeneration Society Official Site On a Fad Diet of Rock Dust, How the Garden Does Grow Henry Homeyer, June 24,2004, New York Times. Soil remineralization, a market for aggregate industry fines, Robert J. Able, June 1995. Julius Hensel Julius Hensel by John Mann Global Warming Triggers Ice Age Remineralization Connection in Living Nutrition magazine, the USGS Glossary of Glacial Terminology
Rock flour
–
Rock flour flowing into
Peyto Lake
Rock flour
–
The river
Muru flowing into
Gjende lake in Norway
36.
Holikachuk
–
Holikachuk are a Yupikized Alaska Native Athabaskan people of the Athabaskan-speaking ethnolinguistic group to western Alaska. Their native territory includes the surrounding the middle and upper Innoko River. Later in 1963 they moved to Grayling on the Yukon River, the Holikachuk call themselves Doogh Hit’an. The name Holikachuk is derived from the name of a village in native Holikachuk territory, the Holikachuk have been neglected by anthropologists, resulting in little documentation. In the past they have erroneously been grouped with the Koyukon, the peoples neighboring the Holikachuk are in the north the Yupik and Koyukon, in the east the Koyukon, in the south the Upper Kuskokwim people, and in the west the Deg Hitan. Holikachuk culture is a distant relative to the Deg Hitan culture, Holikachuk Constitution and By-laws of the Organized Village of Holikachuk Alaska
Holikachuk
–
Holikachuk-speaking area: Nr.6
37.
Conflation
–
However, if the distinctions between the two concepts appear to be superficial, intentional conflation may be desirable for the sake of conciseness and recall. The result of conflating concepts may give rise to fallacies of ambiguity, for example, the word bat has at least two distinct meanings, a flying animal, and a piece of sporting equipment. If these meanings are not distinguished, the result may be the following categorical syllogism, therefore, some wooden objects are animals. Using words with different meanings can help clarify, or can cause real confusion, english words with multiple meanings can be illustrated by instances in which a motion is merged with or a causation with manner, e. g. The bride floated towards her future, in this example, the bride may, Be married on a boat, airplane, or hot-air balloon, etc. —-not all marriages occur in a church and she could be gracefully walking the aisle towards matrimony. The verb float has multiple meanings, and both meanings in the example may be proper uses of a bride floating toward a future. The manner of the scene, described by further context, would explain the meaning of the sentence. In an alternate example, respect is used both in the sense of recognise a right and have high regard for. We can recognise someones right to the opinion the United Nations is secretly controlled by alien lizards on the moon, without holding this idea in high regard. But conflation of two different concepts leads to the notion that all ideological ideas, should be treated with respect. Conflation in logical terms is very similar to, if not identical to, deliberate Idiom conflation is the amalgamation of two different expressions. In most cases, the results in a new expression that makes little sense literally. All conflations fit into one of two categories, congruent conflations and incongruent conflations. Congruent conflations are the ideal, and more sought-after, examples of the concept. These occur when the two root expressions reflect similar thoughts, for example, look whos calling the kettle black can be formed using the root expressions look whos talking and the pot calling the kettle black. These root expressions really mean the same thing, they are both a way to point out hypocritical behavior. Of course, look whos calling the kettle black does not directly imply anything, an illustrative conflation brings together two Roman Catholic saints named Lazarus
Conflation
–
The 34th G8 Summit at
Toyako, Japan (2008).
Conflation
–
Flag of the
Lord Warden of the Cinque Ports, a heraldic emblem which displays conflated or "con-joined" images.
38.
Definition
–
A definition is a statement of the meaning of a term. Definitions can be classified into two categories, intensional definitions and extensional definitions. Another important category of definitions is the class of ostensive definitions, a term may have many different senses and multiple meanings, and thus require multiple definitions. In mathematics, a definition is used to give a meaning to a new term. Definitions and axioms are the basis on all of mathematics is constructed. In modern usage, a definition is something, typically expressed in words, the word or group of words that is to be defined is called the definiendum, and the word, group of words, or action that defines it is called the definiens. In the definition An elephant is a large gray animal native to Asia and Africa, the elephant is the definiendum. Note that the definiens is not the meaning of the word defined, there are many sub-types of definitions, often specific to a given field of knowledge or study. An intensional definition, also called a connotative definition, specifies the necessary, any definition that attempts to set out the essence of something, such as that by genus and differentia, is an intensional definition. An extensional definition, also called a denotative definition, of a concept or term specifies its extension and it is a list naming every object that is a member of a specific set. An extensional definition would be the list of wrath, greed, sloth, pride, lust, envy, a genus–differentia definition is a type of intensional definition that takes a large category and narrows it down to a smaller category by a distinguishing characteristic. The differentia, The portion of the new definition that is not provided by the genus, for example, consider the following genus-differentia definitions, a triangle, A plane figure that has three straight bounding sides. A quadrilateral, A plane figure that has four straight bounding sides and those definitions can be expressed as a genus and two differentiae. It is possible to have two different genus-differentia definitions that describe the same term, especially when the term describes the overlap of two large categories, for instance, both of these genus-differentia definitions of square are equally acceptable, a square, a rectangle that is a rhombus. A square, a rhombus that is a rectangle, thus, a square is a member of both the genus rectangle and the genus rhombus. One important form of the definition is ostensive definition. This gives the meaning of a term by pointing, in the case of an individual, to the thing itself, or in the case of a class, to examples of the right kind. So one can explain who Alice is by pointing her out to another, or what a rabbit is by pointing at several, the process of ostensive definition itself was critically appraised by Ludwig Wittgenstein
Definition
–
A definition states the meaning of a word using other words. This is sometimes challenging. Common dictionaries contain lexical, descriptive definitions, but there are various types of definition - all with different purposes and focuses.
39.
Marsh Lake
–
Marsh Lake is a widening of the Yukon River southeast of Whitehorse, Yukon, Canada. It is over 30 kilometres long and ranges from three to four kilometres wide, the co-ordinates of the lake are 60°26′10″N 134°15′02″W, and is 2,147 feet above sea level. The lake forms part of a chain of lakes, sometimes referred to as The Southern Lakes. The community of Marsh Lake, Yukon is located along the shores of the lake. During the Klondike Gold Rush the Yukon River system was relied upon for transportation. A network of steamboats were developed and they began ferrying passengers to the rapids at Canyon City just outside what is now Whitehorse. The name was changed from Mud Lake to Marsh Lake by Frederick Schwatka, during World War II, the Alaska Highway Project was routed along Marsh Lake, the military engineers were headquartered in Whitehorse. It became cottage lots first for the military, then some local residents, Judas Creek was unsuccessfully prospected during the gold rush. Pyrite was discovered and a lot of work was conducted to discover the source of this sparkly mineral, when the eager and inexperienced miner located the source of the fools gold, his disappointment was biblical and he named the creek Judas Creek. During the late 1900s more people sought recreational land outside of Whitehorse, as utilities were introduced the area became more of a bedroom community for Whitehorse
Marsh Lake
–
Marsh Lake, Yukon
40.
Fort Selkirk
–
Fort Selkirk is a former trading post on the Yukon River at the confluence of the Pelly River in Canadas Yukon. For many years it was home to the Selkirk First Nation, archaeological evidence shows that the site has been in use for at least 8,000 years. Robert Campbell established a Hudsons Bay Company trading post nearby in 1848, in early 1852 he moved the post to its current location. Resenting the interference of the Hudsons Bay Company with their trade with interior Athabaskan First Nations. It was rebuilt about 40 years later and became an important supply point along the Yukon River and it was essentially abandoned by the mid-1950s after the Klondike Highway bypassed it and Yukon River traffic died down. The voyage took eleven months, having covered about 1,000 miles, as a result of this achievement, Fitzgerald was promoted corporal in 1899. Many of the buildings have restored and the Fort Selkirk Historic Site is owned and managed jointly by the Selkirk First Nation. Most visitors get there by boat, though there is an airstrip, Fort Selkirk Aerodrome, volcano Mountain Fort Selkirk Volcanic Field Ne Che Ddhawa Fort Yukon, Alaska Virtual Museum Canada Yukon Heritage Resources Unit Article about Fort Selkirk Photos
Fort Selkirk
–
Some of the historic buildings at Fort Selkirk, Yukon.
Fort Selkirk
–
Fort Selkirk (1898)
41.
Lindeman Lake (Chilkoot Trail)
–
Lindeman Lake, also known as Lake Lindeman, is a lake on the Chilkoot Trail in far northwestern British Columbia, Canada. Located just south of Bennett Lake and northeast of the summit of the Chilkoot Pass, Lindeman was located at the south end of Lindeman Lake, while Bennett, often known as Bennett City, was at the south end of Lake Bennett
Lindeman Lake (Chilkoot Trail)
–
Lindeman Lake
42.
Chilkoot Trail
–
The Chilkoot Trail is a 33-mile trail through the Coast Mountains that leads from Dyea, Alaska, in the United States, to Bennett, British Columbia, in Canada. It was an access route from the coast to Yukon goldfields in the late 1890s. The trail became obsolete in 1899 when a railway was built from Dyeas neighbor port Skagway along the parallel White Pass trail, the Chilkoot Trail and Dyea Site was designated a U. S. National Historic Landmark in 1978. In 1987, the trail was designated a National Historic Site of Canada, in 1998, the centennial of the gold rush, Chilkoot Trail National Historic Site in British Columbia merged with the U. S. park to create the Klondike Gold Rush International Historical Park. Tlingit Indians used the trail as a trade route to trade for resources available in the interior. As pressures from American settlers and the Hudsons Bay Company weakened the traditional Tlingit trading system, the Klondike Gold Rush transformed the Chilkoot Trail into a mainstream transportation route to Canadas interior. The gold rush was focused in the region around Dawson City in Yukon. Of the several overland routes, the Chilkoot Trail was the most direct, least expensive, the other primary route to the headwaters of the Yukon River, however, was also based out of Skagway, the rival White Pass route. The White Pass route was longer but less rigorous and steep, whereas the Chilkoot was shorter. Skagway, because of its harbor, served as the principal port for both routes. Prospectors who chose the Chilkoot were ferried to Dyea by small boat or ferry, prospectors ferried the gear from campsites along the trail, slowly moving closer to the headwaters of the Yukon. With all the equipment and supplies being transported, alternative methods, especially those with a supplemental income. Many prospectors purchased pack animals, and many others paid Tlingit Indians to haul gear on a rate from campsite to campsite. Aerial tramway companies soon were hauling tons of gear over the head of the every day. By the end of the Chilkoot Trails heyday, there were five distinct tramway operations on different parts of the trail competing for the influx of gear, many of the trams constituted world-class engineering feats of the era. After the Klondike Gold Rush, the became more or less deserted. Prospectors late to the gold rush now made their way to the Yukon on the new White Pass and Yukon Route narrow-gauge railroad, which took them all the way to Whitehorse, Yukon in the Yukon Territory. In 1969, the U. S. and Canadian governments jointly declared their intention to make Chilkoot Trail a component of a Klondike Gold Rush International Historic Park
Chilkoot Trail
–
Chilkoot trail
Chilkoot Trail
–
Scales and Chilkoot Pass. Left: Golden Stairs, right: Pederson Pass. March–April 1898
Chilkoot Trail
–
Remnant of Chilkoot
tramway boiler at Canyon City, 2009
Chilkoot Trail
–
Chilkoot trail map 1. Dyea, 2. Finnegan's Point, 3. Canyon City, 4. Pleasant Camp, 5.
Sheep Camp, 6. Scales, 7. Chilkoot Pass, 8. Stone Crib, 9. Happy Camp, 10. Deep Lake, 11. Lake Lindemann, 12. Bare Loon Lake, 13. Lake Bennett
43.
Tagish Lake
–
Tagish Lake is a lake in Yukon and northern British Columbia, Canada. The lake is more than 100 km long and about 2 km wide and it has two arms, the Taku Arm in the east which is very long and mostly in British Columbia and Windy Arm in the west, mostly in Yukon. The Klondike Highway runs along Windy Arm south of Carcross, bennett Lake flows into Tagish Lake, so the northern portion of Tagish Lake was part of the route to the Klondike used by gold-seekers during the Klondike Gold Rush. On January 18,2000, a chondrite meteorite now known as Tagish Lake. The lake is named for the Tagish people, Tagish means fish trap in the old Tagish language, an Athabascan language. Other sources translate Tagish as it is breaking up, Tagish lies in the path of migratory swans that come every spring to wait out the melting of the more Northern Lakes. Tagish is also home to the Southern Lakes with trophy fishing
Tagish Lake
–
A portion of Tagish Lake (on the left half of the image) during the Winter, as seen from space. Windy Arm is in the upper left corner, while the Taku Arm is on the right centre. The lake seen on the right half of the image is
Atlin Lake.
Tagish Lake
–
Tagish Lake
Tagish Lake
–
Bove Island on the Tagish Lake
44.
Bennett Lake
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Bennett Lake is a lake in the Province of British Columbia and Yukon Territory in northwestern Canada. It is just north of the border with the United States state of Alaska, the narrow-gauge White Pass and Yukon Route Railroad connects the community of Bennett at the south end of the lake with Skagway further south and Whitehorse, Yukon on the north. It runs between Skagway and Fraser, British Columbia during the summer months, the abandoned town of Bennett, British Columbia, historically usually referred to as Lake Bennett or Bennett Lake and the town of Carcross, Yukon are on the shores of Bennett Lake. A large tent city sprang up on its shores, numbering in the thousands and it was further estimated that another 1,200 boats were built in these areas over the next few weeks. The main outflow of the lake is the Nares River, which flows to Nares Lake, Nares Lake empties into Tagish Lake, then via the Tagish River to Marsh Lake, the source of the Yukon River, which flows to the Bering Sea
Bennett Lake
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Boat building on the lake during the
Klondike Gold Rush
45.
Teslin Lake
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Teslin Lake is a large lake spanning the border between British Columbia and Yukon, Canada. The lake is fed and drained primarily by the Teslin River, south and north, but is fed from the east by the Jennings River and the Swift River. According to the Yukon Geographical Names Project, Teslin means long water, there are three Indian Reserves of the Taku River Tlingit First Nation around the south end of the lake, Jennings River Indian Reserve No. 8, Teslin Lake Indian Reserve No,7, and Teslin Lake Indian Reserve No. 9, in the area had been a Hudsons Bay Company trading post. On the Yukon portion of the lake there are three Indian Reserves of the Teslin Tlingit Council - Teslin Post Indian Reserve No,13, Nisutlin Indian Reserve No.14 and Nisutlin Bay Indian Reserve No. 15, and the community of Teslin, which is located where the Alaska Highway meets the lake, the Nisutlin Plateau limns the eastern side of the lake north of the mouth of the Teslin River and extends into Yukon
Teslin Lake
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Teslin Lake
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Robert W. Service
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Robert William Service was a British-Canadian poet and writer who has often been called the Bard of the Yukon. He is best known for his poems The Shooting of Dan McGrew and The Cremation of Sam McGee, from his first book, Songs of a Sourdough. His vivid descriptions of the Yukon and its made it seem that he was a veteran of the Klondike gold rush. Although his work remains popular, Services poems were received as being crudely comical works. Service was born in Preston, Lancashire, England, the third of ten children and his father, also Robert Service, was a banker from Kilwinning, Scotland, who had been transferred to England. When he was five, Service was sent to live in Kilwinning with his three aunts and his paternal grandfather, the towns postmaster. There he is said to have composed his first verse, a grace, on his birthday, At nine. He attended Glasgows Hillhead High School, after leaving school, Service joined the Commercial Bank of Scotland which would later become the Royal Bank of Scotland. He was writing at this time and reportedly already selling his verses and he was also reading poetry, Browning, Keats, Tennyson, and Thackeray. When he was 21, Service travelled to Vancouver Island, British Columbia, with his Buffalo Bill outfit and this sometimes required him to leech off his parents Scottish neighbours and friends who had previously emigrated to Canada. In 1899, Service was a clerk in Cowichan Bay. The Colonist also published Services Music in the Bush on September 18,1901, in her 2006 biography, Under the Spell of the Yukon, Enid Mallory revealed that Service had fallen in love during this period. He was working as a labourer and store clerk when he first met Constance MacLean at a dance in Duncan B. C. where she was visiting her uncle. MacLean lived in Vancouver, on the mainland, so he courted her by mail, though he was smitten, MacLean was looking for a man of education and means to support her so was not that interested. To please her, he took courses at McGill Universitys Victoria College, in 1903, down on his luck, Service was hired by a Canadian Bank of Commerce branch in Victoria, British Columbia, using his Commercial Bank letter of reference. The bank watched him, gave him a raise, and sent him to Kamloops in the middle of British Columbia, in Victoria he lived over the bank with a hired piano, and dressed for dinner. In Kamloops, horse country, he played polo, in the fall of 1904, the bank sent him to their Whitehorse branch in Yukon. With the expense money he himself a raccoon coat
Robert W. Service
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Robert W. Service, c. 1905
Robert W. Service
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Robert Service Memorial, Kilwinning, Ayrshire.
Robert W. Service
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A bust of Service in Whitehorse.
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Kluane Lake
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Kluane Lake is located in the southwest area of the Yukon. It is the largest lake contained entirely within Yukon at approximately 408 km2, until 2016, Kluane Lake was fed by the Aay Chu, which was composed of meltwater from the Kaskawulsh Glacier, located within Kluane National Park. It drains into the Kluane River, whose waters flow into the Donjek River, White River, Yukon River, the lake has a high density of large-bodied lake trout and whitefish and is known for its fishing. Kluane Lake is located approximately 60 km northwest of Haines Junction, the lake has a mean depth of 31 m and a maximum depth of 91 m The Alaska Highway follows most of Kluane Lakes southern border, and the drive offers many spectacular views of the lake. The Yukon communities of Burwash Landing and Destruction Bay are located on the shore of the lake. The Aishihik and Kluane caribou herds migrate in the area surrounding Kluane and they are a northern mountain caribou, a distinct ecotype of the woodland caribou. In 2009 there were 181 caribou in the Kluane herd and 2044 caribou in the Aishihik herd, the Kluane herd was declining while the Aishihik herd was increasing
Kluane Lake
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Kluane Lake
Kluane Lake
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Burwash Landing on the shore of Kluane Lake by Jay Cross
Kluane Lake
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Sunset over Kluane Lake
48.
Carmacks, Yukon
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Carmacks is a village in Yukon on the Yukon River along the Klondike Highway, and at the west end of the Robert Campbell Highway from Watson Lake. It is the home of the Little Salmon/Carmacks First Nation, a Northern Tutchone-speaking people, the area around Carmacks has abundant mineral resources, including coal, copper, and gold. Various mining activities are taking place on sites around Carmacks. Carmacks is situated at the confluence of the Nordenskiold and Yukon rivers and it is the site of one of the four bridges over the Yukon River. The Campbell Highway also intersects the community and carries on to Faro, Ross River and Watson Lake, providing a gateway to the Canol Road, the name of the settlement comes from George Washington Carmack who, in 1891, found coal nearby. He created a trading post and began by engaging in commerce with local people, the focus of his entrepreneurial energy switched a few years later when he discovered gold near Dawson City. Carmacks is the place in Yukon to enjoy the status of a Designated place. The community consists of the Village of Carmacks and the Little Salmon/Carmacks First Nation and was named after George Washington Carmack, Carmack built a trading post and traded with locals near the present site of Carmacks and also started a coal mine on the south bank of the Yukon River. Carmack soon discovered gold in the Dawson region with Skookum Jim and Tagish Charlie a few years later, Carmacks became incorporated as a village on November 1,1984. Carmacks is served by Klondike Highway by cars and Carmacks Airport by air, the Carmacks Recreation Centre is at the east end of River Drive between the nursing station and visitor centre, and is a community focal point for youth. There is a drop in daily with a computer access, video games, table games and other activities. The gymnasium is host to floor hockey and other sports. The Recreation Center also holds a 3 lane curling rink, fully loaded fitness gym, Carmacks also has an indoor swimming pool that is open to the community from June to September. Every February, Carmacks hosts a checkpoint for both the long-distance Yukon Quest sled dog race and the Yukon Arctic Ultra foot/ski/bike race, Carmacks is the only community in Yukon which has the status of designated place in Canadian censuses. Carmacks has a 91. 4% First Nations Population the majority of which belong to the Little Salmon Carmacks First Nations. The local language of the LSCFN community is Northern Tuchone, which is carried on both by the elders and taught to all students at the local Tantalus Elementary/high School, list of municipalities in Yukon History of Carmacks Community Profile Little Salmon Carmacks First Nation Village of Carmacks Web Page
Carmacks, Yukon
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Carmacks is seen from the
Yukon River bridge with the river in the foreground.
Carmacks, Yukon
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The
Yukon River bridge at Carmacks
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Five Finger Rapids
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The Five Finger Rapids are located on the Yukon River, Yukon, Canada. Four islands divide the river into five channels of which only the eastern is passable. The Five Finger Rapids is mentioned in Jack Londons novel The Call of the Wild, the Five Finger Rapids is also mentioned in Alastair Humphreys novel Thunder and Sunshine. Als canoe tips while passing through the rapids during his four year journey around the world by bike
Five Finger Rapids
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Five Finger Rapids seen from
Klondike Highway
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Dawson, Yukon
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The Town of the City of Dawson, commonly known as Dawson City or Dawson, is a town in Yukon, Canada. It is inseparably linked to the Klondike Gold Rush, the population was 1,319 at the 2011 census. The townsite was founded by Joseph Ladue and named in January 1897 after noted Canadian geologist George M. Dawson and it served as Yukons capital from the territorys founding in 1898 until 1952, when the seat was moved to Whitehorse. Dawson has a longer history, however, as an important harvest area used for millennia by the Hän-speaking people of the Tr’ondëk Hwëch’in. The heart of their homeland was Trochëk, a camp at the confluence of the Klondike River and Yukon River. This site was also an important summer gathering spot and a base for moose-hunting on the Klondike Valley, Dawson City was the centre of the Klondike Gold Rush. It began in 1896 and changed the First Nations camp into a city of 40,000 by 1898. By 1899, the rush had ended and the towns population plummeted as all but 8,000 people left. When Dawson was incorporated as a city in 1902, the population was under 5,000, st. Pauls Anglican Church built that same year is a National Historic Site. The population dropped after World War II when the Alaska Highway bypassed it 300 miles to the south, the economic damage to Dawson City was such that Whitehorse, the highways hub, replaced it as territorial capital in 1953. Dawson Citys population languished around the 600–900 mark through the 1960s and 1970s, the high price of gold has made modern placer mining operations profitable, and the growth of the tourism industry has encouraged development of facilities. In the early 1950s, Dawson was linked by road to Alaska and this historical find was moved south to Library and Archives Canada and the U. S. Library of Congress for both transfer to safety filmstock and storage, the City of Dawson and the nearby ghost town of Forty Mile are featured prominently in the novels and short stories of American author Jack London, including The Call of the Wild. London lived in the Dawson area from October 1897 to June 1898, other notable writers who lived in and wrote of Dawson City include Robert Service and Pierre Berton. The childhood home of the latter is now used as a retreat for professional writers, Dawson City lies on the Tintina Fault. This fault has created the Tintina Trench and continues eastward for several hundred kilometres, erosional remnants of lava flows form outcrops immediately north and west of Dawson City. Like most of Yukon, Dawson City has a subarctic climate, the average temperature in July is 15.7 °C and in January is −26.0 °C. The highest temperature recorded is 35.0 °C on 9 July 1899 and 18 June 1950
Dawson, Yukon
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Aerial view of Dawson City with the
Yukon River
Dawson, Yukon
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Yukon Hotel
Dawson, Yukon
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Klondike Kate's Restaurant
Dawson, Yukon
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Most of Dawson's buildings have the appearance of 19th-Century construction. All new construction must comply with visual standards ensuring conformity to this appearance
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