1.
Youth International Party
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It was founded on December 31,1967. They employed theatrical gestures, such as advancing a pig as a candidate for President in 1968 and they have been described as a highly theatrical, anti-authoritarian and anarchist youth movement of symbolic politics. Since they were known for street theater and politically themed pranks. According to ABC News, The group was known for street theater pranks and was referred to as the Groucho Marxists. The Yippies had no membership or hierarchy. Abbie and Anita Hoffman, Jerry Rubin, Nancy Kurshan, If the press had created hippie, could not we five hatch the yippie. Other activists associated with the Yippies include Stew Albert, Ed Rosenthal, Allen Ginsberg, Ed Sanders, Robin Morgan, Phil Ochs, a Yippie flag was frequently seen at anti-war demonstrations. The flag had a background with a five-pointed red star in the center. When asked about the Yippie flag, an anonymous Yippie identified only as Jung told the New York Times that The black is for anarchy, the red star is for our five point program. And the leaf is for marijuana, which is for getting ecologically stoned without polluting the environment and this flag is also mentioned in Hoffmans Steal This Book. Abbie Hoffman and Jerry Rubin became the most famous Yippies—and bestselling authors—in part due to publicity surrounding the five-month Chicago Seven Conspiracy trial of 1969 and they both used the phrase ideology is a brain disease to separate the Yippies from mainstream political parties that played the game by the rules. Hoffman and Rubin were arguably the most colorful of the seven defendants accused of criminal conspiracy, Hoffman and Rubin used the trial as a platform for Yippie antics—at one point, they showed up in court attired in judicial robes. The term Yippie was invented by Krassner and Hoffman on New Years Eve 1967, Anita Hoffman liked the word, but felt that the New York Times and other strait-laced types needed a more formal name to take the movement seriously. That same night she came up with Youth International Party, because it symbolized the movement, along with the name Youth International Party, the organization was also simply called Yippie. as in a shout for joy. Energy – fun – fierceness – exclamation point, the Yippies held their first press conference in New York at the Americana Hotel March 17,1968, five months before the August 1968 Democratic National Convention in Chicago. Judy Collins sang at the press conference, the Chicago Sun-Times reported it with an article titled, Yipes. The Yippie New Nation concept called for the creation of alternative, Yippies believed these cooperative institutions and a radicalized hippie culture would spread until they supplanted the existing system. We are a new nation, YIPs New Nation Statement said of the hippie movement
2.
Hippie
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The word hippie came from hipster and was initially used to describe beatniks who had moved into New York Citys Greenwich Village and San Franciscos Haight-Ashbury district. The term hippie was first popularized in San Francisco by Herb Caen, the origins of the terms hip and hep are uncertain. By the 1940s, both had become part of African American jive slang and meant sophisticated, currently fashionable, fully up-to-date, the Beats adopted the term hip, and early hippies inherited the language and countercultural values of the Beat Generation. In the United Kingdom in 1970, many gathered at the gigantic Isle of Wight Festival with a crowd of around 400,000 people, in later years, mobile peace convoys of New Age travelers made summer pilgrimages to free music festivals at Stonehenge and elsewhere. In Australia, hippies gathered at Nimbin for the 1973 Aquarius Festival, piedra Roja Festival, a major hippie event in Chile, was held in 1970. Hippie fashion and values had an effect on culture, influencing popular music, television, film, literature. Since the 1960s, many aspects of culture have been assimilated by mainstream society. The religious and cultural diversity espoused by the hippies has gained widespread acceptance, lexicographer Jesse Sheidlower, the principal American editor of the Oxford English Dictionary, argues that the terms hipster and hippie derive from the word hip, whose origins are unknown. The term hipster was coined by Harry Gibson in 1944, by the 1940s, the terms hip, hep and hepcat were popular in Harlem jazz slang, although hep eventually came to denote an inferior status to hip. In Greenwich Village in the early 1960s, New York City, young counterculture advocates were named hips because they were considered in the know or cool, as opposed to being square. In the April 27,1961 issue of The Village Voice, An open letter to JFK & Fidel Castro, Norman Mailer utilizes the term hippies, in questioning JFKs behavior. In a 1961 essay, Kenneth Rexroth used both the hipster and hippies to refer to young people participating in black American or Beatnik nightlife. According to Malcolm Xs 1964 autobiography, the hippie in 1940s Harlem had been used to describe a specific type of white man who acted more Negro than Negroes. Andrew Loog Oldham refers to all the Chicago hippies, seemingly in reference to black musicians, in his rear sleeve notes to the 1965 LP The Rolling Stones. The word hippie was also used in reference to Philadelphia in at least two songs in 1963, South Street by The Orlons, and You Cant Sit Down by The Dovells. In both songs, the term is applied to residents of Philadelphias South Street, in that article, Fallon wrote about the Blue Unicorn Cafe, using the term hippie to refer to the new generation of beatniks who had moved from North Beach into the Haight-Ashbury district. New York Times editor and usage writer Theodore M. Bernstein said the paper changed the spelling from hippy to hippie to avoid the ambiguous description of clothing as hippy fashions. Even the counterculture of the Ancient Greeks, espoused by philosophers like Diogenes of Sinope and the Cynics were also early forms of hippie culture
3.
Social liberalism
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Social liberalism is a political ideology that believes individual liberty requires a level of social justice. Under social liberalism, the good of the community is viewed as harmonious with the freedom of the individual, Social liberal policies have been widely adopted in much of the capitalist world, particularly following World War II. Social liberal ideas and parties tend to be considered centrist or centre-left, a reaction against social liberalism in the late twentieth century, often called neoliberalism, led to monetarist economic policies and a reduction in government provision of services. However, governments continued to provide services and retained control over economic policy. In American political usage, the social liberalism describes progressive stances on socio-political issues like abortion, same-sex marriage or gun control. A social liberal in this sense may hold either liberal or conservative views on fiscal policy, some Victorian writers—including Charles Dickens, Thomas Carlyle, and Matthew Arnold—became early influential critics of social injustice. John Stuart Mill contributed enormously to liberal thought by combining elements of liberalism with what eventually became known as the new liberalism. More positive and proactive measures were required to ensure that individual would have an equal opportunity of success. What they proposed is now called social liberalism, in their view, the poverty, squalor and ignorance in which many people lived made it impossible for freedom and individuality to flourish. New Liberals believed that conditions could be ameliorated only through collective action coordinated by a strong, welfare-oriented. What was new in these reforms was the assumption that the state could be a positive force. Was not how much the state left people alone, but whether he gave them the capacity to fill themselves as individuals, schulze-Delitzsch is also known as the founding father of the German cooperative movement and is credited as the organiser of the worlds first credit unions. But their ideas found relatively few supporters among the liberal politicians, one of the first German authors to propose the term and concept of social liberalism was the historian and economist Ignaz Jastrow. He published the manifesto Social-liberal, Tasks for Liberalism in Prussia in 1893 and this project was however rejected by Social Democrats and failed. Naumann called this a proletarian-bourgeois integral liberalism, the new group advocated, among other things, increased social welfare legislation, the right to strike, and profit-sharing in industry. Although the party was unable to win any seats and soon dissolved, the left-liberal German Democratic Party during the Weimar Republic included both classically and economically liberal and social-liberal currents. They explained that a division of labor caused greater opportunity and individualism. They argued that the individual had a debt to society, promoting progressive taxation to support public works, however, they wanted the state to coordinate rather than to manage, and they encouraged cooperative insurance schemes among individuals
4.
Newsweek
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Newsweek is an American weekly news magazine founded in 1933. It was published in four English language editions and 12 global editions written in the language of the circulation region, between 2008 and 2012, Newsweek underwent internal and external contractions designed to shift the magazines focus and audience while improving its finances. Instead, losses accelerated, revenue dropped 38 percent from 2007 to 2009, in November 2010, Newsweek merged with the news and opinion website The Daily Beast, forming The Newsweek Daily Beast Company, after negotiations between the owners of the two publications. Tina Brown, The Daily Beasts editor-in-chief, served as the editor of both publications, Newsweek was jointly owned by the estate of the late Harman and the diversified American media and Internet company IAC. Newsweek ceased print publication with the December 31,2012, issue and transitioned to an all-digital format, IBT Media relaunched a print edition of Newsweek on March 7,2014. In 2003, worldwide circulation was more than 4 million, including 2.7 million in the U. S, Newsweek publishes editions in Japanese, Korean, Polish, Spanish, Rioplatense Spanish, Arabic, and Turkish, as well as an English language Newsweek International. Russian Newsweek, published since 2004, was shut in October 2010, the Bulletin incorporated an international news section from Newsweek. Based in New York City, the magazine claimed 22 bureaus in 2011, New York City, Los Angeles, Chicago/Detroit, Dallas, Miami, Washington, D. C. Boston and San Francisco, and others overseas in London, Paris, Berlin, Moscow, Jerusalem, Baghdad, Tokyo, Hong Kong, Beijing, South Asia, Cape Town, Mexico City and Buenos Aires. News-Week was launched in 1933 by Thomas J. C. Martyn and he obtained financial backing from a group of U. S. stockholders which included Ward Cheney, of the Cheney silk family, John Hay Whitney, and Paul Mellon, son of Andrew W. Mellon. Paul Mellons ownership in Newsweek apparently represented the first attempt of the Mellon family to function journalistically on a national scale, the group of original owners invested around $2.5 million. Other large stockholders prior to 1946 were public utilities investment banker Stanley Childs, journalist Samuel T. Williamson served as the first editor-in-chief of Newsweek. The first issue of the magazine was dated 17 February 1933, seven photographs from the weeks news were printed on the first issues cover. In 1937 News-Week merged with the weekly journal Today, which had founded in 1932 by future New York Governor and diplomat W. Averell Harriman. In 1937 Malcolm Muir took over as president and editor-in-chief and he changed the name to Newsweek, emphasized interpretive stories, introduced signed columns, and launched international editions. Over time the magazine developed a spectrum of material, from breaking stories and analysis to reviews. The magazine was purchased by The Washington Post Company in 1961, osborn Elliott was named editor of Newsweek in 1961 and became the editor in chief in 1969. The women won, and Newsweek agreed to allow women to be reporters, edward Kosner became editor from 1975 to 1979 after directing the magazine’s extensive coverage of the Watergate scandal that led to the resignation of President Richard Nixon in 1974
5.
The Wall Street Journal
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The Wall Street Journal is an American business-focused, English-language international daily newspaper based in New York City. The Journal, along with its Asian and European editions, is published six days a week by Dow Jones & Company, the newspaper is published in the broadsheet format and online. The Wall Street Journal is the largest newspaper in the United States by circulation, according to the Alliance for Audited Media, the Journal had a circulation of about 2.4 million copies as of March 2013, compared with USA Todays 1.7 million. The newspaper has won 39 Pulitzer Prizes through 2015 and derives its name from Wall Street in the heart of the Financial District of Lower Manhattan. The Journal has been printed continuously since its inception on July 8,1889, by Charles Dow, Edward Jones, the Journal also publishes the luxury news and lifestyle magazine WSJ. They were later aggregated in a daily summary called the Customers Afternoon Letter. In 1896, The Dow Jones Industrial Average was officially launched and it was the first of several indices of stock and bond prices on the New York Stock Exchange. In 1899, the Journals Review & Outlook column, which still today, appeared for the first time. Journalist Clarence Barron purchased control of the company for US$130,000 in 1902, circulation was then around 7,000, Barron and his predecessors were credited with creating an atmosphere of fearless, independent financial reporting—a novelty in the early days of business journalism. In 1921, Barrons, Americas premier financial weekly, was founded, Barron died in 1928, a year before Black Tuesday, the stock market crash that greatly affected the Great Depression in the United States. Barrons descendants, the Bancroft family, would continue to control the company until 2007, the Journal took its modern shape and prominence in the 1940s, a time of industrial expansion for the United States and its financial institutions in New York. Bernard Kilgore was named managing editor of the paper in 1941, under Kilgore, in 1947, that the paper won its first Pulitzer Prize, for William Henry Grimess editorials. In 1970, Dow Jones bought the Ottaway newspaper chain, which at the time comprised nine dailies, later, the name was changed to Dow Jones Local Media Group. In 2007 News Corp. acquired Dow Jones, a luxury lifestyle magazine, was launched in 2008. A complement to the print newspaper, The Wall Street Journal Online, was launched in 1996, in 2003, Dow Jones began to integrate reporting of the Journals print and online subscribers together in Audit Bureau of Circulations statements. In 2007, it was believed to be the largest paid-subscription news site on the Web. Since then, online subscribership has fallen, due in part to rising subscription costs, in May 2008, an annual subscription to the online edition of The Wall Street Journal cost $119 for those who do not have subscriptions to the print edition. By June 2013, the monthly cost for a subscription to the edition was $22.99, or $275.88 annually
6.
SRI International
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SRI International is an American nonprofit research institute headquartered in Menlo Park, California. The trustees of Stanford University established SRI in 1946 as a center of innovation to support development in the region. The organization was founded as the Stanford Research Institute, SRI formally separated from Stanford University in 1970 and became known as SRI International in 1977. SRI describes its mission as creating world-changing solutions to make people safer, healthier and it performs client-sponsored research and development for government agencies, commercial businesses, and private foundations. It also licenses its technologies, forms strategic partnerships, sells products, SRIs annual revenue in 2014 was approximately $540 million. SRIs headquarters are located near the Stanford University campus, jeffrey has served as SRIs president and CEO since September 2014. Sarnoff Corporation, an owned subsidiary of SRI since 1988, was fully integrated into SRI in January 2011. SRI has received more than 4,000 patents and patent applications worldwide, in the 1920s, Stanford University professor Robert E. Swain proposed creating a research institute in the Western United States. Herbert Hoover, then a trustee of Stanford University, was also a proponent of an institute. The development of the institute was delayed by the Great Depression in the 1930s and World War II in the 1940s, with three separate attempts leading to its formation in 1946. In August 1945, Maurice Nelles, Morlan A. Visel, a second attempt was made by Henry T. Heald, then president of the Illinois Institute of Technology. In 1945, Heald wrote a report recommending a research institute on the West Coast, a third attempt was made by Fred Terman, Stanford Universitys dean of engineering. Termans proposal followed Healds, but focused on faculty and student research more than contract research, the trustees of Stanford University voted to create the organization in 1946. It was structured so that its goals were aligned with the charter of the university—to advance scientific knowledge and to benefit the public at large, not just the students of Stanford University. The trustees were named as the general members, and elected SRIs directors, if the organization were dissolved. Research chemist William F. Talbot became the first director of the institute and this and other issues, including frustration with Tresidders micromanagement of the new organization, caused Talbot to repeatedly offer his resignation, which Tresidder eventually accepted. Talbot was replaced by Jesse Hobson, who had led the Armour Research Foundation. SRIs first research project investigated whether the plant could be used as a source of natural rubber
7.
Saab Automobile
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Saab Automobile AB /ˈsɑːb/ was a manufacturer of automobiles that was founded in Sweden in 1945 when its parent company, SAAB AB, began a project to design a small automobile. The first production model, the Saab 92, was launched in 1949, in 1968 the parent company merged with Scania-Vabis, and ten years later the Saab 900 was launched, in time becoming Saabs best-selling model. In the mid-1980s the new Saab 9000 model also appeared, in 1989, the automobile division of Saab-Scania was restructured into an independent company, Saab Automobile AB. In 2010 GM sold Saab Automobile AB to the Dutch automobile manufacturer Spyker Cars N. V, on 13 June 2012, it was announced that a newly formed company called National Electric Vehicle Sweden had bought Saab Automobiles bankrupt estate. According to Saab United, the first NEVS Saab 9-3 drove off its line on 19 September 2013. NEVS lost its license to manufacture automobiles under the Saab name in the summer of 2014, Saab AB, Svenska Aeroplan Aktiebolaget, a Swedish aerospace and defence company, was created in 1937 in Linköping. The company had established in 1937 for the express purpose of building aircraft for the Swedish Air Force to protect the countrys neutrality as Europe moved closer to World War II. As the war drew towards a close and the market for fighter planes seemed to weaken, an automobile design project was started in 1945 with the internal name X9248. The design project became known as Project 92, the 92 being next in production sequence after the Saab 91. In 1948, a site in Trollhättan was converted to allow automobile assembly and the project moved there, along with the car manufacturing headquarters. The company made four prototypes named Ursaab or original Saab, numbered 92001 through to 92004, before designing the production model, the Saab 92 went into production in December 1949, selling 20,000 cars through the mid-1950s. The 92 was thoroughly redesigned and re-engineered in 1955, and was renamed the Saab 93, the cars engine gained a cylinder, going from two to three and its front fascia became the first to sport the first incarnation of Saabs trademark trapezoidal radiator grill. A wagon variant, the Saab 95, was added in 1959, the decade also saw Saabs first performance car, the Saab 94, the first of the Saab Sonetts. 1960 saw the major revision to the 92s platform in the Saab 96. The 96 was an important model for Saab, it was the first Saab to be exported out of Sweden. It proved very popular, selling nearly 550,000 examples, even more important to the companys fortunes was 1968s Saab 99. The 99 was the first all-new Saab in 19 years, and unlike its predecessors, the 99 had many innovations and features that would come to define Saabs for decades, wraparound windscreen, self-repairing bumpers, headlamp washers and side-impact door beams. The design by Sixten Sason was no less revolutionary than the underlying technology, in 1969, Saab AB merged with the Swedish commercial vehicle manufacturer Scania-Vabis AB to form Saab-Scania AB, under the Wallenberg family umbrella
8.
Stereotype
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In social psychology, a stereotype is a thought that can be adopted about specific types of individuals or certain ways of doing things. These thoughts or beliefs may or may not accurately reflect reality, however, this is only a fundamental psychological definition of a stereotype. Within psychology and spanning across other disciplines, there are different conceptualizations, some of these definitions share commonalities, though each one may also harbor unique aspects that may contradict the others. The term stereotype derives from the Greek words στερεός, firm, solid and τύπος, impression, the term comes from the printing trade and was first adopted in 1798 by Firmin Didot to describe a printing plate that duplicated any typography. The duplicate printing plate, or the stereotype, is used for printing instead of the original, outside of printing, the first reference to stereotype was in 1850, as a noun that meant image perpetuated without change. However, it was not until 1922 that stereotype was first used in the psychological sense by American journalist Walter Lippmann in his work Public Opinion. Stereotypes, prejudice, and discrimination are understood as related but different concepts, although related, the three concepts can exist independently of each other. Studies of stereotype content examine what people think of others, rather than the reasons, early theories of stereotype content proposed by social psychologists such as Gordon Allport assumed that stereotypes of outgroups reflected uniform antipathy. For instance, Katz and Braly argued in their classic 1933 study that ethnic stereotypes were uniformly negative, by contrast, a newer model of stereotype content theorizes that stereotypes are frequently ambivalent and vary along two dimensions, warmth and competence. Warmth and competence are respectively predicted by lack of competition and status, groups that do not compete with the in-group for the same resources are perceived as warm, whereas high-status groups are considered competent. The groups within each of the four combinations of high and low levels of warmth, the model explains the phenomenon that some out-groups are admired but disliked, whereas others are liked but disrespected. This model was tested on a variety of national and international samples and was found to reliably predict stereotype content. Early studies suggested that stereotypes were only used by rigid, repressed, stereotyping can serve cognitive functions on an interpersonal level, and social functions on an intergroup level. For stereotyping to function on a level, an individual must see themselves as part of a group. Craig McGarty, Russell Spears, and Vincent Y, Yzerbyt argued that the cognitive functions of stereotyping are best understood in relation to its social functions, and vice versa. Stereotypes can help make sense of the world and they are a form of categorization that helps to simplify and systematize information. Thus, information is easily identified, recalled, predicted. Stereotypes are categories of objects or people, between stereotypes, objects or people are as different from each other as possible
9.
Hispanic
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The term Hispanic broadly refers to the people, nations, and cultures that have a historical link to Spain. It commonly applies to countries once colonized by the Spanish Empire in the Americas and Asia, particularly the countries of Latin America and the Philippines. It could be argued that the term should apply to all Spanish-speaking cultures or countries and it is difficult to label a nation or culture with one term, such as Hispanic, as the ethnicities, customs, traditions, and art forms vary greatly by country and region. The Spanish language and Spanish culture are the main traditions, the term Hispanic derives from Latin Hispanicus, the adjectival derivation of Latin Hispania and Hispanus/Hispanos, ultimately probably of Celtiberian origin. In English the word is attested from the 16th century, the words Spain, Spanish, and Spaniard are of the same etymology as Hispanus, ultimately. Hispanus was the Latin name given to a person from Hispania during Roman rule, in English, the term Hispano-Roman is sometimes used. The Hispano-Romans were composed of people from different indigenous tribes. A number of men, such as Trajan, Hadrian. Hispano-Roman is used to refer to the culture and people of Hispania, Hispanic is used to refer to modern Spain, to the Spanish language, and to the Spanish-speaking nations of the world and particularly the Americas. Spanish is used to refer to the people, nationality, culture, language, Spaniard is used to refer to the people of Spain. Hispania was the Roman name for the territory of the Iberian Peninsula. Initially, this territory was divided into two provinces, Hispania Citerior and Hispania Ulterior, in 27 B. C, Hispania Ulterior was divided into two new provinces, Hispania Baetica and Hispania Lusitania, while Hispania Citerior was renamed Hispania Tarraconensis. This division of Hispania explains the usage of the singular and plural forms used to refer to the peninsula and this revival of the old Roman concept in the Middle Ages appears to have originated in Provençal, and was first documented at the end of the 11th century. In the Council of Constance, the four kingdoms shared one vote, the word Lusitanian, relates to Lusitania or Portugal, also in reference to the Lusitanians, possibly one of the first Indo-European tribes to settle in Europe. From this tribes name had derived the name of the Roman province of Lusitania, the terms Spain and the Spains were not interchangeable. Spain was a territory, home to several kingdoms, with separate governments, laws, languages, religions, and customs. Spain was not an entity until much later, and when referring to the Middle Ages. The term The Spains referred specifically to a collective of juridico-political units, first the Christian kingdoms, although colloquially and literally the expression King of Spain or King of the Spains was already widespread, it did not refer to a unified nation-state
10.
Benjamin Franklin
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Benjamin Franklin was one of the Founding Fathers of the United States. Franklin was a polymath and a leading author, printer, political theorist, politician, freemason, postmaster, scientist, inventor, civic activist, statesman. As a scientist, he was a figure in the American Enlightenment. As an inventor, he is known for the rod, bifocals. He facilitated many civic organizations, including Philadelphias fire department and the University of Pennsylvania, Franklin earned the title of The First American for his early and indefatigable campaigning for colonial unity, initially as an author and spokesman in London for several colonies. As the first United States Ambassador to France, he exemplified the emerging American nation, in the words of historian Henry Steele Commager, In a Franklin could be merged the virtues of Puritanism without its defects, the illumination of the Enlightenment without its heat. To Walter Isaacson, this makes Franklin the most accomplished American of his age, Franklin became a successful newspaper editor and printer in Philadelphia, the leading city in the colonies, publishing the Pennsylvania Gazette at the age of 23. He became wealthy publishing this and Poor Richards Almanack, which he authored under the pseudonym Richard Saunders, after 1767, he was associated with the Pennsylvania Chronicle, a newspaper that was known for its revolutionary sentiments and criticisms of the British policies. He pioneered and was first president of The Academy and College of Philadelphia which opened in 1751 and he organized and was the first secretary of the American Philosophical Society and was elected president in 1769. Franklin became a hero in America as an agent for several colonies when he spearheaded an effort in London to have the Parliament of Great Britain repeal the unpopular Stamp Act. An accomplished diplomat, he was widely admired among the French as American minister to Paris and was a figure in the development of positive Franco-American relations. His efforts proved vital for the American Revolution in securing shipments of crucial munitions from France, during the Revolution, he became the first US Postmaster General. He was active in community affairs and colonial and state politics, from 1785 to 1788, he served as governor of Pennsylvania. He initially owned and dealt in slaves but, by the 1750s, he argued against slavery from an economic perspective, Franklins father, Josiah Franklin, was a tallow chandler, a soap-maker and a candle-maker. Josiah was born at Ecton, Northamptonshire, England on December 23,1657, the son of Thomas Franklin, a blacksmith-farmer, and Jane White. His mother, Abiah Folger, was born in Nantucket, Massachusetts, on August 15,1667, to Peter Folger, a miller and schoolteacher, and his wife, Mary Morrill, Josiah Franklin had seventeen children with his two wives. He married his first wife, Anne Child, in about 1677 in Ecton and emigrated with her to Boston in 1683, after her death, Josiah was married to Abiah Folger on July 9,1689 in the Old South Meeting House by Samuel Willard. Benjamin, their child, was Josiah Franklins fifteenth child and tenth
11.
Premiership of Margaret Thatcher
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The premiership of Margaret Thatcher spanned Britain from May 1979 to November 1990. She became Prime Minister after having served as the Leader of the Conservative Party since 1975, domestically, she is best known for her sweeping policies concerning the affairs of the economy, including the privatisation of most nationalised industries. In foreign policy, she fought a war against Argentina and played a key role with US President Ronald Reagan and she alienated her party leadership in 1990 primarily on the issue of greater economic integration into the European Community. She also alienated many Conservative voters with a demand for a poll tax. As her support fell away, senior Conservatives challenged and defeated her as Party leader, despite the polarised view of Thatcher throughout the country, she continues to rank highly among historians, and generally fares well in popular opinion polls. Under the Thatcher government, the taming of inflation displaced high employment as the policy objective. As a monetarist, Thatcher started out in her policy by increasing interest rates to slow the growth of the money supply. She had a preference for indirect taxation over taxes on income, the fiscal and monetary squeeze, combined with the North Sea oil effect, appreciated the real exchange rate. Thatchers key ally in the party was Home Secretary, and later Deputy Prime Minister and his moral authority and support allowed her to resist the internal threat from the Heathite wets. I grew up in the 1930s with a father, Tebbit said. He got on his bike and looked for work, and he went on looking until he found it, over two million manufacturing jobs were ultimately lost in the recession of 1979–81. This labour-shedding helped firms deal with long-standing X-inefficiency from over-manning, enabling the British economy to catch up to the productivity levels of advanced capitalist countries. The link between the supply and inflation was proven accurate and by January 1982, the inflation rate had dropped back to 8. 6% from earlier highs of 18%. Interest rates were then allowed to fall, unemployment continued to rise, passing 3 million by January 1982 and remaining this high until early 1987. However, Tebbit later suggested that, due to the number of people claiming unemployment benefit while working. By 1983, manufacturing output had dropped by 30% from 1978, the productivity turnaround from labour-shedding proved to be a one-off, and was not matched by growth in output. The industrial base was so reduced that thereafter the balance of payments in manufactured goods was in deficit, in her first six months as Prime Minister, Thatcher repeatedly prioritised defence spending over economic policy and financial control. However in 1980, she reverses this priority and tried to cut the defence budget, the 1981 Defence Review by John Nott, the defence minister, dramatically cut the capabilities of the Royal Navys surface fleet
12.
Yoga
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Yoga is a group of physical, mental, and spiritual practices or disciplines which originated in ancient India. There is a variety of Yoga schools, practices, and goals in Hinduism, Buddhism. Among the most well-known types of yoga are Hatha yoga and Rāja yoga, the chronology of earliest texts describing yoga-practices is unclear, varyingly credited to Hindu Upanishads. The Yoga Sutras of Patanjali date from the first half of the 1st millennium CE, Hatha yoga texts emerged around the 11th century with origins in tantra. Yoga gurus from India later introduced yoga to the west, following the success of Swami Vivekananda in the late 19th, in the 1980s, yoga became popular as a system of physical exercise across the Western world. Yoga in Indian traditions, however, is more physical exercise, it has a meditative. One of the six orthodox schools of Hinduism is also called Yoga, which has its own epistemology and metaphysics. Many studies have tried to determine the effectiveness of yoga as an intervention for cancer, schizophrenia, asthma. On December 1,2016, Yoga was listed as UNESCO’s Intangible cultural heritage, in Sanskrit, the word yoga comes from the root yuj which means to add, to join, to unite, or to attach in its most common senses. By figurative extension from the yoking or harnessing of oxen or horses, all further developments of the sense of this word are post-Vedic. More prosaic moods such as exertion, endeavour, zeal, there are very many compound words containing yoga in Sanskrit. Yoga can take on such as connection, contact, union, method, application, addition. In simpler words, Yoga also means combined, thus, bhaktiyoga means devoted attachment in the monotheistic Bhakti movement. The term kriyāyoga has a sense, meaning connection with a verb. But the same compound is given a technical meaning in the Yoga Sutras, designating the practical aspects of the philosophy. In the context of the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali, the root yuj samādhau is considered by commentators as the correct etymology. In accordance with Pāṇini, Vyasa who wrote the first commentary on the Yoga Sutras, according to Dasgupta, the term yoga can be derived from either of two roots, yujir yoga or yuj samādhau. Someone who practices yoga or follows the philosophy with a high level of commitment is called a yogi or yogini
