1.
United States
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Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
2.
California
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California is the most populous state in the United States and the third most extensive by area. Located on the western coast of the U. S, California is bordered by the other U. S. states of Oregon, Nevada, and Arizona and shares an international border with the Mexican state of Baja California. Los Angeles is Californias most populous city, and the second largest after New York City. The Los Angeles Area and the San Francisco Bay Area are the nations second- and fifth-most populous urban regions, California also has the nations most populous county, Los Angeles County, and its largest county by area, San Bernardino County. The Central Valley, an agricultural area, dominates the states center. What is now California was first settled by various Native American tribes before being explored by a number of European expeditions during the 16th and 17th centuries, the Spanish Empire then claimed it as part of Alta California in their New Spain colony. The area became a part of Mexico in 1821 following its war for independence. The western portion of Alta California then was organized as the State of California, the California Gold Rush starting in 1848 led to dramatic social and demographic changes, with large-scale emigration from the east and abroad with an accompanying economic boom. If it were a country, California would be the 6th largest economy in the world, fifty-eight percent of the states economy is centered on finance, government, real estate services, technology, and professional, scientific and technical business services. Although it accounts for only 1.5 percent of the states economy, the story of Calafia is recorded in a 1510 work The Adventures of Esplandián, written as a sequel to Amadis de Gaula by Spanish adventure writer Garci Rodríguez de Montalvo. The kingdom of Queen Calafia, according to Montalvo, was said to be a land inhabited by griffins and other strange beasts. This conventional wisdom that California was an island, with maps drawn to reflect this belief, shortened forms of the states name include CA, Cal. Calif. and US-CA. Settled by successive waves of arrivals during the last 10,000 years, various estimates of the native population range from 100,000 to 300,000. The Indigenous peoples of California included more than 70 distinct groups of Native Americans, ranging from large, settled populations living on the coast to groups in the interior. California groups also were diverse in their organization with bands, tribes, villages. Trade, intermarriage and military alliances fostered many social and economic relationships among the diverse groups, the first European effort to explore the coast as far north as the Russian River was a Spanish sailing expedition, led by Portuguese captain Juan Rodríguez Cabrillo, in 1542. Some 37 years later English explorer Francis Drake also explored and claimed a portion of the California coast in 1579. Spanish traders made unintended visits with the Manila galleons on their trips from the Philippines beginning in 1565
3.
San Francisco, California
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San Francisco, officially the City and County of San Francisco, is the cultural, commercial, and financial center of Northern California. It is the birthplace of the United Nations, the California Gold Rush of 1849 brought rapid growth, making it the largest city on the West Coast at the time. San Francisco became a consolidated city-county in 1856, after three-quarters of the city was destroyed by the 1906 earthquake and fire, San Francisco was quickly rebuilt, hosting the Panama-Pacific International Exposition nine years later. In World War II, San Francisco was a port of embarkation for service members shipping out to the Pacific Theater. Politically, the city votes strongly along liberal Democratic Party lines, San Francisco is also the headquarters of five major banking institutions and various other companies such as Levi Strauss & Co. Dolby, Airbnb, Weebly, Pacific Gas and Electric Company, Yelp, Pinterest, Twitter, Uber, Lyft, Mozilla, Wikimedia Foundation, as of 2016, San Francisco is ranked high on world liveability rankings. The earliest archaeological evidence of habitation of the territory of the city of San Francisco dates to 3000 BC. Upon independence from Spain in 1821, the became part of Mexico. Under Mexican rule, the system gradually ended, and its lands became privatized. In 1835, Englishman William Richardson erected the first independent homestead, together with Alcalde Francisco de Haro, he laid out a street plan for the expanded settlement, and the town, named Yerba Buena, began to attract American settlers. Commodore John D. Sloat claimed California for the United States on July 7,1846, during the Mexican–American War, montgomery arrived to claim Yerba Buena two days later. Yerba Buena was renamed San Francisco on January 30 of the next year, despite its attractive location as a port and naval base, San Francisco was still a small settlement with inhospitable geography. The California Gold Rush brought a flood of treasure seekers, with their sourdough bread in tow, prospectors accumulated in San Francisco over rival Benicia, raising the population from 1,000 in 1848 to 25,000 by December 1849. The promise of fabulous riches was so strong that crews on arriving vessels deserted and rushed off to the gold fields, leaving behind a forest of masts in San Francisco harbor. Some of these approximately 500 abandoned ships were used at times as storeships, saloons and hotels, many were left to rot, by 1851 the harbor was extended out into the bay by wharves while buildings were erected on piles among the ships. By 1870 Yerba Buena Cove had been filled to create new land, buried ships are occasionally exposed when foundations are dug for new buildings. California was quickly granted statehood in 1850 and the U. S. military built Fort Point at the Golden Gate, silver discoveries, including the Comstock Lode in Nevada in 1859, further drove rapid population growth. With hordes of fortune seekers streaming through the city, lawlessness was common, and the Barbary Coast section of town gained notoriety as a haven for criminals, prostitution, entrepreneurs sought to capitalize on the wealth generated by the Gold Rush
4.
Islam in the United States
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Islam is the third largest religion in the United States after Christianity and Judaism. According to a 2010 study, it is followed by 0. 9% of the population, compared with 70. 6% who follow Christianity,22. 8% unaffiliated,1. 9% Judaism,0. 7% Buddhism, and 0. 7% Hinduism. According to an estimate done in 2016, there were 3.3 million Muslims living in the United States. American Muslims come from various backgrounds and, according to a 2009 Gallup poll, are one of the most racially diverse religious groups in the United States, native-born American Muslims are mainly African Americans who make up about a quarter of the total Muslim population. Many of these have converted to Islam during the last seventy years, conversion to Islam in large urban areas has also contributed to its growth over the years. While an estimated 10 to 30 percent of the slaves brought to colonial America from Africa arrived as Muslims, prior to the late 19th century, most documented non-enslaved Muslims in North America were merchants, travelers, and sailors. From the 1880s to 1914, several thousand Muslims immigrated to the United States from the territories of the Ottoman Empire. About 72% of American Muslims are immigrants or second generation, in 2005, more people from Muslim-majority countries became legal permanent United States residents—nearly 96, 000—than there had been in any other year in the previous two decades. In 2009, more than 115,000 Muslims became legal residents of the United States, one of the earliest accounts of Islams possible presence in North America dates to 1528, when a Moroccan slave, called Estevanico, was shipwrecked near present-day Galveston, Texas. He and four survivors subsequently traveled through much of the American southwest, an early Egyptian and possible Muslim immigrant is mentioned in the accounts of the Dutch settlers of the Catskill Mountains and recorded in the 1884 History of Greene County, New York. According to this tradition, an Egyptian named Norsereddin settled in the Catskills in the vicinity of the Catskill Mountain House and he befriended the local indigenous American chief, Shandaken, and sought the hand of his daughter Lotowana in marriage. Rejected, he poisoned Lotowana and in consequence was caught and burned alive, records from the American Revolutionary War indicate that at least a few likely Muslims fought on the American side. Among the recorded names of American soldiers are Yusuf ben Ali, Bampett Muhamed, the first country to recognize the United States as an independent nation was the Sultanate of Morocco, under its ruler Mohammed ben Abdallah, in the year 1777. He maintained several correspondences with President George Washington, on December 9,1805, President Thomas Jefferson hosted an Iftar dinner at the White House for his guest Sidi Soliman Mellimelli, an envoy from Tunis. Bilali Muhammad was a Fula Muslim from Timbo, Futa-Jallon, in present-day Guinea-Conakry, while enslaved, he became the religious leader and Imam for a slave community numbering approximately eighty Muslim men residing on his plantation. During the War of 1812, Muhammad and the eighty Muslim men under his leadership protected their masters Sapelo Island property from a British attack. He is known to have fasted during the month of Ramadan, worn a fez and kaftan, in 1829, Bilali authored a thirteen-page Arabic Risala on Islamic beliefs and the rules for ablution, morning prayer, and the calls to prayer. Known as the Bilali Document, it is housed at the University of Georgia in Athens
5.
Telegraph Hill, San Francisco
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Telegraph Hill is a neighborhood in San Francisco, California. It is one of San Franciscos 44 hills, and one of its original Seven Hills, the San Francisco Chronicle defines the Chinatown, North Beach, and Telegraph Hill areas as bounded by Sacramento Street, Taylor Street, Bay Street, and the water. Originally named Loma Alta by the Spaniards, the hill was then known as Goat Hill by the early San Franciscans. From 1825 through 1847, the area between Sansome and Battery, Broadway and Vallejo streets was used as a ground for foreign non-Catholic seamen. The hill owes its name to a semaphore, a structure erected in September 1849. The information was used by operating for financiers, merchants. Knowing the nature of the cargo carried by the ship they could predict the local prices for those goods. Those who did not have information on the cargo might pay a too-high price from a merchant unloading his stock of a commodity — a price that was about to drop. On October 18,1850, the ship Oregon signaled to the hill as it was entering the Golden Gate the news of Californias recently acquired statehood, prompting a rogue in the gallery to shout, Sidewheel steamer. Sailing ships brought cargo to San Francisco, but needed ballast when leaving, rocks for ballast were quarried from the bay side of Telegraph Hill. A second semaphore system was built at Point Lobos in 1853, however, with the advent of the electrical telegraph in 1862, both became obsolete. Telegraph Hill retained its name and is now registered as California Historical Landmark #91, in the 1920s, Telegraph Hill became with North Beach a destination for poets and bohemian intellectuals, dreaming of turning it into a West Coast West Village. Telegraph Hill is primarily an area, much quieter than adjoining North Beach with its bustling cafés. Aside from Coit Tower, it is known for its gardens flowing down Filbert Street down to Levi Plaza. Today Telegraph Hill is known for supporting a flock of parrots, primarily red-masked parakeets. The flock was popularized by a book and subsequent documentary, both titled The Wild Parrots of Telegraph Hill and they range widely, including along The Embarcadero and in the Presidio. A controversial San Francisco city ordinance passed on June 5,2007, the feeding ban was championed by Mark Bittner, the birds most outspoken supporter who fed them for years and wrote the book The Wild Parrots of Telegraph Hill. Other local conservationists also supported the ban, though some continue to object
6.
Machete
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A machete is a broad blade used either as an implement like an axe, or in combat like a short sword. The blade is typically 32.5 to 45 centimetres long, in the Spanish language, the word is a diminutive form of the word macho, which was used to refer to sledgehammers. In the English language, an equivalent term is matchet, though it is commonly known. In the English-speaking Caribbean, such as Jamaica, Barbados, Guyana, and Grenada and in Trinidad and Tobago, in various tropical and subtropical countries, the machete is frequently used to cut through rain forest undergrowth and for agricultural purposes. It is common to see people using machetes for other jobs, such as splitting open coconuts, yard work, removing small branches and plants, chopping animals food, because the machete is common in many tropical countries, it is often the weapon of choice for uprisings. For example, the Boricua Popular Army are unofficially called macheteros because of the laborers of sugar cane fields of past Puerto Rico. Many of the killings in the 1994 Rwandan genocide were performed with machetes, Machetes were also a distinctive tool and weapon of the Haitian Tonton Macoute. In 1762, the Kingdom of Great Britain invaded Cuba in the Battle of Havana, and peasant guerrillas led by Pepe Antonio, the machete was also the most iconic weapon during the independence wars in that country, although it saw limited battlefield use. Carlos Manuel de Céspedes, owner of the sugar refinery La Demajagua near Manzanillo and he proceeded to lead them, armed with machetes, in revolt against the Spanish government. The machete was a side arm and tool for many ethnic groups in West Africa. Machetes in this role are referenced in Chinua Achebes Things Fall Apart, some countries have a name for the blow of a machete, the Spanish machetazo is sometimes used in English. To strike with the edge is to chop. Throughout the Caribbean, the term refers to a laborers cutting tool. The Brazilian Armys Instruction Center on Jungle Warfare developed a machete with a blade 10 inches in length and a very pronounced clip point. This machete is issued with a 5-inch Bowie knife and a stone in the scabbard. Quite a lot of slashers have used it as a weapon in horror movies, the panga or tapanga is a variant used in East and Southern Africa. This name may be of Swahili etymology, not to be confused with the Panga fish, the panga blade broadens on the backside and has a length of 16 to 18 inches. The upper inclined portion of the blade may be sharpened, in the Philippines, the bolo is a very similar tool, but with the blade swelling just before the tip to make the knife even more efficient for chopping
7.
University of California
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The University of California is a public university system in the U. S. state of California. The University of California was founded in 1868 and operated temporarily in Oakland until opening its first campus in Berkeley in 1873 and its tenth and newest campus in Merced opened in fall 2005. Nine campuses enroll both undergraduate and graduate students, one campus, UC San Francisco, enrolls only graduate and professional students in the medical and health sciences. In addition, the UC Hastings College of Law, located in San Francisco, is affiliated with UC. The University of Californias campuses have large numbers of distinguished faculty in almost every academic discipline, as of 2016, UC faculty and researchers have won 62 Nobel Prizes. UC campuses are perennially ranked highly by various publications, internationally, UC Berkeley, UCLA, and UC San Diego are respectively ranked 3rd, 12th, and 14th worldwide by Academic Ranking of World Universities. In 1849, the state of California ratified its first constitution, taking advantage of the Morrill Land-Grant Acts, the California Legislature established an Agricultural, Mining, and Mechanical Arts College in 1866. However, it existed only on paper, as a placeholder to secure federal land-grant funds, meanwhile, Congregational minister Henry Durant, an alumnus of Yale, had established the private Contra Costa Academy, on June 20,1853, in Oakland, California. The initial site was bounded by Twelfth and Fourteenth Streets and Harrison, the Colleges trustees, educators, and supporters believed in the importance of a liberal arts education, but ran into a lack of interest in liberal arts colleges on the American frontier. In November 1857, the Colleges trustees began to acquire parcels of land facing the Golden Gate in what is now Berkeley for a future planned campus outside of Oakland. But first, they needed to secure the Colleges water rights by buying a farm to the east. In 1864, they organized the College Homestead Association, which borrowed $35,000 to purchase the land, the Association subdivided the latter parcel and started selling lots with the hope it could raise enough money to repay its lenders and also create a new college town. But sales of new homesteads fell short, at the College of Californias 1867 commencement exercises, where Low was present, Benjamin Silliman, Jr. criticized Californians for creating a state polytechnic school instead of a real university. That same day, Low reportedly first suggested a merger of the already-functional College of California with the state college. The University of Californias second president, Daniel Coit Gilman, opened its new campus in Berkeley in September 1873, earlier that year, Toland Medical College in San Francisco had agreed to become the Universitys Medical Department, it later evolved into UCSF. In 1878, the University established Hastings College of the Law in San Francisco as its first law school, the California Constitution was amended to designate Hastings as the Law Department of the University of California in consideration of a $100,000 gift from Serranus Clinton Hastings. Hastings is the only UC campus not governed by the Regents of the University of California, in August 1882, the California State Normal School opened a second school in Los Angeles to train teachers for the growing population of Southern California. In 1927, it became the University of California at Los Angeles, during the 20th century, UC acquired additional satellite locations which, like Los Angeles, were all subordinate to administrators at the Berkeley campus
8.
Pacific Gas & Electric
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The Pacific Gas and Electric Company is an investor-owned electric utility with publicly traded stock that is headquartered in the Pacific Gas & Electric Building in San Francisco. PG&E provides natural gas and electricity to most of the northern two-thirds of California, PG&E is overseen by the California Public Utilities Commission. It is the subsidiary of the holding company PG&E Corporation which has a market capitalization of $29.37 billion. It was founded by George H. Roe during the period after Californias Gold Rush, PG&E is one of three regulated, investor-owned utilities s in California—the other two being Southern California Edison and Sempra Energys San Diego Gas & Electric. In the 1850s, manufactured gas was introduced in the United States as a means of lighting, gasworks were built in the larger eastern American cities, but there was no gas industry in the West, however. In San Francisco, street lighting was available only on Merchant Street, Joseph G. Eastland, an engineer and clerk at the foundry, joined them in gathering as much information on gas making as they could find. The council specified that gas should be supplied to households at such rates as will make it to their interest to use it in preference to any other material. The Donahue brothers and Eastland incorporated the San Francisco Gas Company on August 31,1852, the company became the first gas utility in the West. Its official seal bore the inscription Fiat Lux—let there be light—the same slogan later adopted by the University of California, there were 11 original stockholders, and the three Donahue brothers subscribed for 610 of the 1,500 shares. The original location for the gas works was bounded by First, Fremont, Howard and Natoma streets south of Market, work on the plant started in November,1852, and it was ready for operation only a few months later. On the night of February 11,1854, the streets of San Francisco were for the first time lighted by gas, to celebrate the event, the company held a gala banquet at the Oriental Hotel. Gas lighting quickly gained public favor, in the first year of operation, there were 237 customers. That number more than doubled the year, to 563. By the end of 1855, the company had more than 6 ½ miles of pipe and 154 street lamps were in operation. The growing popularity of gas light led to the establishment of competing gas companies, including Aubin Patent Gas Company and these smaller companies were quickly acquired by the San Francisco Gas Company. However, one rival provided serious competition, the City Gas Company was founded in April 1870 by the Bank of California to compete with the gas monopoly held by the Donahue brothers operation. City Gas began operation in 1872 and initiated a war with the San Francisco Gas Company. In 1873, the companies negotiated their consolidation as a compromise, on April 1,1873, the San Francisco Gas Light Company was formed, representing a merger of the San Francisco Gas Company, the City Gas Company, and the Metropolitan Gas Company
9.
Art Agnos
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Arthur Christ Art Agnos is an American politician. He served as the 39th mayor of San Francisco, California from 1988 to 1992, Agnos was born Arthouros Agnos in Springfield, Massachusetts, to Greek immigrants. He earned a Bachelor of Arts degree from Bates College and a Master of Social Work from Florida State University and he moved to San Francisco in 1966 and went to work at the San Francisco Housing Authority as a social worker with senior populations. After the meeting concluded, he was twice at point blank range. The attack were perpetrated by the members of an offshoot of the Nation of Islam, Agnos nearly died in the shooting. Agnos was asked by California State Assemblyman Leo McCarthy to join his staff in January 1968, McCarthy was elected Speaker of the Assembly in 1974 and Agnos became his Chief of Staff. In 1976, Agnos was elected in his own right to the California State Assembly and he served as the Chair of the Joint Legislative Audit Committee and as chair of the health subcommittee of the Assembly Ways and Means Committee. Agnos also served as co-chair of the Joint Committee on South East Asian Refugees, Agnos authored legislation that received national attention for innovative approaches to challenges in health care, welfare and civil rights, among other areas. He authored California’s model welfare reform, GAIN, that matched work requirements with funding for job training, education, since then, nearly all aspects of Agnos proposals have become law and policy in California. In 1987, Agnos ran for mayor to replace Dianne Feinstein, Agnos came from behind to defeat Supervisor John Molinari, garnering 70 percent of the vote. He disbanded the unit that had engaged in spying on demonstrations. He was the first mayor to ride in the annual LGBT Freedom Parade, during his term, the city won top bond ratings, ended deficit spending, and endorsed comparable worth and domestic partners, including health insurance for city workers. Agnos’ liberalism also ran counter to other conservative interests, Agnos ended a police department policy seen as permitting spying on local political organizations and ended the Department’s Tactical Squad that critics blamed for abusing citizens. Agnos also strengthened civilian oversight of the Police Department, once Agnos obtained federal funding, that opposition melted away. However, Agnoss 1991 opponent used the decision to play to Chinatown’s sentiments, in 1991, Chinatown played a significant role in his failure to win re-election. Agnos lost in a 51. 5–48.5 election by a few thousand votes, under Agnos, the waterfront transit system gained an uninterrupted streetcar line with historic trolley cars running from Fisherman’s Wharf in the north to Mission Bay in the south. Agnos added to the waterfront by laying plans for the city’s first public access pier, Pier 7, today, San Francisco has dedicated a new public pier, Pier 14, to honor Agnos for his leadership in opening the city’s waterfront. Agnos San Francisco struggled with homelessness, a challenge that faced a number of cities in the late 1980s, the plan, Beyond Shelter, won national recognition and awards
10.
Potrero Hill, San Francisco, California
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Potrero Hill is a residential neighborhood in San Francisco, California. It is known for its views of the San Francisco Bay and city skyline, its proximity to many destination spots, its sunny weather. A working-class neighborhood until gentrification in the 1990s, it is now an upper-middle-class, Potrero Hill is located on the eastern side of the city, east of the Mission District and south of SOMA and the newly designated district Showplace Square. It is bordered by 16th Street to the north, Potrero Avenue and U. S. Route 101 to the west and Cesar Chavez Street to the south. The city of San Francisco considers the area below 20th Street between Potrero Ave and Route 101 to be part of Potrero Hill as well, as outlined in the Eastern Neighborhood Plan, the area east of Highway 280 is Dogpatch. Dogpatch was originally part of Potrero Nuevo and its history is tied to Potrero Hill. Some consider Dogpatch to be its own neighborhood while others disagree, Dogpatch has its own neighborhood association but shares merchant association, Democratic caucuses, and general neighborhood matters with Potrero Hill. Potrero Hill is one of the sunniest neighborhoods in San Francisco, located on the side of the peninsula. It is insulated from the fog and chill of the Pacific Ocean that is typical on the side of the city. It is a neighborhood and not considered a tourist destination. Despite being surrounded by busy neighborhoods, and featuring a commercial area on 18th St. Potrero Hill is generally quiet. Potrero Hill started as a Caucasian working-class neighborhood in the 1850s and its central location attracted many working professionals during the dot-com era in the 1990s. Today, it is mostly an upper-middle-class family-oriented neighborhood, in addition to the 101 and 280 Interstate freeways, Caltrain also runs through this area, making it popular with commuters. Many homes in Potrero Hill have views of the downtown skyline, Potrero Hill has a North and a South Slope, with the North Slope generally more coveted due to its proximity to downtown. There is no dividing line between North and South as the hill apexes in various places. The demographics of the two are similar with the exception of two public housing projects situated on the South Slope. The projects occupy over one third of the South Slope, the poorly designed, curvy and diagonal grids of the housing projects isolate their residents from the greater neighborhood. Industry first arrived at Dogpatch in the mid-1850s, the earliest residents were mostly European immigrants
11.
Bayview-Hunters Point, San Francisco
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Bayview-Hunters Point or The Bayview, is a neighborhood in the southeastern corner of San Francisco, California, United States. The decommissioned Hunters Point Naval Shipyard is located within its boundaries and Candlestick Park, Redevelopment projects for the neighborhood became the dominant issue of the 1990s and 2000s. Efforts include the Bayview Redevelopment Plan for Area B, which includes approximately 1300 acres of existing residential, commercial and industrial lands and this plan identifies seven economic activity nodes within the area. The former Navy Shipyard waterfront property is also the target of redevelopment to residential, commercial. The Bayview-Hunters Point district is located in the part of San Francisco. The boundaries are Cesar Chavez Boulevard to the north, U. S. Highway 101 to the west, Bayview Hill to the south, and the San Francisco Bay to the east. Neighborhoods within the district include Hunters Point, India Basin, Bayview, Silver Terrace, Bret Harte, Islais Creek Estuary, the entire southern half of the neighborhood is the Candlestick Point State Recreation Area as well as the Candlestick Park Stadium. Primarily composed of wetlands with some small hills, the area was inhabited by the Ohlone people prior to the arrival of Spanish missionaries in the 1700s. It was first surveyed in 1775 by Juan Bautista Aguirre, a pilot for Captain Juan Manuel de Ayala who named it La Punta Concha. Later explorers renamed it Beacon Point, for the next several decades it was used as pasture for cattle run by the Franciscan monks at Mission Dolores. In 1839, the area was part of the 4, 446-acre Rancho Rincon de las Salinas y Potrero Viejo Mexican land grant given to José Cornelio Bernal, following the California Gold Rush, Bernal sold Bayview-Hunters Point property for real estate development in 1849. Within ten years,18 slaughterhouses were located in the area along with their production facilities for tanning, fertilizer, wool. The reservation and the houses and businesses became known as Butchertown. The butcher industry declined following the 1906 San Francisco earthquake until 1971 when the final slaughterhouse closed, shipbuilding became integral to Bayview-Hunters Point in 1867 with the construction there of the first permanent drydock on the Pacific coast. World War I increased the contracts there for building Naval vessels and, in 1940 and they were a presence until the 1960s when they began moving into the suburbs. The shipbuilding industry saw an influx of blue collar workers into the neighborhood. This migration into Bayview increased substantially after World War II due to segregation and eviction of African Americans from homes elsewhere in the city. Between 1940 and 1950, the population of Bayview saw an increase to 51,000 residents
12.
Emeryville, California
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Emeryville is a small city located in northwest Alameda County, California, in the United States. It is located in a corridor between the cities of Berkeley and Oakland, extending to the shore of San Francisco Bay and its proximity to San Francisco, the Bay Bridge, the University of California, Berkeley, and Silicon Valley has been a catalyst for recent economic growth. It is home to Pixar Animation Studios, Peets Coffee & Tea, Jamba Juice, The Center for Investigative Reporting, before the colonization of the area by Spain in 1776, this area was the site of extensive Ohlone Native American settlements. During the Spanish and Mexican eras, Emeryville was the site of a wharf near the mouth of Temescal Creek adjacent to the shellmound. The cattle processed here were raised in nearby ranches and farms, the odors emanating from this district were notorious and often mentioned in local newspapers of the 19th and early 20th century. Emeryvilles first post office opened in 1884, the Town of Emeryville was incorporated December 2,1896. It was named after Joseph Stickney Emery, who came during the Gold Rush, in 1884, Emery was president of a narrow-gauge railroad called the California and Nevada Railroad. The railroad was intended to extend from Oakland, through Emerys and then east across the Sierra Nevada to the gold mining town of Bodie. From Bodie the railroad would extend east through Nevada to a connection with the Denver & Rio Grande Railroad, despite its grandiose intentions, the railroad was built only from Oakland to Orinda, and its right-of-way was sold to the Santa Fe Railway. The Santa Fe then constructed a yard and passenger depot below San Pablo between 41st Street and Yerba Buena Avenue. Although located in Emeryville, the depot, which opened in 1902, was called Oakland, the Key System established its main rail yard adjacent to the yard of the Santa Fe in a large tract west of San Pablo Avenue in the vicinity of Yerba Buena Avenue. The Key Systems main power plant, used to energize its streetcars, the immense smokestack was a local landmark for decades, surviving right through the Loma Prieta earthquake of 1989. It was demolished for safety reasons shortly thereafter, the old Key System mainline to the pier, and later, to the Bay Bridge, ran in a subway below Beach Street and the Southern Pacific mainline near the power plant. That subway survives and is used as a private entrance to the main sewage treatment plant of East Bay Municipal Utility District. In the late 19th century, a park was built around the shellmound. The park included two dance pavilions, one of which stood atop the shellmound, a trotting park was built nearby at the junction of the Berkeley Branch line with the mainline of the Southern Pacific. On February 22,1920 the first dog race track to employ an imitation rabbit opened in Emeryville, during the Depression, Emeryville was jammed with speakeasies, racetracks and brothels and became known as a somewhat lawless center for entertainment. The popular local restaurant The Townhouse is one such trace, a location that once was a speakeasy during Prohibition, today, this tradition is carried on to a degree by the Oaks Room Card Club, a legal gambling establishment on San Pablo Avenue
13.
Salvation Army
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The Salvation Army is a Christian Protestant church and international charitable organisation structured in a quasi-military fashion. The organisation reports a membership of over 1.5 million, consisting of soldiers, officers. Its founders Catherine and William Booth sought to bring salvation to the poor, destitute and it is present in 127 countries, running charity shops, operating shelters for the homeless and disaster relief and humanitarian aid to developing countries. The theology of the Salvation Army is derived from that of Methodism although it is distinctive in institution, the Armys doctrine is typical of evangelical Protestant denominations. The Armys purposes are the advancement of the Christian religion, of education, the relief of poverty, and other charitable objects beneficial to society or the community of mankind as a whole. The Army was founded in 1865 in London by one-time Methodist circuit-preacher William Booth as the East London Christian Mission, in 1878 Booth reorganised the mission, becoming its first General and introducing the military structure which has been retained to the present day. The current world leader of The Salvation Army is General André Cox, the Salvation Army was founded in Londons East End in 1865 by one-time Methodist Reform Church minister William Booth and his wife Catherine as the East London Christian Mission. The name The Salvation Army developed from an incident on 19 and 20 May, William Booth was dictating a letter to his secretary George Scott Railton and said, We are a volunteer army. Bramwell Booth heard his father and said, Volunteer, Im no volunteer, Im a regular. Railton was instructed to cross out the volunteer and substitute the word salvation. The Salvation Army was modelled after the military, with its own flag and its own hymns, often with words set to popular, Booth and the other soldiers in Gods Army would wear the Armys own uniform, for meetings and ministry work. He became the General and his ministers were given appropriate ranks as officers. When William Booth became known as the General, Catherine is known as the Mother of The Salvation Army, William preached to the poor, and Catherine spoke to the wealthy, gaining financial support for their work. She also acted as a minister, which was unusual at the time. William Booth described the approach, The three ‘Ss’ best expressed the way in which the Army administered to the down and outs, first, soup, second, soap. In 1880, the Salvation Army started its work in three countries, Australia, Ireland, and the United States. When the first official officers arrived in Australia and the United States, they found groups of Salvationists already waiting for them and started working with each other. The Booths did not include the use of sacraments in the Armys form of worship, other beliefs are that its members should completely refrain from drinking alcohol, smoking, taking illegal drugs and gambling
14.
Shell casing
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Military and commercial producers continue to pursue the goal of caseless ammunition. A cartridge without a bullet is called a blank, One that is completely inert is called a dummy. Some artillery ammunition uses the same concept as found in small arms. In other cases, the shell is separate from the propellant charge. In popular use, the bullet is often misused to refer to a complete cartridge. The cartridge case seals a firing chamber in all directions excepting the bore, a firing pin strikes the primer and ignites it. The primer compound deflagrates, it does not detonate, a jet of burning gas from the primer ignites the propellant. Gases from the burning powder pressurize and expand the case to seal it against the chamber wall and these propellant gases push on the bullet base. In response to pressure, the bullet will move in the path of least resistance which is down the bore of the barrel. After the bullet leaves the barrel, the pressure drops to atmospheric pressure. The case, which had been expanded by chamber pressure. This eases removal of the case from the chamber, brass is a commonly used case material because it is resistant to corrosion. A brass case head can be work-hardened to withstand the pressures of cartridges. The neck and body portion of a case is easily annealed to make the case ductile enough to allow reforming so that it can be reloaded many times. Steel is used in some plinking ammunition, as well as in military ammunition. Steel is less expensive than brass, but it is not feasible to reload, Military forces typically consider small arms cartridge cases to be disposable, one-time-use devices. However, case weight affects how much ammunition a soldier can carry, conversely, steel is more susceptible to contamination and damage so all such cases are varnished or otherwise sealed against the elements. One downside caused by the strength of steel in the neck of these cases is that propellant gas can blow back past the neck
15.
Easter Sunday
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It is the culmination of the Passion of Jesus, preceded by Lent, a forty-day period of fasting, prayer, and penance. In Western Christianity, Eastertide, or the Easter Season, begins on Easter Sunday and lasts seven weeks, ending with the coming of the fiftieth day, Pentecost Sunday. In Eastern Christianity, the season of Pascha begins on Pascha and ends with the coming of the fortieth day, the Feast of the Ascension. The First Council of Nicaea established two rules, independence of the Jewish calendar and worldwide uniformity, which were the rules for Easter explicitly laid down by the council. No details for the computation were specified, these were worked out in practice and it has come to be the first Sunday after the ecclesiastical full moon that occurs on or soonest after 21 March, but calculations vary. Easter is linked to the Jewish Passover by much of its symbolism, in many languages, the words for Easter and Passover are identical or very similar. Easter customs vary across the Christian world, and include services, exclaiming the Paschal greeting, clipping the church. The Easter lily, a symbol of the resurrection, traditionally decorates the area of churches on this day. Additional customs that have associated with Easter and are observed by both Christians and some non-Christians include egg hunting, the Easter Bunny, and Easter parades. There are also various traditional Easter foods that vary regionally, however, it is possible that Bede was only speculating about the origin of the term since there is no firm evidence that such a goddess actually existed. In Greek and Latin, the Christian celebration was, and still is, called Πάσχα, Pascha, the word originally denoted the Jewish festival known in English as Passover, commemorating the Jewish Exodus from slavery in Egypt. In most of the non-English speaking world, the feast is known by names derived from Greek, Pascha is also a name by which Jesus himself is remembered in the Orthodox Church, especially in connection with his resurrection and with the season of its celebration. The New Testament states that the resurrection of Jesus, which Easter celebrates, is a foundation of the Christian faith, the resurrection established Jesus as the powerful Son of God and is cited as proof that God will judge the world in righteousness. For those who trust in Jesus death and resurrection, death is swallowed up in victory, any person who chooses to follow Jesus receives a new birth into a living hope through the resurrection of Jesus Christ from the dead. Through faith in the working of God those who follow Jesus are spiritually resurrected with him so that they may walk in a new way of life and receive eternal salvation. Easter is linked to the Passover and Exodus from Egypt recorded in the Old Testament through the Last Supper, sufferings and crucifixion of Jesus that preceded the resurrection. According to the New Testament, Jesus gave the Passover meal a new meaning, as in the room during the Last Supper he prepared himself. He identified the matzah and cup of wine as his soon to be sacrificed
16.
Du Pont
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In the 20th century, DuPont developed many polymers such as Vespel, neoprene, nylon, Corian, Teflon, Mylar, Kapton, Kevlar, Zemdrain, M5 fiber, Nomex, Tyvek, Sorona, Corfam, and Lycra. DuPont developed Freon for the refrigerant industry, and later more environmentally friendly refrigerants and it also developed synthetic pigments and paints including ChromaFlair. In 2014, DuPont was the fourth largest chemical company based on market capitalization. Its stock price is a component of the Dow Jones Industrial Average, DuPont was founded in 1802 by Éleuthère Irénée du Pont, using capital raised in France and gunpowder machinery imported from France. It began as a manufacturer of gunpowder, as du Pont noticed that the industry in North America was lagging behind Europe, the Eleutherian Mills site is now a museum and a National Historic Landmark. DuPont continued to expand, moving into the production of dynamite, in 1902, DuPonts president, Eugene du Pont, died, and the surviving partners sold the company to three great-grandsons of the original founder. Charles Lee Reese was appointed as director and the company began centralizing their research departments, the company subsequently purchased several smaller chemical companies, and in 1912 these actions gave rise to government scrutiny under the Sherman Antitrust Act. The courts declared that the dominance of the explosives business constituted a monopoly. The court ruling resulted in the creation of the Hercules Powder Company, at the time of divestment, DuPont retained the single base nitrocellulose powders, while Hercules held the double base powders combining nitrocellulose and nitroglycerine. DuPont subsequently developed the Improved Military Rifle line of smokeless powders, in 1910, DuPont published a brochure entitled Farming with Dynamite. DuPont also established two of the first industrial laboratories in the United States, where began the work on cellulose chemistry, lacquers. DuPont Central Research was established at the DuPont Experimental Station, across the Brandywine Creek from the powder mills. In 1914, Pierre S. du Pont invested in the automobile industry. The following year he was invited to sit on GMs board of directors, the DuPont company would assist the struggling automobile company further with a $25 million purchase of GM stock. In 1920, Pierre S. du Pont was elected president of General Motors, under du Ponts guidance, GM became the number one automobile company in the world. However, in 1957, because of DuPonts influence within GM, in the 1920s, DuPont continued its emphasis on materials science, hiring Wallace Carothers to work on polymers in 1928. Carothers invented neoprene, a rubber, the first polyester superpolymer. The invention of Teflon followed a few years later, DuPont introduced phenothiazine as an insecticide in 1935
17.
Ingleside (San Francisco)
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San Francisco, California, has both major, well-known neighborhoods and districts as well as smaller, specific subsections and developments. While there is considerable fluidity among the sources, one guidebook identifies five major districts and these five broad districts, counterclockwise are, Central/downtown, Richmond, Sunset, Upper Market and beyond and Bernal Heights/Bayview and beyond. Within each of five districts are located major neighborhoods. The San Francisco Planning Department officially identifies 36 neighborhoods, a group of researchers at Theory. org did a study of classified advertising of housing rentals to extract neighborhood names in the vernacular, and identified 40 neighborhood names in common use. Within these 36 official neighborhoods are a number of minor districts, some of which are historical. Alamo Square is a subset of the Western Addition neighborhood and its boundaries are not well-defined, but are generally considered to be Webster Street on the east, Golden Gate Avenue on the north, Divisadero Street on the west, and Oak Street on the south. It is characterized by Victorian architecture that was largely untouched by the urban renewal projects in other parts of the Western Addition. On a clear day, the Transamerica Pyramid building and the tops of the Golden Gate Bridge, San Franciscos City Hall can be seen directly down Fulton Street. A row of Victorian houses facing the park on Steiner Street, Ashbury Heights is a neighborhood on the hill to the south of the Haight-Ashbury neighborhood. The Bayview stretches along Third Street south of Evans Avenue, west of the Hunters Point neighborhood, the neighborhood library was recently renamed the Linda Brooks-Burton Branch Library after a new and larger building was constructed at the same location on Third Street and Revere. Within a block or two of the library are three gardens and public art projects, developed entirely by residents, known as the Quesada Gardens Initiative. During the 1950s it was largely a Maltese and Italian neighborhood, centered on St. Paul of the Shipwreck Church, the area is served by the T-Third light rail line, and is home to the Bayview Opera House and City College Evans and Southeast Campus. The area is undergoing development as the City tries to meet the demands of population growth. Hunters Point Shipyard and Candlestick Park areas are centers of development in the neighborhood. Despite its diversity, residents have a history of coming together to create change. Hunters Point Shipyard, a former Super-Fund site, and a power plant have been focal points for environmental activists. Sam Jordan, boxing champion and tavern owner, was the first African American to run for Mayor of San Francisco, a small neighborhood near the Financial District, being the historical location of the French Quarter in San Francisco. Bernal Heights is a neighborhood perched on a hill in between the Mission district, Bayview, and the Portola district, the neighborhood is known for its community feeling and progressive vibe
18.
North Beach, San Francisco
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North Beach is a neighborhood in the northeast of San Francisco adjacent to Chinatown, Fishermans Wharf and Russian Hill. The neighborhood is San Franciscos Little Italy, and has historically been home to a large Italian American population and it is still home to many Italian restaurants today, though many other ethnic groups currently live in the neighborhood. It was also the center of the beatnik subculture. The American Planning Association has named North Beach as one of ten Great Neighborhoods in America, main intersections are Union and Columbus, the southwest corner of Washington Square, Grant Avenue and Vallejo Street. Originally, the citys northeast shoreline extended only to what is today Taylor, the area largely known today as North Beach was an actual beach, filled in with landfill around the late 19th century. Warehouses, fishing wharves, and docks were built on the newly formed shoreline. Due to the proximity of the docks, the half of the neighborhood south of Broadway was home of the infamous Barbary Coast. Following its reconstruction after the 1906 earthquake, a number of Italian immigrants created the Italian character of the neighborhood that still exists. During the 1950s, many of the cafes and bars became the home and epicenter of the Beat Generation. The term beatnik originated from the here and was coined in a derogatory fashion by famed San Francisco Chronicle columnist Herb Caen. Many of that generations most famous writers and personalities such as Jack Kerouac, Allen Ginsberg, Gregory Corso, during the 1960s a notable night spot was The Committee, an improvisational theatre group founded by alumni of The Second City in Chicago. The Committee opened April 10,1963 at 622 Broadway in a 300-seat cabaret theater, the Broadway area also created innovations for the strip club industry. The Condor Club, on the corner of Columbus and Broadway, was opened in 1964 as Americas first topless bar, which it is again today. The Lusty Lady was the first striptease club to be structured as a worker cooperative, Broadway strip clubs owe their legacy to the Barbary Coast, which was located just one block south on Pacific Street during the late 19th-century. In the 1970s and 1980s Broadway was the location of live music clubs, like the Stone. Paul Kantner was living in North Beach in an apartment unit above Als Attire at the corner of Grant Avenue and Vallejo Street at the time of his death, and was often a patron of nearby Cafe Trieste. The North Beach Festival street fair on Grant Avenue and Columbus Avenue usually held on Fathers Day weekend in June is one of the citys largest and it is also considered one of the nations oldest street fairs. The neighborhood also hosts a large Columbus Day/Italian American heritage day parade along Columbus Avenue to San Francisco Maritime National Historical Park, the neighborhood still retains an Italian character with many Italian restaurants, cafes, and bakeries that line Columbus Avenue and Washington Square
19.
Joseph Alioto
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Joseph Lawrence Alioto was the 36th mayor of San Francisco, California, from 1968 to 1976. Alioto was born in San Francisco in 1916 and his father was a Sicilian immigrant who owned and operated several fish processing companies. His mother, Domenica Mae Lazio, was born in San Francisco in 1893 and his parents met on a fishing boat while escaping the 1906 San Francisco earthquake. He attended Sacred Heart High School and he graduated with honors from St. Marys College, Moraga, California in 1937 and from law school at The Catholic University of America with honors in 1940. Alioto worked for the Antitrust Division of the Justice Department and then for the Board of Economic Warfare and he returned to San Francisco after World War II and started an antitrust practice, representing Walt Disney and Samuel Goldwyn, among others, eventually becoming a millionaire. In Radovich, the Supreme Court held that professional football, unlike baseball, was subject to antitrust laws, continental Ore is one of the most comprehensive and important antitrust cases ever decided by the Supreme Court. In 1980, he represented Al Davis and the Oakland Raiders in a landmark antitrust case entitled Los Angeles Colisuem Commission v, the case established the right of football franchises to move to football markets throughout the United States without the approval of other franchise owners. In 1993, he represented his father-in-law Billy Sullivan in his lawsuit against the NFL, the court ruled that Sullivan was forced by the league to sell his team at below market value and awarded him $114 million. Alioto served on the San Francisco Board of Education from 1948 to 1954, Alioto on the death of California State Senator J. Eugene McAteer, went from campaign finance chairman to candidate for mayor. He entered the race in 1967 when John Shelley, the incumbent, bowed out of the race, allegedly because of poor health. Joseph L. Alioto was inaugurated on January 8,1968, served a term, Alioto delivered the speech nominating Hubert Humphrey at the 1968 Democratic National Convention. There were rumors that Humphrey would select Alioto as his running mate, an article in the September 23,1969 issue of Look magazine claimed that Alioto had ties to the Mafioso Jimmy Fratianno. Alioto sued the magazine for libel and won a $450,000 judgment, in the course of the litigation, Alioto proved that Look, desperate and on the verge of bankruptcy, simply conjured up an alleged mob meeting in Vacaville, California at the Nut Tree Restaurant. He later claimed that he had documents that showed that the Nixon administration leaked disinformation to the magazine in order to stall his career, attorney General O’Connell had maintained Public Utility Districts as private clients during his time as AG. The Public Utility Districts were suing electrical manufactures that were fixing prices at a high level. The case began in 1962 and O’Connell retained Alioto, a very successful anti-trust attorney, originally, Alioto agreed to receive 15% of what was awarded with a $1 million cap. Later, O’Connell, apparently without telling his clients, abolished the fee ceiling, Alioto ended up receiving approximately $2.3 million and gave $802,815 of those fees to O’Connell and Faler. The state and other groups sued to have the entire $2.3 million returned, the trial took six months and jury unanimously found the three were entitled to the $2.3 million
20.
NAACP
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Du Bois, Mary White Ovington and Moorfield Storey. Its mission in the 21st century is to ensure the political, educational, social and their national initiatives included political lobbying, publicity efforts, and litigation strategies developed by their legal team. The group enlarged its mission in the late 20th century by considering issues such as police misconduct, the status of foreign refugees. Its name, retained in accordance with tradition, uses the common term colored people. The NAACP bestows annual awards to people of color in two categories, Image Awards are for achievement in the arts and entertainment, and Spingarn Medals are for outstanding achievement of any kind and its headquarters is in Baltimore, Maryland. The NAACP is headquartered in Baltimore, with regional offices in New York, Michigan, Georgia, Maryland, Texas, Colorado. Each regional office is responsible for coordinating the efforts of state conferences in that region, local, youth, and college chapters organize activities for individual members. In the U. S. the NAACP is administered by a 64-member board, julian Bond, Civil Rights Movement activist and former Georgia State Senator, was chairman until replaced in February 2010 by health-care administrator Roslyn Brock. For decades in the first half of the 20th century, the organization was led by its executive secretary. James Weldon Johnson and Walter F. White, who served in that role successively from 1920 to 1958, were more widely known as NAACP leaders than were presidents during those years. Departments within the NAACP govern areas of action, local chapters are supported by the Branch and Field Services department and the Youth and College department. The Legal department focuses on cases of broad application to minorities, such as systematic discrimination in employment, government. The Washington, D. C. bureau is responsible for lobbying the U. S. government, the goal of the Health Division is to advance health care for minorities through public policy initiatives and education. As of 2007, the NAACP had approximately 425,000 paying and non-paying members, the NAACPs non-current records are housed at the Library of Congress, which has served as the organizations official repository since 1964. The records held there comprise approximately five million items spanning the NAACPs history from the time of its founding until 2003, in 1905, a group of thirty-two prominent African-American leaders met to discuss the challenges facing people of color and possible strategies and solutions. They were particularly concerned by the Southern states disenfranchisement of blacks starting with Mississippis passage of a new constitution in 1890, through 1908, southern legislatures dominated by white Democrats ratified new constitutions and laws creating barriers to voter registration and more complex election rules. In practice, this caused the exclusion of most blacks and many whites from the political system in southern states. Black voter registration and turnout dropped markedly in the South as a result of such legislation, men who had been voting for thirty years in the South were told they did not qualify to register
21.
ACLU
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It works through litigation and lobbying. The ACLU has 1,000,000 members and a budget of over $100 million. Local affiliates of the ACLU are active in almost all 50 states, the District of Columbia, the ACLU provides legal assistance in cases when it considers civil liberties to be at risk. In addition to representing persons and organizations in lawsuits, the ACLU lobbies for policy positions that have established by its board of directors. The two organizations share office space and employees, during the 1930s, the ACLU started to engage in work combating police misconduct and supporting Native American rights. Many of the ACLUs cases involved the defense of Communist party members, in 1940, the ACLU leadership voted to exclude Communists from its leadership positions, a decision rescinded in 1968. During World War II, the ACLU defended Japanese-American citizens, unsuccessfully trying to prevent their forcible relocation to internment camps, during the Cold War, the ACLU headquarters was dominated by anti-Communists, but many local affiliates defended members of the Communist Party. By 1964, membership had risen to 80,000, in the 1960s, the ACLU continued its decades-long effort to enforce separation of church and state. It defended several anti-war activists during the Vietnam War, in the 1970s and 1980s, the ACLU ventured into new legal areas, involving the rights of homosexuals, students, prisoners, and the poor. Fundraising and membership spiked after the 2016 election, the ACLUs current membership is more than 1.2 million, the ACLU is led by a president and an executive director, Susan N. Herman and Anthony Romero, respectively, in 2015. The president acts as chairman of the ACLUs board of directors, leads fundraising, the executive director manages the day-to-day operations of the organization. The board of directors consists of 80 persons, including representatives from each state affiliate, the organization has its headquarters in 125 Broad Street, a 40-story skyscraper located in Lower Manhattan, New York City. The leadership of the ACLU does not always agree on policy decisions, in 1937, an internal debate erupted over whether to defend Henry Fords right to distribute anti-union literature. In 1939, a debate took place over whether to prohibit communists from serving in ACLU leadership roles. During the early 1950s and Cold War McCarthyism, the board was divided on whether to defend communists, in 1968, a schism formed over whether to represent Dr. Spocks anti-war activism. In 1973, there was conflict over whether to call for the impeachment of Richard Nixon. In 2005, there was conflict about whether or not a gag rule should be imposed on ACLU employees to prevent publication of internal disputes. Membership dues are treated as donations, members choose the amount they pay annually, in the year ending March 31,2014, the combined expenses of the ACLU and ACLU Foundation were $133.4 million, spent on programs, management, and fundraising
22.
Racial profiling
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Racial profiling is the act of suspecting or targeting a person of a certain race based on a stereotype about their race. Criminal profiling, generally, as practiced by police, is the reliance on a group of characteristics they believe to be associated with crime. Examples of racial profiling are the use of race to determine which drivers to stop for traffic violations. Under the narrow definition, racial profiling occurs when an officer stops, questions, arrests. Sociologist Robert Staples emphasizes that racial profiling in the U. S. Enshrinement of racial profiling ideals in United States law can be exemplified by several periods in U. S. history. In 1693, Philadelphias court officials gave police legal authority to stop, starting around the mid 18th century, slave patrols were used to stop slaves at any location in order to ensure they were being lawful. Similar discriminatory practices continued through the Jim Crow era, terry v. Ohio marked the first challenge to racial profiling in the United States in 1968. This case concerned three African American men who were suspected of a possible stick-up or robbery by a policeman, the decision in this case allowed for greater police discretion in identifying suspicious or illegal activities. In 1973, U. S. v. Brignoni- Ponce was decided, felix Humberto Brignoni-Ponce was traveling in his vehicle and was stopped by border patrol agents because he appeared to be Mexican. The agents questioned Ponce and the passengers in the car and discovered that the passengers were illegal immigrants. In 1996, the U. S. Supreme Court ruled in U. S. v. S, constitution which guarantees the right to be safe from search and seizure without a warrant, and the Fourteenth Amendment which requires that all citizens be treated equally under the law. To date there have no known cases in which any U. S. court dismissed a criminal prosecution because the defendant was targeted based on race. This Supreme Court decision doesnt prohibit government agencies from enacting policies prohibiting it in the field by agents, the Court also decided the case of Whren v. United States in 1996. Upon approaching the vehicle the officers observed that Whren was in possession of crack-cocaine, the law states that Any person who is arrested shall have the persons immigration status determined before the person is released. Arizona made it a crime for an illegal immigrant 14 years of age. This came about there was an established trend from persons who fit into this ethnicity. In June 2012, the majority of SB1070 was struck down by the United States Supreme Court, there are currently 24 states that have stop and identify statues, however, the criminal punishments and need to produce identification vary from state-to-state. In early 2001, a bill was introduced to Congress named End Racial Profiling Act of 2001, the bill was re-introduced to Congress in 2010 but also failed to gain the support it needed
23.
Oakland, California
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Oakland /ˈoʊklənd/ is the largest city and the county seat of Alameda County, California, United States. The city was incorporated in 1852, Oaklands territory covers what was once a mosaic of California coastal terrace prairie, oak woodland, and north coastal scrub. Its land served as a resource when its hillside oak and redwood timber were logged to build San Francisco. In the late 1860s, Oakland was selected as the terminal of the Transcontinental Railroad. Following the 1906 San Francisco earthquake, many San Francisco citizens moved to Oakland, enlarging the citys population, increasing its housing stock and it continued to grow in the 20th century with its busy port, shipyards, and a thriving automobile manufacturing industry. Oakland is known for its sustainability practices, including a top-ranking for usage of electricity from renewable resources, in addition, due to a steady influx of immigrants during the 20th century, along with thousands of African-American war-industry workers who relocated from the Deep South during the 1940s. Oakland is the most ethnically diverse city in the country. The earliest known inhabitants were the Huchiun Indians, who lived there for thousands of years, the Huchiun belonged to a linguistic grouping later called the Ohlone. In Oakland, they were concentrated around Lake Merritt and Temescal Creek, in 1772, the area that later became Oakland was claimed, with the rest of California, by Spanish settlers for the King of Spain. In the early 19th century, the Spanish crown granted the East Bay area to Luis María Peralta for his Rancho San Antonio, the grant was confirmed by the successor Mexican republic upon its independence from Spain. Upon his death in 1842, Peralta divided his land among his four sons, Most of Oakland fell within the shares given to Antonio Maria and Vicente. The portion of the parcel that is now Oakland was called encinal—Spanish for oak grove—due to the oak forest that covered the area. In 1851, three men—Horace Carpentier, Edson Adams, and Andrew Moon—began developing what is now downtown Oakland, on May 4,1852, the Town of Oakland incorporated. Two years later, on March 25,1854, Oakland re-incorporated as the City of Oakland, with Horace Carpentier elected the first mayor, the city and its environs quickly grew with the railroads, becoming a major rail terminal in the late 1860s and 1870s. In 1868, the Central Pacific constructed the Oakland Long Wharf at Oakland Point, a number of horsecar and cable car lines were constructed in Oakland during the latter half of the 19th century. The first electric streetcar set out from Oakland to Berkeley in 1891, at the time of incorporation, Oakland consisted of the territory that lay south of todays major intersection of San Pablo Avenue, Broadway, and Fourteenth Street. The city gradually annexed farmlands and settlements to the east and the north, Oaklands rise to industrial prominence, and its subsequent need for a seaport, led to the digging of a shipping and tidal channel in 1902. This resulted in the town of Alameda being made an island
24.
Ghirardelli Square
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Ghirardelli Square is a landmark public square with shops and restaurants in the Fishermans Wharf area of San Francisco, California. A portion of the area was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1982 as Pioneer Woolen Mills, the square once featured over 40 specialty shops and restaurants. Some of the shops and restaurants still occupy the square. In 1893, Domenico Ghirardelli purchased the city block in order to make it into the headquarters of the Ghirardelli Chocolate Company. In the early 1960s, the Ghirardelli Chocolate Company was bought by the Golden Grain Macaroni Company which moved the headquarters off-site to San Leandro and put the square up for sale. San Franciscan William M. Roth and his mother, Lurline Matson Roth, in 1965, Benjamin Thompson and Associates renovated the lower floor of the Clock Tower, keeping the existing architectural elements, for a Design Research store. The lower floors of the Clock Tower are now home to Ghirardelli Squares main chocolate shop, in order to preserve Ghirardelli Square for future generations, the Pioneer Woolen Mills and D. Ghirardelli Company was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1982. List of San Francisco Designated Landmarks 49-Mile Scenic Drive Ghirardelli Square - Official site and source of info Guide to the Ghirardelli Square Architectural Records at The Bancroft Library
25.
San Francisco Bay
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San Francisco Bay is a shallow estuary in the U. S. state of California. It is surrounded by a region known as the San Francisco Bay Area, dominated by the large cities San Francisco, Oakland. San Francisco Bay drains water from approximately 40 percent of California and it then connects to the Pacific Ocean via the Golden Gate strait. However, this group of interconnected bays is often called the San Francisco Bay. The bay was designated a Ramsar Wetland of International Importance on February 2,2013, the bay covers somewhere between 400 and 1,600 square miles, depending on which sub-bays, estuaries, wetlands, and so on are included in the measurement. The main part of the bay measures 3 to 12 miles wide east-to-west and it is the largest Pacific estuary in the Americas. Later, wetlands and inlets were filled in, reducing the Bays size since the mid-19th century by as much as one third. Recently, large areas of wetlands have been restored, further confusing the issue of the Bays size, despite its value as a waterway and harbor, many thousands of acres of marshy wetlands at the edges of the bay were, for many years, considered wasted space. As a result, soil excavated for building projects or dredged from channels was often dumped onto the wetlands, from the mid-19th century through the late 20th century, more than a third of the original bay was filled and often built on. The idea was, and remains, controversial, there are five large islands in San Francisco Bay. Alameda, the largest island, was created when a shipping lane was cut in 1901 and it is now predominantly a bedroom community. Angel Island was known as Ellis Island West because it served as the point for immigrants from East Asia. It is now a park accessible by ferry. Mountainous Yerba Buena Island is pierced by a tunnel linking the east and west spans of the San Francisco–Oakland Bay Bridge, attached to the north is the artificial and flat Treasure Island, site of the 1939 Golden Gate International Exposition. From the Second World War until the 1990s, both served as military bases and are now being redeveloped. Isolated in the center of the Bay is Alcatraz, the site of the federal penitentiary. The federal prison on Alcatraz Island no longer functions, but the complex is a popular tourist site, despite its name, Mare Island in the northern part of the bay is a peninsula rather than an island. During the last ice age, the now filled by the bay was a large linear valley with small hills
26.
Ocean Beach, San Francisco, California
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Ocean Beach is a beach on the west coast of San Francisco, California, United States, bordering the Pacific Ocean. It is adjacent to Golden Gate Park, the Richmond District, the Great Highway runs alongside the beach, and the Cliff House and the site of the former Sutro Baths sit at the northern end. The beach is a part of the Golden Gate National Recreation Area, during the late spring and summer, San Franciscos characteristic foggy weather frequently envelops the beach. The average temperature for the last 5 years has been 13.2 °C However, more beach-friendly weather occurs in late fall and early spring, when fog is less prevalent. The water at Ocean Beach is noteworthy for its strong currents and waves, the rapid rip currents and cold water make the ocean dangerous for casual swimmers and even those who simply want to set foot in it, and swimmers have been swept away and drowned. Nevertheless, the beach is one of the Bay Areas top surfing spots, the southern portion of the beach by Sloat Boulevard is one of the cleanest in the state. Surfers and other swimmers have died at Ocean Beach, one occurred in May 2006. Prior to that, it had been five years since a death at Ocean Beach. In 1998, a seven people lost their lives there. The Ocean Beach surfing community is served by four surf shops, seal Rock is a prominent local feature of the area. Third Eye Blinds Motorcycle Drive By was written about this beach, on November 6,2011, Ocean Beach hosted the Rip Curl Pro surfing competition, in which Kelly Slater won his 11th ASP world championship at the age of 39. This was the one of his championships won in the continental United States. Due in part to its sometimes inhospitable weather, the area was largely undeveloped throughout most of San Franciscos early history, when it was known as part of the Outside Lands. By 1890, trolley lines reached Ocean Beach, the Ferries and Cliff House Railroad, Park & Ocean Railroad, the Cliff House, which opened in 1863, and Sutro Baths, which opened in 1896, drew thousands of visitors. Following a brief stint as a camp after the 1906 earthquake. A small amusement park, Playland at the Beach, was built where Cabrillo, major development occurred in the 1920s and 1930s with construction of the Great Highway and housing in the adjacent Sunset and Richmond Districts. On January 25,1878, the King Philip, a clipper ship, drifted onto Ocean Beach. From time to time, the wreckage of the ship still emerges from the sands just offshore, 49-Mile Scenic Drive A non commercial Ocean Beach San Francisco website including a live webcam and weather
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Nation of Islam
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The Nation of Islam, abbreviated as NOI, is an African American political and religious movement, founded in Detroit, Michigan, United States, by Wallace D. Fard Muhammad on July 4,1930. Its stated goals are to improve the spiritual, mental, social, critics have described the organization as being black supremacist and antisemitic. The Southern Poverty Law Center tracks the NOI as a hate group and its official newspaper is The Final Call. In 2007, the membership was estimated to be between 20,000 and 50,000. The Nation has long been an advocate of African-American businesses. There were a number of splits and splinter groups during Elijah Muhammads leadership, in 1977, Louis Farrakhan rejected Warith Deen Mohammeds leadership and re-established the Nation of Islam on the original model. He took over the Nation of Islams headquarters Temple, Mosque Maryam in Chicago, since 2010, under Farrakhan, members have been strongly encouraged to study Dianetics, and the Nation claims it has trained 1055 auditors. The NOI was founded in Detroit on July 4,1930, by Wallace Fard Muhammad, the NOI teaches that W. Fard Muhammad was both the Messiah of Judaism and the Mahdi of Islam. Fard chose his assistant minister, Elijah Muhammad, in 1931 to succeed him as head of the movement, Fard trained Muhammad night and day for 3½ years before he took over NOI in 1934. Muhammad and the movement were widely rejected during his 44 years as the NOI leader, Muhammad established a newspaper, The Final Call to Islam, and attempted to create schools founded upon Muslim teachings. Muslim parents agreed with the foundation of new schools. Muslim teachers were charged with contributing to the delinquency of minors, Muhammad left for Chicago in September of that year. He was soon joined by W. D. Fard Muhammad, in 1942, during World War II, Elijah Muhammad was charged and convicted of violating the Selective Service Act and jailed. Many other Nation of Islam members were charged for the same thing, upon his release in 1946, Elijah Muhammad slowly built up the membership of his movement through recruitment in the postwar decades. His program called for the establishment of a nation for black Americans. During this time, the Nation of Islam attracted Malcolm Little, while in prison in Boston for burglary from 1946 to 1952, Little joined the Nation of Islam. He was influenced by his brother, Reginald, who had become a member in Detroit, Little quit smoking, gambling and eating pork, in keeping with the Nations practices and dietary restrictions. He spent long hours reading books in the prison library and he sharpened his oratory skills by participating in debating classes
28.
Beretta
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Fabbrica dArmi Pietro Beretta is a privately held Italian firearms manufacturing company operating in several countries. Its firearms are used worldwide for a variety of civilian, criminal, law enforcement, sporting arms account for three-quarters of sales, Beretta is also known for marketing shooting clothes and accessories. Founded in the 16th century, Beretta is the oldest active manufacturer of components in the world. In 1526 its inaugural product was barrels, by all accounts Beretta-made barrels equipped the Venetian fleet at the Battle of Lepanto in 1571. In 1650 the company invented the breech-loading cannon, and Beretta has supplied weapons for every major European war since. Berettas sister company, Beretta USA Corp. located in the United States and it lost the contract in 2017. Val Trompia, a northern Italian river valley in the Province of Brescia, in the Middle Ages, Val Trompia was known for its ironworks, after the Renaissance it came to be a center for the manufacture of weapons. By the mid 16th century Val Trompia had forty ironworks, supplied by fifty mines, the birthplace of Beretta is in the village of Gardone located on the banks of the Mella river, in the middle of Val Trompia. The original account document for the order of those barrels is now stored in the Archivio di Stato di Venezia in Venice, by the end of the 17th century, Beretta had become the second largest gun barrel maker in Gardone. Beretta has been owned by the family for almost five hundred years and is a founding member of Les Henokiens. In 1918, the Beretta Model 1918, one of the first submachine guns in the world, was fielded by the Italian army, Beretta manufactured rifles and pistols for the Italian military until the 1943 Armistice between Italy and the Allied forces during World War II. With the Wehrmachts control of northern Italy, the Germans seized Beretta, in that time, the quality of the exterior finish of the weapons diminished and was much more inferior to both the pre-war and mid-war weapons, but their operation remained excellent. The last shipment of Type I Rifles left Venice for Japan in a U-boat in 1942, after World War II, Beretta was actively involved in repairing the American M1 Garands given to Italy by the U. S. After the war, Beretta continued to develop firearms for the Italian Army and police, in the 1980s, Beretta enjoyed a renewal of popularity in North America after its Beretta 92 pistol was selected as the service handgun for the United States Army under the designation of M9 pistol. In the 1970s, Beretta also started a plant in São Paulo. A contract between Beretta and the Brazilian government was signed, under which Beretta produced Beretta 92s for the Brazilian Army until 1980, Beretta acquired several domestic competitors and some foreign companies in the late 1980s. Today, Fabbrica dArmi Pietro Beretta is run by Franco Gussalli Beretta, President and his sons are now direct descendants through their mothers side of the family. The parent company, Beretta Holding, also owns Beretta USA, Benelli, Franchi, SAKO, Stoeger, Tikka, Uberti, the model Beretta 92FS is the primary side arm of the United States Army, Marine Corps and Air Force, designated the M9 pistol
29.
San Quentin Prison
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San Quentin State Prison is a California Department of Corrections and Rehabilitation state prison for men, located north of San Francisco in the unincorporated town of San Quentin in Marin County. Opened in July 1852, it is the oldest prison in California, the states only death row for male inmates, the largest in the United States, is located at the prison. It has a gas chamber, but since 1996, executions at the prison have been carried out by lethal injection. The prison has been featured on film, video, and television, is the subject of books, has hosted concerts. The correctional complex sits on Point San Quentin, which comprises 432 acres on the side of San Francisco Bay. The prison complex itself occupies 275 acres, valued in a 2001 study at between $129 million and $664 million, the prison complex has its own ZIP code for mail sent to inmates,94974, the ZIP code of the adjacent community of Point San Quentin Village is 94964. It is bordered by San Francisco Bay to the south and west and by Interstate 580 to the north and east, near the northern terminus of the Richmond-San Rafael Bridge. As of October 30,2013 the prison had a capacity of 3,082 but a total institution population of 4,223. It has Level I housing, Level II housing, a Reception Center which provides short term housing to process, classify and evaluate incoming inmates, as of Fiscal Year 2006/2007, the prison had 1,718 staff and an annual budget of $210 million. It is one of the largest prisons in the United States with a population of 4,223 inmates as of October 30,2013, by December 2016, the population had declined to 3,774 inmates. Men condemned to death in California must be held at San Quentin, as of December 2015, San Quentin held almost 700 male inmates in its Condemned Unit, or death row. As of 2001, San Quentins death row was described as the largest in the Western Hemisphere, as of 2005, the states of Florida and Texas had fewer death row inmates in 2008 than San Quentin. Most of the death row inmates reside in the East Block. The fourth floor of the North Block was the prisons first death row facility, the adjustment center received solid doors, preventing gunning-down or attacking persons with bodily waste. As of 2016 it housed 81 death row inmates and four non-death row inmates, a dedicated psychiatric facility serves the prisoners. A converted shower bay in the East Block hosts religious services, many prison programs available for most inmates are unavailable for death row inmates. Although $395 million was allocated in the 2008–2009 state budget for new death row facilities at San Quentin, in December 2008 two legislators introduced bills to eliminate the funding. The state had planned to build a new death row facility, in 2015 Brown asked the Legislature for funds for a new death row as the current death row facilities were becoming filled
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Mark Essex
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Mark James Robert Essex was an American mass murderer who killed nine people, including five policemen, and wounded 13 others in New Orleans on December 31,1972, and January 7,1973. Mark James Robert Essex was born in Emporia, Kansas, after graduating from Emporia Senior High School in 1967, Essex attended Emporia State University, where he dropped out after only one semester. He joined the United States Navy as a technician in 1969, stationed in San Diego, California. He went absent without leave from October 19 until November 16,1970 and he was given a general discharge for unsuitability on February 10,1971, for character and behavior disorders. After his discharge, he involved with black radicals in San Francisco, California. At the age of 23 and living in New Orleans, Essex began targeting policemen, on New Years Eve 1972, Essex parked his car and went down Perdido Street, a block from the New Orleans Police Department. He hid in a lot across from the busy central lockup. Lt. Horace Perez was also wounded in the attack, Harrell was black, although Essex had claimed he was going to kill just honkies before beginning his murderous attacks. He also carried a Colt. 38-caliber revolver on his person, Essex evaded being taken into custody by jumping a chain link fence and running across I-10, while setting off firecrackers as a diversion. Essex then ran into Gert Town, a renowned for high crime. In Gert Town, Essex broke into the Burkart building, a warehouse and manufacturing plant on the corner of Euphrosine, upon entering the building, an alarm alerted police to a break-in at the business. A dog unit with Officers Edwin Hosli Sr. and Harold Blappert responded to the call, when Officer Hosli went to get his German shepherd out of the back seat of the car, Essex shot him in the back. Essex then started shooting the car, shattering the windshield, Officer Blappert then crawled across the front seat to the radio and called for back-up. Blappert fired four shots at the spot where he saw muzzle flashes from Essexs rifle, then he pulled his partners body onto the front seat of the car and waited for back-up. When the back-up arrived, they sent two dogs into the building to search for Essex, but Essex had escaped again, Officer Hosli died of his injuries on March 5,1973. After almost hitting a startled motorist in the parking garage, Essex began to climb the stairs. Gaining entry from a stairwell on the 18th floor, the top floor of the building. Essex told them not to worry, as he was there to kill white people
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Yahweh ben Yahweh
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Yahweh ben Yahweh was the adopted name of Hulon Mitchell, Jr. founder and leader of the Nation of Yahweh, a black supremacist new religious movement founded in 1979. Neither of the Mitchells doctorates was academic, in 1991, Mitchell was convicted of conspiring to murder white people as an initiation rite to his cult, as well as former members who disagreed with him, in one case by decapitation. He was released on parole in 2001 on the condition of not reconnecting with his old congregation and he died of prostate cancer in 2007. The Nation of Yahweh set up its headquarters in Liberty City, Mitchell emphasized that God and all the prophets of the Bible were black and blacks would gain the knowledge of their true history through him. He also emphasized whites and particularly Jews as infidels and oppressors, lastly, he emphasized loyalty to himself as the son of God, Yahweh. At the time, his business and charity efforts earned him respect in the community, the mayor of Miami, Florida Xavier Suárez declared Yahweh ben Yahweh Day on October 7,1990, a month before his indictment for alleged crimes. Although his followers remained devoted to him, by the 1990s, robert Rozier, former NFL player and devotee of Mitchell, confessed to seven murders. The indictment charged 18 specific instances of racketeering, including 14 killings and he was acquitted of first degree murder charges in 1992. Mitchell was released on parole in 2001, and returned to Miami and he was prohibited from reconnecting with his old congregation. To assure this, he was restricted from any form of speech by telephone, computer, radio or television that could place him in contact with any congregational members. In 2006, as he became ill with prostate cancer, his attorney, Jayne Weintraub. A ruling on an appeal, U. S. v. Yahweh Ben Yahweh starts. They were also charged with arson of a slumbering neighborhood using molotov cocktails, the perpetrators were ordered to wait outside the innocent victims homes wearing ski masks and brandishing machetes to deter the victims from fleeing the flames. However, his attempt to end the conditions for his parole eventually succeeded. Yahweh ben Yahweh only faced conviction for conspiracy to murder, Rozier later entered the Witness Protection Program, but returned to prison after being given a 25 years to life sentence under Californias three strikes law, following a check kiting conviction. He had the Federal Bureau of Prisons ID# 22031-034, Yahweh ben Yahweh died May 7,2007, from prostate cancer. On November 2,2016 MSNBCs Rachel Maddow Show featured an expose on Yahweh Ben Yahweh and his younger sister Leona Mitchell is a noted soprano who sang at the Metropolitan Opera
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Your Black Muslim Bakery
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Your Black Muslim Bakery was a chain of bakeries opened by Yusuf Bey in 1968 in Santa Barbara, California, and relocated to Oakland in 1971. A power broker at the center of a community, it was held out as a model of African American economic self-sufficiency. However, it was linked to widespread physical and sexual abuse, intimidation, welfare fraud. After Beys death in 2003, the fell into debt. In August 2007, in connection with investigations into the murder of journalist Chauncey Bailey, a concurrent health inspection resulted in its closure. Later that day a court ordered the pending reorganization converted into a liquidation bankruptcy, Yusuf Bey came to Oakland from Texas with his family as a student in the early 1950s. He later opened cosmetology beauty salons in the area and in southern California, after discovering the teachings of Elijah Muhammed in the 1960s, Bey converted to the Nation of Islam in 1964, and founded the Islamic bakery in Santa Barbara in 1968. The group was not affiliated with the Nation of Islam, though similarities were evident, Nation of Islam minister Keith Muhammad, of East Oaklands Muhammad Mosque #26, stated that the two organizations are distinct and separate. The baked goods Bey sold were prepared in accordance with the Quran, Bey named the business Your Black Muslim Bakery on the personal recommendation of his spiritual guide, Nation of Islam leader Elijah Muhammad. In 1971, Bey moved the bakery to Oakland, by 1974 it was the largest Bay Area bakery specializing exclusively in natural food products, with over 6,000 loaves of bread and over 300 cakes per week sold at 150 stores. By the mid-1980s Bey appeared regularly on a local Oakland Soul Beat cable television program, True Solutions. During the 1990s the bakery and its leaders were a part of Oakland society. They used their power to obtain favors from the city, influence local elections, the bakery also had a location at the Oakland Coliseum. In 1994, Beys son Akbar Bey was shot four times and killed by a drug dealer associate outside the old Omni nightclub near the corner of Shattuck Avenue. Court records showed the pathologists conclusion that Akbar Bey was high on heroin or morphine at the time of his death, an Oakland police lieutenant described Akbar Bey as a little street thug once seen well-armed and wearing a bullet-proof vest in a blatant show of force to the police. On March 4,1994, Nedir Bey was involved in the torture and beating of a Nigerian home-seller in an apartment on the 500 block of 24th Street in Oakland, the apartment complex served as a compound for the organization. The extremely violent incident also involved Abaz Bey, Abaz and Nedir Bey were both standing members of the African-American Advisory Committee on Crime, which also included then Oakland Mayor Elihu Harris. The committee had organized a conference on crime that same weekend
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International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
