1.
United States Postal Service
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The United States Postal Service, is an independent agency of the United States federal government responsible for providing postal service in the United States. It is one of the few government agencies explicitly authorized by the United States Constitution, Mail traces its roots to 1775 during the Second Continental Congress, where Benjamin Franklin was appointed the first postmaster general. The USPS as of February 2015 has 617,254 active employees, the USPS is the operator of the largest civilian vehicle fleet in the world. The USPS is legally obligated to serve all Americans, regardless of geography, at uniform price, the USPS has exclusive access to letter boxes marked U. S. The USPS lost $5.5 billion in fiscal year 2014 and $5.1 billion in 2015, in the early years of the North American colonies, many attempts were made to initiate a postal service. These early attempts were of small scale and usually involved a colony, Massachusetts Bay Colony for example, for example, informal independently-run postal routes operated in Boston as early as 1639, with a Boston to New York City service starting in 1672. A central postal organization came to the colonies in 1691, when Thomas Neale received a 21-year grant from the British Crown for a North American Postal Service, the patent included the exclusive right to establish and collect a formal postal tax on official documents of all kinds. The tax was repealed a year later, Neale appointed Andrew Hamilton, Governor of New Jersey, as his deputy postmaster. The first postal service in America commenced in February 1692, rates of postage were fixed and authorized, and measures were taken to establish a post office in each town in Virginia. Massachusetts and the other colonies soon passed laws, and a very imperfect post office system was established. Neales patent expired in 1710, when Parliament extended the English postal system to the colonies, the chief office was established in New York City, where letters were conveyed by regular packets across the Atlantic. Before the Revolution, there was only a trickle of business or governmental correspondence between the colonies, most of the mail went back and forth to counting houses and government offices in London. The Revolution made Philadelphia, the seat of the Continental Congress, News, new laws, political intelligence, and military orders circulated with a new urgency, and a postal system was necessary. Journalists took the lead, securing post office legislation that allowed them to reach their subscribers at very low cost, overthrowing the London-oriented imperial postal service in 1774-1775, printers enlisted merchants and the new political leadership, and created a new postal system. The United States Post Office was created on July 26,1775, the official post office was created in 1792 as the Post Office Department. It was based on the Constitutional authority empowering Congress To establish post offices, the 1792 law provided for a greatly expanded postal network, and served editors by charging newspapers an extremely low rate. The law guaranteed the sanctity of personal correspondence, and provided the country with low-cost access to information on public affairs. Rufus Easton was appointed by Thomas Jefferson first postmaster of St. Louis under the recommendation of Postmaster General Gideon Granger, Rufus Easton was the first postmaster and built the first post office west of the Mississippi
2.
Mail
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The mail or post is a system for physically transporting documents and other small packages, or, the postcards, letters, and parcels themselves. A postal service can be private or public, though many governments place restrictions on private systems, since the mid-19th century national postal systems have generally been established as government monopolies with a fee on the article prepaid. Proof of payment is often in the form of adhesive postage stamps, modern private postal systems are typically distinguished from national postal agencies by the names courier or delivery service. Postal authorities often have other than transporting letters. In some countries, a postal, telegraph and telephone service oversees the system, in addition to telephone. Some countries postal systems allow for savings accounts and handle applications for passports, the Universal Postal Union, established in 1874, includes 192 member countries and sets the rules for international mail exchanges. The word mail comes from the Medieval English word male, referring to a bag or pack. It was spelled that way until the 17th century, and is distinct from the word male, the French have a similar word, malle for a trunk or large box, and mála is the Irish term for a bag. In the 17th century, the mail began to appear as a reference for a bag that contained letters. Over the next hundred years the word began to be applied strictly to the letters themselves. The U. S. Postal Service delivers the mail, the term email first appeared in the 1970s. The term snail-mail is a retronym to distinguish it from the quicker email, various dates have been given for its first use. Post is derived from Medieval French poste, which stems from the past participle of the Latin verb ponere. The practice of communication by written documents carried by an intermediary from one person or place to another almost certainly dates back nearly to the invention of writing, however, development of formal postal systems occurred much later. The earliest surviving piece of mail is also Egyptian, dating to 255 BC, the first credible claim for the development of a real postal system comes from Ancient Persia, but the point of invention remains in question. He also negotiated with neighbouring countries to do the same and had built from the city of Post in Western Iran all the way up to the city of Hakha in the East. Other writers credit his successor Darius I of Persia, other sources claim much earlier dates for an Assyrian postal system, with credit given to Hammurabi and Sargon II. Mail may not have been the mission of this postal service
3.
Address (geography)
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Some addresses also contain special codes, such as a postal code, to make identification easier and aid in the routing of mail. Addresses may have drawbacks, They are a means of representing a location. Until the advent of postal systems around the 18th and 19th centuries, most houses. Streets may have named for landmarks, such as a city gate or market. In many cities in Asia, most minor streets were never named and this is still the case today in much of Japan. A local postman would be familiar with the area and thus able to deliver mail, comprehensive addressing of all buildings is still not complete, even in developed countries. For example, the Navajo Nation in the United States was still assigning rural addresses as of 2015, a third of houses in Ireland lacked unique numbers until the introduction of Eircode in 2014. Many older towns and cities in the UK have up and down numbering where the numbers progress sequentially along one side of the road, Some other cities around the world have their own schemes. In these cases, the name will usually follow the house name. Such an address might read, Smith Cottage, Frog Lane, Barchester, Barsetshire, BZ9 9BA or Dunroamin, Emo, the quadrants are typically identified in the street names, although the manner of doing so varies from city to city. Street names may follow a variety of themes, in many North American cities, such as, San Francisco USA, and Edmonton, Alberta, Canada, streets are simply numbered sequentially across the street grid. Washington, D. C. has its streets running north-south and lettered or alphabetically named streets running east-west. In Salt Lake City, and many other Utah cities, streets are in a grid and are numbered in increments of 100 based on their location relative to the center of the city in blocks. A similar system is in use in Detroit with the Mile Road System, in some housing developments in North America and elsewhere, street names may all follow the same theme, or start with the same letter. Streets in Continental Europe, the Middle East, and Latin America are often named after people or significant dates. Postal codes are a recent development in addressing, designed to speed the sorting and processing of mail by assigning unique numeric or alphanumeric codes to each geographical locality. For privacy and other purposes, postal services have made it possible to receive mail without revealing ones physical address or even having a physical address. Examples are post office boxes, service addresses and poste restante, in most of the world, addresses are written in order from most specific to general, i. e. finest to coarsest information, starting with the addressee and ending with the largest geographical unit
4.
Service mark
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A service mark or servicemark is a trademark used in the United States and several other countries to identify a service rather than a product. When a service mark is registered, the standard registration symbol ® or Reg U. S. Pat & TM Off may be used, before it is registered, it is common practice to use the service mark symbol ℠. For example, a carrier can paint its service mark on its vehicles. Personal service providers can place their service marks on their delivery vehicles, however, if the service deals with communications, it is possible to use a service mark consisting of a sound in the process of delivering the service. Under United States law, service marks have a different standard of use in order to count as a use in commerce, a trademark normally needs to be used on or directly in association with the sale of goods, such as on a store display. As services are not defined by a product, use of a service mark on the uniforms or vehicles of service providers or in advertisements is instead accepted as a use in commerce. However, like trademarks, service marks must pass a test of distinctiveness for it to be qualified as a service mark, thrifty, Inc. attempted to submit a service mark application that described aspects of their business as being blue. The application was rejected for not being enough, and the rejection was upheld on appeal. The service mark symbol is mapped in Unicode as U+2120 ℠ Service mark, a Unicode-capable browser is needed to display this character properly, which appears similar to SM. Certification mark Marketing Service mark symbol
5.
United States Post Office Department
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The Post Office Department was the predecessor of the United States Postal Service, in the form of a Cabinet department officially from 1872 to 1971. It was headed by the Postmaster General, the Postal Service Act signed by President George Washington on February 20,1792, established the Department. Postmaster General John McLean, in office from 1823 to 1829, was the first to call it the Post Office Department rather than just the Post Office. The organization received a boost in prestige when President Andrew Jackson invited his Postmaster General, William T. Barry, the Post Office Act of 1872 elevated the Post Office Department to Cabinet status. The Postal Reorganization Act was signed by President Richard Nixon on August 12,1970 and it replaced the cabinet-level Post Office Department with the independent United States Postal Service on July 1,1971. The regulatory role of the services was then transferred to the Postal Regulatory Commission. Postage stamps and postal history of the United States
6.
Nebraska
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Nebraska /nᵻˈbræskə/ is a state that lies in both the Great Plains and the Midwestern United States. Its area is just over 77,220 sq mi with almost 1.9 million people and its largest city is Omaha, which is on the Missouri River. The state is crossed by many trails and was explored by the Lewis. Nebraska was admitted as the 37th state of the United States in 1867 and it is the only state in the United States whose legislature is unicameral and officially nonpartisan. Nebraska is composed of two major regions, the Dissected Till Plains and the Great Plains. The Dissected Till Plains is a region of rolling hills. The Great Plains occupy most of western Nebraska, characterized by treeless prairie, the state has a large agriculture sector and is a major producer of beef, pork, corn, and soybeans. Two major climatic zones are represented in Nebraska, the half of the state has a humid continental climate, and the western half. Indigenous peoples lived in the region of present-day Nebraska for thousands of years before European exploration. The historic tribes in the state included the Omaha, Missouria, Ponca, Pawnee, Otoe, when European exploration, trade, and settlement began, both Spain and France sought to control the region. In the 1690s, Spain established trade connections with the Apaches, by 1703, France had developed a regular trade with the native peoples along the Missouri River in Nebraska, and by 1719 had signed treaties with several of these peoples. After war broke out between the two countries, Spain dispatched an expedition to Nebraska under Lieutenant General Pedro de Villasur in 1720. The party was attacked and destroyed near present-day Columbus by a force of Pawnees and Otoes. The massacre of the Villasur expedition effectively put an end to Spanish exploration of Nebraska for the remainder of the 18th century, in 1762, during the Seven Years War, France ceded the Louisiana territory to Spain. Frances withdrawal from the area left Britain and Spain competing for dominance along the Mississippi, by 1773, later that year, Mackays party built a trading post, dubbed Fort Carlos IV, near present-day Homer. In 1819, the United States established Fort Atkinson as the first U. S. Army post west of the Missouri River, the army abandoned the fort in 1827 as migration moved further west. European-American settlement did not begin in any numbers until after 1848, on May 30,1854, the US Congress created the Kansas and the Nebraska territories, divided by the Parallel 40° North, under the Kansas–Nebraska Act. The Nebraska Territory included parts of the current states of Colorado, North Dakota, South Dakota, Wyoming, the territorial capital of Nebraska was Omaha
7.
New Brunswick
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New Brunswick is one of Canadas three Maritime provinces and is the only constitutionally bilingual province. In the Canada 2016 Census, Statistics Canada estimated the population to have been 747,101, down very slightly from 751,171 in 2011. The majority of the population is English-speaking of Anglo and Celtic heritage and it was created as a result of the partitioning of the British colony of Nova Scotia in 1784 and was originally named New Ireland with the capital to be in Saint John. The name was replaced with New Brunswick by King George II. The provincial flag features a ship superimposed on a background with a yellow lion passant guardant on red pennon above it. The province is named for the city of Braunschweig, known in English and Low German as Brunswick, located in modern-day Lower Saxony in northern Germany. The then-colony was named in 1784 to honour the reigning British monarch, George III, the original First Nations inhabitants of New Brunswick were members of three distinct tribes. The largest tribe was the Mikmaq, and they occupied the eastern and they were responsible for the Augustine Mound, a burial ground built about 800 BCE near Metepnákiaq. The western portion of the province was the home of the Wolastoqiyik people. The smaller Passamaquoddy tribe occupied lands in the southwest of the province. The next French contact was in 1604, when a party led by Pierre du Gua de Monts and Samuel de Champlain set up camp for the winter on St. Croix Island, the colony relocated the following year across the Bay of Fundy to Port Royal, Nova Scotia. The whole maritime region was at that time claimed by France and was designated as the colony of Acadia, one of the provisions of the Treaty of Utrecht of 1713 was the surrender of Acadia to Queen Anne. The bulk of the Acadian population thus found themselves residing in the new British colony of Nova Scotia, the remainder of Acadia was only lightly populated and poorly defended. The Maliseet from their headquarters at Meductic on the Saint John River, participated in guerilla raids and battles against New England during Father Rales War. About 1750, to protect his interests in New France, Louis XV caused three forts to be built along the Isthmus of Chignecto and this caused what is known to historians as Father Le Loutres War. During the French and Indian War, the British completed their displacement of the Acadians over all of present-day New Brunswick, Fort Beauséjour, Fort Menagoueche and Fort Gaspareaux were captured by a British force commanded by Lt. Col. Robert Monckton in 1755. Inside Fort Beauséjour, the British forces found not only French regular troops, Governor Charles Lawrence of Nova Scotia used the discovery of Acadian civilians helping in the defence of the fort to order the expulsion of the Acadian population from Nova Scotia. The Acadians of the recently captured Beaubassin and Petitcodiac regions were included in the expulsion order, other actions in the war included British expeditions up the Saint John River in the St. John River Campaign
8.
United States Postal Inspection Service
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The United States Postal Inspection Service is the law enforcement arm of the United States Postal Service. Its jurisdiction is defined as crimes that may affect or fraudulently use the U. S. Mail. In fiscal year 2014, USPIS had 2,376 field employees, in 2008, the U. S. Postal Inspection Service had 2,288 full-time personnel with the authority to make arrests and carry firearms on duty. This represented a 23. 1% drop over the five years. The Postal Inspection Service has the oldest origins of any law enforcement agency in the United States. It traces its roots back to 1772 when colonial Postmaster General Benjamin Franklin first appointed a surveyor to regulate, thus, the Services origins—in part—predate the Declaration of Independence, and therefore the United States itself. As Franklin was Postmaster under the Continental Congress and was George Washingtons first Postmaster, in 1801, the title of surveyor was changed to Special Agent. In 1830, the Special Agents were organized into the Office of Instructions, the Postal Inspection Service was the first federal law enforcement agency to use the title Special Agent for its officers. Congress changed this title to Inspector in 1880, for some time, one of their primary duties was the enforcement of obscenity prohibitions under the Comstock Act. As fact-finding and investigative agents, Postal Inspectors are sworn law enforcement officers who carry firearms, make arrests and serve federal search warrants. Inspectors work closely with U. S. Attorneys, other law enforcement agencies, the USPIS has responsibility to safeguard over 600,000 Postal Service employees and billions of pieces of mail transported worldwide yearly by air, land, rail and sea. The USPS OIG conducts independent audits and investigations, Audits of postal programs and operations help to determine whether the programs and operations are efficient and cost-effective. Investigations help prevent and detect fraud, waste, and misconduct and have a deterrent effect on postal crimes, the OIG primarily took over the Postal Inspection Services audit function, as well as fraud waste and abuse. Since the September 11,2001, attacks, the USPIS has also investigated several cases where ricin, anthrax, mcGee is credited with assisting in the conviction of former Illinois Governor Otto Kerner on mail fraud charges. This function also investigates robberies of postal employees and postal facilities, burglaries of postal facilities and this investigative function focuses on ensuring that the sanctity and trust in the U. S. The laundering of narcotics and other criminal proceeds through the use of Postal Money Orders is sometimes categorized under this investigative function, security Audits are conducted by these teams to ensure that postal service maintains facilities secure from not only theft and robberies but also natural and manmade disasters. USPIS maintains investigators in the US and in posts around the world for protection, liaison, joint Task Force Investigations, USPIS participates in joint task force investigations where laws applicable to the mail service are involved. These cases are often wide ranging and involve every law enforcement agency of the Federal Government, the U. S. Postal Inspection Service first established a crime lab in 1940
9.
Sectional center facility
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A Sectional Center Facility routes mail between local post offices and to and from Network Distribution Centers, which form the backbone of the network. The following are the USPS SCFs by state that, together, Note, Alabama 369 is served by Meridian, Mississippi. Note, AZ864 served by Las Vegas, Nevada, AZ865 served by Gallup, New Mexico,854,858,861, phoenix Tucson Note, Arkansas 723 served by Memphis, Tennessee, Arkansas 718 served by Shreveport, Louisiana. Pine Bluff Camden Hot Springs Little Rock Jonesboro Fayetteville Russellville Fort Smith Note, CA961 is served by Reno, Nevada, denver CO80249 Grand Junction Note,066,068, and 069 are served by Westchester, New York. Washington,900 Brentwood Rd NE, Washington DC 20066-9998200 - street, PO box addresses 202-205 - US government, agencies, Note, Florida 343,345, and 348 are unassigned. Tampa, FL33605 St. Petersburg Lakeland Fort Myers Manasota Note, Georgia 307 is served by Chattanooga, pocatello Lewiston Boise Note, Illinois 620,622, and 628-629 are served by St. Louis, Missouri,621 is unassigned. Des Moines Waterloo Cedar Rapids Note, 660-662 and 664-668 are served by Kansas City, Missouri,677 is served by North Platte, Nebraska,679 is served by Amarillo, louisville Lexington Campton Paducah Note,702 and 709 are unassigned. St. Paul Minneapolis Duluth Rochester Mankato Windom Willmar St. Cloud Brainerd Detroit Lakes Bemidji Thief River Falls Note, Mississippi 386 and 388 are served by Memphis, jackson Hattiesburg Gulfport Note, Missouri 634-635 are now split between St. Louis and Columbia. 632, 642-643, and 659 are unassigned, St. Louis 1720 Market St. St. Louis, MO63155 Cape Girardeau Kansas City Mid-MO, Missouri Springfield Billings Great Falls Missoula Note,682 and 694-699 are unassigned. Omaha Norfolk Grand Island North Platte Note,892 and 899 are unassigned, Las Vegas Reno Elko Note, New Hampshire 035-037 are served by White River Junction, Vermont. Manchester 955 Goffs Falls Rd. Manchester, NH03103 Dominick V. Albuquerque ) Note, New York 06390 is served by Hartford, Note, Ohio 439 is served by Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. Columbus Toledo Cleveland Akron Cincinnati Dayton Note, Oklahoma 739 is served by Amarillo, Texas,732 and 742 are unassigned,733 is assigned to Austin, Texas. Oklahoma City Ardmore Lawton Clinton Enid Woodward Tulsa Muskogee McAlester Ponca City Durant Poteau Note, Oregon 979 is served by Boise, Portland 715 NW Hoyt St. Portland, OR 97208-9998 Eugene Medford Bend Pendleton See Guam above. Note, Pennsylvania 193 is served by Wilmington, Delaware, providence, RI02904 Note, South Carolina 297 is served by Charlotte, North Carolina, South Carolina 298 is served by Augusta, Georgia, and South Carolina 299 is served by Savannah, Georgia. Austin North Texas Located in Coppell Dallas North Houston 4600 Aldine Bender Rd,77315 Fort Worth Abilene Corpus Christi San Antonio 10410 Perrin Beitel Rd, San Antonio, TX78284 McAllen Amarillo Lubbock Midland El Paso Note,842 is unassigned. Salt Lake City Provo Note,055 is assigned to Middlesex-Essex, White River Junction 195 Sykes Mountain Ave. White River Junction, VT05001 Burlington 8 New England Dr, Essex Jct, VT,05452 See Puerto Rico above. Note, Virginia 246 is served by Bluefield, West Virginia, Virginia 242 is served by Johnson City, Charleston 1000 Centre Way, Charleston, WV25309 Note, Wisconsin 540 is served by St. Paul, Minnesota. Cheyenne Wheatland Rawlins Casper Rock Springs The Military Postal Service Agency takes control of the mail at New York, Miami, or San Francisco, Note, for military postal purposes Canada, Africa, and the Middle East are in Europe
10.
Shift work
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Shift work is an employment practice designed to make use of, or provide service across, all 24 hours of the clock each day of the week. The practice typically sees the day divided into shifts, set periods of time during which different groups of workers perform their duties, the term shift work includes both long-term night shifts and work schedules in which employees change or rotate shifts. Shift work can also contribute to strain in marital, family, Shift work increases the risk for the development of many disorders. Shift work sleep disorder is a circadian rhythm sleep disorder characterized by insomnia, excessive sleepiness, Shift work is considered essential for the diagnosis. The risk of diabetes mellitus type 2 is increased in shift workers, people working rotating shifts are more vulnerable than others. Women whose work involves night shifts have a 48% increased risk of developing breast cancer and this may be due to alterations in circadian rhythm, melatonin, a known tumor suppressor, is generally produced at night and late shifts may disrupt its production. The WHOs International Agency for Research on Cancer listed shiftwork that involves circadian disruption as a probable carcinogen, Shift work may also increase the risk of other types of cancer. Artificial lighting may additionally contribute to disturbed homeostasis, Shift work may also increase a persons risk of smoking. The health consequences of shift work may depend on chronotype, that is, being a day person or a night person, different shift schedules will have different impacts on the health of a shift worker. The way the pattern is designed affects how shift workers sleep, eat. Some shift patterns can exacerbate fatigue by limiting rest, increasing stress, compared with the day shift, injuries and accidents have been estimated to increase by 15% on evening shifts and 28% on night shifts. Longer shifts are associated with more injuries and accidents, 10-hour shifts had 13% more. Other studies have showed a link between fatigue and workplace injuries and accidents, workers with sleep deprivation are far more likely to be injured or involved in an accident. One study suggests that, for working a night shift. The studys evening sleep subjects had 37% fewer episodes of attentional impairment than the morning sleepers, there are four major determinants of cognitive performance and alertness in healthy shift-workers. They are, circadian phase, sleep inertia, acute sleep deprivation, the circadian phase is relatively fixed in humans, attempting to shift it so that an individual is alert during the circadian bathyphase is difficult. Sleep during the day is shorter and less consolidated than night-time sleep, before a night shift, workers generally sleep less than before a day shift. The relative effects of sleep inertia vs. the other factors are hard to quantify, however, the benefits of napping appear to outweigh the cost associated with sleep inertia
11.
Mr. ZIP
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Wilcoxs design was a child-like sketch of a postman delivering a letter. The figure was used only a few times, then filed away, later, AT&T acquired the design and made it available to the Post Office Department at no cost. Miami-based Post Office Department artist Joe Lawrence retained the face but sharpened the limbs and torso, the new figure, who Lawrence had dubbed Mr. ZIP, was unveiled at a convention of postmasters in October 1962. The Post Office had little difficulty in getting mass mailers to use the ZIP Code as it could make its inclusion a condition for receiving preferential mailing rates and this was particularly true of older mailers. Mr. ZIP was the Post Offices answer to this, apparently intended to teach children to always use the ZIP Code as they got older. His limbs were very thin, almost like those of a stick figure and he was particularly used on posters promoting ZIP Code use. The character was phased out by the late 1970s. He also appeared on non-postally-valid labels inside, or on the cover of, stamp collectors sometimes collect the corner block of four stamps with the part of the selvage bearing Mr. ZIP, these are called ZIP blocks. Mr. ZIP appeared in the selvage of United States stamps until January 1986. The Post Office re-introduced Mr. ZIP to stamps in 2013, celebrating the 50th anniversary of the ZIP Code system
12.
Selvage
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A selvage or selvedge is a self-finished edge of fabric. The selvages keep the fabric from unraveling or fraying, the selvages are a result of how the fabric is created. In woven fabric, selvages are the edges that run parallel to the warp, in knitted fabrics, selvages are the unfinished yet structurally sound edges that were neither cast on nor bound off. Historically, the term applied only to loom woven fabric. The terms selvage and selvedge are a corruption of self-edge, and have been in use since the 16th century. In the print industry, selvage is the area of a printed or perforated sheet of any material. The term is widely used in philately. In textile terminology, threads that run the length of the fabric are warp ends, threads running laterally from edge to edge, that is from left side to right side of the fabric as it emerges from the loom, are weft picks. Selvages form the lateral edges of the fabric and are formed during the weaving process. The weave used to construct the selvage may be the same or different from the weave of the body of the fabric cloth, most selvages are narrow, but some may be as wide as.75 inches. Descriptions woven into the selvage using special jacquards, colored or fancy threads may be incorporated for identification purposes, for many end-uses the selvage is discarded. Selvages are finished and will not fray because the weft threads double back on themselves and are looped under and over the warp. A loom with a shuttle, such as most hand weaving looms, will produce a very different selvage from a loom without a shuttle, also in industry sometimes the selvage is made thicker with a binding thread. Selvages of fabrics formed on weaving machines with shuttles, such as hand looms, are formed by the weft turning at the end of each pick or every second pick, to prevent fraying, various selvage motions are used to bind the warp into the body of the cloth. Selvages are created to protect the fabric during weaving and subsequent processing but ideally should not detract from the finished cloth via ripples, contractions or waviness. In handweaving the selvage is generally the same thickness as the rest of the cloth, a plain weave selvage is the other option, where the last few threads on either side are woven in plain weave. In industry the selvage may be thicker than the rest of the fabric, more simply, they finish the left and right-hand edges of fabric as it exits the loom, especially for the ubiquitous criss-cross simple or tabby weave, referred to in industry as taffeta weave. Selvages on machine-woven fabric often have holes along their length, through the thick part
13.
Postage stamp
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Postage stamp may also refer to a formatting artifact in the display of film or video, Windowbox. A postage stamp is a piece of paper that is purchased and displayed on an item of mail as evidence of payment of postage. Typically, stamps are printed on special paper, show a national designation and a denomination on the front. They are sometimes a source of net profit to the issuing agency, stamps are usually rectangular, but triangles or other shapes are occasionally used. The stamp is affixed to an envelope or other postal cover the customer wishes to send, the item is then processed by the postal system, where a postmark, sometimes known as a cancellation mark, is usually applied in overlapping manner to stamp and cover. This procedure marks the stamp as used to prevent its reuse, in modern usage, postmarks generally indicate the date and point of origin of the mailing. The mailed item is delivered to the address the customer has applied to the envelope or parcel. Postage stamps have facilitated the delivery of mail since the 1840s, before then, ink and hand-stamps, usually made from wood or cork, were often used to frank the mail and confirm the payment of postage. The first adhesive postage stamp, commonly referred to as the Penny Black, was issued in the United Kingdom in 1840, there are varying accounts of the inventor or inventors of the stamp. The postage stamp resolved this issue in a simple and elegant manner, concurrently with the first stamps, the UK offered wrappers for mail. S. Postal service for priority or express mailing, the postage stamp afforded convenience for both the mailer and postal officials, more effectively recovered costs for the postal service, and ultimately resulted in a better, faster postal system. With the conveniences stamps offered, their use resulted in greatly increased mailings during the 19th and 20th centuries, as postage stamps with their engraved imagery began to appear on a widespread basis, historians and collectors began to take notice. The study of stamps and their use is referred to as philately. Stamp collecting can be both a hobby and a form of study and reference, as government-issued postage stamps. The postage for the item was prepaid by the use of a hand-stamp to frank the mailed item. Though this stamp was applied to a letter instead of a piece of paper it is considered by many historians as the worlds first postage stamp. Rowland Hill The Englishman Sir Rowland Hill began interest in postal reform in 1835, in 1836, a Member of Parliament, Robert Wallace, provided Hill with numerous books and documents, which Hill described as a half hundred weight of material. Hill commenced a study of these documents, leading him to the 1837 publication of a pamphlet entitled Post Office Reform its Importance
14.
City block
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A city block, urban block or simply block is a central element of urban planning and urban design. A city block is the smallest area that is surrounded by streets, City blocks are the space for buildings within the street pattern of a city, and form the basic unit of a citys urban fabric. City blocks may be subdivided into any number of land lots usually in private ownership, though in some cases. City blocks are usually built-up to varying degrees and thus form the physical containers or streetwalls of public space, most cities are composed of a greater or lesser variety of sizes and shapes of urban block. This arrangement is intended to provide social interaction among people. Since the spacing of streets in grid plans varies so widely among cities, or even within cities, it is difficult to generalize about the size of a city block. However, as points, the standard square blocks of Portland, Houston, and Sacramento are 264 by 264 feet,330 by 330 feet. Oblong blocks range considerably in width and length, the standard block in Manhattan is about 264 by 900 feet, and in some U. S. cities standard blocks are as wide as 660 feet. The blocks in Edmonton, Canada are 330 by 560 feet, the blocks in central Melbourne, Australia, are 330 by 660 feet, formed by splitting the square blocks in an original grid with a narrow street down the middle. Many world cities have grown by accretion over time rather than being planned from the outset, for this reason, a regular pattern of even, square or rectangular city blocks is not so common among European cities, for example. An exception is represented by those cities that were founded as Roman military settlements, one notable example is Turin, Italy. Following the example of Philadelphia, New York City adopted the Commissioners Plan of 1811 for an extensive grid plan. In much of the United States and Canada, the addressing systems follow a block and lot number system, the concept of city block can be generalized as a superblock or sub-block. Superblocks were popular during the early and mid-20th century, arising from modernist ideas in architecture, planning in this era was based upon the distance and speed scales for the automobile and discounted the pedestrian and cyclist modes, as obsolete transportation vehicles. Superblocks are often found in suburbs or planned cities, or are the result of urban renewal of the mid-20th century, in a residential area of a suburb, the interior of the superblock is typically served by dead-ended or looped streets. In this way, superblocks cut up the city into isolated units, expanded automobile dominance, superblocks can also be found in central city areas, where they are more often associated with institutional, educational, recreational and corporate rather than residential uses. The traditional urban block diffused automobile traffic onto several narrower roads at slower speeds and this more finely connected network of narrower roads better allowed the pedestrian and cyclist realms to flourish. The superblock, at the only suitable for automobiles
15.
Intelligent Mail barcode
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The Intelligent Mail Barcode is a 65-bar barcode for use on mail in the United States. The term “Intelligent Mail” refers to services offered by the United States Postal Service for domestic mail delivery, the IM barcode is intended to provide greater information and functionality than its predecessors POSTNET and PLANET. An Intelligent Mail barcode has also referred to as a One Code Solution. The complete specification can be found in USPS Document USPS-B-3200 and it effectively incorporates the routing ZIP code and tracking information included in previously used postal barcode standards. The barcode is applied by the sender, the Postal Service required use of the Intelligent Mail barcode to qualify for automation prices beginning January 28,2013, use of the barcode provides increased overall efficiency, including improved deliverability, and new services. The Intelligent Mail barcode is a barcode that encodes up to 31 decimal digits of mail-piece data into 65 vertical bars. The code is made up of four symbols, which is why it was once referred to as the 4-State Customer Barcode. Each bar contains the central portion, and may contain an ascender, descender, neither. The 65 bars represent 130 bits, grouped as ten 13-bit characters, each character has 2,5,8, or 11 of its 13 bits set to one. The Hamming distance between characters is at least 2, consequently, single-bit errors in a character can be detected. The characters are interleaved throughout the symbol, the number of characters can be calculated from the binomial coefficient. + + + =78 +1287 +1287 +78 =2 ⋅1365 =2730 The total number of characters is two times 1365, or 2730, so the 65 bars encode a 114-bit message. The encoding includes a cyclic redundancy check to detect, but not correct. Subtracting the 11 CRC bits from the 114-bit message leaves an information payload of 103 bits, consequently,27 of the 130 bits are devoted to error detection. It is also available for future United States Postal Service use and this is accomplished using two digits, with the second digit in the range of 0–4. The allowable encoding ranges are 00–04, 10–14, 20–24, 30–34, 40–44, 50–54, 60–64, 70–74, 80–84, the list of valid field values is as follows, A three-digit value represents both the class of the mail, and any services requested by the sender. Basic STIDs, for the purpose of only, are as follows, For a detailed list of STIDs, see Appendix A of the USPS Guide to Intelligent Mail Letters. A six- or nine-digit number assigned by the United States Postal Service identifies the specific business sending the mailing, higher volume mailers are eligible to receive six-digit Mailer IDs, which have a larger range of associated sequence numbers, lower volume mailers receive nine-digit Mailer IDs
16.
Post-office box
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A post-office box or post office box is a uniquely addressable lockable box located on the premises of a post office station. In many regions, particularly in Africa and the Middle East, there is no door to door delivery of mail, for example, consequently, renting a PO box has traditionally been the only way to receive mail in such countries. However, some, like Jordan, have introduced mail home delivery, generally, post office boxes are rented from the post office either by individuals or by businesses on a basis ranging from monthly to annual, and the cost of rent varies depending on the box size. Central business district PO boxes are more expensive than rural PO boxes. In the United States, the rate used to be uniform across the country. In the United Kingdom, Royal Mail PO boxes are often more than pigeon-holes in the secure section of a sorting office. In such cases, the renter of the PO box will be issued with a showing the PO box number and delivery office name. For an additional fee, the Royal Mail will deliver received items to the geographical address. Some private companies (e. g. United Parcel Service and commercial mail receiving agencies, the difference with an official PO box is that mail sent there is addressed to a street address, instead of just addressed to PO Box CSX. The quantity of post office boxes in a station varies widely, stations of small areas are often equipped with fewer than 100 boxes, while stations in a central business district area may offer a combined quantity of over 200,000 post office boxes. In many post offices in the U. S. the PO box lobby is separate from the window-service lobby, as a result, some box lobbies are accessible after-hours by customers who are provided a code to a door keypad. In addition, some post offices are located in rented facilities such as shopping malls, as a result, PO boxes can only be accessed while that facility is open. If a parcel does not fit in a PO box, the postmaster will leave a note advising that customer to pick up that parcel from the counter. In some post offices, a key will be left in the PO box that corresponds to a larger, locked box where the patron may pick up his or her package if a signature is not required. Most often, in case, once the key is used to open the larger, locked box, the key cannot be removed again by the patron. Notes will also be left in the PO box in respect of cash on delivery, in 2011, the United States Postal Service began a pilot program called gopost which installed larger boxes to handle package pickup from an unstaffed station. A given box can be used by multiple customers thanks to the integration of a computer which accepts a delivery code, patent 6,690,997, issued February 10,2004 to Michael A. Rivalto. Deutsche Post started a concept called a Packstation in 2001
17.
WordPerfect
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WordPerfect is a word processing application owned by Corel with a long history on multiple personal computer platforms. The program was developed under contract at Brigham Young University for use on a Data General minicomputer in 1979. The authors retained the rights to the program, forming Satellite Software International to sell it under the name WordPerfect in 1980, a port to MS-DOS followed in 1982 and several greatly updated versions quickly followed. The applications feature list was more advanced than its main competition, WordStar. Despite its comprehensive abilities, it gained praise for its minimalistic look of spareness. WordPerfect rapidly displaced most other systems, especially after the 4.2 release in 1986, by release 5.1 in 1989, WordPerfect had become a standard in the DOS market. At the height of its popularity, in the 1980s, it was a dominant player in the processor market, partly because of extensive, no-cost support. While best known in its DOS and Microsoft Windows versions, its popularity was based partly on its availability for a wide variety of computers. Its dominant position ended after a release for Microsoft Windows. Microsoft Word, having been tuned for some time on the Mac, was introduced at the time in a much superior version. Word rapidly took over the market, helped by aggressive bundling deals that ultimately produced Office, the common filename extension of WordPerfect document files is. wpd. Older versions of WordPerfect also used file extensions. wp. wp7. wp6. wp5. wp4, Bastian and Ashton kept the rights to the WordPerfect software they produced. The two founded Satellite Software International, Inc. of Orem, Utah, to market the program to other Data General users, WordPerfect 1.0 represented a significant departure from the previous Wang standard for word processing. The first version of WordPerfect for the IBM PC was released the day after Thanksgiving,1982 and it was sold as WordPerfect 2.20, continuing the version numbering from the Data General. Over the next months, three more minor releases arrived mainly to correct bugs. The developers had hoped to program WordPerfect in C. Most of the programming languages then available were unsuited for the job. All versions of WordPerfect up to 5.0 were written thus, in addition, WordStar was extremely slow in switching to support for subdirectories
18.
Microsoft Word
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Microsoft Word is a word processor developed by Microsoft. It was first released on October 25,1983 under the name Multi-Tool Word for Xenix systems, commercial versions of Word are licensed as a standalone product or as a component of Microsoft Office, Windows RT or the discontinued Microsoft Works suite. Microsoft Word Viewer and Office Online are freeware editions of Word with limited features, in 1981, Microsoft hired Charles Simonyi, the primary developer of Bravo, the first GUI word processor, which was developed at Xerox PARC. Simonyi started work on a word processor called Multi-Tool Word and soon hired Richard Brodie, a former Xerox intern, Microsoft announced Multi-Tool Word for Xenix and MS-DOS in 1983. Its name was simplified to Microsoft Word. Free demonstration copies of the application were bundled with the November 1983 issue of PC World and that year Microsoft demonstrated Word running on Windows. Unlike most MS-DOS programs at the time, Microsoft Word was designed to be used with a mouse and it was not initially popular, since its user interface was different from the leading word processor at the time, WordStar. However, Microsoft steadily improved the product, releasing versions 2.0 through 5.0 over the six years. In 1985, Microsoft ported Word to Mac OS and this was made easier by Word for DOS having been designed for use with high-resolution displays and laser printers, even though none were yet available to the general public. Following the precedents of LisaWrite and MacWrite, Word for Mac OS added true WYSIWYG features and it fulfilled a need for a word processor that was more capable than MacWrite. After its release, Word for Mac OSs sales were higher than its MS-DOS counterpart for at least four years, Word 3.0 included numerous internal enhancements and new features, including the first implementation of the Rich Text Format specification, but was plagued with bugs. Within a few months, Word 3.0 was superseded by a more stable Word 3.01, after MacWrite Pro was discontinued in the mid-1990s, Word for Mac OS never had any serious rivals. Word 5.1 for Mac OS, released in 1992, was a popular word processor owing to its elegance, relative ease of use. Many users say it is the best version of Word for Mac OS ever created, in 1986, an agreement between Atari and Microsoft brought Word to the Atari ST under the name Microsoft Write. The Atari ST version was a port of Word 1.05 for the Mac OS and was never updated due to the degree of software piracy on the Atari platform. The first version of Word for Windows was released in 1989, with the release of Windows 3.0 the following year, sales began to pick up and Microsoft soon became the market leader for word processors for IBM PC-compatible computers. When Microsoft became aware of the Year 2000 problem, it made Microsoft Word 5.5 for DOS available for download free, as of March 2014, it is still available for download from Microsofts web site. In 1991, Microsoft embarked on a project code-named Pyramid to completely rewrite Microsoft Word from the ground up, both the Windows and Mac OS versions would start from the same code base
19.
Discounts and allowances
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Discounts and allowances are reductions to a basic price of goods or services. They can occur anywhere in the channel, modifying either the manufacturers list price. Some discounts and allowances are forms of sales promotion, the most common types of discounts and allowances are listed below. Trade Discounts are deductions in price given by the wholesaler or manufacturer to the retailer at the list price or catalogue price, cash Discounts are reductions in price given by the creditor to the debitor to motivate the debitor to make payment with in specified time. These discounts are intended to speed payment and thereby provide liquidity to the firm and they are sometimes used as a promotional device. We also explain that discount is relaxation in price, 2/10 net 30 - this means the buyer must pay within 30 days of the invoice date, but will receive a 2% discount if they pay within 10 days of the invoice date. 3/7 EOM - this means the buyer will receive a discount of 3% if the bill is paid within 7 days after the end of the month indicated on the invoice date. If an invoice is received on or before the 25th day of the month, if a proper invoice is received after the 25th day of the month, payment is due on the 7th day of the second calendar month. 3/7 EOM net 30 - this means the buyer must pay within 30 days of the invoice date, if an invoice is received on or before the 25th day of the month, payment is due on the 7th day of the next calendar month. If a proper invoice is received after the 25th day of the month, 2/15 net 40 ROG - this means the buyer must pay within 40 days of receipt of goods, but will receive a 2% discount if paid in 15 days of the invoice date. Some retailers offer discounts to customers paying cash, to avoid paying fees on credit card transactions. Similar to the Trade discount, this is used when the seller wishes to improve cash flow or liquidity, a partial discount for whatever payment the buyer makes helps the sellers cash flow partially. A discount offered based on ability to pay. More common with non-profit organizations than with for-profit retail and this is where the purchaser doesn’t pay for the goods until well after they arrive. The date on the invoice is moved forward - example, purchase goods in November for sale during the December holiday season and these are price reductions given when an order is placed in a slack period. On a shorter scale, a happy hour may fall in this category. Generally, this discount is referred to as X-Dating or Ex-Dating, bargaining is where the seller and the buyer negotiate a price below the original asking price. Trade discounts, also called functional discounts, are payments to distribution channel members for performing some function, examples of these functions are warehousing and shelf stocking
20.
Typeface
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In metal typesetting, a font is a particular size, weight and style of a typeface. Each font was a set of type, one piece for each glyph. In modern usage, with the advent of digital typography, font is frequently synonymous with typeface, in particular, the use of vector or outline fonts means that different sizes of a typeface can be dynamically generated from one design. The word font derives from Middle French fonte melted, a casting, the term refers to the process of casting metal type at a type foundry. In a manual printing house the word font would refer to a set of metal type that would be used to typeset an entire page. Unlike a digital typeface it would not include a definition of each character. A font when bought new would often be sold as 12pt 14A 34a, meaning that it would be a size 12-point font containing 14 uppercase As, given the name upper and lowercase because of which case the metal type was located in, otherwise known as majuscule and minuscule. The rest of the characters would be provided in quantities appropriate for the distribution of letters in that language. Some metal type characters required in typesetting, such as dashes, spaces and line-height spacers, were not part of a specific font, line spacing is still often called leading, because the strips used for line spacing were made of lead. In the 1880s–90s, hot lead typesetting was invented, in which type was cast as it was set, either piece by piece or in entire lines of type at one time. In European alphabetic scripts, i. e. Latin, Cyrillic and Greek, the main properties are the stroke width, called weight, the style or angle. The regular or standard font is sometimes labeled roman, both to distinguish it from bold or thin and from italic or oblique. The keyword for the default, regular case is often omitted for variants and never repeated, otherwise it would be Bulmer regular italic, Bulmer bold regular, Roman can also refer to the language coverage of a font, acting as a shorthand for Western European. Different fonts of the same typeface may be used in the work for various degrees of readability and emphasis. The weight of a font is the thickness of the character outlines relative to their height. A typeface may come in fonts of many weights, from ultra-light to extra-bold or black, four to six weights are not unusual, many typefaces for office, web and non-professional use come with just a normal and a bold weight which are linked together. If no bold weight is provided, many renderers support faking a bolder font by rendering the outline a second time at an offset, the base weight differs among typefaces, that means one normal font may appear bolder than some other normal font. For example, fonts intended to be used in posters are often quite bold by default while fonts for long runs of text are rather light, therefore, weight designations in font names may differ in regard to the actual absolute stroke weight or density of glyphs in the font
21.
Numerical digit
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A digit is a numeric symbol used in combinations to represent numbers in positional numeral systems. The name digit comes from the fact that the 10 digits of the hands correspond to the 10 symbols of the common base 10 numeral system, i. e. the decimal digits. In a given system, if the base is an integer. For example, the system has ten digits, whereas binary has two digits. In a basic system, a numeral is a sequence of digits. Each position in the sequence has a value, and each digit has a value. The value of the numeral is computed by multiplying each digit in the sequence by its place value, each digit in a number system represents an integer. For example, in decimal the digit 1 represents the one, and in the hexadecimal system. A positional number system must have a digit representing the integers from zero up to, but not including, thus in the positional decimal system, the numbers 0 to 9 can be expressed using their respective numerals 0 to 9 in the rightmost units position. The Hindu–Arabic numeral system uses a decimal separator, commonly a period in English, or a comma in other European languages, to denote the place or units place. Each successive place to the left of this has a value equal to the place value of the previous digit times the base. Similarly, each place to the right of the separator has a place value equal to the place value of the previous digit divided by the base. For example, in the numeral 10, the total value of the number is 1 ten,0 ones,3 tenths, and 4 hundredths. Note that the zero, which contributes no value to the number, the place value of any given digit in a numeral can be given by a simple calculation, which in itself is a compliment to the logic behind numeral systems. And to the right, the digit is multiplied by the base raised by a negative n, for example, in the number 10. This system was established by the 7th century in India, but was not yet in its modern form because the use of the digit zero had not yet widely accepted. Instead of a zero, a dot was left in the numeral as a placeholder, the first widely acknowledged use of zero was in 876. The original numerals were very similar to the ones, even down to the glyphs used to represent digits
22.
Modular arithmetic
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In mathematics, modular arithmetic is a system of arithmetic for integers, where numbers wrap around upon reaching a certain value—the modulus. The modern approach to modular arithmetic was developed by Carl Friedrich Gauss in his book Disquisitiones Arithmeticae, a familiar use of modular arithmetic is in the 12-hour clock, in which the day is divided into two 12-hour periods. If the time is 7,00 now, then 8 hours later it will be 3,00. Usual addition would suggest that the time should be 7 +8 =15. Likewise, if the clock starts at 12,00 and 21 hours elapse, then the time will be 9,00 the next day, because the hour number starts over after it reaches 12, this is arithmetic modulo 12. According to the definition below,12 is congruent not only to 12 itself, Modular arithmetic can be handled mathematically by introducing a congruence relation on the integers that is compatible with the operations on integers, addition, subtraction, and multiplication. For a positive n, two integers a and b are said to be congruent modulo n, written, a ≡ b. The number n is called the modulus of the congruence, for example,38 ≡14 because 38 −14 =24, which is a multiple of 12. The same rule holds for negative values, −8 ≡72 ≡ −3 −3 ≡ −8. Equivalently, a ≡ b mod n can also be thought of as asserting that the remainders of the division of both a and b by n are the same, for instance,38 ≡14 because both 38 and 14 have the same remainder 2 when divided by 12. It is also the case that 38 −14 =24 is a multiple of 12. A remark on the notation, Because it is common to consider several congruence relations for different moduli at the same time, in spite of the ternary notation, the congruence relation for a given modulus is binary. This would have been if the notation a ≡n b had been used. The properties that make this relation a congruence relation are the following, if a 1 ≡ b 1 and a 2 ≡ b 2, then, a 1 + a 2 ≡ b 1 + b 2 a 1 − a 2 ≡ b 1 − b 2. The above two properties would still hold if the theory were expanded to all real numbers, that is if a1, a2, b1, b2. The next property, however, would fail if these variables were not all integers, the notion of modular arithmetic is related to that of the remainder in Euclidean division. The operation of finding the remainder is referred to as the modulo operation. For example, the remainder of the division of 14 by 12 is denoted by 14 mod 12, as this remainder is 2, we have 14 mod 12 =2
23.
Subtraction
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Subtraction is a mathematical operation that represents the operation of removing objects from a collection. It is signified by the minus sign, for example, in the picture on the right, there are 5 −2 apples—meaning 5 apples with 2 taken away, which is a total of 3 apples. It is anticommutative, meaning that changing the order changes the sign of the answer and it is not associative, meaning that when one subtracts more than two numbers, the order in which subtraction is performed matters. Subtraction of 0 does not change a number, subtraction also obeys predictable rules concerning related operations such as addition and multiplication. All of these rules can be proven, starting with the subtraction of integers and generalizing up through the real numbers, general binary operations that continue these patterns are studied in abstract algebra. Performing subtraction is one of the simplest numerical tasks, subtraction of very small numbers is accessible to young children. In primary education, students are taught to subtract numbers in the system, starting with single digits. Subtraction is written using the minus sign − between the terms, that is, in infix notation, the result is expressed with an equals sign. This is most common in accounting, formally, the number being subtracted is known as the subtrahend, while the number it is subtracted from is the minuend. All of this terminology derives from Latin, subtraction is an English word derived from the Latin verb subtrahere, which is in turn a compound of sub from under and trahere to pull, thus to subtract is to draw from below, take away. Using the gerundive suffix -nd results in subtrahend, thing to be subtracted, likewise from minuere to reduce or diminish, one gets minuend, thing to be diminished. Imagine a line segment of length b with the left end labeled a, starting from a, it takes b steps to the right to reach c. This movement to the right is modeled mathematically by addition, a + b = c, from c, it takes b steps to the left to get back to a. This movement to the left is modeled by subtraction, c − b = a, now, a line segment labeled with the numbers 1,2, and 3. From position 3, it takes no steps to the left to stay at 3 and it takes 2 steps to the left to get to position 1, so 3 −2 =1. This picture is inadequate to describe what would happen after going 3 steps to the left of position 3, to represent such an operation, the line must be extended. To subtract arbitrary natural numbers, one begins with a line containing every natural number, from 3, it takes 3 steps to the left to get to 0, so 3 −3 =0. But 3 −4 is still invalid since it leaves the line
24.
Federated States of Micronesia
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Together, the states comprise around 607 islands that cover a longitudinal distance of almost 2,700 km just north of the equator. While the FSMs total land area is small, it occupies more than 2,600,000 km2 of the Pacific Ocean. The capital is Palikir, located on Pohnpei Island, while the largest city is Weno, each of its four states is centered on one or more main high islands, and all but Kosrae include numerous outlying atolls. The Federated States of Micronesia is spread across part of the Caroline Islands in the region of Micronesia. The term Micronesia may refer to the Federated States or to the region as a whole, the FSM was formerly a part of the Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands, a United Nations Trust Territory under U. S. Other neighboring island entities, and also members of the TTPI, formulated their own constitutional governments and became the Republic of the Marshall Islands. The FSM has a seat in the United Nations, the ancestors of the Micronesians settled over four thousand years ago. A decentralized chieftain-based system eventually evolved into a centralized economic. Nan Madol, consisting of a series of artificial islands linked by a network of canals, is often called the Venice of the Pacific. European explorers—first the Portuguese in search of the Spice Islands and then the Spanish—reached the Carolines in the sixteenth century, the Spanish incorporated the archipelago to the Spanish East Indies and in the 19th century established a number of outposts and missions. In 1887, they founded the town of Santiago de la Ascension in what today is Kolonia on the island of Pohnpei, following defeat in the Spanish–American War, the Spanish sold the archipelago to Germany in 1899 under the German–Spanish Treaty of 1899. Germany incorporated it into German New Guinea, during World War I, it was captured by Japan. Following the war, the League of Nations awarded a mandate for Japan to administer the islands as part of the South Pacific Mandate, during World War II, a significant portion of the Japanese fleet was based in Truk Lagoon. In February 1944, Operation Hailstone, one of the most important naval battles of the war, took place at Truk, in which many Japanese support vessels and aircraft were destroyed. On May 10,1979, four of the Trust Territory districts ratified a new constitution to become the Federated States of Micronesia, Palau, the Marshall Islands, and the Northern Mariana Islands chose not to participate. The FSM signed a Compact of Free Association with the United States, independence was formally concluded under international law in 1990, when the United Nations officially ended the Trusteeship status pursuant to Security Council Resolution 683. The Compact was renewed in 2004, the Federated States of Micronesia is governed by the 1979 constitution, which guarantees fundamental human rights and establishes a separation of governmental powers. The unicameral Congress has fourteen members elected by popular vote, four senators—one from each state—serve four-year terms, the remaining ten senators represent single-member districts based on population, and serve two-year terms
25.
Marshall Islands
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The Marshall Islands, officially the Republic of the Marshall Islands, is an island country located near the equator in the Pacific Ocean, slightly west of the International Date Line. Geographically, the country is part of the island group of Micronesia. The countrys population of 53,158 people is spread out over 29 coral atolls, comprising 1,156 individual islands and islets. The islands share maritime boundaries with the Federated States of Micronesia to the west, Wake Island to the north, Kiribati to the south-east, about 27,797 of the islanders live on Majuro, which contains the capital. Micronesian colonists gradually settled the Marshall Islands during the 2nd millennium BC, Islands in the archipelago were first explored by Europeans in the 1520s, with Spanish explorer Alonso de Salazar sighting an atoll in August 1526. Other expeditions by Spanish and English ships followed, the islands derive their name from British explorer John Marshall, who visited in 1788. The islands were known by the inhabitants as jolet jen Anij. The European powers recognized Spanish sovereignty over the islands in 1874 and they had been part of the Spanish East Indies formally since 1528. Later, Spain sold the islands to the German Empire in 1884, in World War I the Empire of Japan occupied the Marshall Islands, which in 1919 the League of Nations combined with other former German territories to form the South Pacific Mandate. In World War II, the United States conquered the islands in the Gilbert, along with other Pacific Islands, the Marshall Islands were then consolidated into the Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands governed by the US. Self-government was achieved in 1979, and full sovereignty in 1986, Marshall Islands has been a United Nations member state since 1991. The country uses the United States dollar as its currency, the majority of the citizens of the Marshall Islands are of Marshallese descent, though there are small numbers of immigrants from the United States, China, Philippines, and other Pacific islands. The two official languages are Marshallese, which is a member of the Malayo-Polynesian languages, and English, micronesians settled the Marshall Islands in the 2nd millennium BC, but there are no historical or oral records of that period. Over time, the Marshall Island people learned to navigate over long distances by canoe using traditional stick charts. Spanish explorer Alonso de Salazar was the first European to see the islands in 1526, commanding the ship Santa Maria de la Victoria, on August 21, he sighted an island at 14°N that he named San Bartolome. On September 21,1529, Álvaro de Saavedra Cerón commanded the Spanish ship Florida and he stood off a group of islands from which local inhabitants hurled stones at his ship. These islands, which he named Los Pintados, may have been Ujelang, on October 1, he found another group of islands where he went ashore for eight days, exchanged gifts with the local inhabitants and took on water. These islands, which he named Los Jardines, may have been Enewetak or Bikini Atoll
26.
Palau
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Palau, officially the Republic of Palau, is an island country located in the western Pacific Ocean. The country contains approximately 250 islands, forming the western chain of the Caroline Islands in Micronesia, the most populous island is Koror. The capital Ngerulmud is located on the island of Babeldaob. Palau shares maritime boundaries with Indonesia, the Philippines, and the Federated States of Micronesia, the country was originally settled approximately 3,000 years ago by migrants from the Philippines and sustained a Negrito population until around 900 years ago. The islands were first explored by Europeans in the 16th century, the Imperial Japanese Navy conquered Palau during World War I, and the islands were later made a part of the Japanese-ruled South Pacific Mandate by the League of Nations. During World War II, skirmishes, including the major Battle of Peleliu, were fought between American and Japanese troops as part of the Mariana and Palau Islands campaign. Along with other Pacific Islands, Palau was made a part of the United States-governed Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands in 1947. Having voted against joining the Federated States of Micronesia in 1979, politically, Palau is a presidential republic in free association with the United States, which provides defense, funding, and access to social services. Legislative power is concentrated in the bicameral Palau National Congress, Palaus economy is based mainly on tourism, subsistence agriculture and fishing, with a significant portion of gross national product derived from foreign aid. The country uses the United States dollar as its currency, the islands culture mixes Micronesian, Melanesian, Asian, and Western elements. Ethnic Palauans, the majority of the population, are of mixed Micronesian, Melanesian, a smaller proportion of the population is descended from Japanese and Filipino settlers. The countrys two official languages are Palauan and English, with Japanese, Sonsorolese, and Tobian recognised as regional languages. The name for the islands in the Palauan language, Belau, likely derives from either the Palauan word for village, beluu, or from aibebelau, the name Palau entered the English language from the Spanish Los Palaos, via the German Palau. An archaic name for the islands in English was the Pelew Islands and it should not be confused with Pulau, which is a Malay word meaning island. Palau was originally settled between the 3rd and 2nd millennia BC, most likely from the Austronesia or Indonesia, the islands sustained a population of short-statured Negrito or Pygmy people until the 12th century, when they were replaced. The modern population, judging by its language, may have come from the Sunda Islands, however, the Spanish presence only began to express with evangelization, began at the end of 17th century, and its dominance began to take shape in the 18th century. The conscious discovery of Palau came a century later in 1697 and they were interviewed by the Czech missionary Paul Klein on 28 December 1696. Klein was able to draw the first map of Palau based on the Palauans representation of their home islands that made with an arrangement of 87 pebbles on the beach
27.
Washington, D.C.
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Washington, D. C. formally the District of Columbia and commonly referred to as Washington, the District, or simply D. C. is the capital of the United States. The signing of the Residence Act on July 16,1790, Constitution provided for a federal district under the exclusive jurisdiction of the Congress and the District is therefore not a part of any state. The states of Maryland and Virginia each donated land to form the federal district, named in honor of President George Washington, the City of Washington was founded in 1791 to serve as the new national capital. In 1846, Congress returned the land ceded by Virginia, in 1871. Washington had an population of 681,170 as of July 2016. Commuters from the surrounding Maryland and Virginia suburbs raise the population to more than one million during the workweek. The Washington metropolitan area, of which the District is a part, has a population of over 6 million, the centers of all three branches of the federal government of the United States are in the District, including the Congress, President, and Supreme Court. Washington is home to national monuments and museums, which are primarily situated on or around the National Mall. The city hosts 176 foreign embassies as well as the headquarters of international organizations, trade unions, non-profit organizations, lobbying groups. A locally elected mayor and a 13‑member council have governed the District since 1973, However, the Congress maintains supreme authority over the city and may overturn local laws. D. C. residents elect a non-voting, at-large congressional delegate to the House of Representatives, the District receives three electoral votes in presidential elections as permitted by the Twenty-third Amendment to the United States Constitution, ratified in 1961. Various tribes of the Algonquian-speaking Piscataway people inhabited the lands around the Potomac River when Europeans first visited the area in the early 17th century, One group known as the Nacotchtank maintained settlements around the Anacostia River within the present-day District of Columbia. Conflicts with European colonists and neighboring tribes forced the relocation of the Piscataway people, some of whom established a new settlement in 1699 near Point of Rocks, Maryland. 43, published January 23,1788, James Madison argued that the new government would need authority over a national capital to provide for its own maintenance. Five years earlier, a band of unpaid soldiers besieged Congress while its members were meeting in Philadelphia, known as the Pennsylvania Mutiny of 1783, the event emphasized the need for the national government not to rely on any state for its own security. However, the Constitution does not specify a location for the capital, on July 9,1790, Congress passed the Residence Act, which approved the creation of a national capital on the Potomac River. The exact location was to be selected by President George Washington, formed from land donated by the states of Maryland and Virginia, the initial shape of the federal district was a square measuring 10 miles on each side, totaling 100 square miles. Two pre-existing settlements were included in the territory, the port of Georgetown, Maryland, founded in 1751, many of the stones are still standing
28.
New Delhi
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New Delhi is the capital of India and one of Delhi citys 11 districts. The National Capital Region is a larger entity comprising the entire National Capital Territory along with adjoining districts. The foundation stone of the city was laid by George V and it was designed by British architects, Sir Edwin Lutyens and Sir Herbert Baker. The new capital was inaugurated on 13 February 1931, by Viceroy, New Delhi has been selected as one of the hundred Indian cities to be developed as a smart city under Prime Minister of India Narendra Modis flagship Smart Cities Mission. Calcutta was the capital of India during the British Raj until December 1911, Delhi had served as the political and financial centre of several empires of ancient India and the Delhi Sultanate, most notably of the Mughal Empire from 1649 to 1857. During the early 1900s, a proposal was made to the British administration to shift the capital of the British Indian Empire, as India was officially named, from Calcutta on the east coast, to Delhi. The Government of British India felt that it would be easier to administer India from Delhi in the centre of northern India. The land for building the new city of Delhi was acquired under the Land Acquisition Act 1894. The foundation stone of New Delhi was laid by King George V and Queen Mary at the site of Delhi Durbar of 1911 at Kingsway Camp on 15 December 1911, during their imperial visit. Large parts of New Delhi were planned by Edwin Lutyens, who first visited Delhi in 1912, the contract was given to Sobha Singh. The original plan called for its construction in Tughlaqabad, inside the Tughlaqabad fort, construction really began after World War I and was completed by 1931. The city that was later dubbed Lutyens Delhi was inaugurated in ceremonies beginning on 10 February 1931 by Lord Irwin, Lutyens designed the central administrative area of the city as a testament to Britains imperial aspirations. Soon Lutyens started considering other places, however, it was rejected by the Viceroy when the cost of acquiring the necessary properties was found to be too high. The central axis of New Delhi, which faces east at India Gate, was previously meant to be a north-south axis linking the Viceroys House at one end with Paharganj at the other. During the projects early years, many believed it was a gate from Earth to Heaven itself. Eventually, owing to space constraints and the presence of a number of heritage sites in the North side. A site atop the Raisina Hill, formerly Raisina Village, a Meo village, was chosen for the Rashtrapati Bhawan, then known as the Viceroys House. The reason for this choice was that the hill lay directly opposite the Dinapanah citadel, which was considered the site of Indraprastha
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India
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India, officially the Republic of India, is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by area, the second-most populous country, and it is bounded by the Indian Ocean on the south, the Arabian Sea on the southwest, and the Bay of Bengal on the southeast. It shares land borders with Pakistan to the west, China, Nepal, and Bhutan to the northeast, in the Indian Ocean, India is in the vicinity of Sri Lanka and the Maldives. Indias Andaman and Nicobar Islands share a border with Thailand. The Indian subcontinent was home to the urban Indus Valley Civilisation of the 3rd millennium BCE, in the following millennium, the oldest scriptures associated with Hinduism began to be composed. Social stratification, based on caste, emerged in the first millennium BCE, early political consolidations took place under the Maurya and Gupta empires, the later peninsular Middle Kingdoms influenced cultures as far as southeast Asia. In the medieval era, Judaism, Zoroastrianism, Christianity, and Islam arrived, much of the north fell to the Delhi sultanate, the south was united under the Vijayanagara Empire. The economy expanded in the 17th century in the Mughal empire, in the mid-18th century, the subcontinent came under British East India Company rule, and in the mid-19th under British crown rule. A nationalist movement emerged in the late 19th century, which later, under Mahatma Gandhi, was noted for nonviolent resistance, in 2015, the Indian economy was the worlds seventh largest by nominal GDP and third largest by purchasing power parity. Following market-based economic reforms in 1991, India became one of the major economies and is considered a newly industrialised country. However, it continues to face the challenges of poverty, corruption, malnutrition, a nuclear weapons state and regional power, it has the third largest standing army in the world and ranks sixth in military expenditure among nations. India is a constitutional republic governed under a parliamentary system. It is a pluralistic, multilingual and multi-ethnic society and is home to a diversity of wildlife in a variety of protected habitats. The name India is derived from Indus, which originates from the Old Persian word Hindu, the latter term stems from the Sanskrit word Sindhu, which was the historical local appellation for the Indus River. The ancient Greeks referred to the Indians as Indoi, which translates as The people of the Indus, the geographical term Bharat, which is recognised by the Constitution of India as an official name for the country, is used by many Indian languages in its variations. Scholars believe it to be named after the Vedic tribe of Bharatas in the second millennium B. C. E and it is also traditionally associated with the rule of the legendary emperor Bharata. Gaṇarājya is the Sanskrit/Hindi term for republic dating back to the ancient times, hindustan is a Persian name for India dating back to the 3rd century B. C. E. It was introduced into India by the Mughals and widely used since then and its meaning varied, referring to a region that encompassed northern India and Pakistan or India in its entirety
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Central Intelligence Agency
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As one of the principal members of the U. S. Intelligence Community, the CIA reports to the Director of National Intelligence and is focused on providing intelligence for the President. Though it is not the only U. S. government agency specializing in HUMINT and it exerts foreign political influence through its tactical divisions, such as the Special Activities Division. Despite transferring some of its powers to the DNI, the CIA has grown in size as a result of the September 11 attacks. In 2013, The Washington Post reported that in fiscal year 2010, the CIA has increasingly expanded its roles, including covert paramilitary operations. One of its largest divisions, the Information Operations Center, has shifted focus from counter-terrorism to offensive cyber-operations, when the CIA was created, its purpose was to create a clearinghouse for foreign policy intelligence and analysis. Today its primary purpose is to collect, analyze, evaluate, and disseminate foreign intelligence, warning/informing American leaders of important overseas events, with Pakistan described as an intractable target. Counterintelligence, with China, Russia, Iran, Cuba, the Executive Office also supports the U. S. military by providing it with information it gathers, receiving information from military intelligence organizations, and cooperates on field activities. The Executive Director is in charge of the day to day operation of the CIA, each branch of the military service has its own Director. The Directorate has four regional groups, six groups for transnational issues. There is a dedicated to Iraq, regional analytical offices covering the Near East and South Asia, Russia and Europe, and the Asian Pacific, Latin American. The Directorate of Operations is responsible for collecting intelligence. The name reflects its role as the coordinator of intelligence activities between other elements of the wider U. S. intelligence community with their own HUMINT operations. This Directorate was created in an attempt to end years of rivalry over influence, philosophy, in spite of this, the Department of Defense recently organized its own global clandestine intelligence service, the Defense Clandestine Service, under the Defense Intelligence Agency. This Directorate is known to be organized by regions and issues. The Directorate of Science & Technology was established to research, create, many of its innovations were transferred to other intelligence organizations, or, as they became more overt, to the military services. For example, the development of the U-2 high-altitude reconnaissance aircraft was done in cooperation with the United States Air Force, the U-2s original mission was clandestine imagery intelligence over denied areas such as the Soviet Union. It was subsequently provided with signals intelligence and measurement and signature intelligence capabilities, subsequently, NPIC was transferred to the National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency
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General Services Administration
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The General Services Administration is an independent agency of the United States government, established in 1949 to help manage and support the basic functioning of federal agencies. GSA employs about 12,000 federal workers and has an operating budget of roughly $26.3 billion. GSA oversees $66 billion of procurement annually and it contributes to the management of about $500 billion in U. S. federal property, divided chiefly among 8,300 owned and leased buildings and a 210,000 vehicle motor pool. GSAs business lines include the Federal Acquisition Service, the Public Buildings Service, the GSA is member of the Procurement G6, an informal group leading the use of framework agreements and e-procurement instruments in public procurement. In 1947 President Harry Truman asked former President Herbert Hoover to lead what became known as the Hoover Commission to make recommendations to reorganize the operations of the federal government, one of the recommendations of the commission was the establishment of an Office of the General Services. This proposed office would combine the responsibilities of the following organizations, General Jess Larson, Administrator of the War Assets Administration, was named GSAs first Administrator. The first job awaiting Administrator Larson and the newly formed GSA was a renovation of the White House. The structure had fallen into such a state of disrepair by 1949 that one inspector of the time said the structure was standing “purely from habit. Everything, except the four walls without a roof, was stripped down. GSA completed the renovation in 1952, GSA headquarters, located at Eighteenth and F Streets, NW, was U. S. General Services Administration Building listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1986 as Interior Department Offices, in 1960, GSA created the Federal Telecommunications System, a government-wide intercity telephone system. In 1970, the Nixon administration created the Consumer Product Information Coordinating Center, the Federal Buildings Fund was initiated in 1974, which allowed the GSA to issue rent bills to federal agencies. In 1972, the GSA established the Automated Data and Telecommunications Service, in 1973, the GSA created the Office of Federal Management Policy. GSA’s Office of Acquisition Policy centralized procurement policy in 1978, in 1984, GSA introduced the federal government to the use of charge cards, known as the GMA SmartPay system. The National Archives and Records Administration was spun off into an independent agency in 1985, the same year, the GSA began to provide governmentwide policy oversight and guidance for federal real property management as a result of an Executive Order signed by President Ronald Reagan. In 2003, the Federal Protective Service was moved to the Department of Homeland Security, in 2005, GSA reorganized to merge the Federal Supply Service and Federal Technology Service business lines into the Federal Acquisition Service. On April 3,2009, President Barack Obama nominated Martha N. Johnson to serve as the GSA Administrator, after a 9-month delay, the United States Senate confirmed her nomination on February 4,2010. In July 1991, GSA contractors began the excavation of what is now the Ted Weiss Federal Building in New York City, when initial excavation disturbed burials, destroying skeletons and artifacts, GSA sent archaeologists to excavate—but hid their findings from the public
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Pueblo, Colorado
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Pueblo /ˈpwɛbloʊ/ is a home rule municipality that is the county seat and the most populous city of Pueblo County, Colorado, United States. The population was 106,595 in 2010 census, making it the 267th most populous city in the United States, Pueblo is the heart of the Pueblo Metropolitan Statistical Area totaling over 160,000 people and an important part of the Front Range Urban Corridor. As of 2014, Pueblo is the city of the Pueblo-Cañon City combined statistical area totaling approximately 208,000 people. Pueblo is situated at the confluence of the Arkansas River and Fountain Creek,112 miles south of the Colorado State Capitol in Denver, the area is considered semi-arid desert land, with approximately 12 inches of precipitation annually. With its location in the Banana Belt, Pueblo tends to get less snow than the major cities in Colorado. Pueblo is one of the largest steel-producing cities in the United States, the Historic Arkansas River Project is a river walk in the Union Avenue Historic Commercial District, and shows the history of the devastating Pueblo Flood of 1921. Pueblo has the least expensive real estate of all major cities in Colorado. The median home price for homes on the market in Pueblo is $147,851 as of February 2013 and it is the sixth most affordable place to live in America as measured by the 2014 Cost of Living Index. Costs of housing, goods and services, utilities, transportation, groceries, Pueblo was listed by AARP in 2013 as one of the Best Places to Live in the USA. James Beckwourth, George Simpson, and other such as Mathew Kinkead. George married Juana Maria Suaso and lived there for a year or two before moving, however, Simpson had no title to the land. The adobe structures were built with the intention of settlement and trade next to the Arkansas River, about a dozen families lived there, trading with Native American tribes for hides, skins, livestock, as well as cultivated plants, and liquor. Evidence of this trade, as well as other utilitarian goods and they allegedly killed between fifteen and nineteen men, as well as captured two children and one woman. The trading post was abandoned after the raid, but it became important again between 1858 and 1859 during the Colorado Gold Rush of 1859, the current city of Pueblo represents the consolidation of four towns, Pueblo, South Pueblo, Central Pueblo, and Bessemer. Pueblo, South Pueblo, and Central Pueblo legally consolidated as the City of Pueblo between March 9 and April 6,1886. The consolidated city became an economic and social center of Colorado, and was home to important early Colorado families such as the Thatchers, the Ormans. One author crowed of Pueblo that the necessity exists no longer for Sharps rifles and these have been supplied by the plow and the mowing-machine. Steel emerged as a key industry very early, and in 1909 the city was considered the only town west of the Mississippi River
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Walmart
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Wal-Mart Stores, Inc. doing business as Walmart, is an American multinational retailing corporation that operates as a chain of hypermarkets, discount department stores, and grocery stores. Headquartered in Bentonville, Arkansas, the company was founded by Sam Walton in 1962, as of January 31,2017, Walmart has 11,695 stores and clubs in 28 countries, under a total of 63 banners. The company operates under the name Walmart in the United States and it operates as Walmart de México y Centroamérica in Mexico and Central America, as Asda in the United Kingdom, as the Seiyu Group in Japan, and as Best Price in India. It has wholly owned operations in Argentina, Brazil, and Canada and it also owns and operates the Sams Club retail warehouses. Walmart is the worlds largest company by revenue, according to the Fortune Global 500 list in 2016 and it is a family-owned business, as the company is controlled by the Walton family. Sam Waltons heirs own over 50 percent of Walmart through their company, Walton Enterprises. Walmart is also one of the worlds most valuable companies by market value, in 2016,62.3 percent of Walmarts US$478.614 billion sales came from its U. S. operations. The company was listed on the New York Stock Exchange in 1972, by 1988, Walmart was the most profitable retailer in the U. S. and by October 1989, it had become the largest in terms of revenue. A Walmart in York, Pennsylvania opened in October 1990, bringing the store to the Northeast. In 1945, a businessman and a former J. C. Penney employee, Sam Walton and his primary focus was on selling products at low prices to get higher-volume sales at a lower profit margin, portraying it as a crusade for the consumer. He experienced setbacks, because the price and branch purchase were unusually high. He passed on the savings in the product pricing, sales increased 45 percent in his first year of ownership to US$105,000 in revenue, which increased to US$140,000 the next year and US$175,000 the year after that. Within the fifth year, the store was generating US$250,000 in revenue, when the lease for the location expired, Walton was unable to reach an agreement for renewal, so he opened up a new store at 105 N. Main Street in Bentonville, naming it Waltons Five and Dime and that store is now the Walmart Museum. On July 2,1962, Walton opened the first Walmart Discount City store at 719 W. Walnut Street in Rogers, within its first five years, the company expanded to 24 stores across Arkansas and reached US$12.6 million in sales. In 1968, it opened its first stores outside Arkansas, in Sikeston, Missouri and Claremore, the company was incorporated as Wal-Mart Stores, Inc. on October 31,1969. In 1970, it opened its office and first distribution center in Bentonville. It had 38 stores operating with 1,500 employees and sales of US$44.2 million and it began trading stock as a publicly held company on October 1,1970, and was soon listed on the New York Stock Exchange
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Alexandria, Virginia
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Arlington County is a county in the Commonwealth of Virginia. It is coterminous with the U. S. Census Bureau-census-designated place of Arlington, as a result, the county is often referred to in the region simply as Arlington or Arlington, Virginia. In 2015, the population was estimated at 229,164. The land that became Arlington was originally donated by Virginia to the United States government to form part of the new federal district of Columbia. In 1846, Congress returned the land southwest of the Potomac River donated by Virginia due to issues involving Congressional representation, the General Assembly of Virginia changed the countys name to Arlington in 1920 to avoid confusion with the adjacent City of Alexandria. The county is situated in Northern Virginia on the bank of the Potomac River directly across from Washington. Arlington is also bordered by Fairfax County and City of Falls Church to the northwest, west and southwest, as of the 2010 census, the population was 207,627. Due to the proximity to downtown Washington, D. C. It is also home to Ronald Reagan Washington National Airport, the many federal agencies, government contractors, and service industries contribute to Arlingtons stable economy. It is the county in the United States by median family income. According to a 2016 study by Bankrate. com, Arlington is the best place to retire, the area that now constitutes Arlington County was originally part of Fairfax County in the Colony of Virginia. Land grants from the British monarch were awarded to prominent Englishmen in exchange for political favors, one of the grantees was Thomas Fairfax, 6th Lord Fairfax of Cameron, who lends his name to both Fairfax County and the City of Fairfax. George Washington Parke Custis, grandson of First Lady Martha Washington, the estate was eventually passed down to Mary Anna Custis Lee, wife of General Robert E. Lee. The property later became Arlington National Cemetery during the American Civil War, the area that now contains Arlington County was ceded to the new United States federal government by the Commonwealth of Virginia. With the passage of the Residence Act in 1790, Congress approved a new permanent capital to be located on the Potomac River, the Residence Act originally only allowed the President to select a location within Maryland as far east as what is now the Anacostia River. However, President Washington shifted the federal territorys borders to the southeast in order to include the city of Alexandria at the Districts southern tip. In 1791, Congress amended the Residence Act to approve the new site, however, this amendment to the Residence Act specifically prohibited the erection of the public buildings otherwise than on the Maryland side of the River Potomac. As permitted by the U. S. Constitution, the shape of the federal district was a square, measuring 10 miles on each side
