1.
Kingdom of Tungning
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The Kingdom of Tungning or Kingdom of Formosa was a government that ruled part of southwestern Taiwan between 1661 and 1683. It was founded by Koxinga as part of the loyalist movement to restore the Ming government in China after it was overthrown by the Manchu Qing dynasty. Koxinga hoped to recapture the Chinese mainland from the Manchus by using the island as a base of operations to settle, the Kingdom of Tungning is sometimes known as the Zheng dynasty, Zheng Family Kingdom or Kingdom of Yanping. Taiwan was referred to by Koxinga as Tungtu, in the West, it was known as the Kingdom of Taiwan, and the period of rule is sometimes referred to as the Koxinga dynasty. Zheng Zhilong, a Ming admiral and father of Koxinga, accepted the Qing offer, after learning of this whilst pursuing studies overseas, Koxinga pledged to assume his father’s position and control of his remaining forces in order to re-establish Ming control of China. In 1661, Koxingas fleet forced an entry to Lakjemuyse, in return, most Dutch officials, soldiers and civilians were allowed to leave with their personal belongings and supplies and return to Batavia, ending the 38 years of Dutch colonial rule on Taiwan. Koxinga did, however, detain some Dutch women, children and he then proceeded on a tour of inspection with a contingent of nearly 100,000 soldiers to see with his own eyes the extent and condition of his new domain. Replacing the Dutch system of government previously used in Taiwan, Koxinga instituted a Ming-style administration and this system of government was divided into six departments, civil service, revenue, rites, war, punishment, and public works. Formosa was also renamed by Koxinga as Tungtu, though this name was changed by his son, Zheng Jing. The most immediate problem Koxinga faced after the invasion of Taiwan was a severe shortage of food. To address the shortage, Koxinga instituted a tuntian policy in which soldiers served the dual role of farmer when not assigned active duty in a guard battalion. Following the death of Koxinga in 1662 due to malaria, his son Zheng Jing took over the Zheng regime and this to a large extent backfired and from 1662-4 six major waves of immigration occurred from these areas to Taiwan due to the severe hardships incurred from this relocation policy. About 1,000 previous Ming government officials moved to Taiwan fleeing Qing persecution, Zheng Jing also recruited his early tutor, Chen Yong-hua, and passed to him most official government affairs. Throughout its existence, Tungning was subject to the Qing sea ban, aside from the British, Zheng major trade occurred with the Japanese and Dutch, though evidence of trade with many Asian countries exists. Following the death of Zheng Jing in 1681, the lack of an heir meant rule of Taiwan would pass to his illegitimate son. This caused great division in the government and military powers, resulting in a destructive struggle for the succession. Seizing the advantage presented by the infighting, the Qing dispatched their navy with Shi Lang at its head, several Ming dynasty Princes had accompanied Koxinga to Taiwan including the Prince of Ningjing Zhu Shugui and Prince Zhu Hónghuán, son of Zhu Yihai. The Qing sent the 17 Ming princes still living on Taiwan back to mainland China where they spent the rest of their lives, Zheng Keshuang was rewarded by the Qing Emperor with the title Duke of Haicheng and he and his soldiers were inducted into the Eight Banners
2.
Nan'an, Fujian
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Nanan is a county-level city of southern Fujian province, Peoples Republic of China. It is under the administration of Quanzhou City and as of 2010, had a population of 1,500,000. More than 3,000,000 overseas Chinese trace their ancestry to Nanan, Nanan is located on the southeastern coast of Fujian province. It has been the centre of the 3 Wu Kingdoms, Nanan history dates back 1700 years. Nanan has been the economic and cultural centre for Minnan people, Nanan experiences subtropical monsoonal humid climate. It has a temperature of 20.9 °C. It has 349 days which is frost free, the city covers an area of 2,036 square kilometres. Nanan is situated below Anxi County, adjacent to Jinjiang to the east, Nanan is 97 kilometres from Xiamen. It is 30 kilometres from Quanzhou and 220 kilometres from the provincial capital, Nanan is fast developing into an economic and industrial hub for Quanzhou prefecture. Its close proximity to economic centres such as Xiamen, Guangzhou, Fuzhou, Shanghai, Guangzhou and Shenzhen makes it an important investment location for foreign investments, Nanan has very strong rail infrastructure and road links making it a gateway for tourism as well as commerce. Hong Chengchou Zheng Zhilong Liu Zaifu Koxinga Nanan Official Government Website
3.
Fujian
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Fujian, formerly romanised as Foken, Fouken, Fukien, and Hokkien, is a province on the southeast coast of mainland China. Fujian is bordered by Zhejiang to the north, Jiangxi to the west, the name Fujian came from the combination of Fuzhou and Jianzhou two cities in Fujian, during the Tang dynasty. While its population is chiefly of Han origin, it is one of the most culturally and linguistically diverse provinces in China, most of Fujian is administered by the Peoples Republic of China. However, the archipelagos of Kinmen and Matsu are under the control of the Republic of China, thus, there are two provinces, the Fujian Province administered by the PRC and the Fujian Province of the ROC. Recent archaeological discoveries demonstrate that Fujian had entered the Neolithic Age by the middle of the 6th millennium BC, the Tanshishan site in suburban Fuzhou spans the Neolithic and Chalcolithic Age where semi-underground circular buildings were found in the lower level. The Huangtulun site, also in suburban Fuzhou, was of the Bronze Age in character, Fujian was also the place for the kingdom of Minyue. This is because the family of Yuè fled to Fujian after their kingdom was annexed by the State of Chu in 306 BC. Mǐn is also the name of the river in this area. Minyue was a de facto kingdom until the emperor of Qin dynasty, liu Bang was victorious and founded the Han dynasty, in 202 BC, he restored Minyues status as a tributary independent kingdom. Thus, Wuzhu was allowed to construct his fortified city in Fuzhou as well as a few locations in the Wuyi Mountains and his kingdom extended beyond the borders of contemporary Fujian into eastern Guangdong, eastern Jiangxi, and southern Zhejiang. The Han emperor eventually decided to get rid of the threat by sending a military campaign against Minyue. Large forces approached Minyue simultaneously from four directions via land and sea in 111 BC, the rulers in Fuzhou surrendered to avoid a futile fight and destruction, thus the first kingdom in Fujian history came to an abrupt end. The Han dynasty collapsed at the end of the 2nd century AD, sun Quan, the founder of the Kingdom of Wu, spent nearly twenty years subduing the Shan Yue people, the branch of the Yue living in mountains. These immigrants were primarily from eight families in central China, Lin, Huang, Chen, Zheng, Zhan, Qiu, He, the first four remain as the major surnames of modern Fujian. Population density in Fujian remained low compared to the rest of China, only two commanderies and sixteen counties were established by the Western Jin dynasty. Like other southern provinces such as Guangdong, Guangxi, Guizhou, during the Southern and Northern Dynasties era, the Southern Dynasties reigned south of the Yangtze River, including Fujian. During Sui and Tang eras a large influx of migrants came, the Tang dynasty oversaw the next golden age of China and culturally and economically benefited Fujian greatly, Fujians capital Fuzhous economic and cultural instions grew and developed. The later years of the Tang dynasty saw a number of upheavals in the Chinese heartland
4.
Ming dynasty
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The Ming dynasty was the ruling dynasty of China – then known as the Empire of the Great Ming – for 276 years following the collapse of the Mongol-led Yuan dynasty. The Ming, described by some as one of the greatest eras of orderly government, although the primary capital of Beijing fell in 1644 to a rebellion led by Li Zicheng, regimes loyal to the Ming throne – collectively called the Southern Ming – survived until 1683. He rewarded his supporters and employed them as a counterweight against the Confucian scholar-bureaucrats. One, Zheng He, led seven enormous voyages of exploration into the Indian Ocean as far as Arabia, the rise of new emperors and new factions diminished such extravagances, the capture of the Zhengtong Emperor during the 1449 Tumu Crisis ended them completely. The imperial navy was allowed to fall into disrepair while forced labor constructed the Liaodong palisade, haijin laws intended to protect the coasts from Japanese pirates instead turned many into smugglers and pirates themselves. The growth of Portuguese, Spanish, and Dutch trade created new demand for Chinese products and produced an influx of Japanese. This abundance of specie remonetized the Ming economy, whose money had suffered repeated hyperinflation and was no longer trusted. While traditional Confucians opposed such a prominent role for commerce and the newly rich it created, combined with crop failure, floods, and epidemic, the dynasty collapsed before the rebel leader Li Zicheng, who was defeated by the Manchu-led Eight Banner armies who founded the Qing dynasty. The Mongol-led Yuan dynasty ruled before the establishment of the Ming dynasty, consequently, agriculture and the economy were in shambles, and rebellion broke out among the hundreds of thousands of peasants called upon to work on repairing the dykes of the Yellow River. A number of Han Chinese groups revolted, including the Red Turbans in 1351, the Red Turbans were affiliated with the White Lotus, a Buddhist secret society. Zhu Yuanzhang was a peasant and Buddhist monk who joined the Red Turbans in 1352. In 1356, Zhus rebel force captured the city of Nanjing, with the Yuan dynasty crumbling, competing rebel groups began fighting for control of the country and thus the right to establish a new dynasty. In 1363, Zhu Yuanzhang eliminated his archrival and leader of the rebel Han faction, Chen Youliang, in the Battle of Lake Poyang, arguably the largest naval battle in history. Known for its ambitious use of ships, Zhus force of 200,000 Ming sailors were able to defeat a Han rebel force over triple their size, claimed to be 650. The victory destroyed the last opposing rebel faction, leaving Zhu Yuanzhang in uncontested control of the bountiful Yangtze River Valley, Zhu Yuanzhang took Hongwu, or Vastly Martial, as his era name. Hongwu made an effort to rebuild state infrastructure. He built a 48 km long wall around Nanjing, as well as new palaces, Hongwu organized a military system known as the weisuo, which was similar to the fubing system of the Tang dynasty. With a growing suspicion of his ministers and subjects, Hongwu established the Jinyiwei, some 100,000 people were executed in a series of purges during his rule
5.
Koxinga
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Zheng Chenggong, better known in the West by his Hokkien honorific Koxinga or Coxinga was a Chinese-Japanese Ming loyalist who resisted the Qing conquest of Chinas southeastern coast. Conquering the Dutch outposts on Taiwan, he established a dynasty which ruled the island as the Kingdom of Tungning. Zheng Sen was born in 1624 in Hirado, Nagasaki Prefecture, Japan, to Zheng Zhilong, a Chinese merchant and pirate, and a Japanese woman, recorded only by her surname Tagawa, or probably Tagawa Matsu. He was raised there until the age of seven with the Japanese name Fukumatsu, in 1638, Zheng became a Xiucai in the imperial examination and became one of the twelve Linshansheng of Nanan. In 1641, Koxinga married the niece of Dong Yangxian, an official who was a Jinshi from Huian, in 1644, Koxinga studied at the Imperial Nanking University, where he met and became a student of the scholar Qian Qianyi. In 1644, Beijing fell to rebels led by Li Zicheng, Manchu armies aided by Wu Sanguis forces defeated the rebels and took the city. The Ming remnant forces retreated to Nanjing where they put Prince Fu on the throne as the Hongguang Emperor in an attempt to continue the Ming dynasty in the south. The next year, the Manchu armies led by Dodo advanced south and conquered Yangzhou and Nanjing while the Ming leader defending Yangzhou, the Hongguang emperor was captured and executed. In 1645, Prince Tang was installed on the throne as the Longwu Emperor with support from Zheng Zhilong, the Longwu Emperor established his court in Fuzhou, which was controlled by the Zhengs. In the later part of the year, another Ming Prince Lu proclaimed himself as Regent in Shaoxing, although Prince Lu and Longwus regimes stemmed from the same dynasty, both of them pursued different goals. It was due to the defences of Fujian and the military resources of the Zheng family. The Longwu Emperor granted Zheng Zhilongs son, Zheng Sen, a new name, Chenggong. In 1646, Koxinga first led the Ming armies to resist the Manchu invaders, Zheng Zhilong ordered the defending general of Xianxia Pass, Shi Fu, to retreat to Fuzhou even when Qing armies approached Fujian. As such, the Qing army faced little resistance when it conquered the north of the pass, in September 1646, Qing armies broke through inadequately defended mountain passes and entered Fujian. Zheng Zhilong retreated to his fortress and the Longwu Emperor faced the Qing armies alone. Longwus forces were destroyed and he was captured and died shortly afterwards, the Qing forces sent envoys to meet Zheng Zhilong secretly and they offered to appoint him as the governor of both Fujian and Guangdong provinces if he would surrender to Qing. Zheng Zhilong agreed and ignored the objections of his family, surrendering himself to the Qing forces in Fuzhou on 21 November 1646, Koxinga and his uncles were left as the successors to the leadership of Zheng Zhilongs military forces. Koxinga operated outside Xiamen and recruited many to join his cause in a few months and he used the superiority of his naval forces to launch amphibious raids on Manchu-occupied territory in Fujian and he managed to take Tongan in Quanzhou prefecture in early 1647
6.
Chinese name
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Chinese personal names are names used by those from mainland China, Hong Kong, Macau, Taiwan, and the Chinese diaspora overseas. Prior to the 20th century, educated Chinese also utilized a courtesy name or style name called zi by which they were known among those outside of their family and closest friends. From at least the time of the Shang dynasty, the Han Chinese observed a number of naming taboos regulating who may or may not use a given name. In general, using the given name connoted the speakers authority, peers and younger relatives were barred from speaking it. Owing to this, many historical Chinese figures – particularly emperors – used a half-dozen or more different names in different contexts and those possessing names identical to the emperors were frequently forced to change them. Although some terms in the ancient Chinese naming system, such as xìng and míng, are used today, they were used in different. Commoners possessed only a name, and the modern concept of a surname or family name did not yet exist at any level of society.3 billion citizens. In fact, just the top three – Wang, Li, and Zhang – cover more than 20% of the population. This homogeneity results from the majority of Han family names having only one character. Chinese surnames arose from two separate traditions, the xìng and the shì. The original xìng were clans of royalty at the Shang court, the shì did not originate from families, but denoted fiefs, states, and titles granted or recognized by the Shang court. Apart from the Jiang and Yao families, the original xìng have nearly disappeared, xìng is now used to describe the shì surnames which replaced them, while shì is used to refer to maiden names. The enormous modern clans sometimes share ancestral halls with one another, nonetheless, however tenuous these bonds sometimes are, it remains a minor taboo to marry someone with the same family name. In modern mainland China, it is the norm that a woman keeps her name unchanged. A child usually inherits his/her fathers surname, though the law explicitly states that a child may use either parents or the grandparents. It is also possible, though far less common, for a child to both parents surnames. In the older generations, it was common for a married woman to prepend her husbands surname to her own. This practice is now almost extinct in mainland China, though there are a few such as the name change of Gu Kailai, but survives in some Hong Kong, Macau
7.
Chinese surname
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Chinese surnames are used by Han Chinese and Sinicized ethnic groups in Mainland China, Hong Kong, Macau, Malaysia, Taiwan, Korea, Singapore, Vietnam and among overseas Chinese communities. In ancient times two types of surnames existed, namely xing or lineage names, and shi or clan names, Chinese family names are patrilineal, passed from father to children. Women do not normally change their surnames upon marriage, except in places with more Western influences such as Hong Kong, traditionally Chinese surnames have been exogamous. The colloquial expressions laobaixing and bǎixìng are used in Chinese to mean ordinary folks, prior to the Warring States period, only the ruling families and the aristocratic elite had surnames. Historically there was also a difference between clan names or xing and lineages names or shi, Xing were surnames held by the noble clans. They generally are composed of a nü radical which has taken by some as evidence they originated from matriarchal societies based on maternal lineages. Another hypothesis has been proposed by sinologist Léon Vandermeersch upon observation of the evolution of characters in oracular scripture from the Shang dynasty through the Zhou, the female radical seems to appear at the Zhou period next to Shang sinograms indicating an ethnic group or a tribe. This combination seems to designate specifically a female and could mean lady of such or such clan, prior to the Qin Dynasty China was largely a fengjian society. In this way, a nobleman would hold a shi and a xing, after the states of China were unified by Qin Shi Huang in 221 BC, surnames gradually spread to the lower classes and the difference between xing and shi blurred. Many shi surnames survive to the present day, according to Kiang Kang-Hu, there are 18 sources from which Chinese surnames may be derived, while others suggested at least 24. The following are some of the sources, Xing, These were usually reserved for the central lineage of the royal family. Of these xings, only Jiang and Yao have survived in their form to modern days as frequently occurring surnames. Royal decree by the Emperor, such as Kuang, state name, Many nobles and commoners took the name of their state, either to show their continuing allegiance or as a matter of national and ethnic identity. These are some of the most common Chinese surnames, name of a fief or place of origin, Fiefdoms were often granted to collateral branches of the aristocracy and it was natural as part of the process of sub-surnaming for their names to be used. An example is Di, Marquis of Ouyangting, whose descendants took the surname Ouyang, there are some two hundred examples of this identified, often of two-character surnames, but few have survived to the present. Names of an ancestor, Like the previous example, this was also a common origin with close to 500 or 600 examples,200 of which are two-character surnames, often an ancestors courtesy name would be used. For example, Yuan Taotu took the character of his grandfathers courtesy name Boyuan as his surname. Sometimes titles granted to ancestors could also be taken as surnames, seniority within the family, In ancient usage, the characters of meng, zhong, shu and ji were used to denote the first, second, third and fourth eldest sons in a family
8.
Zheng (surname)
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Zhèng or Cheng is a Chinese surname and also the name of an ancient state in todays Henan province. It is written as 鄭 in traditional Chinese and 郑 in simplified Chinese, in 2006, Zheng ranked 21st in Chinas list of top 100 most common surnames. Zheng belongs to the major group of ten surnames which makes up more than 10% of the Chinese population. Zheng was a surname of the rich and powerful during Chinas Tang dynasty. In Hong Kong and Taiwan, the name is romanized as Cheng or Tcheng. It is commonly romanized as Cheng, Cheang and Teh in Malaysia, Tay in Singapore and Te in Indonesia, from the Hakka, Hokkien and it also pronounces Dâng in Hokchew. The surname also has taken form outside of Chinese societies, in Vietnamese as Trịnh, in Korean, the name is written 정 and transliterated as Chung, Jung, or Jeong. It is the fifth most common Korean surname, with about 4. 85% of the South Korean population having this name, the Zheng surname originated in Henan. In 806 BC, King Xuan, the king of the Western Zhou Dynasty, enfeoffed his younger brother Prince You. Duke Huan was killed along with King You of Zhou when the Quanrong tribes sacked the Zhou capital Haojing in 771 BC. Duke Huan was succeeded by his son Duke Wu, who helped King Ping of Zhou establish the Eastern Zhou Dynasty in Luoyang and his descendants and many people of the state later adopted Zheng as their surname. Moriya Mitsuo wrote a history of the Later Han-Tang period of the Taiyuan Wang, among the strongest families was the Taiyuan Wang. He was the son of Wang Chulian who in turn was the son of Wang Zhou, the marriages between the families were performed clandestinely after the prohibition was implemented on the seven families by Gaozong. Their status as Seven Great surnames became known during Gaozongs rule, there are over 400 Zhengs listed in the Whos Who in Chinese History. Yow Yit Seng,2006, Malaysia, 1st Edition, ISBN 967-978-927-6
9.
Taiwanese Romanization System
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The Taiwanese Romanization System is a transcription system for Taiwanese Hokkien. It is derived from Pe̍h-ōe-jī and since 2006 has been promoted by Taiwans Ministry of Education. It is nearly identical to Taiwanese Language Phonetic Alphabet Romanization for Hakka apart from using ts tsh j instead of c ch j for the fricatives /ts tsʰ dz/, Taiwanese Romanization System uses 16 basic Latin letters,7 digraphs and a trigraph. In addition, it uses 6 diacritics to represent tones, nn is only used after a vowel to express nasalization, so it has no capital letter. Palatalization occurs when J, S, Ts, Tsh followed by i, so Ji, Si, Tsi, of the 10 unused basic Latin letters, R is sometimes used to express dialectal vowels, while the others are only used in loanwords. O pronounced ㄜ in general dialect in Kaohsiung and Tainan, ㄛ in Taipei, -nn forms the nasal vowels There is also syllabic m and ng. ing pronounced, ik pronounced. A hyphen links elements of a compound word, a double hyphen indicates that the following syllable has a neutral tone and therefore that the preceding syllable does not undergo tone sandhi. 臺灣閩南語羅馬拼音及其發音學習網, Taiwanese Romanization System learning site by Ministry of Education, Taiwan
10.
Courtesy name
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A courtesy name, also known as a style name, is a name bestowed upon one at adulthood in addition to ones given name. This practice is a tradition in East Asian cultures, including China, Japan, Korea, formerly in China, the zi would replace a males given name when he turned twenty, as a symbol of adulthood and respect. It could be either by the parents or by the first personal teacher on the first day of family school. Females might substitute their given name for a zi upon marriage, one also may adopt a self-chosen courtesy name. In China the popularity of the custom has declined to some extent since the May Fourth Movement in 1919, a courtesy name is not to be confused with an art name, another frequently mentioned term for an alternative name in Asian culture-based context. An art name is associated with art and is more of a literary name or a pseudonym that is more spontaneous. The zì, sometimes called the biǎozì or courtesy name, is a name given to Chinese males at the age of 20. It was sometimes given to females upon marriage, the practice is no longer common in modern Chinese society. According to the Book of Rites, after a man reaches adulthood, it is disrespectful for others of the generation to address him by his given name. The zì is mostly disyllabic and is based on the meaning of the míng or given name. Yan Zhitui of the Northern Qi dynasty believed that while the purpose of the míng was to one person from another. The relation which exists between a persons zì and míng may be seen in the case of Chiang Kai-shek, whose ming was Zhōngzhèng. Thus he was also called 蔣中正（Chiang Chung-cheng）in some context, another way to form a zì is to use the homophonic character zǐ – a respectful title for a male – as the first character of the disyllabic zì. Thus, for example, Gongsun Qiaos zì was Zǐchǎn, and Du Fus and it is also common to construct a zì by using as the first character one which expresses the bearers birth order among male siblings in his family. Thus Confucius, whose name was Kǒng Qiū, was given the zì Zhòngní, the characters commonly used are bó for the first, zhòng for the second, shū for the third, and jì typically for the youngest, if the family consists of more than three sons. General Sun Jians four sons, for instance, were Sun Ce, Sun Quan, Sun Yi, the use of zì began during the Shang dynasty, and slowly developed into a system which became most widespread during the succeeding Zhou dynasty. During this period, women were also given zì, the zì given to a woman was generally composed of a character indicating her birth order among female siblings and her surname. For example, Mèng Jiāng was the eldest daughter in the Jiāng family, prior to the twentieth century, sinicized Koreans, Vietnamese, and Japanese were also referred to by their zì
11.
Chinese language
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Chinese is a group of related, but in many cases mutually unintelligible, language varieties, forming a branch of the Sino-Tibetan language family. Chinese is spoken by the Han majority and many ethnic groups in China. Nearly 1.2 billion people speak some form of Chinese as their first language, the varieties of Chinese are usually described by native speakers as dialects of a single Chinese language, but linguists note that they are as diverse as a language family. The internal diversity of Chinese has been likened to that of the Romance languages, There are between 7 and 13 main regional groups of Chinese, of which the most spoken by far is Mandarin, followed by Wu, Min, and Yue. Most of these groups are mutually unintelligible, although some, like Xiang and certain Southwest Mandarin dialects, may share common terms, all varieties of Chinese are tonal and analytic. Standard Chinese is a form of spoken Chinese based on the Beijing dialect of Mandarin. It is the language of China and Taiwan, as well as one of four official languages of Singapore. It is one of the six languages of the United Nations. The written form of the language, based on the logograms known as Chinese characters, is shared by literate speakers of otherwise unintelligible dialects. Of the other varieties of Chinese, Cantonese is the spoken language and official in Hong Kong and Macau. It is also influential in Guangdong province and much of Guangxi, dialects of Southern Min, part of the Min group, are widely spoken in southern Fujian, with notable variants also spoken in neighboring Taiwan and in Southeast Asia. Hakka also has a diaspora in Taiwan and southeast Asia. Shanghainese and other Wu varieties are prominent in the lower Yangtze region of eastern China, Chinese can be traced back to a hypothetical Sino-Tibetan proto-language. The first written records appeared over 3,000 years ago during the Shang dynasty, as the language evolved over this period, the various local varieties became mutually unintelligible. In reaction, central governments have sought to promulgate a unified standard. Difficulties have included the great diversity of the languages, the lack of inflection in many of them, in addition, many of the smaller languages are spoken in mountainous areas that are difficult to reach, and are often also sensitive border zones. Without a secure reconstruction of proto-Sino-Tibetan, the structure of the family remains unclear. A top-level branching into Chinese and Tibeto-Burman languages is often assumed, the earliest examples of Chinese are divinatory inscriptions on oracle bones from around 1250 BCE in the late Shang dynasty
12.
Zheng Zhilong
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Zheng Zhilong, also known as Nicholas Iquan Gaspard, was a Chinese merchant, pirate and military leader in the late Ming dynasty who later defected to the Qing dynasty. He was the father of Zheng Chenggong, the founder of the pro-Ming Kingdom of Tungning in Taiwan. After his defection, he was enfeoffed as a Count of the Second Rank by the Qing government, Zheng was born in Nanan, Fujian, the son of Zheng Shaozu, a mid-level financial official for the Quanzhou government, and Zheng Shaozus wife Lady Huang. Contemporary biographies tell an apocryphal story of how when Zheng was a child, he. They found a tree in an enclosed courtyard but whose branches hung over the top of the wall into the street. They threw stones in the hope of knocking some of the fruit clusters loose and it happened to be the courtyard of the governor of Quanzhou City, and he was struck by the stones. The boys ran but were caught and hauled before the governor, due to the childs age and apparent charisma, the governor forgave Zheng and released him, saying This is the face of one destined for wealth and nobility. The story may or may not be true, but it encapsulated the character of Zheng, he ran wild, grasped at low hanging fruit, got in trouble, Zheng left home as a teenager, jumping aboard a merchant ship. Sources vary on why he left home, some saying he slipped his hand up his stepmothers skirt, Zheng went to Macau where his mothers brother lived. He was baptized as a Catholic in Macau, receiving the Christian name Nicholas Gaspard. His uncle asked him to some cargo to Nagasaki, Japan, where he met a rich old Min man named Li Dan, also known as Captain China. Li Dan had close ties with the Europeans and he arranged for Zheng to work as an interpreter for the Dutch. In 1622, when Dutch forces took over the Pescadores archipelago off the Taiwan Strait, before leaving Japan he met and married a local woman named Tagawa Matsu. He impregnated her with Zheng Chenggong, leaving Japan before she gave birth in 1624, after Li died in 1623, Zheng acquired his fleet of ships. The Dutch, wishing to control and monopolize commerce routes to Japan, Zheng initially worked as a translator but soon became a highly successful pirate under the tutelage of the Dutch, who provided ships and weapons in exchange for a cut of the loot. Zheng prospered and by 1627 he was leading four hundred junks and he built ten outposts on Taiwans southwestern coastal region, between Tainan and Chiayi, but was evicted shortly after when the Dutch arrived on the island. Shibazhi were an organization of 18 well-known Chinese pirates, founded in 1625 by Zheng Zhilong. Members included Shi Langs father Shi Daxuan and they began to challenge the Ming fleet and won a series of victories
13.
Siege of Fort Zeelandia
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The Siege of Fort Zeelandia, which took place in 1661 and 1662, ended the Dutch East India Companys rule over Taiwan and began the Kingdom of Tungnings rule over the island. Taiwanese scholar Lu Chien-jung described this event as a war that determined the fate of Taiwan in the four hundred years that follow. The Dutch had been defeated in a war over the Pescadores from 1623–1624, and again at the Battle of Liaoluo Bay where the Chinese were led by Zheng Zhilong, the father of Koxinga. By 1632, the Dutch had established a post on a peninsula named Tayoan, the Dutch fortification consisted of two forts around the bay. The first was the multiple-walled Fort Zeelandia situated at the entrance to the bay, the second was Fort Provintia, a walled administrative office located at the bay, which was smaller in size. Frederick Coyett, the governor of Taiwan for the company, was stationed in Fort Zeelandia with 1,800 men, his subordinate, Valentyn, was in charge of Fort Provintia, on March 23,1661 Koxingas fleet set sail from Kinmen. His fleet consisted of hundreds of junks of various sizes, with roughly 25,000 soldiers and sailors aboard and they arrived in the Pescadores the next day, left a garrison there. On March 30 they left the Pescadores, on April 2 the fleet arrived at Tayoan. After passing through a shallow waterway unknown to the Dutch, they landed at the bay of Lakjemuyse, Koxinga was abundantly provided with cannons and ammunition in addition to two companies of former Dutch slaves of African descent who had learned to use small arms. They caused much harm to the Dutch during the war and his troops wore iron scale armor and either used two handed swords, swords and shields, or bows and arrows. Swordsmen were intended to cause fearful massacre amongst the fugitives after enemy lines were smashed through by shield bearers, on April 4 Valentyn surrendered to Koxingas army after it laid siege to Fort Provintia. The rapid assault had caught Valentyn unprepared since he had believed the fort was protected by Fort Zeelandia, on April 7, Koxingas troop surrounded Fort Zeelandia and demanded the garrisons surrender by sending the captured Dutch priest Antonius Hambroek as emissary to persuade the garrison to surrender. Hambroek, however, urged the garrison to resist instead of surrender, Koxinga ordered his artillery to advance and used 28 cannon to bombard the fort. Koxingas fleet then began massive bombardment, and troops on the ground attempted to storm the fort, Koxinga then changed his tactics and laid siege to the fort. On May 28, news of the siege reached Jakarta, on July 5 the relief force arrived and engaged in some small scale confrontations with Koxingas fleet. On July 23 the two sides gave battle as the Dutch fleet attempted to break Koxingas blockade, after a brief engagement, the Dutch fleet was forced to retreat with two ships sunk, three smaller vessels captured, and 130 casualties. In October the Dutch attempted to break the siege again but were repulsed back by the besieging army, in December Koxinga decided to launch another assault, based on news of low morale among the garrison from deserted German mercenaries, which ended unsuccessful. Koxinga followed his advice and the Dutch redoubt fell a day later, on January 12 Koxingas fleet began another bombardment, while the ground force prepare to assault the fort
14.
Xiamen
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Xiamen, formerly romanized as Amoy, is a sub-provincial city in southeastern Fujian, China, beside the Taiwan Strait. It is divided into six districts, Huli, Siming, Jimei, Tongan, Haicang, altogether, these cover an area of 1,699.39 square kilometers with a population of 3,531,347 as of 2010. The urbanized area of the city has spread from its original island to include parts of all six of its districts and this area connects to Quanzhou in the north and Zhangzhou in the west, making up a metropolis of more than five million people. The Jinmen or Kinmen Islands administered by the Republic of China lie less than 6 kilometers away, Xiamen Island was considered to possess one of the worlds great natural harbors in Yundang Bay, but Fujians international trade was long restricted to Quanzhou or to Guangzhou in Guangdong. Due to the siltification of Quanzhous harbor, the British insisted that Xiamen be opened to trade in the treaty that ended the First Opium War in 1842. The overseas Chinese continue to support Xiamens educational and cultural institutions, as part of Chinas Opening Up Policy under Deng Xiaoping, Xiamen became one of the original four special economic zones opened to foreign investment and trade in the early 1980s. Its former harbor was enclosed using land excavated during the citys expansion, the city is known for its mild climate, Hokkien culture and colonial architecture, as well as its relatively low pollution. In 2006, Xiamen was ranked as Chinas 2nd-most suitable city for living, the area around Xiamen Bay appears as Tongan in some Han records. Xiamen Island was described as Jiahe Islet c. 976 and it received its present name from the Xiamen Castle erected on the island by Zhou Dexing in 1387 during the Ming. The name was written using the Chinese characters meaning Lower Gate. When its port prospered under the Qing, the name was considered unrefined and changed to homophonous characters meaning Mansion Gate, Xiamen is the atonal pinyin romanization of the characters pronunciation in Mandarin. It has also been romanized as Hiamen, the former English name Amoy was based on the same names pronunciation in the Zhangzhou dialect of Hokkien, Ē-mûi. Xiamen was also named Siming for a few years during its occupation by the loyalist Southern Ming forces of Koxinga, the Qing restored the former name upon their conquest of the area, but Koxingas name was in turn restored after the Xinhai Revolution that inaugurated the republic in 1912. The name Xiamen was later restored again but Siming continues to be used as the name of one of its districts, Xiamen is a sub-provincial city in southeastern Fujian whose urban core grew up from the port of Xiamen on southern Xiamen Island, now located within Siming District. It now also includes Gulangyu Island and the rugged coast of the mainland from the northeast bank of the Jiulong River in the west to the islands of Xiangan in the east, Xiamen Island lies about one degree north of the Tropic of Cancer. It is divided between Huli District in the north and Siming District in the south and its mainland territory is divided among Haicang, Jimei, Tongan, and Xiangan districts. In the 19th century, Xiamens harbor on Yundang Bay was considered one of the great natural harbors. Land reclamation has since used to fill in the mouth of this inlet
15.
Kinmen
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It is one of two counties under the streamlined Fujian Province of the Republic of China. Due to the issue of the political status of Taiwan. Kinmen was given its name in 1387 when the Hongwu Emperor of Chinas Ming dynasty appointed an officer to administer the island. The name is pronounced Jīnmén in the official Standard Chinese but some of the names used in English for the islands derive from other Chinese varieties. Quemoy is the name for the island in English and in many European languages and it likely began as a Portuguese transcription of the Zhangzhou Hokkien pronunciation of the name, Kim-mûi. This form of the name was used almost exclusively in English until the late 20th century and is still used widely in current English-language contexts that involve historical coverage. For example, current works that deal with the First and Second Taiwan Strait Crises when the islands received prominent worldwide news coverage as Quemoy still use this form, in addition, the former National Kinmen Institute of Technology was renamed National Quemoy University in 2010. Kinmen scholar Wei Jian-feng advocates the use of Quemoy to better connect the island to international society or achieve more recognition in the world, Kinmen is a more recent transcription based on the general rules of the postal romanization system. With some exceptions, this form is used in most current English-language contexts on Kinmen, entities such as the county government, the islands airport, and the national park use this spelling. Chin-men is the Wade–Giles romanization form of the name and appears on some maps using that as their standard. Jinmen is the Hanyu Pinyin form of the name used especially in sources from the Peoples Republic of China. People began settling down in Kinmen during the Tang Dynasty, changing the name from Wuzhou to Kinmen. During the Ming Dynasty, more came to settle down in Kinmen. Koxinga used Kinmen as a base to liberate Kinmen and Penghu from the Dutch and he cut down trees to build his navy, resulting in massive deforestation that made Kinmen vulnerable to soil erosion. The Prince of Lu, a member of the Southern Ming Dynasty, in 1651, he fled to Kinmen, which the Qing dynasty took in 1663. Although Taiwan and Penghu had been ceded to Japan in 1895 via the Treaty of Shimonoseki, after the establishment of the Republic of China in 1912, Kinmen became part of Fukien Province. Japan did however occupy Kinmen during the Second Sino-Japanese War from 1937 to 1945, after the establishment of the Peoples Republic of China in October 1949, it was later claimed by both the ROC and PRC. The Peoples Liberation Army extensively shelled the island during the First, in 1954, the United States considered responding by using nuclear weapons against the PRC
16.
Philippines
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The Philippines, officially the Republic of the Philippines, is a sovereign island country in Southeast Asia situated in the western Pacific Ocean. It consists of about 7,641 islands that are categorized broadly under three main geographical divisions from north to south, Luzon, Visayas, and Mindanao, the capital city of the Philippines is Manila and the most populous city is Quezon City, both part of Metro Manila. The Philippines has an area of 300,000 square kilometers, and it is the eighth-most populated country in Asia and the 12th most populated country in the world. As of 2013, approximately 10 million additional Filipinos lived overseas, multiple ethnicities and cultures are found throughout the islands. In prehistoric times, Negritos were some of the archipelagos earliest inhabitants and they were followed by successive waves of Austronesian peoples. Exchanges with Chinese, Malay, Indian, and Islamic nations occurred, then, various competing maritime states were established under the rule of Datus, Rajahs, Sultans or Lakans. The arrival of Ferdinand Magellan in Homonhon, Eastern Samar in 1521 marked the beginning of Hispanic colonization, in 1543, Spanish explorer Ruy López de Villalobos named the archipelago Las Islas Filipinas in honor of Philip II of Spain. With the arrival of Miguel López de Legazpi from Mexico City, in 1565, the Philippines became part of the Spanish Empire for more than 300 years. This resulted in Roman Catholicism becoming the dominant religion, during this time, Manila became the western hub of the trans-Pacific trade connecting Asia with Acapulco in the Americas using Manila galleons. Aside from the period of Japanese occupation, the United States retained sovereignty over the islands until after World War II, since then, the Philippines has often had a tumultuous experience with democracy, which included the overthrow of a dictatorship by a non-violent revolution. It is a member of the United Nations, World Trade Organization, Association of Southeast Asian Nations, the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation forum. It also hosts the headquarters of the Asian Development Bank, the Philippines was named in honor of King Philip II of Spain. Spanish explorer Ruy López de Villalobos, during his expedition in 1542, named the islands of Leyte, eventually the name Las Islas Filipinas would be used to cover all the islands of the archipelago. Before that became commonplace, other such as Islas del Poniente. The official name of the Philippines has changed several times in the course of its history, during the Philippine Revolution, the Malolos Congress proclaimed the establishment of the República Filipina or the Philippine Republic. From the 1898 Treaty of Paris, the name Philippines began to appear, since the end of World War II, the official name of the country has been the Republic of the Philippines. The metatarsal of the Callao Man, reliably dated by uranium-series dating to 67,000 years ago is the oldest human remnant found in the archipelago to date and this distinction previously belonged to the Tabon Man of Palawan, carbon-dated to around 26,500 years ago. Negritos were also among the archipelagos earliest inhabitants, but their first settlement in the Philippines has not been reliably dated, there are several opposing theories regarding the origins of ancient Filipinos
17.
Kangxi Emperor
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The Kangxi Emperors reign of 61 years makes him the longest-reigning emperor in Chinese history and one of the longest-reigning rulers in the world. However, since he ascended the throne at the age of seven, actual power was held for six years by four regents and his grandmother, the Kangxi Emperor is considered one of Chinas greatest emperors. The Kangxi Emperors reign brought about stability and relative wealth after years of war. He initiated the period known as the Prosperous Era of Kangxi and Qianlong or High Qing and his court also accomplished such literary feats as the compilation of the Kangxi Dictionary. Born on 4 May 1654 to the Shunzhi Emperor and Empress Xiaokangzhang in Jingren Palace, the Forbidden City, Beijing and he was enthroned at the age of seven, on 7 February 1661. His era name Kangxi, however, only started to be used on 18 February 1662, large bright eyes lighted up his face, which was pitted with smallpox. Before the Kangxi Emperor came to the throne, Grand Empress Dowager Xiaozhuang had appointed the powerful men Sonin, Suksaha, Ebilun, Sonin died after his granddaughter became Empress Xiaochengren, leaving Suksaha at odds with Oboi in politics. In a fierce struggle, Oboi had Suksaha put to death. The Kangxi Emperor and the rest of the imperial court acquiesced in this arrangement, in 1669, the Kangxi Emperor had Oboi arrested with the help of his grandmother Grand Dowager Empress Xiaozhuang, who had raised him. And began taking control of the empire. He listed three issues of concern, flood control of the Yellow River, repair of the Grand Canal, the Grand Empress Dowager influenced him greatly and he took care of her himself in the months leading up to her death in 1688. The main army of the Qing Empire, the Eight Banners Army, was in decline under the Kangxi Emperor. It was smaller than it had been at its peak under Hong Taiji and in the reign of the Shunzhi Emperor, however. In addition, the Green Standard Army was still powerful with generals such as Tuhai, Fei Yanggu, Zhang Yong, Zhou Peigong, Shi Lang, Mu Zhan, Shun Shike and Wang Jingbao. The main reason for decline was a change in system between the Kangxi and Qianlong emperors reigns. The Kangxi Emperor continued using the military system implemented by his predecessors. According to the system, a commander who returned from a battle alone would be put to death and this was meant to motivate both commanders and soldiers alike to fight valiantly in war because there was no benefit for the sole survivor in a battle. By the Qianlong Emperors reign, military commanders had become lax and this was because commanders statuses had become hereditary, a general gained his position based on the contributions of his forefathers
18.
Qing dynasty
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It was preceded by the Ming dynasty and succeeded by the Republic of China. The Qing multi-cultural empire lasted almost three centuries and formed the base for the modern Chinese state. The dynasty was founded by the Jurchen Aisin Gioro clan in Manchuria, in the late sixteenth century, Nurhaci, originally a Ming vassal, began organizing Banners, military-social units that included Jurchen, Han Chinese, and Mongol elements. Nurhaci formed the Jurchen clans into an entity, which he renamed as the Manchus. By 1636, his son Hong Taiji began driving Ming forces out of Liaodong and declared a new dynasty, in 1644, peasant rebels led by Li Zicheng conquered the Ming capital, Beijing. The Ten Great Campaigns of the Qianlong Emperor from the 1750s to the 1790s extended Qing control into Central Asia, the early rulers maintained their Manchu ways, and while their title was Emperor, they used khan to the Mongols and they were patrons of Tibetan Buddhism. They governed using Confucian styles and institutions of government and retained the imperial examinations to recruit Han Chinese to work under or in parallel with Manchus. They also adapted the ideals of the system in dealing with neighboring territories. The Qianlong reign saw the apogee and initial decline in prosperity. The population rose to some 400 million, but taxes and government revenues were fixed at a low rate, corruption set in, rebels tested government legitimacy, and ruling elites did not change their mindsets in the face of changes in the world system. Following the Opium War, European powers imposed unequal treaties, free trade, the Taiping Rebellion and the Dungan Revolt in Central Asia led to the deaths of some 20 million people, most of them due to famines caused by war. In spite of disasters, in the Tongzhi Restoration of the 1860s, Han Chinese elites rallied to the defense of the Confucian order. The initial gains in the Self-Strengthening Movement were destroyed in the First Sino-Japanese War of 1895, in which the Qing lost its influence over Korea, New Armies were organized, but the ambitious Hundred Days Reform of 1898 was turned back by Empress Dowager Cixi, a conservative leader. Sun Yat-sen and other revolutionaries competed with reformist monarchists such as Kang Youwei, after the deaths of Cixi and the Guangxu Emperor in 1908, the hardline Manchu court alienated reformers and local elites alike. The Wuchang Uprising on October 11,1911, led to the Xinhai Revolution, General Yuan Shikai negotiated the abdication of Puyi, the last emperor, on February 12,1912. Nurhaci declared himself the Bright Khan of the Later Jin state in both of the 12–13th century Jurchen Jin dynasty and of his Aisin Gioro clan. His son Hong Taiji renamed the dynasty Great Qing in 1636, there are competing explanations on the meaning of Qīng. The character Qīng is composed of water and azure, both associated with the water element and this association would justify the Qing conquest as defeat of fire by water
19.
History of Taiwan
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The history of Taiwan dates back tens of thousands of years to the earliest known evidence of human habitation. The sudden appearance of a culture based on agriculture around 3000 BC is believed to reflect the arrival of the ancestors of todays Taiwanese aborigines, the Spanish built a settlement in the north for a brief period but were driven out by the Dutch in 1642. In 1662, Koxinga, a loyalist of the Ming dynasty who had lost control of mainland China in 1644, defeated the Dutch and his forces were defeated by the Qing dynasty in 1683, and parts of Taiwan became increasingly integrated into the Qing empire. Following the First Sino-Japanese War in 1895, the Qing ceded the island, along with Penghu, to the Empire of Japan. Taiwan produced rice and sugar to be exported to the Empire of Japan, and also served as a base for the Japanese colonial expansion into Southeast Asia, Japanese imperial education was implemented in Taiwan and many Taiwanese also fought for Japan during the war. In 1945, following the end of World War II, the Republic of China, led by the Kuomintang, in 1949, after losing control of mainland China in the Chinese Civil War, the ROC government under the KMT withdrew to Taiwan and Chiang Kai-shek declared martial law. The KMT ruled Taiwan as a single-party state for forty years, until reforms in the 1980s. During the post-war period, Taiwan experienced rapid industrialization and economic growth, in the Late Pleistocene, sea levels were about 140 m lower than in the present day, exposing the floor of the shallow Taiwan Strait as a land bridge that was crossed by mainland fauna. The oldest evidence of presence on Taiwan consists of three cranial fragments and a molar tooth found at Chouqu and Gangzilin, in Zuozhen District. These are estimated to be between 20,000 and 30,000 years old. The oldest artifacts are chipped-pebble tools of a Paleolithic culture found in four caves in Changbin, Taitung, dated 15,000 to 5,000 years ago, and similar to contemporary sites in Fujian. The same culture is found at sites at Eluanbi on the tip of Taiwan. At the beginning of the Holocene 10,000 years ago, sea levels rose, forming the Taiwan Strait, around 3,000 BC, the Neolithic Dapenkeng culture abruptly appeared and quickly spread around the coast of the island. Their sites are characterized by pottery, polished stone adzes. The inhabitants cultivated rice and millet, but were heavily reliant on marine shells. Most scholars believe this culture is not derived from the Changbinian, some of these people later migrated from Taiwan to the islands of Southeast Asia and thence throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans. The Dapenkeng culture was succeeded by a variety of cultures throughout the island, including the Tahu, iron appeared at the beginning of the current era in such cultures as the Niaosung Culture. The earliest metal artifacts were trade goods, but by around 400 AD wrought iron was being produced locally using bloomeries, early Chinese histories refer to visits to eastern islands that some historians identify with Taiwan
20.
OCLC
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The Online Computer Library Center is a US-based nonprofit cooperative organization dedicated to the public purposes of furthering access to the worlds information and reducing information costs. It was founded in 1967 as the Ohio College Library Center, OCLC and its member libraries cooperatively produce and maintain WorldCat, the largest online public access catalog in the world. OCLC is funded mainly by the fees that libraries have to pay for its services, the group first met on July 5,1967 on the campus of the Ohio State University to sign the articles of incorporation for the nonprofit organization. The group hired Frederick G. Kilgour, a former Yale University medical school librarian, Kilgour wished to merge the latest information storage and retrieval system of the time, the computer, with the oldest, the library. The goal of network and database was to bring libraries together to cooperatively keep track of the worlds information in order to best serve researchers and scholars. The first library to do online cataloging through OCLC was the Alden Library at Ohio University on August 26,1971 and this was the first occurrence of online cataloging by any library worldwide. Membership in OCLC is based on use of services and contribution of data, between 1967 and 1977, OCLC membership was limited to institutions in Ohio, but in 1978, a new governance structure was established that allowed institutions from other states to join. In 2002, the structure was again modified to accommodate participation from outside the United States. As OCLC expanded services in the United States outside of Ohio, it relied on establishing strategic partnerships with networks, organizations that provided training, support, by 2008, there were 15 independent United States regional service providers. OCLC networks played a key role in OCLC governance, with networks electing delegates to serve on OCLC Members Council, in early 2009, OCLC negotiated new contracts with the former networks and opened a centralized support center. OCLC provides bibliographic, abstract and full-text information to anyone, OCLC and its member libraries cooperatively produce and maintain WorldCat—the OCLC Online Union Catalog, the largest online public access catalog in the world. WorldCat has holding records from public and private libraries worldwide. org, in October 2005, the OCLC technical staff began a wiki project, WikiD, allowing readers to add commentary and structured-field information associated with any WorldCat record. The Online Computer Library Center acquired the trademark and copyrights associated with the Dewey Decimal Classification System when it bought Forest Press in 1988, a browser for books with their Dewey Decimal Classifications was available until July 2013, it was replaced by the Classify Service. S. The reference management service QuestionPoint provides libraries with tools to communicate with users and this around-the-clock reference service is provided by a cooperative of participating global libraries. OCLC has produced cards for members since 1971 with its shared online catalog. OCLC commercially sells software, e. g. CONTENTdm for managing digital collections, OCLC has been conducting research for the library community for more than 30 years. In accordance with its mission, OCLC makes its research outcomes known through various publications and these publications, including journal articles, reports, newsletters, and presentations, are available through the organizations website. The most recent publications are displayed first, and all archived resources, membership Reports – A number of significant reports on topics ranging from virtual reference in libraries to perceptions about library funding
21.
Piracy
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Piracy is an act of robbery or criminal violence by ship- or boat-borne attackers upon another ship or a coastal area, typically with the goal of stealing cargo and other valuable items or properties. Those who engage in acts of piracy are called pirates, the earliest documented instances of piracy were in the 14th century BC, when the Sea Peoples, a group of ocean raiders, attacked the ships of the Aegean and Mediterranean civilizations. Narrow channels which funnel shipping into predictable routes have long created opportunities for piracy, as well as for privateering and commerce raiding. Historic examples include the waters of Gibraltar, the Strait of Malacca, Madagascar, the Gulf of Aden, a land-based parallel is the ambushing of travelers by bandits and brigands in highways and mountain passes. While the term can include acts committed in the air, on land, or in major bodies of water or on a shore. It does not normally include crimes committed against people traveling on the vessel as the perpetrator. Piracy or pirating is the name of a crime under customary international law. They also use larger vessels, known as ships, to supply the smaller motorboats. The international community is facing challenges in bringing modern pirates to justice. In the 2000s, a number of nations have used their naval forces to protect ships from pirate attacks. The English pirate is derived from the Latin term pirata and that from Greek πειρατής, brigand, in turn from πειράομαι, I attempt, from πεῖρα, attempt, the meaning of the Greek word peiratēs literally is one who attacks. The word is cognate to peril. The term is first attested to c, spelling was not standardised until the eighteenth century, and spellings such as pirrot, pyrate and pyrat were used until this period. It may be reasonable to assume that piracy has existed for as long as the oceans were plied for commerce, the earliest documented instances of piracy are the exploits of the Sea Peoples who threatened the ships sailing in the Aegean and Mediterranean waters in the 14th century BC. In classical antiquity, the Phoenicians, Illyrians and Tyrrhenians were known as pirates, the ancient Greeks condoned piracy as a viable profession, it apparently was widespread and regarded as an entirely honourable way of making a living. References are made to its perfectly normal occurrence many texts including in Homers Iliad and Odyssey, by the era of Classical Greece, piracy was looked upon as a disgrace to have as a profession. In the 3rd century BC, pirate attacks on Olympos brought impoverishment, among some of the most famous ancient pirateering peoples were the Illyrians, a people populating the western Balkan peninsula. Constantly raiding the Adriatic Sea, the Illyrians caused many conflicts with the Roman Republic and it was not until 229 BC when the Romans finally decisively beat the Illyrian fleets that their threat was ended
22.
Golden Age of Piracy
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The Golden Age of Piracy is a common designation given to usually one or more outbursts of piracy in the maritime history of the early modern period. The modern conception of pirates as depicted in culture is derived largely, although not always accurately. The colonial powers at the time fought with pirates and engaged in several notable battles. Powell uses the only once. Its golden age may be said to have extended from about 1650 to about 1720, Pirate historians of the first half of the 20th century occasionally adopted Fiskes term Golden Age, without necessarily following his beginning and ending dates for it. This idea starkly contradicted Fiske, who had denied that such Elizabethan figures as Drake were pirates. Of recent definitions, Pringle appears to have the widest range, as early as 1924, Philip Gosse described piracy as being at its height from 1680 until 1730. Bottings definition was followed by Frank Sherry in 1986. In a 1989 academic article, Professor Marcus Rediker defined the Golden Age as lasting only from 1716 to 1726, angus Konstam in 1998, reckoned the era as lasting from 1700 until 1730. David Cordingly, in his influential 1994 work Under the Black Flag, defined the age of piracy as lasting from the 1650s to around 1725. Rediker, in 2004, described the most complex definition of the Golden Age to date, most of these pirates were of Welsh, English, Dutch and French origin. This involved considerable seaborne trade, and an economic improvement. The buccaneers migration from Hispaniolas mainland to the more defensible offshore island of Tortuga limited their resources, the growth of buccaneering on Tortuga was augmented by the English capture of Jamaica from Spain in 1655. In the 1660s, the new French governor of Tortuga, Bertrand dOgeron and these conditions brought Caribbean buccaneering to its zenith. A number of factors caused Anglo-American pirates, some of whom had cut their teeth during the buccaneering period, the fall of Britains Stuart period had restored the traditional enmity between Britain and France, thus ending the profitable collaboration between English Jamaica and French Tortuga. The devastation of Port Royal by an earthquake in 1692 further reduced the Caribbeans attractions by destroying the pirates chief market for fenced plunder. Furthermore, much of the Spanish Main had simply been exhausted, at the same time, Englands less-favored colonies, including Bermuda, New York, and Rhode Island, had become cash-starved by the Navigation Acts. This set the stage for the piracies of Thomas Tew, Henry Every, Robert Culliford
23.
Republic of Pirates
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The Republic of Pirates is the nomenclature for the base or stronghold run by privateers-turned-pirates in Nassau on New Providence island in the Bahamas for about eleven years from 1706 until 1718. Although not a state or republic in a sense, it was governed by its own informal Code of Conduct. The activities of the pirates caused havoc with trade and shipping in the West Indies, until governor Woodes Rogers reached Nassau in 1718 and restored British control. The era of piracy in the Bahamas began in 1696, when the privateer Henry Every brought his ship the Fancy loaded with loot from plundering Indian Empire trade ships into Nassau harbour. Every bribed the governor Nicholas Trott with gold and silver, and with the Fancy itself and this established Nassau as a base where pirates could operate safely, although various governors regularly made a show of suppressing piracy. Although the governors were still legally in charge, the pirates became increasingly powerful, Nassau was then taken over by English privateers, who became completely lawless pirates over time. The pirates attacked French and Spanish ships, while the French, Pirates established themselves in Nassau, and essentially established their own republic with its own governors. By 1713 the War of the Spanish Succession was over, but many British privateers were slow to get the news, or reluctant to accept it and this led to large numbers of unemployed privateers making their way to New Providence to join the republic and swell its numbers. The republic was dominated by two pirates who were bitter rivals – Benjamin Hornigold and Henry Jennings. Hornigold was mentor to such as the infamous Edward Teach, known as Blackbeard, along with Sam Bellamy. Jennings was mentor to Charles Vane, Calico Jack Rackham, Anne Bonny, despite their rivalries, the pirates formed themselves into the Flying Gang and quickly became infamous for their exploits. The Governor of Bermuda stated that there were over 1000 pirates in Nassau at that time, Blackbeard was later voted by the pirates of Nassau to be their Magistrate, to be in command of their Republic and enforce law and order as he saw fit. The amount of havoc the pirates were causing led to an outcry for their destruction, in 1718 Rogers arrived in Nassau with a fleet of seven ships, carrying a pardon for all those who turned themselves in and refrained from further piracy. As a former privateer himself, Hornigold was well placed to understand what needed to be done, although pirates such as Charles Vane and Blackbeard evaded capture, Hornigold did take ten pirates prisoner and on the morning of 12 December 1718, nine of them were executed. This act re-established British control and ended the republic in the Bahamas. Those pirates who had fled successfully continued their piratical activities elsewhere in the Caribbean in what has become known as the Golden Age of Piracy. The pirates ran their affairs using what was called the Pirate code, according to the code, the pirates ran their ships democratically, sharing plunder equally and selecting and deposing their captains by popular vote. Some of the pirates were also Jacobites, who had become pirates to help restore the recently deposed Stuart line to the throne
24.
Piracy in the 21st century
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Piracy in the 21st century has taken place in a number of waters around the world, including the Gulf of Guinea, Strait of Malacca, Indian Ocean, and Falcon Lake. Piracy on Falcon Lake involves crime at the border between the United States and Mexico on Falcon Lake, the lake is a 60-mile long reservoir constructed in 1954 and is a known drug smuggling route. A turf war between drug cartels for control of the lake began in March 2010 and has led to a series of armed robberies. All of the attacks were credited to the Los Zetas cartel and occurred primarily on the Mexican side of the reservoir, the so-called pirates operate fleets of small boats designed to seize fisherman and smuggle drugs. Piracy in the Gulf of Guinea affects a number of countries in West Africa as well as the international community. By 2011, it had become an issue of global concern, pirates in the Gulf of Guinea are often part of heavily armed criminal enterprises, who employ violent methods to steal oil cargo. Piracy in the Gulf of Guinea has evolved over the first decade of the century, for some time, smaller ships shuttling employees and materials belonging to the oil companies with any involvement in oil exploration had been at risk in Nigeria. Over time, pirates became more aggressive and better armed, as of 2014, pirate attacks in West Africa mainly occur in territorial waters, terminals and harbours rather than in the high seas. This incident pattern has hindered intervention by international naval forces, pirates in the region operate a well-funded criminal industry, which includes established supply networks. They are often part of armed and sophisticated criminal enterprises. The local pirates overall aim is to steal oil cargo, as such, they do not attach much importance to holding crew members and non-oil cargo and vessels for ransom. Additionally, pirates in the Gulf of Guinea are especially noted for their violent modus operandi, the increasingly violent methods used by these groups is believed to be part of a conscious business model adopted by them, in which violence and intimidation plays a major role. By 2010,45 and by 201164 incidents were reported to the UN International Maritime Organization, Piracy acts interfere with the legitimate trading interests of the affected countries that include Benin, Togo, Côte d’Ivoire, Ghana, Nigeria, and the Democratic Republic of Congo. As an example, trade of Benins major port, the Port of Cotonou, was reported in 2012 to have dropped by 70 percent. The cost of piracy in the Gulf of Guinea due to goods, security. Piracy in the Indian Ocean has been a threat to international shipping since the phase of the civil war in Somalia in the early 21st century. Since 2005, many organizations have expressed concern over the rise in acts of piracy. Piracy impeded the delivery of shipments and increased shipping expenses, costing an estimated $6.6 to $6.9 billion a year in trade according to Oceans Beyond Piracy
25.
Baltic Slavic piracy
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In the Baltic Sea region, groups of pirates of Slavic descent lived dating as far back as the 8th century to the 14th century. Baltic Slavs, whose agriculture was not highly developed in early 800, were in dire need of resources, since the dry islets were the ones capable of cultivation. Flax was able to be grown, which was turned into linen or canvas for clothes, at this time the Baltic Slavs were also known for bee-keeping, trading their honey and wax to the Germans for use in church candles and the sealing of documents. Once trade began, the German form of currency circulated amongst the group, after this point information on specifics of the trade between Germans and Slavs is unknown throughout the ninth century. During this time period it is known that the Slavs crossed paths with the Danes, the Slavs of the Baltic had engaged in piratical activity before, while the Danes felt that trade and piracy went hand in hand, making for an interesting attempt at commercial relations. Baltic Slavs soon became interested in expanding, attempting to get a hold of the rivers in Denmark in order to control the Wendish trade, the Danes would not stand for this, causing war to arise between the two groups. Between the years of 1375 through 1398, Queen Margaret of Denmark and this attempt instigated piratical activity since the countries would not always agree with one another. Both countries used the piracy that was present to their advantage, pirates took this use to their advantage also, encouraging them to pillage the targeted country without the worry of possible consequence. Little did the queen and dukes know that once piracy was provoked, on March 14,1377 it was reported that 200 pirates were in the area, while a month later this number rose to 400. Trading vessels were warned to not sail unless it was done in groups. To prevent people from harboring a pirate it was known that those who did harbor a pirate or any stolen good would be treated the same as the pirates themselves. Duke Albert of Mecklenburg felt that he would not be accused of doing such a thing, seeing that he believed the pirates were supporters of his, the Duke was never caught while Queen Margaret was not so lucky, accused of frequently protecting and enabling the pirates. These efforts proved to be useless and piracy continued, leaving the merchant Hansa to patrol the seas at a great risk, in 1384 Queen Margaret demanded that the province of Skåne would be put under her control. Upon meeting with the Hansa in 1385 she was informed of their refusal to surrender the providence, the Hansa were soon informed of this, unable to object to her actions. If they were to revolt the Hansa would be facing a war against Queen Margaret, through their cooperation the queen had no need to use her piratical partners, leading to the eventual end of piracy for that time. The inevitable reappearance of pirates occurred in 1389 once Mecklenburg declared war upon Denmark and it was made known that Mecklenburg would equip war ships and issue letters of marque to freebooters, placing the pirates under full legal protection. The pirates began to carry their goods to Stockholm where they became known as Vitalienbrüder. After Stockholm they captured the islands Bornholm and Gotland as their headquarters due to the location, here the pirates recognized that all members of a crew should be treated equally, dividing shares fairly, calling themselves Likendeeler or “equal dividers”
26.
Barbary pirates
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This area was known in Europe as the Barbary Coast, a term derived from the name of its Berber inhabitants. The main purpose of their attacks was to capture Christian slaves for the Ottoman slave trade as well as the general Muslim slavery market in North Africa and the Middle East. In that period Algiers, Tunis and Tripoli came under the sovereignty of the Ottoman Empire, similar raids were undertaken from Salé and other ports in Morocco. Corsairs captured thousands of ships and repeatedly raided coastal towns, as a result, residents abandoned their former villages of long stretches of coast in Spain and Italy. The raids were such a problem coastal settlements were seldom undertaken until the 19th century, from the 16th to 19th century, corsairs captured an estimated 800,000 to 1.25 million people as slaves. Some corsairs were European outcasts and converts such as John Ward, Hayreddin Barbarossa and Oruç Reis, Turkish Barbarossa Brothers, who took control of Algiers on behalf of the Ottomans in the early 16th century, were also notorious corsairs. The European pirates brought advanced sailing and shipbuilding techniques to the Barbary Coast around 1600, the effects of the Barbary raids peaked in the early to mid-17th century. However, the ships and coasts of Christian states without such effective protection continued to suffer until the early 19th century. Following the Napoleonic Wars and the Congress of Vienna in 1814–15, European powers agreed upon the need to suppress the Barbary corsairs entirely and the threat was largely subdued. Occasional incidents occurred, including two Barbary wars between the United States and the Barbary States, until terminated by the French conquest of Algiers in 1830. Piracy by Muslim populations had been known in the Mediterranean since at least the 9th century, in the 14th century Tunisian corsairs became enough of a threat to provoke a Franco-Genoese attack on Mahdia in 1390, also known as the Barbary Crusade. The Barbary pirates had long attacked English and other European shipping along the North Coast of Africa and they had been attacking English merchant and passengers ships since the 1600s. Regular fundraising for ransoms was undertaken generally by families and local church groups, the government did not ransom ordinary persons. The English became familiar with captivity narratives written by Barbary pirates prisoners and ransomed captives, during the American Revolution the pirates attacked American ships. The Moroccan-American Treaty of Friendship stands as the U. S. s oldest non-broken friendship treaty with a foreign power, in 1778 Morocco became the first nation to recognize the new United States. As late as 1798, an islet near Sardinia was attacked by the Tunisians, throughout history, geography was on the pirates side on the Northern coast of Africa. The coast was ideal for their wants and needs, with natural harbours often backed by lagoons, it provided a haven for guerrilla warfare, such as attacks on shipping vessels venturing through their territory. On the coast, mountainous areas provided ample reconnaissance for the corsairs as well, ships were spotted from afar, the pirates had time to prepare their attacks and surprise the ships
27.
Brethren of the Coast
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They were a syndicate of captains with letters of marque and reprisal who regulated their privateering enterprises within the community of privateers and with their outside benefactors. They were primarily private individual merchant mariners of Protestant background usually of English, henry Morgan was perhaps the most famous member of the Brethren and the one usually noted with codifying its organization. Many pirates made their journeys there, one of the most famous was Alexandre Exquemelin, a fictionalized, romanticized version of the Brethren was featured in the Pirates of the Caribbean series of films. Piracy in the Caribbean Pirate Republic Victual Brothers Kemp, Peter Christopher Lloyd, Brethren of the Coast, The British and French Buccaneers of the South Sea. New York, St. Martin,1960,1961, Pirates and Privateers of the Caribbean
28.
Buccaneer
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Buccaneers were a kind of privateer or pirate particular to the Caribbean Sea during the 17th and 18th centuries. Originally the name applied to the hunters of wild boars and cattle in the largely uninhabited areas of Tortuga. Eventually the term was applied to the corsairs and privateers themselves, the term buccaneer derives from the Caribbean Arawak word buccan, a wooden frame on which Tainos and Caribs slowly roasted or smoked meat, commonly manatee. From it derived the French word boucane and hence the name boucanier for French hunters who used such frames to smoke meat from feral cattle, English colonists anglicised the word boucanier to buccaneer. About 1630, French interlopers were driven away from the island of Hispaniola, the Spaniards also tried to drive them out of Tortuga, but the buccaneers were joined by many more French, Dutch, and English adventurers who turned to piracy. They set their eyes on Spanish shipping, generally using small craft to attack galleons in the vicinity of the Windward Passage, with the support and encouragement of rival European powers, they became strong enough to sail for the mainland of Spanish America and sacked cities. English settlers occupying Jamaica began to spread the name buccaneers with the meaning of pirates, the name became universally adopted later in 1684 when the first English translation of Alexandre Exquemelins book The Buccaneers of America was published. Viewed from London, buccaneering was a way to wage war on Englands rival. So, the English crown licensed buccaneers with letters of marque, the buccaneers were invited by Jamaicas Governor Thomas Modyford to base ships at Port Royal. The buccaneers robbed Spanish shipping and colonies, and returned to Port Royal with their plunder, there even were Royal Navy officers sent to lead the buccaneers, such as Christopher Myngs. Their activities went on irrespective of whether England happened to be at war with Spain or France, another noted leader was a Welshman named Henry Morgan, who sacked Maracaibo, Portobello, and Panama City, stealing a huge amount from the Spanish. Morgan became rich and went back to England, where he was knighted by Charles II, in the 1690s, the old buccaneering ways began to die out, as European governments began to discard the policy of no peace beyond the Line. The status of buccaneers as pirates or privateers was ambiguous, as a rule, the buccaneers called themselves privateers, and many sailed under the protection of a letter of marque granted by British, French or Dutch authorities. For example, Henry Morgan had some form of cover for all of his attacks. Nevertheless, these men had little concern for legal niceties. Many of the letters of marque used by buccaneers were legally invalid, simultaneously, French and English governors tended to turn a blind eye to the buccaneers depredations against the Spanish, even when unlicensed. This change in atmosphere, more than anything else, put an end to buccaneering. A hundred years before the French Revolution, the companies were run on lines in which liberty, equality and fraternity were the rule
29.
Cossacks
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Cossacks are a group of predominantly East Slavic-speaking people who became known as members of democratic, self-governing, semi-military communities, predominantly located in Ukraine and in Russia. The origins of the first Cossacks are disputed, though the 1710 Constitution of Pylyp Orlyk claimed Khazar origin, the Zaporizhian Sich were a vassal people of Poland–Lithuania during feudal times. Under increasing pressure from the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, in the century the Sich declared an independent Cossack Hetmanate. Afterwards, the Treaty of Pereyaslav brought most of the Ukrainian Cossack state under Russian rule, the Sich with its lands became an autonomous region under the Russian-Polish protectorate. The Don Cossack Host, which had established by the 16th century. Together they began a systematic conquest and colonisation of lands in order to secure the borders on the Volga, the whole of Siberia, and the Yaik, Cossack communities had developed along the latter two rivers well before the arrival of the Don Cossacks. By the 18th century, Cossack hosts in the Russian Empire occupied effective buffer zones on its borders, the expansionist ambitions of the Empire relied on ensuring the loyalty of Cossacks, which caused tension given their traditional exercise of freedom, democratic self-rule, and independence. By the end of the 18th century, Cossack nations had transformed into a special military estate. The government provided only firearms and supplies for them, Cossack service was considered the most rigorous one. In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, the Tsarist regime used Cossacks extensively to perform police service and they also served as border guards on national and internal ethnic borders. During the Russian Civil War, Don and Kuban Cossacks were the first nations to open war against the Bolsheviks. By 1918, Cossacks declared the independence of their nations and formed the independent states, the Ukrainian State, the Don Republic. The Cossack troops formed the core of the anti-Bolshevik White Army. With the victory of the Red Army, the Cossack lands were subjected to Decossackization, after the dissolution of the Soviet Union, the Cossacks made a systematic return to Russia. Many took a part in Post-Soviet conflicts and Yugoslav Wars. In Russias 2010 Population Census, Cossacks have been recognized as an ethnicity, there are Cossack organizations in Russia, Kazakhstan, Ukraine, Poland, and the United States. Max Vasmers etymological dictionary traces the name to the Old East Slavic word козакъ, kozak, the ethnonym Kazakh is from the same Turkic root. In written sources the name is first attested in Codex Cumanicus from the 13th century, in English, Cossack is first attested in 1590
30.
Filibuster (military)
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A filibuster or freebooter, in the context of foreign policy, is someone who engages in an unauthorized military expedition into a foreign country or territory to foment or support a revolution. The term is used to describe United States citizens who fomented insurrections in Latin America in the mid-19th century. Filibuster expeditions have also occasionally used as cover for government-approved deniable operations. A notable late 20th Century example of this would be the Argentinian scrap metal merchants who landed on South Georgia at the outset of the Falklands War. Filibusters are irregular soldiers who act without official authority from their own government, the freewheeling actions of the filibusters of the 1850s led to the name being applied figuratively to the political act of filibustering in the United States Congress. Unlike a mercenary, a filibuster leader/commander works for himself, whilst a mercenary leader works for others, the English term filibuster derives from the Spanish filibustero, itself deriving originally from the Dutch vrijbuiter, privateer, pirate, robber. The Spanish form entered the English language in the 1850s, as applied to military adventurers from the United States then operating in Central America and the Spanish West Indies. The Spanish term was first applied to persons raiding Spanish colonies and ships in the West Indies, with the end of the era of Caribbean piracy in the early 18th century filibuster fell out of general currency. The term was revived in the century to describe the actions of adventurers who tried to take control of various Caribbean, Mexican. In Sonora, there were the French Marquis Charles de Pindray and Count Gaston de Raousset-Boulbon, the three most prominent filibusters of that era were Narciso López and John Quitman in Cuba and William Walker in Baja California, Sonora, and lastly Nicaragua. The term returned to American parlance to refer to López 1851 Cuban expeditions, gregor MacGregor was a Scottish filibuster in Florida, Central and South America. She has shown that, left to herself, she is incapable of organizing and sustaining any permanent form of government. The Indians on her northern frontier are making continual predatory incursions into her territory and her mixed population has all the vices of civilization, with none of its virtues, all the ignorance of barbarism, with none of its hardihood, enterprise, and self-reliance. It is enervate, effeminate, treacherous, false, and fickle, like the savage and beasts of the forest, its love of liberty is but impatience of control, and hatred of law and government. After effecting so much good, shall we cease from our labors while so much remains to be done, shall we be deterred by the epithet of filibustering, or the cant, fanaticism, and mistaken or pretended philanthropy of a part of the North. …. Unless we can all the convenient transit across the Isthmus to California and Oregon. Filibustering, whether by nations or individuals, is not like avarice—selfish, sordid and it proceeds from ambition, and ambition, rightly directed, is the noblest of human passions. This surely was filibustering, but the most needful of filibustering and it is time to define what we mean by the term filibustering
31.
Piracy in the Sulu Sea
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Piracy in the Sulu Sea occurred in the vicinity of Mindanao, where frequent acts of piracy were committed against the Spanish. Because of the wars between Spain and the Moro people, the areas in and around the Sulu Sea became a haven for piracy which was not suppressed until the beginning of the 20th century. The pirates should not be confused with the forces or privateers of the various Moro tribes. However, many of the pirates operated under government sanction during time of war, the pirate ships used by the Moros were known as proa, or garays, and they varied in design. The majority were wooden sailing galleys about ninety feet long with a beam of ten feet 27.4 by 6.1 m and they carried around fifty to 100 crewmen. Slave trading and raiding was also common, the pirates would assemble large fleets of proas. Hundreds of Christians were captured and imprisoned over the centuries, many were used as galley slaves aboard the pirate ships. Other than muskets and rifles, the Moro pirates, as well as the navy sailors, the wooden or ivory handle was often heavily ornamented with silver or gold. The type of wound inflicted by its blade makes it difficult to heal, the kris was used often used in boarding a vessel. Moros also used a Kampilan, another sword, a knife, or barong and a spear, made of bamboo and an iron spearhead. The Moros swivel guns were not like more modern guns used by the powers but were of a much older technology, making them largely inaccurate. Lantakas dated back to the 16th century and were up to six long, requiring several men to lift one. They fired up to a cannonball or grape shot. A lantaka was bored by hand and were sunk into a pit, the barrel was then bored by a company of men walking around in a circle to turn drill bits by hand. The Spanish engaged the Moro pirates frequently in the 1840s, the expedition to Balanguingui in 1848 was commanded by Brigadier José Ruiz with a fleet of nineteen small warships and hundreds of Spanish Army troops. They were opposed by at least 1,000 Moros holed up in four forts with 124 cannons, there were also dozens of proas at Balanguingui but the pirates abandoned their ships for the better defended fortifications. The Spanish stormed three of the positions by force and captured the one after the pirates had retreated. Over 500 prisoners were freed in the operation and over 500 Moros were killed or wounded, the Spanish lost twenty-two men killed and around 210 wounded
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Narentines
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The Narentines was a South Slavic tribe that occupied an area of southern Dalmatia centered at the river Neretva, active in the 9th and 10th centuries, noted as pirates on the Adriatic. Named Narentani in Venetian sources, Greek sources call them Paganoi, pagans, as they were for long pagan, Venetian–Narentine peace treaties did not last long, as the Narentines quickly returned to piracy. They were finally defeated in a Venetian crackdown at the turn of the 10th century, the word Narentine is a demonym derived from the local Neretva river. They are described as Serbs, descended from the unbaptized Serbs, the Pagani are so called because they did not accept baptism at the time when all the Serbs were baptized. Venetian sources used the geographical term Narentani and Slavic ethnonym to refer to the people, in Serbo-Croatian, the tribal name is rendered as Neretljani and Pagani, while the polity mostly as Paganija. In DAIs chapters Story of the province of Dalmatia and Of the Pagani, also called Arentani, and of the country they now dwell in, Pagania had the counties of Rhastotza, Mokros and Dalen. Rhastotza and Mokros lay by the coast, and had galleys, Pagania had the inhabited cities of Mokron, Beroullia, Ostrok and Slavinetza, and the large islands of Kourkra/Kiker with a city, Meleta/Malozeatai, Phara and Bratzis. The Pagani raised flocks on the islands, islands in the vicinity but not part of Pagania were Chora, Iës and Lastobon. Croatia was situated to the west, and Zachumlia to the east, Serbia was situated inland to the north, behind Pagania, Zachumlia, Travunia and Dioklea, the Sclaveni overwhelmed the Balkans in the 6th century. In 639 AD, Narona, until then a flourishing Roman city, was destroyed by a horde of Avars, a few years later, Slavic tribes took control of the lower Neretva. The Slavs built a new town on the ruins of Narona, according to Evans, Narentia became a stronghold for pagans in the Balkans, similarly to Balto-Slavs in Rügen. In 642, Slavs invaded southern Italy and attacked Siponto, by ship from the Dalmatian coast, Slavic naval raids on the Adriatic increased and it became unsafe for travel. The first conflicts between the Venetians and Narentines came immediately before 830, around which time the first peace agreement was signed between the two, Narentine Slavs sent envoys to Doge Giovanni I Participazio. P. Skok believes this period also being the first contact between Venice and the middle Dalmatian islands, according to Šafárik, by the beginning of the 9th century their power had increased so much that Doge Giovanni I attacked them and then offered them peace. The Republic of Venice was de facto subordinate the Byzantine Empire, in the first half of the 9th century Byzantium was struck by internal unrest, while the Bulgars and Arabs strengthened themselves thanks to this. Arabs took Crete in 825, Palermo in 831, Taranto in 839, then destroying the Venetian navy by 840. In 841 Arabic ships attacked Adriatic cities and reached a confluence of the Padua river, while smaller contingents attacked Budva, Roza, in 842 the Arabs conquered Bari, and in 846 reached Rome itself. The Venetian navy, obliged to defend the Byzantine Adriatic, were occupied almost fully with battles with the Arabs, the Byzantine navy rarely appeared, and with small numbers of ships
33.
Privateer
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A privateer was a private person or ship that engaged in maritime warfare under a commission of war. Captured ships were subject to condemnation and sale under prize law, a percentage share usually went to the issuer of the commission. Since robbery under arms was common to trade, all merchant ships were already armed. During war, naval resources were auxiliary to operations on land so privateering was a way of subsidizing state power by mobilizing armed ships, the letter of marque of a privateer would typically limit activity to one particular ship, and specified officers. Typically, the owners or captain would be required to post a performance bond, in the United Kingdom, letters of marque were revoked for various offences. Some crews were treated as harshly as naval crews of the time, some crews were made up of professional merchant seamen, others of pirates, debtors, and convicts. Some privateers ended up becoming pirates, not just in the eyes of their enemies, william Kidd, for instance, began as a legitimate British privateer but was later hanged for piracy. The investors would arm the vessels and recruit large crews, much larger than a merchantman or a vessel would carry. Privateers generally cruised independently, but it was not unknown for them to form squadrons, a number of privateers were part of the English fleet that opposed the Spanish Armada in 1588. Privateers generally avoided encounters with warships, as such encounters would be at best unprofitable, for instance, in 1815 Chasseur encountered HMS St Lawrence, herself a former American privateer, mistaking her for a merchantman until too late, in this instance, however, the privateer prevailed. The United States used mixed squadrons of frigates and privateers in the American Revolutionary War, the practice dated to at least the 13th century but the word itself was coined sometime in the mid-17th century. England, and later the United Kingdom, used privateers to great effect and these privately owned merchant ships, licensed by the crown, could legitimately take vessels that were deemed pirates. The increase in competition for crews on armed merchant vessels and privateers was due, in a large part, because of the chance for a considerable payoff. Whereas a seaman who shipped on a vessel was paid a wage and provided with victuals. This proved to be a far more attractive prospect and privateering flourished as a result, during Queen Elizabeths reign, she encouraged the development of this supplementary navy. Over the course of her rule, she had allowed Anglo-Spanish relations to deteriorate to the point where one could argue that a war with the Spanish was inevitable. By using privateers, if the Spanish were to take offense at the plundering of their ships, some of the most famous privateers that later fought in the Anglo-Spanish War included the Sea Dogs. In the late 16th century, English ships cruised in the Caribbean and off the coast of Spain, at this early stage the idea of a regular navy was not present, so there is little to distinguish the activity of English privateers from regular naval warfare
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Confederate privateer
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The Confederate privateers were privately owned ships that were authorized by the government of the Confederate States of America to attack the shipping of the United States. Privateering was the practice of fitting ordinary private merchant vessels with modest armament, the captured vessels and cargo fell under customary prize rules at sea. Prizes would be taken to the jurisdiction of a competent court, if the court found that the capture was legal, the ship and cargo would be forfeited and sold at a prize auction. The proceeds would be distributed among owners and crew according to a contractual arrangement, Privateers were also authorized to attack an enemys navy warships and then apply to the sponsoring government for direct monetary reward, usually gold or gold specie. In the early days of the war, enthusiasm for the Southern cause was high, not all of those who gained authorization actually went to sea, but the numbers of privateers were high enough to be a major concern for US Secretary of the Navy Gideon Welles. Many ships of the Union Navy were diverted from blockade duty in efforts to capture privateers, most of the privateers managed to remain free, but enough were caught that the owners and crew had to consider the risk seriously. The capture of the privateers Savannah and Jefferson Davis resulted in important court cases that did much to define the nature of the Civil War itself, initial enthusiasm could not be sustained. Privateers found it difficult to deliver their captures to Confederate courts, by the end of the first year of the war, the risks far exceeded the benefits in the minds of most owners and crews. The Civil War was the last time a belligerent power seriously resorted to privateering, the practice had already been outlawed among European countries by the Declaration of Paris. Following the Civil War, the United States agreed to abide by the Declaration of Paris, following the 12 April 1861 bombardment of Fort Sumter in Charleston Harbor, President Abraham Lincoln called for raising 75,000 volunteers from state militia to put down the rebellion. In response, on the 17th of April, Confederate President Jefferson Davis called both for raising troops and for the issuance of letters of marque, with no navy yet established, they turned to the alternative of privateering. The word privateer applies to any citizen in the world who raises a ship. Although specifically allowing attacks upon enemy warships, privateers are typically amateurs employed against commercial shipping because armed navy ships are likely to fight back effectively. Privateering is authorized by the issuance of letters of marque and reprisal by a sponsoring government and it was explicitly allowed by the Confederate Constitution the words of which were copied almost directly from the American Constitution. With a mission to prey upon commercial vessels of the enemy, their pay would consist of the value of seized ships and cargoes, also known as prizes, when the war began, legitimate privateers could legally clear prizes in neutral ports, which were literally worldwide. Prior to the hostilities between the North and South, the majority of European maritime powers had declared the practice of privateering to be illegal by the Declaration of Paris. According to the treaty, privateers of signatory nations were strictly illegal and if caught they could be seized by the ships of any signatory nation. However, they were not exactly the same as pirates, Privateers enjoyed limited legal status if they did not murder and if they behaved generally according to the laws of their sponsoring non-signatory government
35.
River pirate
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A river pirate is a type of pirate who operates along a river. The term river piracy has been used to describe many different kinds of groups who carry out riverine attacks in Asia, Africa, Europe, North America. In Asia, river piracy is a threat even today. The Yangtze Patrol, from 1854-1949, was a naval operation, protecting American treaty ports and U. S. citizens along the Yangtze River from river pirates. During the 1860s and 1870s, American merchant ships were prominent on the lower Yangtze, in 1874, the U. S. gunboat USS Ashuelot reached as far as Ichang, at the foot of the Yangtze gorges,975 miles from the sea. The added mission of anti-piracy patrols required U. S. naval, currently, in a region known as the Golden Triangle, river piracy, combined with illegal trafficking of heroin, poses a major international law enforcement problem. One of the worst criminal cases dealing with Asian river pirates occurred on October 5,2011, a Chinese cargo ship hauling nine hundred thousand amphetamine pills, worth more than three million dollars, was attacked and hijacked, and thirteen crewmen were killed. The hijackers were caught and executed by the Chinese government in 2012, in the Balkans region, of Bosnia and Herzegovina and Croatia, the medieval Narentines, of the ninth and tenth centuries, were known for their piracy on the river Neretva. The Ushkuiniks were medieval Russian Novgorodian river pirates from the tenth to fourteenth centuries, a Slavic version of the Vikings, through fighting, killing, and robbery. In the sixteenth-century reign of Tsar Ivan the Terrible, the explorer and soldier Yermak Timofeyevich, was a Russian Cossack river pirate along the Volga or possibly Don River. Yermak was later pardoned for his crimes and became the Conqueror of Siberia, today, modern piracy exists on the Danube River in Serbia and Romania. River piracy in late eighteenth and mid-nineteenth century America was primarily concentrated along the Ohio River, River pirates usually operated in isolated frontier settlements, which were sparsely populated areas lacking the protection of civil authority and institutions. River travelers were robbed, captured, and murdered, and their livestock, slaves, cargo, and flatboats, keelboats, and rafts were sunk or sold down river. In 1803, at Tower Rock, the U. S. Army dragoons, possibly from the army post up river at Fort Kaskaskia, opposite St. Louis, raided. Starting in the late 1790s, Stack Island became associated with river pirates and they attacked at night, a battle ensued, and two of the boatmen and several outlaws were killed. The attackers captured nineteen other men, a boy and two women. The women and teenager were allowed to leave, the remaining outlaws are presumed to have been executed. From 1790-1834, Cave-In-Rock was the principal outlaw lair and headquarters of pirate activity in the Ohio River region
36.
Geuzen
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Geuzen was a name assumed by the confederacy of Calvinist Dutch nobles, who from 1566 opposed Spanish rule in the Netherlands. The most successful group of them operated at sea, and so were called Watergeuzen and they can be considered either as privateers or pirates, depending on the circumstances or motivations. On 5 April 1566, permission was obtained for the confederates to present a petition of grievances, called the Request, to the regent, Margaret, about 250 nobles marched to the palace accompanied by Louis of Nassau and Brederode. The regent was at first alarmed at the appearance of so large a body, but one of her councillors, Berlaymont, allegedly remarked Nayez pas peur Madame, ce ne sont que des gueux. At a great feast held by some 300 confederates at the Hotel Culemburg three days later, Brederode in a speech declared that if need be they were all ready to become beggars in their countrys cause, the name became henceforward a party title. The original league of Beggars was short-lived, crushed by Alva, in the Dutch language the word geuzennaam is used for linguistic reappropriation, a pejorative term used with pride by the people called that way. Eighteen ships received letters of marque, which were equipped by Louis of Nassau in the French Huguenot port of La Rochelle, by the end of 1569, already 84 Sea Beggars ships were in action. The sea beggars were powerful military units that made capturing coastal cities easy, at first they were content merely to plunder both by sea and land, carrying their booty to the English ports where they were able to refit and replenish their stores. However, in 1572, Queen Elizabeth I of England abruptly refused to admit the Sea Beggars to her harbours, encouraged by this success, they now sailed to Vlissingen, which was also taken by a coup de main. In 1573 the Sea Beggars defeated a Spanish squadron under the command of Admiral Bossu off the port of Hoorn in the Battle on the Zuiderzee, mixing with the native population, they quickly sparked rebellions against Duke of Alba in town after town and spread the resistance southward. Some of the forefathers of the Dutch naval heroes began their careers as Sea Beggars, such as Evert Heindricxzen. William I of Orange sought Ottoman assistance against the Spanish king Philip II, the Geuzen were expressing their anti-Spanish and anti-Catholic sentiments. They considered the Turks to be less threatening than the Spaniards, during the years between 1579 and 1582, representatives from Grand Vizier Sokollu Mehmed Paşa travelled several times from Istanbul to Antwerp. There were, in fact, objective grounds for such an alliance, at the same time that the Dutch rebels were conducting their raids on Spanish shipping, the Ottoman Empire was involved in its own naval war with Spain, culminating in the 1571 Battle of Lepanto. The slogan Liever Turks dan Paaps seems to have been largely rhetorical, the Dutch hardly contemplated life under the Sultan. Moreover, there was no contact between the Geuzen and the Turkish authorities. The Turks were considered infidels, and the heresy of Islam alone disqualified them from assuming a more central role in the rebels propaganda, in English they appear in Cecelia Hollands novel The Sea Beggars. Dutch Revolt Sea Dogs Kervyn de Lettenhove, Les Huguenots et les Gueux, Renon de France, des Pays-Bas, Jurien de la Gravìere, Les gueux de mer in Revue des Deux Mondes
37.
Sea Dogs
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The Sea Dogs were a group of sea-raiders authorized by Queen Elizabeth I of England. The Sea Dogs also engaged in trade and were also known as Elizabethan Pirates. The Sea Dogs were essentially a branch that were authorized by the Queen to attack the Spanish fleet and loot their ships in order to bring back riches. The Sea Dogs were able to do this because they carried Letters of Marque which made their plundering of Spanish ships legal despite the countries not officially being at war with one another. The Sea Dogs were initially started in 1560 as a way to bridge the gap, the Sea Dogs continued carrying out raids against the Spanish until 1604 when England and Spain made peace. After that, many of the Sea Dogs continued as pirates employed by the Barbary States, Sir Francis Drake, El Draque, was one of the most profitable and successful sea dogs of all time. The captain of the Golden Hind, he served in the British Navy from 1563–1596, Drake was trained early on in the maritime arts by Sir John Hawkins, one of his relatives and fellow slave traders. Drake also was the man in history to circumnavigate the globe. Drake also had a range of coverage, raiding up the Spanish on the Pacific Coast all the way up to modern day San Francisco. Not only did he commandeer ships but he also would sail into ports in the Caribbean, after doing this he would begin burning the city down until he received payment. Drake was awarded a knighthood in the year of 1581 and he later died of dysentery after an unsuccessful attempt to take San Juan, Puerto Rico. The infamous Sir John Hawkins was born into a family with a history of going to sea. His father was a very wealthy captain, as he was growing up Hawkins would sail with his father on their trading trips. Hawkins then grew up to become “England’s first slave trader”, however, even though he was called this, Hawkins was not the first person to bring back slaves to England. Hawkins was the captain of the trading vessel Jesus of Lübeck and his first voyage took place in 1562 when he aggressively took 400 Africans from Guinea with a fleet of three ships and later sold them in the West Indies. Hawkins was only in the trade for about five years. He would then take the slaves and sail across the Atlantic in order to sell his slaves to the Spanish, Hawkins made so much money from this business that Queen Elizabeth I gave him a special Coat of arms which prominently featured a bound slave. Sir Walter Raleigh was another important Sea Dog, a favorite of the queen, he received a title that allowed him to claim any land he discovered in the name of England
