1.
Gostiny dvor
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Gostinyi dvor is a historic Russian term for an indoor market, or shopping centre. It is translated from Russian either as guest court or merchant yard and these structures originated as collections of small shops where merchants from other cities could, at designated times, come to sell their wares. Such structures, constructed in every large Russian town during the first decades of the 19th century, are examples of Neoclassical architecture. The name is applied to the vast department store in St Petersburg. This gostiny dvor is not only the citys oldest and largest shopping centre, sprawling at the intersection of Nevsky Prospekt and Sadovaya Street for over one kilometer and embracing the area of 53,000 m2, the indoor complex of more than 100 shops took 28 years to construct. Throughout the following century, Gostiny Dvor was continuously augmented, resulting in ten indoor streets, by that time, the Gostiny Dvor had lost its popularity to the more fashionable Passage and New Passage, situated on the Nevsky Prospekt nearby. During the post-World War II reconstructions, its walls were demolished. This massive 18th-century structure got a recently and entered the 21st century as one of the most fashionable shopping centres in Eastern Europe. A nearby station of Saint Petersburg Metro takes its name from Gostiny Dvor, the Old Merchant Court in Moscow occupies a substantial portion of Kitai-gorod, as the old merchant district is known. Formerly accommodating both shops and warehouses, it was constructed of brick in the 1590s and underwent significant modifications from 1638 to 41, as the Russian capital expanded and the old structure became overcrowded, a new indoor market was completed nearby in 1665. Several local Moscow architects including S. Karin, I, egotov and P. Selihov supervised the actual construction. The first phase was delayed because of the death of Catherine the Great, osip Bove made some modifications to adapt to the slope in the area and to finish following Quarenghis original plans in 1830. Subsequently, Quarenghis structure went through many reconstructions, after the Revolution in 1923, the space was subdivided into offices altering the original design significantly. Recently a modern glass roof in 1995 was installed, when Gostiny Dvor was being converted into an exhibition ground. Nowadays, the edifice is used as the setting for fashion shows, business parties, montserrat Caballé and José Carreras were among those who performed at the New Year parties in Gostiny Dvor. During the 1995 renovations, lots of work was done on the site. A small museum was established to some of the numerous finds which include the contents of a pantry from a 17th-century merchant home that had been destroyed by fire. The exhibit hall is open daily, Monday through Saturday from 11 a. m. until 5 p. m, the Merchant Court is a network of fortified depots built on the Pur-Navolok promontory in Arkhangelsk by a team of German and Dutch masons between 1668 and 1684
2.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
3.
Subdivisions of Russia
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Russia is divided into several types and levels of subdivisions. Since March 18,2014, the Russian Federation consisted of eighty-five federal subjects that are constituent members of the Federation, however, two of these federal subjects—the Republic of Crimea and the federal city of Sevastopol—are internationally recognized as part of Ukraine. All federal subjects are of equal rights in the sense that they have equal representation—two delegates each—in the Federation Council. They do, however, differ in the degree of autonomy they enjoy, there are 6 types of federal subjects—22 republics,9 krais,46 oblasts,3 federal cities,1 autonomous oblast, and 4 autonomous okrugs. According to the Treaty, the Republic of Crimea is accepted as a subject with the status of a republic while the City of Sevastopol has received federal city status. Neither the Republic of Crimea nor the city of Sevastopol are politically recognized as parts of Russia by most countries and this was interpreted by the governments of the federal subjects as a sign that the matters of the administrative-territorial divisions became solely the responsibility of the federal subjects. As a result, the modern structures of the federal subjects vary significantly from one federal subject to another. Autonomous okrugs, while being under the jurisdiction of federal subject, are still constitutionally recognized as federal subjects on their own right. Chukotka Autonomous Okrug is an exception in that it is not administratively subordinated to any federal subject of Russia. Okrugs are usually former autonomous okrugs that lost their federal subject status due to a merger with another federal subject. According to the law, the units of the division are as follows, Municipal district. In practice, municipal districts are formed within the boundaries of existing administrative districts. In practice, urban okrugs are usually formed within the boundaries of existing cities of federal subject significance, intra-urban territory of a federal city, a part of a federal citys territory. In Moscow, these are called municipal formations, in St. Petersburg—municipal okrugs, towns, in Sevastopol, they are known as municipal okrugs and a town. Territories not included as a part of municipal formations are known as inter-settlement territories and this municipal formation type would typically be established within the borders of existing city districts. In June 2014, Chelyabinsky Urban Okrug became the first urban okrug to implement intra-urban divisions, all of the federal subjects are grouped into nine federal districts, each administered by an envoy appointed by the President of Russia. For economic and statistical purposes the federal subjects are grouped into twelve economic regions, economic regions and their parts sharing common economic trends are in turn grouped into economic zones and macrozones. In order for the Armed Forces to provide an efficient management of units, their training, and other operational activities
4.
Russia
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Russia, also officially the Russian Federation, is a country in Eurasia. The European western part of the country is more populated and urbanised than the eastern. Russias capital Moscow is one of the largest cities in the world, other urban centers include Saint Petersburg, Novosibirsk, Yekaterinburg, Nizhny Novgorod. Extending across the entirety of Northern Asia and much of Eastern Europe, Russia spans eleven time zones and incorporates a range of environments. It shares maritime borders with Japan by the Sea of Okhotsk, the East Slavs emerged as a recognizable group in Europe between the 3rd and 8th centuries AD. Founded and ruled by a Varangian warrior elite and their descendants, in 988 it adopted Orthodox Christianity from the Byzantine Empire, beginning the synthesis of Byzantine and Slavic cultures that defined Russian culture for the next millennium. Rus ultimately disintegrated into a number of states, most of the Rus lands were overrun by the Mongol invasion. The Soviet Union played a role in the Allied victory in World War II. The Soviet era saw some of the most significant technological achievements of the 20th century, including the worlds first human-made satellite and the launching of the first humans in space. By the end of 1990, the Soviet Union had the second largest economy, largest standing military in the world. It is governed as a federal semi-presidential republic, the Russian economy ranks as the twelfth largest by nominal GDP and sixth largest by purchasing power parity in 2015. Russias extensive mineral and energy resources are the largest such reserves in the world, making it one of the producers of oil. The country is one of the five recognized nuclear weapons states and possesses the largest stockpile of weapons of mass destruction, Russia is a great power as well as a regional power and has been characterised as a potential superpower. The name Russia is derived from Rus, a state populated mostly by the East Slavs. However, this name became more prominent in the later history, and the country typically was called by its inhabitants Русская Земля. In order to distinguish this state from other states derived from it, it is denoted as Kievan Rus by modern historiography, an old Latin version of the name Rus was Ruthenia, mostly applied to the western and southern regions of Rus that were adjacent to Catholic Europe. The current name of the country, Россия, comes from the Byzantine Greek designation of the Kievan Rus, the standard way to refer to citizens of Russia is Russians in English and rossiyane in Russian. There are two Russian words which are translated into English as Russians
5.
Federal subjects of Russia
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Since March 18,2014, the Russian Federation constitutionally consists of 85 federal subjects, although the two most recently added subjects are internationally recognized as part of Ukraine. Three Russian cities of importance have a status of both city and separate federal subject which comprises other cities and towns within federal city keeping old structure of postal address. In 1993, there were 89 federal subjects listed, by 2008, the number of federal subjects had been decreased to 83 because of several mergers. In 2014, Sevastopol and the Republic of Crimea became the 84th and 85th federal subjects of Russia, every federal subject has its own head, a parliament, and a constitutional court. Federal subjects have their own constitution and legislation, subjects have equal rights in relations with federal government bodies. The federal subjects have equal representation—two delegates each—in the Federation Council and they do, however, differ in the degree of autonomy they enjoy. Composition of post-Soviet Russia was formed during the history of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic within the USSR, the Federation Treaty was included in the text of the 1978 Constitution of the Russian SFSR. In the late 1990s and early 2000s, the system became de jure closer to other modern federal states with a republican form of government in the world. There are several groupings of Russian regions, Federal subjects should not be confused with the eight Federal districts which are not subdivisions of Russia, are much larger and each encompass many federal subjects. Federal districts were created by Executive Order of the President of Russia specially for presidential envoys, an official government translation of the Constitution of Russia in Article 5 states,1. Another translation of the Constitution of Russia gives for article 65, each federal subject belongs to one of the following types, b. ^ According to Article 13 of the Charter of Leningrad Oblast, however, St. Petersburg is not officially named to be the administrative center of the oblast. ^ According to Article 24 of the Charter of Moscow Oblast, however, Moscow is not officially named to be the administrative center of the oblast. ^ Not recognized internationally as a part of Russia, the merging process was finished on March 1,2008. No new mergers have been planned since March 2008, Федерального конституционного закона №7-ФКЗ от30 декабря2008 г. Вступил в силу со дня официального опубликования, Опубликован, Российская газета, №237,25 декабря1993 г
6.
Moscow Oblast
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Moscow Oblast, or Podmoskovye, is a federal subject of Russia. With a population of 7,095,120 living in an area of 44,300 square kilometers, the oblast has no official administrative center, its public authorities are located in Moscow and across other locations in the oblast. In the center stands the city of Moscow, which is a separate federal subject in its own right. The oblast is highly industrialized, with its main branches being metallurgy, oil refining, and mechanical engineering, food, energy. The oblast is flat, with some hills with the height of about 160 meters in the western. The western and northern parts of the oblast contain the Moscow Uplands and their average height peaks at about 300 meters near Dmitrov and the upper point of 310 meters lies near the village of Shapkino in Mozhaysky District. The northern part of the Moscow Uplands is steeper than the southern part, the uplands contain lakes of glacial origin, such as Lakes Nerskoye and Krugloye. To the north of the Moscow Uplands lies the alluvial Verhnevolzhsk Depression, It is marshy, to the south stretches a hilly area of the Moskvoretsko-Oksk plain. Its greatest height of 254 meters lies in the area of Tyoply Stan, the plain has clearly defined river valleys, especially in the south parts, and occasional karst relief, mostly in Serpukhovsky District. In the extreme south, after the Oka River, lies the Central Russian Upland and it contains numerous gullies and ravines and has average height above 200 m with the maximum of 236 m near Pushchino. Most of the part of Moscow Oblast is taken by the vast Meshchera Lowlands with much wetland in their eastern part. Their highest hill peaks at 214 meters but the heights are 120–150 meters. Most lakes of the lowlands, such as Lakes Chyornoye and Svyatoye, are of glacial origin, here lies the lowest natural elevation of the region, the water level of Oka River at 97 meters. Moscow Oblast is located in the part of the East European craton. Like all cratons, the latter is composed of the crystalline basement, the basement consists of Archaean and Proterozoic rocks and the cover is deposited in the Palaeozoic, Mesozoic and Cenozoic eras. The lowest depth of the basement is to the south of Serebryanye Prudy, in the south area of the oblast. Tertiary deposits are almost absent within the oblast, significantly more abundant are deposits of the Carboniferous and Jurassic periods. In the Cretaceous period, a sea was covering Moscow Oblast, as evidenced by phosphate deposits, Cretaceous sediments are most common in the north of the oblast
7.
Zaraysky District
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Zaraysky District is an administrative and municipal district, one of the thirty-six in Moscow Oblast, Russia. It is located in the southeast of the oblast, the area of the district is 967.68 square kilometers. Its administrative center is the town of Zaraysk, the population of Zaraysk accounts for 58. 8% of the districts total population. List of rural localities in Moscow Oblast Московская областная Дума, Закон №11/2013-ОЗ от31 января2013 г. «Об административно-территориальном устройстве Московской области», в ред, Закона №72/2015-ОЗ от5 мая2015 г. Вступил в силу на следующий день после официального опубликования, Подмосковье, №24,12 февраля2013 г. Постановление №123-ПГ от28 сентября2010 г, «Об учётных данных административно-территориальных и территориальных единиц Московской области», в ред. Постановления №252-ПГ от26 июня2015 г, «О внесении изменения в учётные данные административно-территориальных и территориальных единиц Московской области». Опубликован, Информационный вестник Правительства МО, №10,30 октября2010 г, Закон №63/2005-ОЗ от28 февраля2005 г. «О статусе и границах Зарайского муниципального района и вновь образованных в его составе муниципальных образований», Закона №147/2010-ОЗ от26 ноября2010 г. «О внесении изменений в Закон Московской области О статусе и границах Зарайского муниципального района и вновь образованных в его составе муниципальных образований», Вступил в силу со дня официального опубликования. Подмосковье, №42,10 марта2005 г
8.
Area
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Area is the quantity that expresses the extent of a two-dimensional figure or shape, or planar lamina, in the plane. Surface area is its analog on the surface of a three-dimensional object. It is the analog of the length of a curve or the volume of a solid. The area of a shape can be measured by comparing the shape to squares of a fixed size, in the International System of Units, the standard unit of area is the square metre, which is the area of a square whose sides are one metre long. A shape with an area of three square metres would have the area as three such squares. In mathematics, the square is defined to have area one. There are several formulas for the areas of simple shapes such as triangles, rectangles. Using these formulas, the area of any polygon can be found by dividing the polygon into triangles, for shapes with curved boundary, calculus is usually required to compute the area. Indeed, the problem of determining the area of plane figures was a motivation for the historical development of calculus. For a solid such as a sphere, cone, or cylinder. Formulas for the areas of simple shapes were computed by the ancient Greeks. Area plays an important role in modern mathematics, in addition to its obvious importance in geometry and calculus, area is related to the definition of determinants in linear algebra, and is a basic property of surfaces in differential geometry. In analysis, the area of a subset of the plane is defined using Lebesgue measure, in general, area in higher mathematics is seen as a special case of volume for two-dimensional regions. Area can be defined through the use of axioms, defining it as a function of a collection of certain plane figures to the set of real numbers and it can be proved that such a function exists. An approach to defining what is meant by area is through axioms, area can be defined as a function from a collection M of special kind of plane figures to the set of real numbers which satisfies the following properties, For all S in M, a ≥0. If S and T are in M then so are S ∪ T and S ∩ T, if S and T are in M with S ⊆ T then T − S is in M and a = a − a. If a set S is in M and S is congruent to T then T is also in M, every rectangle R is in M. If the rectangle has length h and breadth k then a = hk, let Q be a set enclosed between two step regions S and T
9.
Russian Census (2010)
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The Russian Census of 2010 is the first census of the Russian Federation population since 2002 and the second after the dissolution of the Soviet Union. Preparations for the census began in 2007 and it took place between October 14 and October 25, the census was originally scheduled for October 2010, but was moved to 2013 allegedly for financial reasons, although it was also speculated that political motives were influential in the decision. However, in late 2009 Russian Prime Minister Vladimir Putin announced that the Government of Russia allocated 10.5 billion rubles in order to conduct the census as originally scheduled, Results showed the population to stand at 142.9 million. Since the previous 2002 census, population has decreased by 2.3 million, according to the 2010 census, urban population is 105.3 million, rural population is 37.5 million. The urbanisation rate is currently 73. 7%, the median age is 38 years. The ethnic composition is dominated by Russians, demographics of Russia Russian Census 2010 final results Results of 2010 All-Russia population census Official website of the 2010 Census
10.
Population density
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Population density is a measurement of population per unit area or unit volume, it is a quantity of type number density. It is frequently applied to living organisms, and most of the time to humans and it is a key geographical term. Population density is population divided by land area or water volume. Low densities may cause a vortex and lead to further reduced fertility. This is called the Allee effect after the scientist who identified it, commonly this may be calculated for a county, city, country, another territory, or the entire world. The worlds population is around 7,000,000,000, therefore, the worldwide human population density is around 7,000,000,000 ÷510,000,000 =13.7 per km2. If only the Earths land area of 150,000,000 km2 is taken into account and this includes all continental and island land area, including Antarctica. If Antarctica is also excluded, then population density rises to over 50 people per km2, thus, this number by itself does not give any helpful measurement of human population density. Several of the most densely populated territories in the world are city-states, microstates, cities with high population densities are, by some, considered to be overpopulated, though this will depend on factors like quality of housing and infrastructure and access to resources. Most of the most densely populated cities are in Southeast Asia, though Cairo, for instance, Milwaukee has a greater population density when just the inner city is measured, and the surrounding suburbs excluded. Arithmetic density, The total number of people / area of land, physiological density, The total population / area of arable land. Agricultural density, The total rural population / area of arable land, residential density, The number of people living in an urban area / area of residential land. Urban density, The number of people inhabiting an urban area / total area of urban land, ecological optimum, The density of population that can be supported by the natural resources. S. States by population density Selected Current and Historic City, Ward & Neighborhood Density
11.
Time in Russia
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There are eleven time zones in Russia, which currently observe times ranging from UTC+02,00 to UTC+12,00. Daylight saving time is not used in Russia, since 4 December 2016, the time zones are as follows, Daylight saving time in Russia was originally introduced on 30 June 1917 by a decree of the Russian Provisional Government. However, it was abandoned by a Decree of the Soviet government five months later, Daylight saving time was re-introduced in the USSR on 1 April 1981, by a decision of the Council of Ministers of the USSR. The usage of daylight saving time continued after the Soviet collapse but ended in 2011, on 27 March 2011, clocks were advanced as usual, but they did not go back on 30 October 2011, effectively making Moscow Time UTC+4 permanently. In the Russian Empire, most of the observed solar time. During the late 19th century, Moscow Mean Time was introduced on 1 January 1880,2,30,17 corresponds to 37. 6166667°, the longitude of Moscow. Other parts of Russia kept solar time for several years. At this time, Russia had the Julian calendar with 12 or 13 days less date compared to Western Europe, so it is possible to say the Moscow actually had GMT-285,29,43, GMT-309,29,43 and GMT-309,28,41. Russia adopted the Gregorian calendar on Thursday,14 February 1918, after the Soviet Union was created, Moscow Time became UTC+2 and the various other time zones were introduced throughout Russia and the rest of the Soviet Union, for example Irkutsk Time GMT+7. Between 1917-1922 the time was ordered, with daylight savings time some of those years. On 21 June 1930, the Soviet Union advanced all clocks by one hour, Moscow Time was now GMT+3 and Irkutsk Time GMT+8. On 1 April 1981, daylight saving time was re-introduced, clocks were moved one hour forward on 1 April, on 1 April 1981,00,00,00, Oymyakonsky District changed its time zone from MSK+6 to MSK+8. The change occurred during DST effectively changing the offset from UTC+9 to UTC+12, on 1 April 1982,00,00,00, Chukotka Autonomous Okrug changed its time zone from MSK+10 to MSK+9, thus eliminating Anadyr Time. The change occurred during DST effectively changing the offset from UTC+14 to UTC+13, on 27 March 1988,02,00,00, Saratov and Volgograd oblasts changed its time zone from MSK+1 to MSK. The change occurred during DST effectively changing the offset from UTC+5 to UTC+4, on 23 May 1993,00,00,00, Novosibirsk Oblast changed its time zone from MSK+4 to MSK+3. The change occurred during DST effectively changing the offset from UTC+8 to UTC+7, on 28 May 1995,00,00,00, Altai Krai and Altai Republic changed its time zone from MSK+4 to MSK+3. On 30 March 1997,02,00,00, Sakhalin Oblast changed its time zone from MSK+8 to MSK+7, on 1 May 2002,03,00,00, Tomsk Oblast changed its time zone from MSK+4 to MSK+3. On 1 January 2004,00,00,00, New Siberian Islands, Tomponsky District, the following time zone changes occurred on 28 March 2010, which, in particular, led to abolition of two of the eleven time zones
12.
Wikimedia Commons
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Wikimedia Commons is an online repository of free-use images, sound, and other media files. It is a project of the Wikimedia Foundation, the repository contains over 38 million media files. In July 2013, the number of edits on Commons reached 100,000,000, the project was proposed by Erik Möller in March 2004 and launched on September 7,2004. The expression educational is to be according to its broad meaning of providing knowledge. Wikimedia Commons itself does not allow fair use or uploads under non-free licenses, for this reason, Wikimedia Commons always hosts freely licensed media and deletes copyright violations. The default language for Commons is English, but registered users can customize their interface to use any other user interface translations. Many content pages, in particular policy pages and portals, have also translated into various languages. Files on Wikimedia Commons are categorized using MediaWikis category system, in addition, they are often collected on individual topical gallery pages. While the project was proposed to also contain free text files. In 2012, BuzzFeed described Wikimedia Commons as littered with dicks, in 2010, Wikipedia co-founder Larry Sanger reported Wikimedia Commons to the FBI for hosting sexualized images of children known as lolicon. Wales responded to the backlash from the Commons community by voluntarily relinquishing some site privileges, over time, additional functionality has been developed to interface Wikimedia Commons with the other Wikimedia projects. Specialized uploading tools and scripts such as Commonist have been created to simplify the process of uploading large numbers of files. In order to free content photos uploaded to Flickr, users can participate in a defunct collaborative external review process. The site has three mechanisms for recognizing quality works, one is known as Featured pictures, where works are nominated and other community members vote to accept or reject the nomination. This process began in November 2004, another process known as Quality images began in June 2006, and has a simpler nomination process comparable to Featured pictures. Quality images only accepts works created by Wikimedia users, whereas Featured pictures additionally accepts nominations of works by third parties such as NASA, the three mentioned processes select a slight part from the total number of files. However, Commons collects files of all quality levels, from the most professional level across simple documental, files with specific defects can be tagged for improvement and warning or even proposed for deletion but there exists no process of systematic rating of all files. The site held its inaugural Picture of the Year competition, for 2006, all images that were made a Featured picture during 2006 were eligible, and voted on by eligible Wikimedia users during two rounds of voting
13.
Russian language
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Russian is an East Slavic language and an official language in Russia, Belarus, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan and many minor or unrecognised territories. Russian belongs to the family of Indo-European languages and is one of the four living members of the East Slavic languages, written examples of Old East Slavonic are attested from the 10th century and beyond. It is the most geographically widespread language of Eurasia and the most widely spoken of the Slavic languages and it is also the largest native language in Europe, with 144 million native speakers in Russia, Ukraine and Belarus. Russian is the eighth most spoken language in the world by number of native speakers, the language is one of the six official languages of the United Nations. Russian is also the second most widespread language on the Internet after English, Russian distinguishes between consonant phonemes with palatal secondary articulation and those without, the so-called soft and hard sounds. This distinction is found between pairs of almost all consonants and is one of the most distinguishing features of the language, another important aspect is the reduction of unstressed vowels. Russian is a Slavic language of the Indo-European family and it is a lineal descendant of the language used in Kievan Rus. From the point of view of the language, its closest relatives are Ukrainian, Belarusian, and Rusyn. An East Slavic Old Novgorod dialect, although vanished during the 15th or 16th century, is considered to have played a significant role in the formation of modern Russian. In the 19th century, the language was often called Great Russian to distinguish it from Belarusian, then called White Russian and Ukrainian, however, the East Slavic forms have tended to be used exclusively in the various dialects that are experiencing a rapid decline. In some cases, both the East Slavic and the Church Slavonic forms are in use, with different meanings. For details, see Russian phonology and History of the Russian language and it is also regarded by the United States Intelligence Community as a hard target language, due to both its difficulty to master for English speakers and its critical role in American world policy. The standard form of Russian is generally regarded as the modern Russian literary language, mikhail Lomonosov first compiled a normalizing grammar book in 1755, in 1783 the Russian Academys first explanatory Russian dictionary appeared. By the mid-20th century, such dialects were forced out with the introduction of the education system that was established by the Soviet government. Despite the formalization of Standard Russian, some nonstandard dialectal features are observed in colloquial speech. Thus, the Russian language is the 6th largest in the world by number of speakers, after English, Mandarin, Hindi/Urdu, Spanish, Russian is one of the six official languages of the United Nations. Education in Russian is still a choice for both Russian as a second language and native speakers in Russia as well as many of the former Soviet republics. Russian is still seen as an important language for children to learn in most of the former Soviet republics, samuel P. Huntington wrote in the Clash of Civilizations, During the heyday of the Soviet Union, Russian was the lingua franca from Prague to Hanoi
14.
Moscow
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Moscow is the capital and most populous city of Russia, with 13.2 million residents within the city limits and 17.8 million within the urban area. Moscow has the status of a Russian federal city, Moscow is a major political, economic, cultural, and scientific center of Russia and Eastern Europe, as well as the largest city entirely on the European continent. Moscow is the northernmost and coldest megacity and metropolis on Earth and it is home to the Ostankino Tower, the tallest free standing structure in Europe, the Federation Tower, the tallest skyscraper in Europe, and the Moscow International Business Center. Moscow is situated on the Moskva River in the Central Federal District of European Russia, the city is well known for its architecture, particularly its historic buildings such as Saint Basils Cathedral with its brightly colored domes. Moscow is the seat of power of the Government of Russia, being the site of the Moscow Kremlin, the Moscow Kremlin and Red Square are also one of several World Heritage Sites in the city. Both chambers of the Russian parliament also sit in the city and it is recognized as one of the citys landmarks due to the rich architecture of its 200 stations. In old Russian the word also meant a church administrative district. The demonym for a Moscow resident is москвич for male or москвичка for female, the name of the city is thought to be derived from the name of the Moskva River. There have been proposed several theories of the origin of the name of the river and its cognates include Russian, музга, muzga pool, puddle, Lithuanian, mazgoti and Latvian, mazgāt to wash, Sanskrit, majjati to drown, Latin, mergō to dip, immerse. There exist as well similar place names in Poland like Mozgawa, the original Old Russian form of the name is reconstructed as *Москы, *Mosky, hence it was one of a few Slavic ū-stem nouns. From the latter forms came the modern Russian name Москва, Moskva, in a similar manner the Latin name Moscovia has been formed, later it became a colloquial name for Russia used in Western Europe in the 16th–17th centuries. From it as well came English Muscovy, various other theories, having little or no scientific ground, are now largely rejected by contemporary linguists. The surface similarity of the name Russia with Rosh, an obscure biblical tribe or country, the oldest evidence of humans on the territory of Moscow dates from the Neolithic. Within the modern bounds of the city other late evidence was discovered, on the territory of the Kremlin, Sparrow Hills, Setun River and Kuntsevskiy forest park, etc. The earliest East Slavic tribes recorded as having expanded to the upper Volga in the 9th to 10th centuries are the Vyatichi and Krivichi, the Moskva River was incorporated as part of Rostov-Suzdal into the Kievan Rus in the 11th century. By AD1100, a settlement had appeared on the mouth of the Neglinnaya River. The first known reference to Moscow dates from 1147 as a place of Yuri Dolgoruky. At the time it was a town on the western border of Vladimir-Suzdal Principality
15.
Russian Census (2002)
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Russian Census of 2002 was the first census of the Russian Federation since the dissolution of the Soviet Union, carried out on October 9 through October 16,2002. It was carried out by the Russian Federal Service of State Statistics, the census data were collected as of midnight October 9,2002. The census was intended to collect statistical information about the resident population of Russian Federation. All detailed census tables are for the resident population, a sample of the participants were also asked more detailed questions about their economic and housing situation. Also, the census also counted two more groups of people, Russian citizens currently living abroad for more one year in connection with the employment with the federal government. Persons permanently residing abroad, but temporarily present in Russia, Foreign citizens present in Russia as employees of foreign diplomatic missions or international organizations, and members of their household, were excluded from the census altogether. The Census recorded the resident population of 145,166,731 persons and that included urban population of 106,429,000 and rural population of 38,738,000. The non-resident populations included, Russian citizens living abroad in connection with the government service,107,288. Census participants were asked what country they were citizens of,142,442,000 respondents reported being Russian citizens, among them,44,000 also had citizenship of another country. Among Russias resident population,1,025,413 foreign citizens and 429,881 stateless persons were counted,1,269,023 persons did not report their citizenship. Among the questions asked were Are you competent in the Russian language, and What other languages are you competent in. As the census manual explained, competence meant either the ability to speak, read and write a language, the questions did not distinguish native and non-native speakers, nor did they try to measure the degree of language competence. For small children, presumably, the answer was based on the language spoken by the parents. 142.6 million of the responders claimed competence in Russian, other widely reported languages are listed in the table below. 1.42 million responders did not provide language information, for a more detailed list, see List of languages of Russia. Demographics of Russia Russian Empire Census Soviet Census Official census home page Population of Chechnya, was the Census correct
16.
Soviet Census (1989)
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The census found the total population to be 286,730,819 inhabitants. In 1989, the Soviet Union ranked as the third most populous in the world, above the United States, although it was well behind China and India. In 1989, about half of the Soviet Unions total population lived in the Russian SFSR, almost two-thirds of the population was urban, leaving the rural population with some 34. 3%. In this way, its gradual increase continued, as shown by the represented by 47. 9%,56. 3% and 62. 3% of 1959,1970 and 1979 respectively. The previous postwar censuses, conducted in 1959,1970 and 1979, had enumerated 208,826,650,241,720,134, and 262,436,227 inhabitants respectively. In 1990, the Soviet Union was more populated than both the United States and Canada together, having some 40 million more inhabitants than the U. S. alone. However, after the dissolution of the Soviet Union in late 1991, the next census was possibly planned for 1999. Research Guide to Russian and Soviet Censuses, Ithaca, Cornell University Press,1986, dewdney, Population change in the Soviet Union, 1979-1989, Geography, Vol.75, Pt.3, No. Subjects of Russia, on the www. statoids. com website
17.
Osyotr River
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Osyotr River is a river in Tula and Moscow Oblasts in Russia, a right tributary of the Oka River. The length of the river is 228 kilometres, the area of its basin is 3,480 square kilometres. The Osyotr freezes up in November and stays icebound until the first half of April, the town of Zaraysk is located on the Osyotr River. This article includes content derived from the Great Soviet Encyclopedia, 1969–1978, which is partially in the public domain
18.
Oka River
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Oka is a river in central Russia, the largest right tributary of the Volga. It flows through the regions of Oryol, Tula, Kaluga, Moscow, Ryazan, Vladimir, the Russian capital Moscow sits on one of the Okas tributaries—the Moskva River. Max Vasmer connects the name of the river to the Gothic аƕа, Old High German aha, Latin aqua, which all mean either water or river. Oleg Trubachev traces the origin of the name to the Baltic languages, historically, the river gave its name to the Upper Oka Principalities, situated upstream from Tarusa. In 1221 Grand Duke Yuri II of Vladimir founded Nizhny Novgorod, later to one of the largest Russian cities. The Qasim Khanate, a Muslim polity, occupied the middle reaches of the Oka in the 15th and 16th centuries, traveling upstream may have been even slower, as the boats had to be pulled by burlaks. The Prioksko-Terrasny Biosphere Reserve lies along the bank of the river opposite the town of Pushchino and is known for its wisent breeding nursery. The unit fought all the way to Berlin alongside the Red Army and it was written by Leon Pasternak. Oka at GEOnet Names Server Media related to Oka River at Wikimedia Commons
19.
Middle Ages
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In the history of Europe, the Middle Ages or Medieval Period lasted from the 5th to the 15th century. It began with the fall of the Western Roman Empire and merged into the Renaissance, the Middle Ages is the middle period of the three traditional divisions of Western history, classical antiquity, the medieval period, and the modern period. The medieval period is subdivided into the Early, High. Population decline, counterurbanisation, invasion, and movement of peoples, the large-scale movements of the Migration Period, including various Germanic peoples, formed new kingdoms in what remained of the Western Roman Empire. In the seventh century, North Africa and the Middle East—once part of the Byzantine Empire—came under the rule of the Umayyad Caliphate, although there were substantial changes in society and political structures, the break with classical antiquity was not complete. The still-sizeable Byzantine Empire survived in the east and remained a major power, the empires law code, the Corpus Juris Civilis or Code of Justinian, was rediscovered in Northern Italy in 1070 and became widely admired later in the Middle Ages. In the West, most kingdoms incorporated the few extant Roman institutions, monasteries were founded as campaigns to Christianise pagan Europe continued. The Franks, under the Carolingian dynasty, briefly established the Carolingian Empire during the later 8th, the Crusades, first preached in 1095, were military attempts by Western European Christians to regain control of the Holy Land from Muslims. Kings became the heads of centralised nation states, reducing crime and violence, intellectual life was marked by scholasticism, a philosophy that emphasised joining faith to reason, and by the founding of universities. Controversy, heresy, and the Western Schism within the Catholic Church paralleled the conflict, civil strife. Cultural and technological developments transformed European society, concluding the Late Middle Ages, the Middle Ages is one of the three major periods in the most enduring scheme for analysing European history, classical civilisation, or Antiquity, the Middle Ages, and the Modern Period. Medieval writers divided history into periods such as the Six Ages or the Four Empires, when referring to their own times, they spoke of them as being modern. In the 1330s, the humanist and poet Petrarch referred to pre-Christian times as antiqua, leonardo Bruni was the first historian to use tripartite periodisation in his History of the Florentine People. Bruni and later argued that Italy had recovered since Petrarchs time. The Middle Ages first appears in Latin in 1469 as media tempestas or middle season, in early usage, there were many variants, including medium aevum, or middle age, first recorded in 1604, and media saecula, or middle ages, first recorded in 1625. The alternative term medieval derives from medium aevum, tripartite periodisation became standard after the German 17th-century historian Christoph Cellarius divided history into three periods, Ancient, Medieval, and Modern. The most commonly given starting point for the Middle Ages is 476, for Europe as a whole,1500 is often considered to be the end of the Middle Ages, but there is no universally agreed upon end date. English historians often use the Battle of Bosworth Field in 1485 to mark the end of the period
20.
Ryazan
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Ryazan is a city and the administrative center of Ryazan Oblast, Russia, located on the Oka River 196 kilometers southeast of Moscow. It is argued that the Ryazan kremlin was founded in 800, by Slavic settlers, initially it was built of wood, gradually replaced by masonry. The oldest preserved part of the dates back to the 12th century. However, the first written mention of the city, under the name of Pereslavl, at that time, the city was part of the independent Principality of Ryazan, which had existed since 1078 and which was centered on the old city of Ryazan. The first ruler of Ryazan was supposedly Yaroslav Sviatoslavich, Prince of Ryazan, by the end of the 12th century, the capital of Duchy was burnt several times by the armies of Suzdal. Ryazan was the first Russian city to be sacked by the Mongol horde of Batu Khan, on December 21,1237, it was thoroughly devastated and never fully recovered. As result of the sack, the seat of the principality was moved about 55 kilometers to the town of Pereslavl-Ryazansky, the site of the old capital now carries the name of Staraya Ryazan, close to Spassk-Ryazansky. Late in the 13th century, the Princes of Ryazan moved their capital to Pereslavl, the principality was finally incorporated into that of Moscow in 1521. Immediately after World War II, rapid development of the city began, Ryazan became a major industrial, scientific, and military center of the European part of Russia. Massive factories were constructed in the city, occupying the urban areas. Leading areas of industry are heavy and non-ferrous metallurgy, oil refining and machine-tool industry, mechanical engineering, more than half of the plants produce for export. Several positioned MANPADS protect the urban sky, besides the Airborne School, Ryazan hosts the Automobile School and Institute of Communications, a regiment of railway troops, airbase strategic bombers, and a training center in Diaghilev. Ryazan developed particularly rapidly while Nadezhda Nikolaevna Chumakova served as Chair of the Council of Peoples Deputies of Ryazan and Ryazan mayor, under Chumakova, the citys population increased more than seven times, from 72 to 520 thousand people. Chumakova oversaw the construction of social and cultural amenities, more than 20 urban areas, landscaping became a fundamental strategy for the development of the city at that time. Ryazan repeatedly won recognition among the cities of the Soviet Union for its landscaping, during her 26 years in office, Nadezhda Chumakova often accepted awards of the Red Banner of the USSR on behalf of Ryazan. In September 1999, Ryazan became one of the involved in the Russian apartment bombings episode. In the Political system of Ryazan, the legislature, a city council is the Ryazan City Duma, kind of the lower house of the municipality - Youth Parliament, preparing draft legislative initiatives. Executive power in the city of Ryazan carried by the administration headed by the city manager, control over the activities of the authorities is administered by the Public Chamber of the city of Ryazan, work with youth involved in the headquarters of youth activists
21.
Grand Duchy of Moscow
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The Grand Duchy of Moscow, or Grand Principality of Moscow, was a late medieval Rus principality centered on Moscow and the predecessor state of the early modern Tsardom of Russia. The state originated with Daniel I, who inherited Moscow in 1283, eclipsing and it later annexed the Novgorod Republic in 1478 and the Grand Duchy of Tver in 1485. After the Mongol invasion of Rus, Muscovy was a vassal to the Mongol ruled Golden Horde until 1480. By his marriage to the niece of the last Byzantine emperor, he established Muscovy as the state of the Roman Empire. Ivans successor Vasili III also enjoyed success, gaining Smolensk from Lithuania in 1512. Vasilis son Ivan IV was an infant at his fathers death in 1533 and he was crowned in 1547, assuming the title of tsar together with the proclamation of Tsardom of Russia. As with many states the country had no particular official name. The Duke of Moscow or the Sovereign of Moscow were common short titles, in rivalry with other duchies Moscow dukes also designated themselves as the Grand Dukes, claiming a higher position in the hierarchy of Russian dukes. During the territorial growth and later acquisitions, the title became rather lengthy. Since the 14th century various Moscow dukes added of all Rus to their titles, after the title of Russian metropolitans, Dmitry Shemyaka was the first Moscow duke who minted coins with the title the Sovereign of all Rus. Under the Polish-Lithuanian influence the country began to be called Muscovy in Western Europe, the first appearances of the term were in an Italian document of 1500. Initially Moscovia was the Latinized name of the city of Moscow itself, not of the state, later it acquired its meaning and has been used alongside of the older name. The term Muscovy persisted in the West until the beginning of the 18th century and is used in historical contexts. When the Mongols invaded the lands of Kievan Rus in the 13th century, the first ruler of the principality of Moscow, Daniel I, was the youngest son of Alexander Nevsky of Vladimir-Suzdal. He started to expand his principality by seizing Kolomna and securing the bequest of Pereslavl-Zalessky to his family, daniels son Yuriy controlled the entire basin of the Moskva River and expanded westward by conquering Mozhaisk. He then forged an alliance with the overlord of the Rus principalities, Uzbeg Khan of the Golden Horde, the Khan allowed Yuriy to claim the title of Grand Duke of Vladimir-Suzdal, a position which allowed him to interfere in the affairs of the Novgorod Republic to the north-west. Yuriys successor, Ivan I, managed to retain the title of Grand Duke by cooperating closely with the Mongols and by collecting tribute and taxes from other Rus principalities on their behalf. This relationship enabled Ivan to gain regional ascendancy, particularly over Moscows chief rival, the city of Tver
22.
Zasechnaya cherta
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It also served as a border between the Muscovite State and the steppe nomads. As a fortification line stretching for kilometers, the Great Abatis Border is analogous to the Great Wall of China. Abatis is a term for a field fortification made by cutting down trees. The line was built from the trees that were arranged as a barricade. It was also fortified by ditches and earth mounds, palisades, watch towers and natural features like lakes, the width of the abatis mounts up to several hundred meters. In the most dangerous places the abatis was doubled, trebled etc. the gates, peasants who lived nearby were forbidden to settle or cut wood in the area, but were obliged by authorities to spend part of their time supporting and renewing the fortifications. In the autumn, large areas of steppegrass beyond the line were burnt to deny raiders fodder, stone and wooden kremlins of the towns were also included in the Great Abatis Line. Among these towns were, Serpukhov, Kolomna, Zaraysk, Tula, Ryazan, other fortresses in the line were smaller ostrogs. There were a number of fortification lines in Russian history. The lines naturally moved south as the Russian state expanded, the earliest reference to abatis fortifications appears to be in a Novgorod chronicle of 1137-1139. Abatis lines began appearing in southern Rus in the 13th century, the Great Abatis Line extended from Bryansk to Meschera and was nominally completed in 1566. It was guarded by a militia of about 35,000 in the second half of the 16th century. Another source gives an annual callup of 65,000, behind the line was a mobile army headquartered in Tula. The oldest one ran from Nizhniy Novgorod along the Oka River to Kozelsk, the next one, built a while later, followed the line Alatyr - Orel - Novgorod Seversky - Putivl. Feodor I of Russia had built the abatis on the line Livny - Kursk - Voronezh - Belgorod, Simbirsk line was constructed about 1640, and continued the Belgorod line from Tambov to Simbirsk on the Volga River. In 1730-31 the Kama line separated Kazan from the Bashkirs, from about 1736 a Samara-Orenburg line closed in the Baskirs from the south
23.
Tatars
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The Tatars are a Turkic people living in Asia and Europe who were one of the five major tribal confederations in the Mongolian plateau in the 12th century CE. The name Tatar first appears in form on the Kul Tigin monument as
24.
Lisowczycy
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Lisowczycy – the name of an early 17th-century irregular unit of the Polish light cavalry. The Lisowczycy took part in battles across Europe and the historical accounts of the period characterized them as extremely agile, warlike. Their numbers varied with time, from a few hundreds to several thousands, the origin of the group can be traced to konfederacja, organized around 1604 by Aleksander Józef Lisowski. They began to grow in strength and fame a few years later, the Lisowczycy unit of the Polish cavalry received no formal wages, instead, they were allowed to loot and plunder as they pleased. They relied on their speed and fought without tabors, foraging supplies from lands they moved through, the Lisowczycy were feared and despised by civilians wherever they passed and they gained dubious fame for the scores of atrocities they carried out. However, they were also respected by their opponents for their military skills. They did not hesitate to even their homeland, where they sacked the Racovian Academy university of the Polish brethren. Such actions were among of the reasons the Commonwealth ruler Sigismund III Vasa tried to keep away from the Commonwealth for as long as possible. The Lisowczycy took part in conflicts, including the Dymitriads. They were eventually disbanded in 1635, an account of Lisowczycys exploits was written by their chaplain, Wojciech Dembołęcki, in Przewagi Elearów polskich co ich niegdy Lisowczykami zwano. In 1604, during the stages of the Polish–Swedish War. Although this annoyed the Commonwealth commander, Hetman Jan Karol Chodkiewicz, soon after, Lisowski with his followers joined the Sandomierz rebellion or rokosz of Zebrzydowski, a revolt against the absolutist tendencies of the Commonwealth ruler Sigismund III Vasa. He soon decided he could profit best by lending his support to the Muscovite pretender, however, he was soon to be defeated at Miedźwiedzi Bród, losing most of his loot. He reorganized the army and joined with Jan Piotr Sapieha, then came successful pillages at Kostroma, Soligalich, and some other cities. He took Pskov in 1610 and clashed with Swedes operating in Muscovy during the Ingrian War, the Lisowczycy proved essential in the defence of Smolensk in 1612, when most of the Commonwealth regular army, the, mutined and joined the Rohatyn Confederation. For the next three years Lisowskis forces were of importance in the guarding of the Commonwealth border against Muscovy incursions, in 1615, Lisowski gathered many outlaws and invaded Muscovy with 6 companies of cavalry. He besieged Bryansk and defeated the Muscovite relief force of a few soldiers under Kniaz Yuri Shakhovskoy near Karachev. Lisowski moved on to defeat the Muscovite advance guard of a force under the command of Kniaz Dmitry Pozharsky, until the autumn of 1616, Lisowski and his forces remained on the Commonwealth-Muscovy border, when Lisowski suddenly fell ill and died on October 11
25.
Time of Troubles
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In 1601–03, Russia suffered a famine that killed one-third of the population, about two million. At the time, during the Polish–Muscovite War, Russia was occupied by the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, Godunovs short reign was not as successful as his administration under the weak Feodor. Extremely poor harvests were encountered in 1601–03, with night temperatures in all summer months often below freezing, wrecking crops. The probable cause of changes was the eruption of Huaynaputina volcano in Peru in 1600. Under the influence of the nobles who had unsuccessfully opposed the election of Godunov. Rumours circulated that the tsars younger brother Dmitri, thought to be dead, was still alive. In 1603 a man calling himself Dmitri—first of the so-called False Dmitris—and professing to be the heir to the throne. He attracted support both in Russia and outside its borders, particularly in the Polish Commonwealth and the Papal States, False Dmitri was married per procura to Marina Mniszech, and immediately after Godunovs death in 1605, he made his triumphal entry into Moscow. The reign of False Dimitri was short, before a year had passed, Vasily Shuisky, an ambitious Rurikid prince, formed a conspiracy against him. His forces murdered False Dimitri soon after his marriage in the Moscow Kremlin, together with many of his supporters, Shuisky and his men were estimated to have killed 2,000 Poles. The reaction to the massacre in Poland was strong, but the government decided to postpone revenge against those responsible, like his predecessor, he enjoyed the protection and support of the Polish–Lithuanian magnates. After Shuisky signed an alliance with Sweden, the king of the Commonwealth, Sigismund III, seeing the Russian–Swedish alliance as a threat, resolved to intervene, Polish–Lithuanian troops crossed the Russian borders and laid siege to the fortress of Smolensk. After the combined Russo–Swedish forces were destroyed at the Battle of Klushino, before False Dmitri II could gain the throne, the Polish commander, voivode, and magnate Stanisław Żółkiewski, put forward a rival candidate, Sigismunds son, Władysław. Some people in Moscow swore allegiance to him on condition of his maintaining Orthodoxy, on this understanding, they allowed Polish troops to enter the city and occupy the Kremlin. The Polish king opposed the compromise, deciding to take the throne for himself, the contending factions were opposed and his plan aroused the anti-Catholic and anti-Polish feelings in Russia. The Swedes disapproved as they were rivals of the Poles on the Baltic coast and they declared war on Russia, supporting a false Dmitri of their choice in Ivangorod. Russia was in a critical condition, tens of thousands died in battles and riots, on 17–19 March 1611, the Poles and German mercenaries suppressed riots in Moscow, they massacred 7,000 Muscovites and set the city on fire. Many other cities were devastated or weakened
26.
Bulgaria
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Bulgaria, officially the Republic of Bulgaria, is a country in southeastern Europe. It is bordered by Romania to the north, Serbia and Macedonia to the west, Greece and Turkey to the south, with a territory of 110,994 square kilometres, Bulgaria is Europes 16th-largest country. Organised prehistoric cultures began developing on current Bulgarian lands during the Neolithic period and its ancient history saw the presence of the Thracians, Greeks, Persians, Celts, Romans, Goths, Alans and Huns. With the downfall of the Second Bulgarian Empire in 1396, its territories came under Ottoman rule for five centuries. The Russo-Turkish War of 1877–78 led to the formation of the Third Bulgarian State, the following years saw several conflicts with its neighbours, which prompted Bulgaria to align with Germany in both world wars. In 1946 it became a one-party socialist state as part of the Soviet-led Eastern Bloc, in December 1989 the ruling Communist Party allowed multi-party elections, which subsequently led to Bulgarias transition into a democracy and a market-based economy. Bulgarias population of 7.2 million people is predominantly urbanised, most commercial and cultural activities are centred on the capital and largest city, Sofia. The strongest sectors of the economy are industry, power engineering. The countrys current political structure dates to the adoption of a constitution in 1991. Bulgaria is a parliamentary republic with a high degree of political, administrative. Human activity in the lands of modern Bulgaria can be traced back to the Paleolithic, animal bones incised with man-made markings from Kozarnika cave are assumed to be the earliest examples of symbolic behaviour in humans. Organised prehistoric societies in Bulgarian lands include the Neolithic Hamangia culture, Vinča culture, the latter is credited with inventing gold working and exploitation. Some of these first gold smelters produced the coins, weapons and jewellery of the Varna Necropolis treasure and this site also offers insights for understanding the social hierarchy of the earliest European societies. Thracians, one of the three primary groups of modern Bulgarians, began appearing in the region during the Iron Age. In the late 6th century BC, the Persians conquered most of present-day Bulgaria, and kept it until 479 BC. After the division of the Roman Empire in the 5th century the area fell under Byzantine control, by this time, Christianity had already spread in the region. A small Gothic community in Nicopolis ad Istrum produced the first Germanic language book in the 4th century, the first Christian monastery in Europe was established around the same time by Saint Athanasius in central Bulgaria. From the 6th century the easternmost South Slavs gradually settled in the region, in 680 Bulgar tribes under the leadership of Asparukh moved south across the Danube and settled in the area between the lower Danube and the Balkan, establishing their capital at Pliska
27.
Popovo, Bulgaria
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Popovo is a town in northeastern Bulgaria, part of Targovishte Province. It is the centre of the homonymous Popovo Municipality. In December 2009, it had a population of 15,548, the town was first mentioned in an Ottoman tax register of 1555. Popovo Saddle in Imeon Range on Smith Island in the South Shetland Islands, the town is built along the length of the Popovska river on top of two hills opposite from one another and in the valley as well. Not long ago, before the corrections to the Sofia-Varna railway line were completed, the land of the villages Gagovo, Zaraevo, Kardam, Medovina, and Palamartsa. Arzamas, Nizhny Novgorod Oblast, Russia Câmpulung, Romania Lüleburgaz, Turkey Negotino, Republic of Macedonia Zaraysk, Moscow Oblast, Russia Official website
28.
Russian Federal State Statistics Service
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Russian Federal State Statistics Service is the governmental statistics agency in Russia. Goskomstat was the centralised agency dealing with statistics in the Soviet Union and this renaming amounted to a formal demotion of the status of the agency. In addition to overseeing the collection and evaluation of state statistics, Goskomstat was responsible for planning and carrying out the population and it carried out seven such censuses, in 1926,1937,1939,1959,1970,1980, and 1989. 39, on Ulitsa Myasnitskaya, Tsentrosoyuz building, home to Goskomstat, was designed by the Swiss-born architect, Federal State Statistics - Soviet period of activity Interstate Statistical Committee of the Commonwealth of Independent States Federal State Statistics Service of the Russian Federation
29.
Government of Russia
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The Government of the Russian Federation exercises executive power in the Russian Federation, also known as the Russian Soviet Federated Socialist Republic. The members of the government are the Prime Minister, the deputy ministers. It has its basis in the Constitution of the Russian Federation. According to the 1991 amendment to the 1978 Russian Constitution, the President of Russia was the head of the executive branch, according to the current 1993 Constitution of Russia, the President is not a part of the Government of Russia, which exercises executive power. But, the President does appoint the Prime Minister, after the fall of the Soviet Union, the Russian Council of Ministers had become the main executive body. At some points it contained over 69 state committees, 16–17 ministers,5 federal services, after the 2004 reform, government duties were split between 17 ministries,5 federal services, and over 30 governmental agencies. The Russian Federation practices asymmetrical federalism and this means that not all regions are treated fairly and that some regions have been given more autonomy than others. There are 7 super regions with a governor that answers to the President. Those super regions include the South, Central, North-West, Far East, Siberia, Ural, Volga and they were established in May of 2000. The prime minister, currently Dmitry Medvedev, is appointed by the president and he or she succeeds to the presidency if the current president dies, is incapacitated, or resigns. Corruption is common and widespread in the government, according to 2016 results of Corruption Perception Index of Transparency International, Russia ranked 131th place out of 176 countries with score 29. Multiple anti-corruption campaigns have launched to try to curb corruption. One of the biggest stances taken against corruption is the formation of the Anti-Corruption Council in 2008, the large body was preceded by Government of the Soviet Union. Since the Russian Federation emerged in 1991 to 1992, the structure has undergone several major changes. In the initial years, an amount of government bodies, primarily the different ministries. On 28 November 1991, President of the RSFSR Boris Yeltsin signed presidential decree No.242 On reorganization of the government bodies of the RSFSR, Yeltsin officially declared the end of the Soviet Union and became the President of the Russian Federation. Yeltsin was a reformer and promised Western-styled democracy, in 1993 the new Russian Constitution was adopted. The new Constitution gained legitimacy through its legislature, independent judiciary, the position of the president and the prime minister
30.
Runivers.ru
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Runivers is a site devoted to Russian culture and history. Runivers targets Russian speaking readers and those interested in Russian culture, Runivers is an online library aimed to provide free access to authentic documents, books and texts related to Russian history, which were previously kept in major libraries and state archives. The main body of the consists of facsimile copies of books and journals published before 1917 as well as archive photos and documents on the history. The digitalizing is supported by Transneft, as of August 2010, Runivers claimed to contain over 1,500 books mostly about Russian history. Also Runivers provides access to encyclopedias, document collections and photos, Many of the publications were not available for general public or were forbidden in Soviet Union. The site includes a calendar with daily updates related to memorable events, Runivers offers a collection of photographs taken by distinguished Russian photographers at the turn of the 20th century. Each photo gallery is accompanied by the biography of the photographer, the captions give information about the picture, objects on it and a place where it was taken. 1852-1855 Encyclopedia of Military and Marine Sciences, 1911-1915 Complete collection of laws of Russian Empire Complete collection of military encyclopedias Many other dictionaries and encyclopedias Periodical. Project Gutenberg Google Books Europeana World Digital Library Library of Congress Media related to Images from runivers. ru at Wikimedia Commons Runivers Homepage
31.
Portable Document Format
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The Portable Document Format is a file format used to present documents in a manner independent of application software, hardware, and operating systems. Each PDF file encapsulates a complete description of a fixed-layout flat document, including the text, fonts, graphics, PDF was developed in the early 1990s as a way to share computer documents, including text formatting and inline images. It was among a number of competing formats such as DjVu, Envoy, Common Ground Digital Paper, Farallon Replica, in those early years before the rise of the World Wide Web and HTML documents, PDF was popular mainly in desktop publishing workflows. Adobe Systems made the PDF specification available free of charge in 1993 and these proprietary technologies are not standardized and their specification is published only on Adobe’s website. Many of them are not supported by popular third-party implementations of PDF. So when organizations publish PDFs which use proprietary technologies, they present accessibility issues for some users. In 2014, ISO TC171 voted to deprecate XFA for ISO 32000-2, on January 9,2017, the final draft for ISO 32000-2 was published, thus reaching the approval stage. The PDF combines three technologies, A subset of the PostScript page description programming language, for generating the layout, a font-embedding/replacement system to allow fonts to travel with the documents. A structured storage system to bundle these elements and any associated content into a single file, PostScript is a page description language run in an interpreter to generate an image, a process requiring many resources. It can handle graphics and standard features of programming such as if. PDF is largely based on PostScript but simplified to remove flow control features like these, often, the PostScript-like PDF code is generated from a source PostScript file. The graphics commands that are output by the PostScript code are collected and tokenized, any files, graphics, or fonts to which the document refers also are collected. Then, everything is compressed to a single file, therefore, the entire PostScript world remains intact. PDF supports graphic transparency, PostScript does not, PostScript is an interpreted programming language with an implicit global state, so instructions accompanying the description of one page can affect the appearance of any following page. Therefore, all preceding pages in a PostScript document must be processed to determine the appearance of a given page. A PDF file is a 7-bit ASCII file, except for elements that may have binary content. A PDF file starts with a header containing the magic number, the format is a subset of a COS format. A COS tree file consists primarily of objects, of which there are eight types, Boolean values, representing true or false Numbers Strings, enclosed within parentheses, objects may be either direct or indirect
32.
Administrative divisions of Moscow Oblast
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This is a list of the administrative and municipal divisions of Moscow Oblast, a federal subject of Russia. Moscow Oblast is located in the Central Federal District of Russia, and completely surrounds Moscow, on June 3,1929 the oblast was given its present name. In September 1937, the oblast was split into Moscow, Ryazan, in terms of administrative division, the Oblast is divided into, districts, cities/towns under the Oblast administration, closed administrative-territorial formations. In terms of the local self-government, the Oblast is divided into, municipal districts, rural settlements, urban settlements, in terms of administrative division, All municipal districts are established on the basis of administrative districts. Balashikha and Domodedovo Urban Okrugs correspond, respectively, to Balashikhinsky and Domodedovsky administrative districts, krasnoznamensk, Molodyozhny, and Voskhod Urban Okrugs correspond to closed administrative-territorial formations. The closed administrative-territorial formations of Vlasikha and Zvyozdny gorodok have not yet been incorporated as urban okrugs. All other urban okrugs correspond to the cities/towns under the oblast jurisdiction, administrative divisions of Moscow Московская областная Дума. Закона №217/2007-ОЗ от24 декабря2007 г
33.
Chekhovsky District
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Chekhovsky District is an administrative and municipal district, one of the thirty-six in Moscow Oblast, Russia. It is located in the south of the oblast, the area of the district is 865.85 square kilometers. Its administrative center is the town of Chekhov, the population of Chekhov accounts for 52. 7% of the districts total population. Закон №11/2013-ОЗ от31 января2013 г, «Об административно-территориальном устройстве Московской области», в ред. Закона №72/2015-ОЗ от5 мая2015 г, Вступил в силу на следующий день после официального опубликования. Подмосковье, №24,12 февраля2013 г, Постановление №123-ПГ от28 сентября2010 г. «Об учётных данных административно-территориальных и территориальных единиц Московской области», в ред, Постановления №252-ПГ от26 июня2015 г. «О внесении изменения в учётные данные административно-территориальных и территориальных единиц Московской области», Опубликован, Информационный вестник Правительства МО, №10,30 октября2010 г. Закон №77/2005-ОЗ от28 февраля2005 г, «О статусе и границах Чеховского муниципального района и вновь образованных в его составе муниципальных образований», в ред. Закона №10/2013-ОЗ от30 января2013 г, «О внесении изменений в Закон Московской области О статусе и границах Чеховского муниципального района и вновь образованных в его составе муниципальных образований». Вступил в силу со дня официального опубликования, Подмосковье, №44,12 марта2005 г
34.
Dmitrovsky District, Moscow Oblast
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Dmitrovsky District is an administrative and municipal district, one of the thirty-six in Moscow Oblast, Russia. The area of the district is 2,182.02 square kilometers and its administrative center is the town of Dmitrov. The population of Dmitrov accounts for 40. 5% of the total population. The district stretches for 70 kilometers from north to south and for approximately 40 kilometers from east to west, the district is hilly in the south, while the northern portion is mostly flat. The highest point is 273 meters above sea level and the lowest point is 113 meters, the major river flowing through the district include the Sestra, the Volgusha, and the Yakot. Moscow Canal which connects the Moskva River with the Volga River runs through the district, on the morning of April 26,2013, a fire swept through Psychiatric Hospital #14 in the settlement of Ramensky, killing thirty-eight people. Закон №11/2013-ОЗ от31 января2013 г, «Об административно-территориальном устройстве Московской области», в ред. Закона №72/2015-ОЗ от5 мая2015 г, Вступил в силу на следующий день после официального опубликования. Подмосковье, №24,12 февраля2013 г, Постановление №123-ПГ от28 сентября2010 г. «Об учётных данных административно-территориальных и территориальных единиц Московской области», в ред, Постановления №252-ПГ от26 июня2015 г. «О внесении изменения в учётные данные административно-территориальных и территориальных единиц Московской области», Опубликован, Информационный вестник Правительства МО, №10,30 октября2010 г. Закон №74/2005-ОЗ от28 февраля2005 г, «О статусе и границах Дмитровского муниципального района и вновь образованных в его составе муниципальных образований», в ред. Закона №54/2013-ОЗ от6 июня2013 г, «О внесении изменения в Закон Московской области О статусе и границах Дмитровского муниципального района и вновь образованных в его составе муниципальных образований». Вступил в силу со дня официального опубликования, Подмосковье, №44,12 марта2005 г
35.
Istrinsky District
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Istrinsky District is an administrative and municipal district, one of the thirty-six in Moscow Oblast, Russia. It is located in the central part of the oblast. The area of the district is 1,268.97 square kilometers and its administrative center is the town of Istra. The population of Istra accounts for 29. 3% of the total population. The Istra River flows through the district, Закон №11/2013-ОЗ от31 января2013 г. «Об административно-территориальном устройстве Московской области», в ред, Закона №72/2015-ОЗ от5 мая2015 г. Вступил в силу на следующий день после официального опубликования, Подмосковье, №24,12 февраля2013 г. Постановление №123-ПГ от28 сентября2010 г, «Об учётных данных административно-территориальных и территориальных единиц Московской области», в ред. Постановления №252-ПГ от26 июня2015 г, «О внесении изменения в учётные данные административно-территориальных и территориальных единиц Московской области». Опубликован, Информационный вестник Правительства МО, №10,30 октября2010 г, Закон №86/2005-ОЗ от28 февраля2005 г. «О статусе и границах Истринского муниципального района и вновь образованных в его составе муниципальных образований», Закона №119/2012-ОЗ от23 июля2012 г. «О внесении изменений в Закон Московской области О статусе и границах Истринского муниципального района и вновь образованных в его составе муниципальных образований», Вступил в силу со дня официального опубликования. Подмосковье, №44,12 марта2005 г
36.
Kashirsky District, Moscow Oblast
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Kashirsky District is an administrative and municipal district, one of the thirty-six in Moscow Oblast, Russia. It is located in the south of the oblast, the area of the district is 646.09 square kilometers. Its administrative center is the town of Kashira, the population of Kashira accounts for 59. 6% of the districts total population. Закон №11/2013-ОЗ от31 января2013 г, «Об административно-территориальном устройстве Московской области», в ред. Закона №72/2015-ОЗ от5 мая2015 г, Вступил в силу на следующий день после официального опубликования. Подмосковье, №24,12 февраля2013 г, Постановление №123-ПГ от28 сентября2010 г. «Об учётных данных административно-территориальных и территориальных единиц Московской области», в ред, Постановления №252-ПГ от26 июня2015 г. «О внесении изменения в учётные данные административно-территориальных и территориальных единиц Московской области», Опубликован, Информационный вестник Правительства МО, №10,30 октября2010 г. Закон №71/2005-ОЗ от28 февраля2005 г, «О статусе и границах Каширского муниципального района и вновь образованных в его составе муниципальных образований», в ред. Вступил в силу со дня официального опубликования, Подмосковье, №44,12 марта2005 г
37.
Klinsky District
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Klinsky District is an administrative and municipal district, one of the thirty-six in Moscow Oblast, Russia. The area of the district is 2,019.62 square kilometers and its administrative center is the town of Klin. The population of Klin accounts for 63. 1% of the total population. The northern part of the district is flat, while the southern part is mostly hilly. About half of the territory is covered by forests. The Sestra River flows through the district, the district was established in 1929. Закон №11/2013-ОЗ от31 января2013 г, «Об административно-территориальном устройстве Московской области», в ред. Закона №72/2015-ОЗ от5 мая2015 г, Вступил в силу на следующий день после официального опубликования. Подмосковье, №24,12 февраля2013 г, Постановление №123-ПГ от28 сентября2010 г. «Об учётных данных административно-территориальных и территориальных единиц Московской области», в ред, Постановления №252-ПГ от26 июня2015 г. «О внесении изменения в учётные данные административно-территориальных и территориальных единиц Московской области», Опубликован, Информационный вестник Правительства МО, №10,30 октября2010 г. Закон №80/2005-ОЗ от28 февраля2005 г, «О статусе и границах Клинского муниципального района и вновь образованных в его составе муниципальных образований», в ред. Закона №36/2011-ОЗ от25 марта2011 г, Вступил в силу со дня официального опубликования. Подмосковье, №44,12 марта2005 г
38.
Kolomensky District
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Kolomensky District is an administrative and municipal district, one of the thirty-six in Moscow Oblast, Russia. It is located in the southeast of the oblast and borders with Lukhovitsky, Ozyorsky, Stupinsky, Voskresensky, and with Yegoryevsky Districts, the area of the district is 1,112.28 square kilometers. Its administrative center is the city of Kolomna, main rivers flowing through the district are the Oka and the Moskva. The district was established in 1929, within the framework of administrative divisions, Kolomensky District is one of the thirty-six in the oblast. As a municipal division, the district is incorporated as Kolomensky Municipal District, Kolomna City Under Oblast Jurisdiction is incorporated separately from the district as Kolomna Urban Okrug. Закон №11/2013-ОЗ от31 января2013 г, «Об административно-территориальном устройстве Московской области», в ред. Закона №72/2015-ОЗ от5 мая2015 г, Вступил в силу на следующий день после официального опубликования. Подмосковье, №24,12 февраля2013 г, Постановление №123-ПГ от28 сентября2010 г. «Об учётных данных административно-территориальных и территориальных единиц Московской области», в ред, Постановления №252-ПГ от26 июня2015 г. «О внесении изменения в учётные данные административно-территориальных и территориальных единиц Московской области», Опубликован, Информационный вестник Правительства МО, №10,30 октября2010 г. Закон №43/2005-ОЗ от15 февраля2005 г, «О статусе и границах Коломенского муниципального района и вновь образованных в его составе муниципальных образований», в ред. Закона №121/2011-ОЗ от14 июля2011 г, «О внесении изменений в Закон Московской области О статусе и границах Коломенского муниципального района и вновь образованных в его составе муниципальных образований». Вступил в силу со дня официального опубликования, Подмосковье, №35,26 февраля2005 г. Закон №153/2004-ОЗ от25 ноября2004 г, «О статусе и границе городского округа Коломна», в ред. Вступил в силу со дня официального опубликования, Подмосковье, №231,4 декабря2004 г
39.
Krasnogorsky District, Moscow Oblast
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Krasnogorsky District is an administrative and municipal district, one of the thirty-six in Moscow Oblast, Russia. It is located in the center of the oblast, the area of the district is 224.99 square kilometers. Its administrative center is the city of Krasnogorsk, the population of Krasnogorsk accounts for 65. 0% of the districts total population. International School of Moscow maintains its Rosinka Campus in Rosinka, in the district, Закон №11/2013-ОЗ от31 января2013 г. «Об административно-территориальном устройстве Московской области», в ред, Закона №72/2015-ОЗ от5 мая2015 г. Вступил в силу на следующий день после официального опубликования, Подмосковье, №24,12 февраля2013 г. Постановление №123-ПГ от28 сентября2010 г, «Об учётных данных административно-территориальных и территориальных единиц Московской области», в ред. Постановления №252-ПГ от26 июня2015 г, «О внесении изменения в учётные данные административно-территориальных и территориальных единиц Московской области». Опубликован, Информационный вестник Правительства МО, №10,30 октября2010 г, Закон №70/2005-ОЗ от28 февраля2005 г. «О статусе и границах Красногорского муниципального района и вновь образованных в его составе муниципальных образований», Закона №8/2013-ОЗ от30 января2013 г. «О внесении изменений в Закон Московской области О статусе и границах Красногорского муниципального района и вновь образованных в его составе муниципальных образований», Вступил в силу со дня официального опубликования. Подмосковье, №42,10 марта2005 г
40.
Leninsky District, Moscow Oblast
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Leninsky District is an administrative and municipal district, one of the thirty-six in Moscow Oblast, Russia. It is located in the center of the oblast just south of the city of Moscow. The area of the district is 202.83 square kilometers and its administrative center is the town of Vidnoye. The population of Vidnoye accounts for 33. 0% of the total population. A major part of Leninsky District was merged into the city of Moscow on July 1,2012. St. Catherines monastery Soviet Square and Leninskiy District Historical and Cultural Center Московская областная Дума, Закон №11/2013-ОЗ от31 января2013 г. «Об административно-территориальном устройстве Московской области», в ред, Закона №72/2015-ОЗ от5 мая2015 г. Вступил в силу на следующий день после официального опубликования, Подмосковье, №24,12 февраля2013 г. Постановление №123-ПГ от28 сентября2010 г, «Об учётных данных административно-территориальных и территориальных единиц Московской области», в ред. Постановления №252-ПГ от26 июня2015 г, «О внесении изменения в учётные данные административно-территориальных и территориальных единиц Московской области». Опубликован, Информационный вестник Правительства МО, №10,30 октября2010 г, Закон №79/2005-ОЗ от28 февраля2005 г. «О статусе и границе Ленинского муниципального района и вновь образованных в его составе муниципальных образований», Закона №120/2013-ОЗ от10 октября2013 г. «О внесении изменения в Закон Московской области О статусе и границе Ленинского муниципального района и вновь образованных в его составе муниципальных образований», Вступил в силу со дня официального опубликования. Подмосковье, №44,12 марта2005 г
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