1.
Alpine skiing
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Alpine skiing, or downhill skiing, is the sport or recreation of sliding down snow-covered hills on skis with fixed-heel bindings. It is typically practiced at ski resorts which provide such as ski lifts, artificial snow making and grooming, first aid. Back-country skiers use alpine skiing equipment to ski off the marked pistes, in cases with the assistance of snowmobiles. Alpine skiing has been an event at the Winter Olympic Games since 1936, as of 1994, there were estimated to be 55 million people worldwide, who engaged in Alpine skiing. Approximately 30 million of these were in Europe,15 million in the US, as of 1996, there were reportedly 4,500 ski areas, operating 26,000 ski lifts and enjoying skier visits. The preponderant region for downhills skiing was Europe, followed by Japan, a skier following the fall line will reach the maximum possible speed for that slope. A skier with skis pointed perpendicular to the line, across the hill instead of down it. The speed of descent down any given hill can be controlled by changing the angle of motion in relation to the fall line, downhill skiing technique focuses on the use of turns to smoothly turn the skis from one direction to another. Good technique results in a motion from one descent angle to another one. This looks more like a series of Ss than turns followed by straight sections. The oldest and still form of alpine ski turn is the stem. In doing so, the ski pushes snow forward and to the side, the force backwards directly counteracts gravity, and slows the skier. The force to the sides, if unbalanced, will cause the skier to turn, carving is based on the shape of the ski itself, when the ski is rotated onto its edge, the pattern cut into its side causes it to bend into an arc. The contact between the arc of the ski edges and the snow naturally causes the ski to tend to move along that arc, slowing the skier, modern alpine skis are shaped to enable carve turning, and have evolved significantly since the 1980s. During the 1930s, the Kandahar binding was introduced, which could be locked down at the heel for the downhill portions, the Kandahar remained in widespread use until the 1960s. As more skiers took up the sport, especially in the 1950s, dr. Richard Spademan saw 150 spiral fractures pass through his emergency department near Squaw Valley in three days, an event that led to the development of the Spademan binding. By the early 1950s, several safety bindings were on the market allowed the ski to come off when the ski twisted to the side. This helped reduce the incidence of spiral fractures, originally boots were cut low, just over the ankle, and soft laterally, both of which limited the amount of sideways rotating force that could be applied
2.
Australia
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Australia, officially the Commonwealth of Australia, is a country comprising the mainland of the Australian continent, the island of Tasmania and numerous smaller islands. It is the worlds sixth-largest country by total area, the neighbouring countries are Papua New Guinea, Indonesia and East Timor to the north, the Solomon Islands and Vanuatu to the north-east, and New Zealand to the south-east. Australias capital is Canberra, and its largest urban area is Sydney, for about 50,000 years before the first British settlement in the late 18th century, Australia was inhabited by indigenous Australians, who spoke languages classifiable into roughly 250 groups. The population grew steadily in subsequent decades, and by the 1850s most of the continent had been explored, on 1 January 1901, the six colonies federated, forming the Commonwealth of Australia. Australia has since maintained a liberal democratic political system that functions as a federal parliamentary constitutional monarchy comprising six states. The population of 24 million is highly urbanised and heavily concentrated on the eastern seaboard, Australia has the worlds 13th-largest economy and ninth-highest per capita income. With the second-highest human development index globally, the country highly in quality of life, health, education, economic freedom. The name Australia is derived from the Latin Terra Australis a name used for putative lands in the southern hemisphere since ancient times, the Dutch adjectival form Australische was used in a Dutch book in Batavia in 1638, to refer to the newly discovered lands to the south. On 12 December 1817, Macquarie recommended to the Colonial Office that it be formally adopted, in 1824, the Admiralty agreed that the continent should be known officially as Australia. The first official published use of the term Australia came with the 1830 publication of The Australia Directory and these first inhabitants may have been ancestors of modern Indigenous Australians. The Torres Strait Islanders, ethnically Melanesian, were originally horticulturists, the northern coasts and waters of Australia were visited sporadically by fishermen from Maritime Southeast Asia. The first recorded European sighting of the Australian mainland, and the first recorded European landfall on the Australian continent, are attributed to the Dutch. The first ship and crew to chart the Australian coast and meet with Aboriginal people was the Duyfken captained by Dutch navigator, Willem Janszoon. He sighted the coast of Cape York Peninsula in early 1606, the Dutch charted the whole of the western and northern coastlines and named the island continent New Holland during the 17th century, but made no attempt at settlement. William Dampier, an English explorer and privateer, landed on the north-west coast of New Holland in 1688, in 1770, James Cook sailed along and mapped the east coast, which he named New South Wales and claimed for Great Britain. The first settlement led to the foundation of Sydney, and the exploration, a British settlement was established in Van Diemens Land, now known as Tasmania, in 1803, and it became a separate colony in 1825. The United Kingdom formally claimed the part of Western Australia in 1828. Separate colonies were carved from parts of New South Wales, South Australia in 1836, Victoria in 1851, the Northern Territory was founded in 1911 when it was excised from South Australia
3.
Alpine skiing at the Winter Olympics
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Alpine skiing has been contested at every Winter Olympics since 1936, when a combined event was held in Garmisch-Partenkirchen, Germany. From 1948 through 1980, the Winter Olympics also served as the World Championships in Olympic years, during this period, the Olympic medalists received an additional medal of the same colour from the International Ski Federation. At the Olympics from 1956 through 1980, World Championship medals were awarded by the FIS in the combined event and it returned as a stand-alone event at the Olympics in 1988, which also debuted the one-run super-G. The combined event was run on an FIS points system at the Olympics through 1992, the super combined debuted in 2010, which reduced the slalom portion to one run and the event to one day. Since 1985, the World Championships have been scheduled every odd-numbered year, at the World Championships, the combined returned as a stand-alone event in 1982 and the super-G debuted in 1987. The combined event went from points to time in 1996. NOCs in italics no longer compete at the Winter Olympics Through 2014 ^ Germany has competed at the Winter Olympic Games under various names, banned from the 1948 games, they competed as Germany in 1952, though only represented by West Germany. From 1956 through 1964, they were known as the Unified Team of Germany, which included East Germany, from 1968 through 1988, separate Olympic teams were fielded and West Germany competed as the Federal Republic of Germany. East Germany had only one competitor in alpine skiing, who did not medal, following the reunification of 1990, they have competed at the Olympics as Germany, starting in 1992. Through 2014, Germany has a total of 40 medals in alpine skiing, several age-related records were recently set in 2014, Bode Miller oldest medalist in Olympic alpine skiing, bronze in super-G. Mikaela Shiffrin youngest gold medalist in slalom in Olympic alpine skiing, mario Matt oldest gold medalist in Olympic alpine skiing, gold in slalom. Henrik Kristoffersen youngest male medalist in Olympic alpine skiing, bronze in slalom and these records continue, Michela Figini youngest gold medalist in Olympic alpine skiing, gold in downhill in 1984. Traudl Hecher youngest medalist in Olympic alpine skiing, bronze in downhill in 1960, toni Sailer youngest male gold medalist in Olympic alpine skiing, won slalom, giant slalom, and downhill in 1956
4.
FIS Alpine World Ski Championships
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The FIS Alpine World Ski Championships are organized by the International Ski Federation. The first world championships in alpine skiing were held in 1931, during the 1930s, the event was held annually in Europe, until interrupted by the outbreak of World War II, preventing a 1940 event. An event was held in 1941, but included only from nations from the Axis powers or nations not at war with them. The results were cancelled by the FIS in 1946 because of the limited number of participants. Following the war, the championships were connected with the Olympics for several decades, the 1950 championships in the United States at Aspen were the first held outside of Europe and the first official championships separate of the Olympics since 1939. During Olympic years from 1956 through 1980, FIS World Championship medals were awarded in the combined, the combined returned as a separately run event in 1982 with its own downhill and two-run slalom, and the Super-G was added to the program in 1987. There were no World Championships in 1983 or 1984 and since 1985, they have been scheduled in odd-numbered years, a lack of snow in southern Spain in 1995 caused a postponement to the following year. The 2015 FIS Alpine World Ski Championships were held in the United States, Vail, the 2017 FIS Alpine World Ski Championships will be held in St. Moritz, Switzerland. A total of 12 countries have hosted the FIS Alpine World Ski Championships, all of the top-7 on the list of nations which have won FIS World Cup races have been selected as host at least twice. The World Championships have been held once in the Southern Hemisphere, in 1966 in Portillo. Participants with five or more medals at the Alpine Skiing World Championships are,1 Note, Medals earned in the 1930s,1 Note, Medals earned in the 1930s, when it was an annual event. The mixed team events is not included for both genders, therefore there is special table for these team competitions. Also, there are two cumulative medal tables - the first one includes medals won at the nine Winter Olympics from 1948 through 1980, all tables are current through 2017
5.
Olympic Games
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The Olympic Games are considered the worlds foremost sports competition with more than 200 nations participating. The Olympic Games are held four years, with the Summer and Winter Games alternating by occurring every four years. Their creation was inspired by the ancient Olympic Games, which were held in Olympia, Greece, Baron Pierre de Coubertin founded the International Olympic Committee in 1894, leading to the first modern Games in Athens in 1896. The IOC is the body of the Olympic Movement, with the Olympic Charter defining its structure. The evolution of the Olympic Movement during the 20th and 21st centuries has resulted in changes to the Olympic Games. The IOC has had to adapt to a variety of economic, political, as a result, the Olympics has shifted away from pure amateurism, as envisioned by Coubertin, to allowing participation of professional athletes. The growing importance of mass media created the issue of corporate sponsorship, World wars led to the cancellation of the 1916,1940, and 1944 Games. Large boycotts during the Cold War limited participation in the 1980 and 1984 Games, the Olympic Movement consists of international sports federations, National Olympic Committees, and organising committees for each specific Olympic Games. As the decision-making body, the IOC is responsible for choosing the host city for each Games, the IOC also determines the Olympic programme, consisting of the sports to be contested at the Games. There are several Olympic rituals and symbols, such as the Olympic flag and torch, over 13,000 athletes compete at the Summer and Winter Olympic Games in 33 different sports and nearly 400 events. The first, second, and third-place finishers in each event receive Olympic medals, gold, silver, the Games have grown so much that nearly every nation is now represented. This growth has created numerous challenges and controversies, including boycotts, doping, bribery, every two years the Olympics and its media exposure provide unknown athletes with the chance to attain national and sometimes international fame. The Games also constitute an opportunity for the host city and country to themselves to the world. The Ancient Olympic Games were religious and athletic festivals held every four years at the sanctuary of Zeus in Olympia, competition was among representatives of several city-states and kingdoms of Ancient Greece. These Games featured mainly athletic but also combat such as wrestling. It has been written that during the Games, all conflicts among the participating city-states were postponed until the Games were finished. This cessation of hostilities was known as the Olympic peace or truce and this idea is a modern myth because the Greeks never suspended their wars. The truce did allow those religious pilgrims who were travelling to Olympia to pass through warring territories unmolested because they were protected by Zeus
6.
1998 Winter Olympics
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The 1998 Winter Olympics, officially the XVIII Olympic Winter Games, was a winter multi-sport event celebrated from 7 to 22 February 1998 in Nagano, Japan. 72 nations and 2,176 participants contested in 7 sports and 68 events at 15 venues, the Games saw the introduction of womens ice hockey, curling and snowboarding. National Hockey League players were allowed to participate in the ice hockey. The host was selected on June 15,1991, over Salt Lake City, Östersund, Jaca and they were the third Olympic Games and second winter Olympics to be held in Japan, after the 1964 Summer Olympics in Tokyo and the 1972 Winter Olympics in Sapporo. Nagano is so far the southernmost city to host a Winter Olympics, next to Squaw Valley, the games were succeeded by the 1998 Winter Paralympics from 5 to 14 March. These were the final Winter Olympic Games under the IOC Presidency of Juan Antonio Samaranch, other candidate cities for the 1998 Olympics were Aosta, Italy, Jaca, Spain, Östersund, Sweden, and Salt Lake City, United States. The host city selection was held in Birmingham, United Kingdom, on 15 June 1991, Nagano prevailed over Salt Lake City by just 4 votes. In June 1995, Salt Lake was chosen as the host of the following 2002 Winter Olympics, the Nagano Olympic bid committee spent approximately $14 million to entertain the 62 International Olympic Committee members and many of their companions. The precise figures are unknown since Nagano, after the IOC asked that the entertainment expenditures not be made public, sukki, Nokki, Lekki and Tsukki, also known as the Snowlets are the 1998 Winter Olympic mascots and are four snowy owls. They represent respectively fire, air, earth and water and together represent the four major islands of Japan. Australia Seven Network China CCTV United Kingdom BBC Bjørn Dæhlie won 3 gold medals in skiing, making him the Winter Olympic competitor with the most wins ever. Alpine skier Hermann Maier survived a fall in the downhill and went on to win gold in the super-G, Netherlands won 5 of the 10 speed skating events, including 2 each by Gianni Romme and Marianne Timmer. Canada beat Denmark in the womens curling final, securing the latter their first Winter Olympic medal ever, womens ice hockey was contested at the Olympic Games for the first time ever, and the United States beat the Canadians 3–1 for the gold medal. United States went undefeated in the womens tournament, the Czech Republic defeated Russia by a score of 1–0 for the mens gold medal, while Finland won both the mens and womens bronze medals for ice hockey. Cross-country skier Bjørn Dæhlie of Norway won three medals in Nordic skiing to become the first winter Olympian to earn eight career gold medals. Curling returned as a sport, after having been demoted to a demonstration event after the inaugural Winter Games in Chamonix in 1924. Snowboarding debuted as an official sport, players from the NHL were able to compete in mens ice hockey due to a three-week suspension of the NHL season. Tara Lipinski,15, narrowly beat Michelle Kwan in womens figure skating to become the youngest champion in an event in the history of the Winter Olympics
7.
FIS Alpine World Ski Championships 1999
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The FIS Alpine World Ski Championships 1999 were held February 2–14 in Vail and Beaver Creek, Colorado, U. S. A. Lasse Kjus of Norway placed in the top two in all five events, winning two medals and taking three silvers. Hermann Maier of Austria won gold medals in the two speed events, the downhill and super-G, Austria dominated the womens two speed events with a sweep of all six medals. The mens downhill, super-G, and combined events were held at Beaver Creek, and this was the third non-Olympic World Championships held in the United States, all in Colorado. Vail hosted a decade earlier in 1989 and Aspen in 1950, as a host country, the U. S. has won just two medals in the three World Championships, a gold and a bronze by Tamara McKinney in 1989. The Birds of Prey downhill course at Beaver Creek was developed for these championships, designed by Olympic gold medalist Bernhard Russi, it has been a regular stop on the mens World Cup schedule and will be used again for the World Championships in 2015
8.
Order of Australia
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Before the establishment of the order, Australian citizens received British honours. The Queen of Australia is Sovereign Head of the Order, while the Governor-General is Principal Companion/Dame/Knight, the Governor-Generals Official Secretary is Secretary of the Order. The order is divided into a general and a military division, honorary awards at all levels may be made to deserving non-citizens – these awards are made additional to the quotas. The badge of the Order of Australia is a convex disc representing the Golden Wattle flower, at the centre is a ring, representing the sea, with the word Australia below two branches of golden wattle. The whole disc is topped by the Crown of St Edward, the AC badge is decorated with citrines, blue enamelled ring and enamelled crown. The AO badge is similar, without the citrines, for the AM badge only the crown is enamelled, and the OAM badge is plain. The AK/AD badge is similar to that of the AC badge, the star for knights and dames is a convex golden disc decorated with citrines, with a blue royally crowned inner disc bearing an image of the coat of arms of Australia. The ribbon of the order is blue with a stripe of golden wattle flower designs. AKs, male ACs and AOs wear their badges on a necklet, women usually wear their badges on a bow on the left shoulder, although they may wear the same insignia as males, if so desired. The orders insignia were designed by Stuart Devlin, the Order currently consists of four levels and the medal, in both general and military divisions. Since 2015, the level has been discontinued. Awards of Knight and Dame of the Order have been made in the division only. Military Division – Not awarded in the military division. There was a quota of four per year, excluding honorary appointments, the Knight- and Damehoods were conferred between 1976 and 1983, and again from 2014 till 2015. Although this level is not awarded anymore, several knight and dames of the Order are still alive, Companion General Division – Eminent achievement and merit of the highest degree in service to Australia or to humanity at large. Military Division – Eminent service in duties of great responsibility. Excluding honorary appointments, until 2003, no more than 25 Companions were appointed in any calendar year, in 2003 this was increased to 30. This was increased in 2016 to 35, Officer General Division – Distinguished service of a high degree to Australia or to humanity at large. Military Division – Distinguished service in responsible positions. Prior to 2003, the quota was 100 Officers appointed in any calendar year, in 2003 this was increased to 125. This was increased in 2016 to 140, Member General Division – Service in a particular locality or field of activity or to a particular group. Military Division – Exceptional service or performance of duty
9.
Skiing in Australia
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Skiing in Australia takes place in the high country of the states of New South Wales, Victoria and Tasmania as well as in the Australian Capital Territory, during the southern hemisphere winter. Skiing began in Australia at the town of Kiandra, New South Wales in the year 1861. The first ski tow was constructed near Mount Buffalo, Victoria in 1936, Australian skiers competed in the Winter Olympics for the first time in Oslo 1952 and have competed in all subsequent Games, winning medals at every Games since 1998. Australia has extensive skiable terrain during the southern winter in the south eastern states and Australian Capital Territory. Kiandra, in the Northern Skifields, has an elevation of 1400 m, while Mount Mawson near Hobart, Australia has several well developed downhill ski resorts, including Thredbo and Perisher in New South Wales and Mount Hotham, Falls Creek and Mount Buller in Victoria. Cross country skiing is popular in national parks as Kosciuszko National Park and Alpine National Park and is also possible within Namadgi National Park. Mount Buller has Australias largest snow village with accommodation of 7000 beds, the sport of skiing is now practised in three States, New South Wales, Victoria and Tasmania, as well as in the Australian Capital Territory, during the Southern Hemisphere winter. In Victoria, the highest lifted points are at Mount Hotham with 1845 metres, Falls Creek at 1842 metres, jindabyne is the main service town for the New South Wales resorts, but most Australian resort centres have on-snow accommodation. Other ski-service towns include Cooma and Adaminaby in NSW and Bright in Victoria, Canberra is situated around two hours drive from the New South Wales ski-fields, while Melbourne is in good proximity to some of the Victorian resorts. Australias highest town, Cabramurra, New South Wales, has private skiing facilities for residents, the mainlands highest peak is Mount Kosciuszko at 2228 m. New South Wales is home to Australias highest snow country, oldest skifields, recreational skiing in Australia began in 1861 at Kiandra, New South Wales, when Norwegian gold miners introduced the idea to the frozen hills around the town. The first and longest surviving ski club in the world, The Kiandra Snow Shoe Club, was formed at Kiandra in that year, Kiandra is often isolated by deep snow which made it inaccessible during winter. To avoid confusion with a conventional skate the skates were described as, there were no fence palings or posts in Kiandra in 1861. It has been claimed that a ski club commenced in America in 1861. The Trysil Skytte- og Skiløberforening was also founded in Norway, in 1861, the association held their first competition in January 1862 Alpine ski clubs were first founded in Munich, Germany 1891, Switzerland 1893, Arlberg, Austria 1901, followed by France and Italy. Sir Arnold Lunn founded the Kandahar Ski Club of Great Britain in 1924, the “Kiandra Snow Shoe Club” held separate ski races for both ladies and children as early as 1885. Barbara Yan was the first identifiable woman documented as to having won a Downhill Skiing Championship, Yan also won the ladies downhill in 1887, the year her siblings won the girls under-8 section and second in the under-12s. In 1908 the club held the first ever documented International and Intercontinental Downhill Skiing Carnival, results - America 1st, Australia 2nd, England 3rd
Australia
