1.
Zirconium dioxide
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Zirconium dioxide, sometimes known as zirconia, is a white crystalline oxide of zirconium. Its most naturally occurring form, with a crystalline structure, is the mineral baddeleyite. A dopant stabilized cubic structured zirconia, cubic zirconia, is synthesized in various colours for use as a gemstone, Zirconia is produced by calcining zirconium compounds, exploiting its high thermal stability. Three phases are known, monoclinic <1,170 °C, tetragonal 1, 170–2,370 °C, the trend is for higher symmetry at higher temperatures, as is usually the case. A few percentage of the oxides of calcium or yttrium stabilize the cubic phase, the very rare mineral tazheranite O2 is cubic. Unlike TiO2, which features six-coordinate Ti in all phases, monoclinic zirconia consists of seven-coordinate zirconium centres and this difference is attributed to the larger size of Zr atom relative to the Ti atom. It is slowly attacked by concentrated hydrofluoric acid and sulfuric acid, when heated with carbon, it converts to zirconium carbide. When heated with carbon in the presence of chlorine, it converts to zirconium tetrachloride and this conversion is the basis for the purification of zirconium metal and is analogous to the Kroll process. Zirconium dioxide is one of the most studied ceramic materials, ZrO2 adopts a monoclinic crystal structure at room temperature and transitions to tetragonal and cubic at higher temperatures. The change of volume caused by the structure transitions from to tetragonal to monoclinic to cubic induces large stresses, when the zirconia is blended with some other oxides, the tetragonal and/or cubic phases are stabilized. Effective dopants include magnesium oxide, yttrium oxide, calcium oxide, Zirconia is often more useful in its phase stabilized state. Upon heating, zirconia undergoes disruptive phase changes, by adding small percentages of yttria, these phase changes are eliminated, and the resulting material has superior thermal, mechanical, and electrical properties. In some cases, the phase can be metastable. This phase transformation can then put the crack into compression, retarding its growth and this mechanism is known as transformation toughening, and significantly extends the reliability and lifetime of products made with stabilized zirconia. The ZrO2 band gap is dependent on the phase and preparation methods, a special case of zirconia is that of tetragonal zirconia polycrystal, or TZP, which is indicative of polycrystalline zirconia composed of only the metastable tetragonal phase. Stabilized zirconia is used in sensors and fuel cell membranes because it has the ability to allow oxygen ions to move freely through the crystal structure at high temperatures. This high ionic conductivity makes it one of the most useful electroceramics, zirconium dioxide is also used as the solid electrolyte in electrochromic devices. Zirconia is a precursor to the electroceramic lead zirconate titanate, which is a high-K dielectric, which is found in myriad components
2.
Cubic zirconia
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Cubic zirconia is the cubic crystalline form of zirconium dioxide. The synthesized material is hard, optically flawless and usually colorless and it should not be confused with zircon, which is a zirconium silicate. It is sometimes erroneously called cubic zirconium and its main competitor as a synthetic gemstone is a more recently cultivated material, synthetic moissanite. Cubic zirconia is crystallographically isometric, an important attribute of a diamond simulant. During synthesis zirconium oxide would naturally form monoclinic crystals, its stable form under normal atmospheric conditions, therefore, the physical and optical properties of synthesized CZ vary, all values being ranges. It is a substance, with a specific gravity between 5.6 and 6.0 — at least 1.6 times that of diamond. Cubic zirconia is relatively hard, 8–8.5 on the Mohs scale— slightly harder than most semi-precious natural gems and its refractive index is high at 2. 15–2.18 and its luster is adamantine. Its dispersion is very high at 0. 058–0.066, Cubic zirconia has no cleavage and exhibits a conchoidal fracture. Because of its hardness, it is generally considered brittle. Under shortwave UV cubic zirconia typically fluoresces a yellow, greenish yellow or beige, under longwave UV the effect is greatly diminished, with a whitish glow sometimes being seen. Colored stones may show a strong, complex rare earth absorption spectrum, discovered in 1892, the yellowish monoclinic mineral baddeleyite is a natural form of zirconium oxide. The high melting point of zirconia hinders controlled growth of single crystals, however, stabilization of cubic zirconium oxide had been realized early on, with the synthetic product stabilized zirconia introduced in 1929. Although cubic, it was in the form of a ceramic, it was used as a refractory material. In 1937, German mineralogists M. V. Stackelberg and K. Chudoba discovered naturally occurring cubic zirconia in the form of microscopic grains included in metamict zircon. This was thought to be a byproduct of the metamictization process, the discovery was confirmed through X-ray diffraction, proving the existence of a natural counterpart to the synthetic product. Its production eventually exceeded that of earlier synthetics, such as strontium titanate, synthetic rutile, YAG. Some of the earliest research into controlled single-crystal growth of cubic zirconia occurred in 1960s France, though promising, these attempts yielded only small crystals. Later, Soviet scientists under V. V. Osiko at the Lebedev Physical Institute in Moscow perfected the technique and they named the jewel Fianit after the institutes name FIAN, but the name was not used outside of the USSR
3.
Zirconium
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Zirconium is a chemical element with symbol Zr and atomic number 40. The name of zirconium is taken from the name of the mineral zircon, the word zircon comes from the Persian word zargun زرگون, meaning gold-colored. It is a lustrous, grey-white, strong metal that resembles hafnium and, to a lesser extent. Zirconium is mainly used as a refractory and opacifier, although small amounts are used as an agent for its strong resistance to corrosion. Zirconium forms a variety of inorganic and organometallic compounds such as zirconium dioxide and zirconocene dichloride, five isotopes occur naturally, three of which are stable. Zirconium compounds have no biological role. Zirconium is a lustrous, greyish-white, soft, ductile and malleable metal that is solid at room temperature, though it is hard, in powder form, zirconium is highly flammable, but the solid form is much less prone to ignition. Zirconium is highly resistant to corrosion by alkalis, acids, salt water and other agents, however, it will dissolve in hydrochloric and sulfuric acid, especially when fluorine is present. Alloys with zinc are magnetic at less than 35 K, the melting point of zirconium is 1855 °C, and the boiling point is 4371 °C. Zirconium has an electronegativity of 1.33 on the Pauling scale, of the elements within the d-block, zirconium has the fourth lowest electronegativity after yttrium, lanthanum, and hafnium. At room temperature zirconium exhibits a hexagonally close-packed crystal structure, α-Zr, which changes to β-Zr, Zirconium exists in the β-phase until the melting point. Naturally occurring zirconium is composed of five isotopes, 90Zr, 91Zr, 92Zr and 94Zr are stable, although 94Zr is predicted to undergo double beta decay with a half-life of more than 1. 10×1017 years. 96Zr has a half-life of 2. 4×1019 years, and is the radioisotope of zirconium. Of these natural isotopes, 90Zr is the most common, making up 51. 45% of all zirconium, 96Zr is the least common, comprising only 2. 80% of zirconium. Twenty-eight artificial isotopes of zirconium have been synthesized, ranging in mass from 78 to 110. 93Zr is the longest-lived artificial isotope, with a half-life of 1. 53×106 years, 110Zr, the heaviest isotope of zirconium, is the most radioactive, with an estimated half-life of 30 milliseconds. Radioactive isotopes at or above mass number 93 decay by electron emission, the only exception is 88Zr, which decays by electron capture. Five isotopes of zirconium also exist as isomers, 83mZr, 85mZr, 89mZr, 90m1Zr, 90m2Zr and 91mZr
4.
Gilgit District
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Gilgit District is one of the districts of the Gilgit–Baltistan territory in northern Pakistan. It was formed in 1970 when Gilgit–Baltistan was federally administered as the Northern Areas and it is bounded by the Wakhan Corridor to the north, Xinjiang to the northeast and east, Skardu, Astore and Diamer to the south, and Ghizer District to the west. The town of Gilgit is the capital of Gilgit District, according to the 1998 census Gilgit District had a population of 243,324. The district includes Gilgit town, Bagrot Valley, Juglot, Danyore, Naltar, the highest peak in the district is Distaghil Sar 7,885 metres, which is the seventh-highest peak in Pakistan and 19th-highest on Earth. The Government of Pakistan has recently changed the status of the Northern Areas through an order and has renamed it as the de facto province of Gilgit–Baltistan. The ceremonial head is the Governor Peer Karam Ali Shah, who is the head of provincial government, assisted by an executive Chief Minister Syed Mehdi Shah. Administered by a political and local government system. The local government system is based on a Legislative Council, elected by people in all six districts through voting, technocrats and women members are later elected/selected through a proper system. Chief Secretary is administrative head of all departments, controlling all the affairs on behalf of chief minister Government of Pakistan, inspector General of Police, currently Mr Zafar Iqbal Awan, heads the police department, with deputy superintendents in all six districts. The main judicial structure in Gilgit–Baltistan comprises a High Court, composed of three selected by the government, supported by the Supreme Appellate Court. According to the Alif Ailaan Pakistan District Education Rankings 2015, Gilgit is ranked 35 out of 148 districts in terms of education, for facilities and infrastructure, the district is ranked 67 out of 148. Only a part of the basin of the Gilgit River, i. e. Gilgit Valley, is included within the boundaries of Gilgit District. Towering above Gilgit is Mount Rakaposhi at 7,788 metres, Indus River - enters Gilgit District from Skardu District about six kilometers north of Jaglot where Gilgit River falls into Indus River and the Indus flows south along the Karakoram Highway. Astor River There are many tributaries of the main rivers, some of which are Ghujerab River, Shimshal River, Hispar River, Naltar River. Khunjerab Pass, Mintika Pass, Kilik Pass, Chillingi Pass, Shimshal Pass, Ghujerab Pass, Chapchingal Pass, Chaprot Pass, Naltar Pass, Naltar Lake Borit Lake Rush Lake Pahote Lake Nomal, Gilgit Baltistan Districts of Gilgit–Baltistan
5.
Silicate minerals
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Silicate minerals are rock-forming minerals made up of silicate groups. They are the largest and most important class of rock-forming minerals and they are classified based on the structure of their silicate groups, which contain different ratios of silicon and oxygen. Nesosilicates, or orthosilicates, have the orthosilicate ion, which constitute isolated 4− tetrahedra that are connected only by interstitial cations and these exist as 3-member 6− and 6-member 12− rings, where T stands for a tetrahedrally coordinated cation. Inosilicates, or chain silicates, have interlocking chains of silicate tetrahedra with either SiO3,1,3 ratio, for single chains or Si4O11,4,11 ratio, for double chains. Nickel–Strunz classification,09. D Pyroxene group Enstatite – orthoferrosilite series Enstatite – MgSiO3 Ferrosilite – FeSiO3 Pigeonite – Ca0.251, all phyllosilicate minerals are hydrated, with either water or hydroxyl groups attached. Serpentine subgroup Antigorite – Mg3Si2O54 Chrysotile – Mg3Si2O54 Lizardite – Mg3Si2O54 Clay minerals group Halloysite – Al2Si2O54 Kaolinite – Al2Si2O54 Illite – 24O10 Montmorillonite –0 and this group comprises nearly 75% of the crust of the Earth. Tectosilicates, with the exception of the group, are aluminosilicates. Nickel–Strunz classification,09. F and 09. G,04. A, an introduction to the rock-forming minerals. Wise, W. S. Zussman, J. Rock-forming minerals, P.982 pp. Hurlbut, Cornelius S. Danas Manual of Mineralogy. Mindat. org, Dana classification Webmineral, Danas New Silicate Classification Media related to Silicates at Wikimedia Commons
6.
Chemical formula
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These are limited to a single typographic line of symbols, which may include subscripts and superscripts. A chemical formula is not a name, and it contains no words. Although a chemical formula may imply certain simple chemical structures, it is not the same as a full chemical structural formula. Chemical formulas can fully specify the structure of only the simplest of molecules and chemical substances, the simplest types of chemical formulas are called empirical formulas, which use letters and numbers indicating the numerical proportions of atoms of each type. Molecular formulas indicate the numbers of each type of atom in a molecule. For example, the formula for glucose is CH2O, while its molecular formula is C6H12O6. This is possible if the relevant bonding is easy to show in one dimension, an example is the condensed molecular/chemical formula for ethanol, which is CH3-CH2-OH or CH3CH2OH. For reasons of structural complexity, there is no condensed chemical formula that specifies glucose, chemical formulas may be used in chemical equations to describe chemical reactions and other chemical transformations, such as the dissolving of ionic compounds into solution. A chemical formula identifies each constituent element by its chemical symbol, in empirical formulas, these proportions begin with a key element and then assign numbers of atoms of the other elements in the compound, as ratios to the key element. For molecular compounds, these numbers can all be expressed as whole numbers. For example, the formula of ethanol may be written C2H6O because the molecules of ethanol all contain two carbon atoms, six hydrogen atoms, and one oxygen atom. Some types of compounds, however, cannot be written with entirely whole-number empirical formulas. An example is boron carbide, whose formula of CBn is a variable non-whole number ratio with n ranging from over 4 to more than 6.5. When the chemical compound of the consists of simple molecules. These types of formulas are known as molecular formulas and condensed formulas. A molecular formula enumerates the number of atoms to reflect those in the molecule, so that the formula for glucose is C6H12O6 rather than the glucose empirical formula. However, except for very simple substances, molecular chemical formulas lack needed structural information, for simple molecules, a condensed formula is a type of chemical formula that may fully imply a correct structural formula. For example, ethanol may be represented by the chemical formula CH3CH2OH
7.
Crystal system
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In crystallography, the terms crystal system, crystal family and lattice system each refer to one of several classes of space groups, lattices, point groups or crystals. Informally, two crystals are in the crystal system if they have similar symmetries, though there are many exceptions to this. Space groups and crystals are divided into seven crystal systems according to their point groups, five of the crystal systems are essentially the same as five of the lattice systems, but the hexagonal and trigonal crystal systems differ from the hexagonal and rhombohedral lattice systems. The six crystal families are formed by combining the hexagonal and trigonal crystal systems into one hexagonal family, a lattice system is a class of lattices with the same set of lattice point groups, which are subgroups of the arithmetic crystal classes. The 14 Bravais lattices are grouped into seven lattice systems, triclinic, monoclinic, orthorhombic, tetragonal, rhombohedral, hexagonal, in a crystal system, a set of point groups and their corresponding space groups are assigned to a lattice system. Of the 32 point groups that exist in three dimensions, most are assigned to only one system, in which case both the crystal and lattice systems have the same name. However, five point groups are assigned to two systems, rhombohedral and hexagonal, because both exhibit threefold rotational symmetry. These point groups are assigned to the crystal system. In total there are seven crystal systems, triclinic, monoclinic, orthorhombic, tetragonal, trigonal, hexagonal, a crystal family is determined by lattices and point groups. It is formed by combining crystal systems which have space groups assigned to a lattice system. In three dimensions, the families and systems are identical, except the hexagonal and trigonal crystal systems. In total there are six families, triclinic, monoclinic, orthorhombic, tetragonal, hexagonal. Spaces with less than three dimensions have the number of crystal systems, crystal families and lattice systems. In one-dimensional space, there is one crystal system, in 2D space, there are four crystal systems, oblique, rectangular, square and hexagonal. The relation between three-dimensional crystal families, crystal systems and lattice systems is shown in the table, Note. To avoid confusion of terminology, the term trigonal lattice is not used, if the original structure and inverted structure are identical, then the structure is centrosymmetric. Still, even for non-centrosymmetric case, inverted structure in some cases can be rotated to align with the original structure and this is the case of non-centrosymmetric achiral structure. If the inverted structure cannot be rotated to align with the structure, then the structure is chiral
8.
Tetragonal crystal system
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In crystallography, the tetragonal crystal system is one of the 7 crystal systems. Tetragonal crystal lattices result from stretching a cubic lattice along one of its vectors, so that the cube becomes a rectangular prism with a square base. There is only one tetragonal Bravais lattice in two dimensions, the square lattice, there are two tetragonal Bravais lattices, the simple tetragonal and the centered tetragonal. One might suppose stretching face-centered cubic would result in face-centered tetragonal, BCT is considered more fundamental, so that is the standard terminology. Crystal structure point groups Bravais lattices
9.
Crystallographic point group
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For a periodic crystal, the group must also be consistent with maintenance of the three-dimensional translational symmetry that defines crystallinity. The macroscopic properties of a crystal would look exactly the same before, in the classification of crystals, each point group is also known as a crystal class. There are infinitely many three-dimensional point groups, however, the crystallographic restriction of the infinite families of general point groups results in there being only 32 crystallographic point groups. These 32 point groups are one-and-the same as the 32 types of morphological crystalline symmetries derived in 1830 by Johann Friedrich Christian Hessel from a consideration of observed crystal forms, the point groups are denoted by their component symmetries. There are a few standard notations used by crystallographers, mineralogists, for the correspondence of the two systems below, see crystal system. In Schoenflies notation, point groups are denoted by a symbol with a subscript. The symbols used in crystallography mean the following, Cn indicates that the group has a rotation axis. Cnh is Cn with the addition of a plane perpendicular to the axis of rotation. Cnv is Cn with the addition of n mirror planes parallel to the axis of rotation, s2n denotes a group that contains only a 2n-fold rotation-reflection axis. Dn indicates that the group has a rotation axis plus n twofold axes perpendicular to that axis. Dnh has, in addition, a plane perpendicular to the n-fold axis. Dnd has, in addition to the elements of Dn, mirror planes parallel to the n-fold axis, the letter T indicates that the group has the symmetry of a tetrahedron. Td includes improper rotation operations, T excludes improper rotation operations, the letter O indicates that the group has the symmetry of an octahedron, with or without improper operations. Due to the crystallographic restriction theorem, n =1,2,3,4, d4d and D6d are actually forbidden because they contain improper rotations with n=8 and 12 respectively. The 27 point groups in the table plus T, Td, Th, O, an abbreviated form of the Hermann–Mauguin notation commonly used for space groups also serves to describe crystallographic point groups. Group names are Molecular symmetry Point group Space group Point groups in three dimensions Crystal system Point-group symbols in International Tables for Crystallography,12.1, pp. 818-820 Names and symbols of the 32 crystal classes in International Tables for Crystallography. 10.1, p.794 Pictorial overview of the 32 groups Point Groups - Flow Chart Inorganic Chemistry Group Theory Practice Problems
10.
H-M symbol
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In geometry, Hermann–Mauguin notation is used to represent the symmetry elements in point groups, plane groups and space groups. It is named after the German crystallographer Carl Hermann and the French mineralogist Charles-Victor Mauguin and this notation is sometimes called international notation, because it was adopted as standard by the International Tables For Crystallography since their first edition in 1935. Rotation axes are denoted by a number n —1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8, for improper rotations, Hermann–Mauguin symbols show rotoinversion axes, unlike Schoenflies and Shubnikov notations, where the preference is given to rotation-reflection axes. The rotoinversion axes are represented by the number with a macron. The symbol for a plane is m. The direction of the plane is defined as the direction of perpendicular to the face. Hermann–Mauguin symbols show symmetrically non-equivalent axes and planes, the direction of a symmetry element is represented by its position in the Hermann–Mauguin symbol. If a rotation axis n and a mirror plane m have the same direction, if two or more axes have the same direction, the axis with higher symmetry is shown. Higher symmetry means that the axis generates a pattern with more points, for example, rotation axes 3,4,5,6,7,8 generate 3-, 4-, 5-, 6-, 7-, 8-point patterns, respectively. Improper rotation axes 3,4,5,6,7,8 generate 6-, 4-, 10-, 6-, 14-, 8-point patterns, if both, the rotation and rotoinversion axes satisfy the previous rule, the rotation axis should be chosen. For example, 3/m combination is equivalent to 6, since 6 generates 6 points, and 3 generates only 3,6 should be written instead of 3/m. Analogously, in the case when both 3 and 3 axes are present,3 should be written, however we write 4/m, not 4/m, because both 4 and 4 generate four points. Finally, the Hermann–Mauguin symbol depends on the type of the group and these groups may contain only two-fold axes, mirror planes, and inversion center. These are the point groups 1 and 1,2, m, and 2/m, and 222, 2/m2/m2/m. If the symbol contains three positions, then they denote symmetry elements in the x, y, z direction, First position — primary direction — z direction, assigned to the higher-order axis. Second position — symmetrically equivalent secondary directions, which are perpendicular to the z-axis and these can be 2, m, or 2/m. Third position — symmetrically equivalent tertiary directions, passing between secondary directions and these can be 2, m, or 2/m. These are the crystallographic groups 3,32, 3m,3, and 32/m,4,422, 4mm,4, 42m, 4/m, and 4/m2/m2/m, and 6,622, 6mm,6, 6m2, 6/m, and 6/m2/m2/m
11.
Space group
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In mathematics, physics and chemistry, a space group is the symmetry group of a configuration in space, usually in three dimensions. In three dimensions, there are 219 distinct types, or 230 if chiral copies are considered distinct, Space groups are also studied in dimensions other than 3 where they are sometimes called Bieberbach groups, and are discrete cocompact groups of isometries of an oriented Euclidean space. In crystallography, space groups are called the crystallographic or Fedorov groups. A definitive source regarding 3-dimensional space groups is the International Tables for Crystallography, in 1879 Leonhard Sohncke listed the 65 space groups whose elements preserve the orientation. More accurately, he listed 66 groups, but Fedorov and Schönflies both noticed that two of them were really the same, the space groups in 3 dimensions were first enumerated by Fedorov, and shortly afterwards were independently enumerated by Schönflies. The correct list of 230 space groups was found by 1892 during correspondence between Fedorov and Schönflies, burckhardt describes the history of the discovery of the space groups in detail. The space groups in three dimensions are made from combinations of the 32 crystallographic point groups with the 14 Bravais lattices, the combination of all these symmetry operations results in a total of 230 different space groups describing all possible crystal symmetries. The elements of the space group fixing a point of space are rotations, reflections, the identity element, the translations form a normal abelian subgroup of rank 3, called the Bravais lattice. There are 14 possible types of Bravais lattice, the quotient of the space group by the Bravais lattice is a finite group which is one of the 32 possible point groups. Translation is defined as the moves from one point to another point. A glide plane is a reflection in a plane, followed by a parallel with that plane. This is noted by a, b or c, depending on which axis the glide is along. There is also the n glide, which is a glide along the half of a diagonal of a face, and the d glide, the latter is called the diamond glide plane as it features in the diamond structure. In 17 space groups, due to the centering of the cell, the glides occur in two directions simultaneously, i. e. the same glide plane can be called b or c, a or b. For example, group Abm2 could be also called Acm2, group Ccca could be called Cccb, in 1992, it was suggested to use symbol e for such planes. The symbols for five groups have been modified, A screw axis is a rotation about an axis. These are noted by a number, n, to describe the degree of rotation, the degree of translation is then added as a subscript showing how far along the axis the translation is, as a portion of the parallel lattice vector. So,21 is a rotation followed by a translation of 1/2 of the lattice vector
12.
Crystal structure
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In crystallography, crystal structure is a description of the ordered arrangement of atoms, ions or molecules in a crystalline material. Ordered structures occur from the nature of the constituent particles to form symmetric patterns that repeat along the principal directions of three-dimensional space in matter. The smallest group of particles in the material that constitutes the pattern is the unit cell of the structure. The unit cell completely defines the symmetry and structure of the crystal lattice. The repeating patterns are said to be located at the points of the Bravais lattice, the lengths of the principal axes, or edges, of the unit cell and the angles between them are the lattice constants, also called lattice parameters. The symmetry properties of the crystal are described by the concept of space groups, all possible symmetric arrangements of particles in three-dimensional space may be described by the 230 space groups. The crystal structure and symmetry play a role in determining many physical properties, such as cleavage, electronic band structure. The crystal structure of a material can be described in terms of its unit cell, the unit cell is a box containing one or more atoms arranged in three dimensions. The unit cells stacked in three-dimensional space describe the arrangement of atoms of the crystal. Commonly, atomic positions are represented in terms of fractional coordinates, the atom positions within the unit cell can be calculated through application of symmetry operations to the asymmetric unit. The asymmetric unit refers to the smallest possible occupation of space within the unit cell and this does not, however imply that the entirety of the asymmetric unit must lie within the boundaries of the unit cell. Symmetric transformations of atom positions are calculated from the group of the crystal structure. Vectors and planes in a lattice are described by the three-value Miller index notation. It uses the indices ℓ, m, and n as directional parameters, which are separated by 90°, by definition, the syntax denotes a plane that intercepts the three points a1/ℓ, a2/m, and a3/n, or some multiple thereof. That is, the Miller indices are proportional to the inverses of the intercepts of the plane with the unit cell, if one or more of the indices is zero, it means that the planes do not intersect that axis. A plane containing a coordinate axis is translated so that it no longer contains that axis before its Miller indices are determined, the Miller indices for a plane are integers with no common factors. Negative indices are indicated with horizontal bars, as in, in an orthogonal coordinate system for a cubic cell, the Miller indices of a plane are the Cartesian components of a vector normal to the plane. Likewise, the planes are geometric planes linking nodes
13.
Crystal habit
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In mineralogy, crystal habit is the characteristic external shape of an individual crystal or crystal group. A single crystals habit is a description of its shape and its crystallographic forms. Recognizing the habit may help in identifying a mineral, when the faces are well-developed due to uncrowded growth a crystal is called euhedral, one with partially developed faces is subhedral, and one with undeveloped crystal faces is called anhedral. The long axis of a quartz crystal typically has a six-sided prismatic habit with parallel opposite faces. Aggregates can be formed of individual crystals with euhedral to anhedral grains, the arrangement of crystals within the aggregate can be characteristic of certain minerals. For example, minerals used for asbestos insulation often grow in a fibrous habit, the terms used by mineralogists to report crystal habits describe the typical appearance of an ideal mineral. Recognizing the habit can aid in identification as some habits are characteristic, most minerals, however, do not display ideal habits due to conditions during crystallization. Minerals belonging to the crystal system do not necessarily exhibit the same habit. Some habits of a mineral are unique to its variety and locality, For example, while most sapphires form elongate barrel-shaped crystals, ordinarily, the latter habit is seen only in ruby. Sapphire and ruby are both varieties of the mineral, corundum. Some minerals may replace other existing minerals while preserving the originals habit, a classic example is tigers eye quartz, crocidolite asbestos replaced by silica. While quartz typically forms prismatic crystals, in tigers eye the original fibrous habit of crocidolite is preserved, the names of crystal habits are derived from, Predominant crystal faces. Abnormal grain growth Grain growth Crystallization
14.
Crystal twinning
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Crystal twinning occurs when two separate crystals share some of the same crystal lattice points in a symmetrical manner. The result is an intergrowth of two separate crystals in a variety of specific configurations, a twin boundary or composition surface separates the two crystals. Crystallographers classify twinned crystals by a number of twin laws and these twin laws are specific to the crystal system. The type of twinning can be a tool in mineral identification. Twinning can often be a problem in X-ray crystallography, as a crystal does not produce a simple diffraction pattern. Simple twinned crystals may be contact twins or penetration twins, contact twins share a single composition surface often appearing as mirror images across the boundary. Plagioclase, quartz, gypsum, and spinel often exhibit contact twinning, merohedral twinning occurs when the lattices of the contact twins superimpose in three dimensions, such as by relative rotation of one twin from the other. In penetration twins the individual crystals have the appearance of passing through each other in a symmetrical manner, orthoclase, staurolite, pyrite, and fluorite often show penetration twinning. If several twin crystal parts are aligned by the same twin law they are referred to as multiple or repeated twins, if these multiple twins are aligned in parallel they are called polysynthetic twins. When the multiple twins are not parallel they are cyclic twins, albite, calcite, and pyrite often show polysynthetic twinning. Closely spaced polysynthetic twinning is often observed as striations or fine lines on the crystal face. Rutile, aragonite, cerussite, and chrysoberyl often exhibit cyclic twinning, 2-normal twin, -when the twin plane and compositional plane lies noramally. 3-complex twin, -combination of parallel twinning and normal twinning on one compositional plane, there are three modes of formation of twinned crystals. Growth twins are the result of an interruption or change in the lattice during formation or growth due to a possible deformation from a larger substituting ion, deformation or gliding twins are the result of stress on the crystal after the crystal has formed. If a FCC metal like aluminum experiences extreme stresses, it will experience twinning as seen in the case of explosions, deformation twinning is a common result of regional metamorphism. Crystals that grow adjacent to each other may be aligned to resemble twinning and this parallel growth simply reduces system energy and is not twinning. Twin boundaries occur when two crystals of the same type intergrow, so only a slight misorientation exists between them. It is a highly symmetrical interface, often with one crystal the mirror image of the other, also and this is also a much lower-energy interface than the grain boundaries that form when crystals of arbitrary orientation grow together
15.
Cleavage (crystal)
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Cleavage, in mineralogy, is the tendency of crystalline materials to split along definite crystallographic structural planes. Cleavage forms parallel to planes, Basal or pinacoidal cleavage occurs when there is only one cleavage plane. Mica also has basal cleavage, this is why mica can be peeled into thin sheets, cubic cleavage occurs on when there are three cleavage planes intersecting at 90 degrees. Halite has cubic cleavage, and therefore, when halite crystals are broken, octahedral cleavage occurs when there are four cleavage planes in a crystal. Octahedral cleavage is common for semiconductors, rhombohedral cleavage occurs when there are three cleavage planes intersecting at angles that are not 90 degrees. Prismatic cleavage occurs when there are two planes in a crystal. Dodecahedral cleavage occurs when there are six cleavage planes in a crystal, crystal parting occurs when minerals break along planes of structural weakness due to external stress or along twin composition planes. Parting breaks are very similar in appearance to cleavage, but only due to stress. Examples include magnetite which shows octahedral parting, the parting of corundum. Cleavage is a property traditionally used in mineral identification, both in hand specimen and microscopic examination of rock and mineral studies. As an example, the angles between the cleavage planes for the pyroxenes and the amphiboles are diagnostic. Crystal cleavage is of importance in the electronics industry and in the cutting of gemstones. Precious stones are generally cleaved by impact, as in diamond cutting, synthetic single crystals of semiconductor materials are generally sold as thin wafers which are much easier to cleave. Elemental semiconductors are diamond cubic, a group for which octahedral cleavage is observed. This means that some orientations of wafer allow near-perfect rectangles to be cleaved, most other commercial semiconductors can be made in the related zinc blende structure, with similar cleavage planes. Cleavage Mineral galleries, Mineral properties – Cleavage
16.
Fracture (mineralogy)
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In the field of mineralogy, fracture is the texture and shape of a rocks surface formed when a mineral is fractured. Minerals often have a highly distinctive fracture, making it a feature used in their identification. Fracture differs from cleavage in that the latter involves clean splitting along the planes of the minerals crystal structure. All minerals exhibit fracture, but when very strong cleavage is present, conchoidal fracture breakage that resembles the concentric ripples of a mussel shell. It often occurs in amorphous or fine-grained minerals such as flint, opal or obsidian, subconchoidal fracture is similar to conchoidal fracture, but with less significant curvature. Earthy fracture is reminiscent of freshly broken soil and it is frequently seen in relatively soft, loosely bound minerals, such as limonite, kaolinite and aluminite. Hackly fracture is jagged, sharp and not even and it occurs when metals are torn, and so is often encountered in native metals such as copper and silver. Splintery fracture comprises sharp elongated points and it is particularly seen in fibrous minerals such as chrysotile, but may also occur in non-fibrous minerals such as kyanite. Uneven fracture is a surface or one with random irregularities. It occurs in a range of minerals including arsenopyrite, pyrite and magnetite. Rudolf Duda and Lubos Rejl, Minerals of the World http, //www. galleries. com/minerals/property/fracture. htm
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Mohs scale of mineral hardness
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The Mohs scale of mineral hardness is a qualitative ordinal scale characterizing scratch resistance of various minerals through the ability of harder material to scratch softer material. Created in 1812 by German geologist and mineralogist Friedrich Mohs, it is one of several definitions of hardness in materials science, while greatly facilitating the identification of minerals in the field, the Mohs scale does not show how well hard materials perform in an industrial setting. Despite its lack of precision, the Mohs scale is highly relevant for field geologists, the Mohs scale hardness of minerals can be commonly found in reference sheets. Reference materials may be expected to have a uniform Mohs hardness, the Mohs scale of mineral hardness is based on the ability of one natural sample of mineral to scratch another mineral visibly. The samples of matter used by Mohs are all different minerals, Minerals are pure substances found in nature. Rocks are made up of one or more minerals, as the hardest known naturally occurring substance when the scale was designed, diamonds are at the top of the scale. The hardness of a material is measured against the scale by finding the hardest material that the material can scratch. For example, if material is scratched by apatite but not by fluorite. Scratching a material for the purposes of the Mohs scale means creating non-elastic dislocations visible to the naked eye, frequently, materials that are lower on the Mohs scale can create microscopic, non-elastic dislocations on materials that have a higher Mohs number. The Mohs scale is an ordinal scale. For example, corundum is twice as hard as topaz, the table below shows the comparison with the absolute hardness measured by a sclerometer, with pictorial examples. On the Mohs scale, a streak plate has a hardness of 7.0, using these ordinary materials of known hardness can be a simple way to approximate the position of a mineral on the scale. The table below incorporates additional substances that may fall between levels, Comparison between Hardness and Hardness, Mohs hardness of elements is taken from G. V, samsonov in Handbook of the physicochemical properties of the elements, IFI-Plenum, New York, USA,1968. The Hardness of Minerals and Rocks
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Lustre (mineralogy)
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Lustre or luster is the way light interacts with the surface of a crystal, rock, or mineral. The word traces its origins back to the latin lux, meaning light, a range of terms are used to describe lustre, such as earthy, metallic, greasy, and silky. Similarly, the term refers to a glassy lustre. A list of terms is given below. Lustre varies over a continuum, and so there are no rigid boundaries between the different types of lustre. The terms are frequently combined to describe types of lustre. Some minerals exhibit unusual optical phenomena, such as asterism or chatoyancy, a list of such phenomena is given below. Adamantine minerals possess a superlative lustre, which is most notably seen in diamond, such minerals are transparent or translucent, and have a high refractive index. Minerals with an adamantine lustre are uncommon, with examples being cerussite. Minerals with a degree of lustre are referred to as subadamantine, with some examples being garnet. Dull minerals exhibit little to no lustre, due to coarse granulations which scatter light in all directions, a distinction is sometimes drawn between dull minerals and earthy minerals, with the latter being coarser, and having even less lustre. Greasy minerals resemble fat or grease, a greasy lustre often occurs in minerals containing a great abundance of microscopic inclusions, with examples including opal and cordierite. Many minerals with a greasy lustre also feel greasy to the touch, metallic minerals have the lustre of polished metal, and with ideal surfaces will work as a reflective surface. Examples include galena, pyrite and magnetite, pearly minerals consist of thin transparent co-planar sheets. Light reflecting from these layers give them a lustre reminiscent of pearls, such minerals possess perfect cleavage, with examples including muscovite and stilbite. Resinous minerals have the appearance of resin, chewing gum or plastic, a principal example is amber, which is a form of fossilized resin. Silky minerals have an arrangement of extremely fine fibres, giving them a lustre reminiscent of silk. Examples include asbestos, ulexite and the satin spar variety of gypsum, a fibrous lustre is similar, but has a coarser texture
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Streak (mineralogy)
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The streak of a mineral is the color of the powder produced when it is dragged across an un-weathered surface. If no streak seems to be made, the streak is said to be white or colorless. Streak is particularly important as a diagnostic for opaque and colored materials and it is less useful for silicate minerals, most of which have a white streak or are too hard to powder easily. The apparent color of a mineral can vary widely because of impurities or a disturbed macroscopic crystal structure. Small amounts of an impurity that strongly absorbs a particular wavelength can radically change the wavelengths of light that are reflected by the specimen, and thus change the apparent color. However, when the specimen is dragged to produce a streak, it is broken into randomly oriented microscopic crystals, the surface across which the mineral is dragged is called a streak plate, and is generally made of unglazed porcelain tile. In the absence of a plate, the unglazed underside of a porcelain bowl or vase or the back of a glazed tile will work. Sometimes a streak is more easily or accurately described by comparing it with the streak made by another streak plate. Because the trail left behind results from the mineral being crushed into powder, in case of harder minerals, the color of the powder can be determined by filing or crushing with a hammer a small sample, which is then usually rubbed on a streak plate. Most minerals that are harder have a white streak. Some minerals leave a similar to their natural color, such as cinnabar. Other minerals leave surprising colors, such as fluorite, which always has a streak, although it can appear in purple, blue, yellow. Hematite, which is black in appearance, leaves a red streak which accounts for its name, galena, which can be similar in appearance to hematite, is easily distinguished by its gray streak. Hamilton, W. R. Cambridge Guide to Minerals, Rocks, the Encyclopedia of Gemstones and Minerals. New York, Facts on File. p.251, physical Characteristics of Minerals, at Introduction to Mineralogy by Andrea Bangert What is Streak
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Transparency and translucency
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In the field of optics, transparency is the physical property of allowing light to pass through the material without being scattered. On a macroscopic scale, the photons can be said to follow Snells Law, in other words, a translucent medium allows the transport of light while a transparent medium not only allows the transport of light but allows for image formation. The opposite property of translucency is opacity, transparent materials appear clear, with the overall appearance of one color, or any combination leading up to a brilliant spectrum of every color. When light encounters a material, it can interact with it in different ways. These interactions depend on the wavelength of the light and the nature of the material, photons interact with an object by some combination of reflection, absorption and transmission. Some materials, such as glass and clean water, transmit much of the light that falls on them and reflect little of it. Many liquids and aqueous solutions are highly transparent, absence of structural defects and molecular structure of most liquids are mostly responsible for excellent optical transmission. Materials which do not transmit light are called opaque, many such substances have a chemical composition which includes what are referred to as absorption centers. Many substances are selective in their absorption of light frequencies. They absorb certain portions of the spectrum while reflecting others. The frequencies of the spectrum which are not absorbed are either reflected or transmitted for our physical observation and this is what gives rise to color. The attenuation of light of all frequencies and wavelengths is due to the mechanisms of absorption. Transparency can provide almost perfect camouflage for animals able to achieve it and this is easier in dimly-lit or turbid seawater than in good illumination. Many marine animals such as jellyfish are highly transparent, at the atomic or molecular level, physical absorption in the infrared portion of the spectrum depends on the frequencies of atomic or molecular vibrations or chemical bonds, and on selection rules. Nitrogen and oxygen are not greenhouse gases because there is no absorption because there is no molecular dipole moment. With regard to the scattering of light, the most critical factor is the scale of any or all of these structural features relative to the wavelength of the light being scattered. Primary material considerations include, Crystalline structure, whether or not the atoms or molecules exhibit the long-range order evidenced in crystalline solids, glassy structure, scattering centers include fluctuations in density or composition. Microstructure, scattering centers include internal surfaces such as boundaries, crystallographic defects
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Specific gravity
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This page is about the measurement using water as a reference. For a general use of gravity, see relative density. See intensive property for the property implied by specific, Apparent specific gravity is the ratio of the weight of a volume of the substance to the weight of an equal volume of the reference substance. The reference substance is always water at its densest for liquids. Nonetheless, the temperature and pressure must be specified for both the sample and the reference, pressure is nearly always 1 atm. Temperatures for both sample and reference vary from industry to industry, in British beer brewing, the practice for specific gravity as specified above is to multiply it by 1000. Being a ratio of densities, specific gravity is a dimensionless quantity, Specific gravity varies with temperature and pressure, reference and sample must be compared at the same temperature and pressure or be corrected to a standard reference temperature and pressure. Substances with a gravity of 1 are neutrally buoyant in water. Those with SG greater than 1 are denser than water and will, disregarding surface tension effects and those with an SG less than 1 are less dense than water and will float on it. In scientific work, the relationship of mass to volume is expressed directly in terms of the density of the substance under study. It is in industry where specific gravity finds wide application, often for historical reasons. True specific gravity can be expressed mathematically as, S G true = ρ sample ρ H2 O where ρ sample is the density of the sample, the density of water varies with temperature and pressure as does the density of the sample. So it is necessary to specify the temperatures and pressures at which the densities or weights were determined and it is nearly always the case that measurements are made at 1 nominal atmosphere. For true specific gravity calculations, air pressure must be considered, temperatures are specified by the notation with T s representing the temperature at which the samples density was determined and T r the temperature at which the reference density is specified. For example, SG would be understood to mean that the density of the sample was determined at 20°C and of the water at 4°C. Taking into account different sample and reference temperatures, we note that, while S G H2 O =1.000000, it is also the case that S G H2 O =0.998203 /0.999840 =0.998363. Here, temperature is being specified using the current ITS-90 scale, on the previous IPTS-68 scale, the densities at 20 °C and 4 °C are 0.9982071 and 0.9999720 respectively, resulting in an SG value for water of 0.9982343. For example, in the industry, the Plato table lists sucrose concentration by weight against true SG
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Refractive index
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In optics, the refractive index or index of refraction n of a material is a dimensionless number that describes how light propagates through that medium. It is defined as n = c v, where c is the speed of light in vacuum, for example, the refractive index of water is 1.333, meaning that light travels 1.333 times faster in a vacuum than it does in water. The refractive index determines how light is bent, or refracted. The refractive indices also determine the amount of light that is reflected when reaching the interface, as well as the angle for total internal reflection. This implies that vacuum has a index of 1. The refractive index varies with the wavelength of light and this is called dispersion and causes the splitting of white light into its constituent colors in prisms and rainbows, and chromatic aberration in lenses. Light propagation in absorbing materials can be described using a refractive index. The imaginary part then handles the attenuation, while the real part accounts for refraction, the concept of refractive index is widely used within the full electromagnetic spectrum, from X-rays to radio waves. It can also be used with wave phenomena such as sound, in this case the speed of sound is used instead of that of light and a reference medium other than vacuum must be chosen. Thomas Young was presumably the person who first used, and invented, at the same time he changed this value of refractive power into a single number, instead of the traditional ratio of two numbers. The ratio had the disadvantage of different appearances, newton, who called it the proportion of the sines of incidence and refraction, wrote it as a ratio of two numbers, like 529 to 396. Hauksbee, who called it the ratio of refraction, wrote it as a ratio with a fixed numerator, hutton wrote it as a ratio with a fixed denominator, like 1.3358 to 1. Young did not use a symbol for the index of refraction, in the next years, others started using different symbols, n, m, and µ. For visible light most transparent media have refractive indices between 1 and 2, a few examples are given in the adjacent table. These values are measured at the yellow doublet D-line of sodium, with a wavelength of 589 nanometers, gases at atmospheric pressure have refractive indices close to 1 because of their low density. Almost all solids and liquids have refractive indices above 1.3, aerogel is a very low density solid that can be produced with refractive index in the range from 1.002 to 1.265. Moissanite lies at the end of the range with a refractive index as high as 2.65. Most plastics have refractive indices in the range from 1.3 to 1.7, for infrared light refractive indices can be considerably higher
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Birefringence
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Birefringence is the optical property of a material having a refractive index that depends on the polarization and propagation direction of light. These optically anisotropic materials are said to be birefringent, the birefringence is often quantified as the maximum difference between refractive indices exhibited by the material. Crystals with non-cubic crystal structures are often birefringent, as are plastics under mechanical stress and this effect was first described by the Danish scientist Rasmus Bartholin in 1669, who observed it in calcite, a crystal having one of the strongest birefringences. A mathematical description of wave propagation in a birefringent medium is presented below, following is a qualitative explanation of the phenomenon. Thus rotating the material around this axis does not change its optical behavior and this special direction is known as the optic axis of the material. Light whose polarization is perpendicular to the axis is governed by a refractive index no. Light whose polarization is in the direction of the optic axis sees an optical index ne, for any ray direction there is a linear polarization direction perpendicular to the optic axis, and this is called an ordinary ray. The magnitude of the difference is quantified by the birefringence, Δ n = n e − n o, the propagation of the ordinary ray is simply described by no as if there were no birefringence involved. However the extraordinary ray, as its name suggests, propagates unlike any wave in an optical material. Its refraction at a surface can be using the effective refractive index. However it is in fact an inhomogeneous wave whose power flow is not exactly in the direction of the wave vector and this causes an additional shift in that beam, even when launched at normal incidence, as is popularly observed using a crystal of calcite as photographed above. Rotating the calcite crystal will cause one of the two images, that of the ray, to rotate slightly around that of the ordinary ray. When the light propagates either along or orthogonal to the optic axis, in the first case, both polarizations see the same effective refractive index, so there is no extraordinary ray. In the second case the extraordinary ray propagates at a different phase velocity but is not an inhomogeneous wave, for instance, a quarter-wave plate is commonly used to create circular polarization from a linearly polarized source. The case of so-called biaxial crystals is substantially more complex and these are characterized by three refractive indices corresponding to three principal axes of the crystal. For most ray directions, both polarizations would be classified as extraordinary rays but with different effective refractive indices, being extraordinary waves, however, the direction of power flow is not identical to the direction of the wave vector in either case. The two refractive indices can be determined using the index ellipsoids for given directions of the polarization, note that for biaxial crystals the index ellipsoid will not be an ellipsoid of revolution but is described by three unequal principle refractive indices nα, nβ and nγ. Thus there is no axis around which a rotation leaves the optical properties invariant, for this reason, birefringent materials with three distinct refractive indices are called biaxial
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Pleochroism
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Pleochroism is an optical phenomenon in which a substance appears to be different colors when observed at different angles, especially with polarized light. Anisotropic crystals will have properties that vary with the direction of light. The polarization of light determines the direction of the electric field and these kinds of crystals have one or two optical axes. If absorption of light varies with the relative to the optical axis in a crystal then pleochroism results. Anisotropic crystals have double refraction of light where light of different polarizations is bent different amounts by the crystal, the components of a divided light beam follow different paths within the mineral and travel at different speeds. When the mineral is observed at some angle, light following some combination of paths and polarizations will be present, at another angle, the light passing through the crystal will be composed of another combination of light paths and polarizations, each with their own color. The light passing through the mineral will therefore have different colors when it is viewed from different angles, tetragonal, trigonal and hexagonal minerals can only show two colors and are called dichroic. Orthorhombic, monoclinic and triclinic crystals can show three and are trichroic, for example, hypersthene, with two optical axes, can have red, yellow or blue appearance when oriented in three different ways in three-dimensional space. Tourmaline is notable for exhibiting strong pleochroism, gems are sometimes cut and set either to display pleochroism or to hide it, depending on the colors and their attractiveness. The pleochroic colours are at their maximum when light is polarized parallel with a crystallographic axis, the axes are designated X, Y and Z. These axes can be determined from the appearance of a crystal in an interference pattern. Where there are two axes, the acute bisection of the axes gives Z for positive minerals and X for negative minerals. Perpendicular to these is the Y axis, the colour is measured with the polarization parallel to each direction. An absorption formula records the amount of parallel to each axis in the form of X < Y < Z with the left most having the least absorption. Minerals that are very similar often have very different pleochroic color schemes. In such cases, a section of the mineral is used and examined under polarized transmitted light with a petrographic microscope. Another device using this property to identify minerals is the dichroscope
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Solubility
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Solubility is the property of a solid, liquid, or gaseous chemical substance called solute to dissolve in a solid, liquid, or gaseous solvent. The solubility of a substance depends on the physical and chemical properties of the solute and solvent as well as on temperature, pressure. The solubility of a substance is a different property from the rate of solution. Most often, the solvent is a liquid, which can be a substance or a mixture. One may also speak of solid solution, but rarely of solution in a gas, the extent of solubility ranges widely, from infinitely soluble such as ethanol in water, to poorly soluble, such as silver chloride in water. The term insoluble is often applied to poorly or very poorly soluble compounds, a common threshold to describe something as insoluble is less than 0.1 g per 100 mL of solvent. Under certain conditions, the solubility can be exceeded to give a so-called supersaturated solution. Metastability of crystals can also lead to apparent differences in the amount of a chemical that dissolves depending on its form or particle size. A supersaturated solution generally crystallises when seed crystals are introduced and rapid equilibration occurs, phenylsalicylate is one such simple observable substance when fully melted and then cooled below its fusion point. Solubility is not to be confused with the ability to dissolve a substance, for example, zinc dissolves in hydrochloric acid as a result of a chemical reaction releasing hydrogen gas in a displacement reaction. The zinc ions are soluble in the acid, the smaller a particle is, the faster it dissolves although there are many factors to add to this generalization. Crucially solubility applies to all areas of chemistry, geochemistry, inorganic, physical, organic, in all cases it will depend on the physical conditions and the enthalpy and entropy directly relating to the solvents and solutes concerned. By far the most common solvent in chemistry is water which is a solvent for most ionic compounds as well as a range of organic substances. This is a factor in acidity/alkalinity and much environmental and geochemical work. According to the IUPAC definition, solubility is the composition of a saturated solution expressed as a proportion of a designated solute in a designated solvent. Solubility may be stated in units of concentration such as molarity, molality, mole fraction, mole ratio, mass per volume. Solubility occurs under dynamic equilibrium, which means that solubility results from the simultaneous and opposing processes of dissolution, the solubility equilibrium occurs when the two processes proceed at a constant rate. The term solubility is used in some fields where the solute is altered by solvolysis
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Fluorescence
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Fluorescence is the emission of light by a substance that has absorbed light or other electromagnetic radiation. It is a form of luminescence, in most cases, the emitted light has a longer wavelength, and therefore lower energy, than the absorbed radiation. Fluorescent materials cease to glow immediately when the radiation source stops, unlike phosphorescence, Fluorescence also occurs frequently in nature in some minerals and in various biological states in many branches of the animal kingdom. An early observation of fluorescence was described in 1560 by Bernardino de Sahagún and it was derived from the wood of two tree species, Pterocarpus indicus and Eysenhardtia polystachya. The chemical compound responsible for this fluorescence is matlaline, which is the product of one of the flavonoids found in this wood. The name was derived from the fluorite, some examples of which contain traces of divalent europium. In a key experiment he used a prism to isolate ultraviolet radiation from sunlight, the specific frequencies of exciting and emitted light are dependent on the particular system. S0 is called the state of the fluorophore, and S1 is its first excited singlet state. A molecule in S1 can relax by various competing pathways and it can undergo non-radiative relaxation in which the excitation energy is dissipated as heat to the solvent. Excited organic molecules can also relax via conversion to a triplet state, relaxation from S1 can also occur through interaction with a second molecule through fluorescence quenching. Molecular oxygen is an extremely efficient quencher of fluorescence just because of its unusual triplet ground state, in most cases, the emitted light has a longer wavelength, and therefore lower energy, than the absorbed radiation, this phenomenon is known as the Stokes shift. The emitted radiation may also be of the wavelength as the absorbed radiation. Molecules that are excited through light absorption or via a different process can transfer energy to a second sensitized molecule, the fluorescence quantum yield gives the efficiency of the fluorescence process. It is defined as the ratio of the number of photons emitted to the number of photons absorbed, Φ = Number of photons emitted Number of photons absorbed The maximum fluorescence quantum yield is 1.0, each photon absorbed results in a photon emitted. Compounds with quantum yields of 0.10 are still considered quite fluorescent, thus, if the rate of any pathway changes, both the excited state lifetime and the fluorescence quantum yield will be affected. Fluorescence quantum yields are measured by comparison to a standard, the quinine salt quinine sulfate in a sulfuric acid solution is a common fluorescence standard. The fluorescence lifetime refers to the time the molecule stays in its excited state before emitting a photon. This is an instance of exponential decay, various radiative and non-radiative processes can de-populate the excited state
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Radioactive decay
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A material containing such unstable nuclei is considered radioactive. Certain highly excited short-lived nuclear states can decay through neutron emission, or more rarely, however, for a collection of atoms, the collections expected decay rate is characterized in terms of their measured decay constants or half-lives. This is the basis of radiometric dating, the half-lives of radioactive atoms have no known upper limit, spanning a time range of over 55 orders of magnitude, from nearly instantaneous to far longer than the age of the universe. A radioactive nucleus with spin can have no defined orientation. If there are multiple particles produced during a single decay, as in decay, their relative angular distribution. Such a parent process could be a previous decay, or a nuclear reaction, the decaying nucleus is called the parent radionuclide, and the process produces at least one daughter nuclide. Except for gamma decay or internal conversion from an excited state. When the number of changes, an atom of a different chemical element is created. The first decay processes to be discovered were alpha decay, beta decay, alpha decay occurs when the nucleus ejects an alpha particle. This is the most common process of emitting nucleons, but highly excited nuclei can eject single nucleons, or in the case of cluster decay, specific light nuclei of other elements. Beta decay occurs when the nucleus emits an electron or positron, the nucleus may capture an orbiting electron, causing a proton to convert into a neutron in a process called electron capture. All of these result in a well-defined nuclear transmutation. By contrast, there are radioactive decay processes that do not result in a nuclear transmutation, another type of radioactive decay results in products that vary, appearing as two or more fragments of the original nucleus with a range of possible masses. For a summary table showing the number of stable and radioactive nuclides in each category, there are 29 naturally occurring chemical elements on Earth that are radioactive. They are those that contain 34 radionuclides that date before the time of formation of the solar system, well-known examples are uranium and thorium, but also included are naturally occurring long-lived radioisotopes, such as potassium-40. Radioactivity was discovered in 1896 by the French scientist Henri Becquerel and these materials glow in the dark after exposure to light, and he suspected that the glow produced in cathode ray tubes by X-rays might be associated with phosphorescence. He wrapped a photographic plate in black paper and placed various phosphorescent salts on it, all results were negative until he used uranium salts. The uranium salts caused a blackening of the plate in spite of the plate being wrapped in black paper and these radiations were given the name Becquerel Rays
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Mineral
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A mineral is a naturally occurring chemical compound, usually of crystalline form and abiogenic in origin. A mineral has one specific chemical composition, whereas a rock can be an aggregate of different minerals or mineraloids, the study of minerals is called mineralogy. There are over 5,300 known mineral species, over 5,070 of these have been approved by the International Mineralogical Association, the silicate minerals compose over 90% of the Earths crust. The diversity and abundance of species is controlled by the Earths chemistry. Silicon and oxygen constitute approximately 75% of the Earths crust, which translates directly into the predominance of silicate minerals, minerals are distinguished by various chemical and physical properties. Differences in chemical composition and crystal structure distinguish the various species, changes in the temperature, pressure, or bulk composition of a rock mass cause changes in its minerals. Minerals can be described by their various properties, which are related to their chemical structure. Common distinguishing characteristics include crystal structure and habit, hardness, lustre, diaphaneity, colour, streak, tenacity, cleavage, fracture, parting, more specific tests for describing minerals include magnetism, taste or smell, radioactivity and reaction to acid. Minerals are classified by key chemical constituents, the two dominant systems are the Dana classification and the Strunz classification, the silicate class of minerals is subdivided into six subclasses by the degree of polymerization in the chemical structure. All silicate minerals have a unit of a 4− silica tetrahedron—that is, a silicon cation coordinated by four oxygen anions. These tetrahedra can be polymerized to give the subclasses, orthosilicates, disilicates, cyclosilicates, inosilicates, phyllosilicates, other important mineral groups include the native elements, sulfides, oxides, halides, carbonates, sulfates, and phosphates. The first criterion means that a mineral has to form by a natural process, stability at room temperature, in the simplest sense, is synonymous to the mineral being solid. More specifically, a compound has to be stable or metastable at 25 °C, modern advances have included extensive study of liquid crystals, which also extensively involve mineralogy. Minerals are chemical compounds, and as such they can be described by fixed or a variable formula, many mineral groups and species are composed of a solid solution, pure substances are not usually found because of contamination or chemical substitution. Finally, the requirement of an ordered atomic arrangement is usually synonymous with crystallinity, however, crystals are also periodic, an ordered atomic arrangement gives rise to a variety of macroscopic physical properties, such as crystal form, hardness, and cleavage. There have been recent proposals to amend the definition to consider biogenic or amorphous substances as minerals. The formal definition of an approved by the IMA in 1995, A mineral is an element or chemical compound that is normally crystalline. However, if geological processes were involved in the genesis of the compound, Mineral classification schemes and their definitions are evolving to match recent advances in mineral science
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Silicate
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A silicate is a compound containing an anionic silicon compound. The great majority of the silicates are oxides, but hexafluorosilicate, orthosilicate is the anion SiO4−4 or its compounds. Related to orthosilicate are families of anions with the formula 2n−, important members are the cyclic and single chain silicates n and the sheet-forming silicates n. Silicates constitute the majority of Earths crust, as well as the terrestrial planets, rocky moons. Sand, Portland cement, and thousands of minerals are examples of silicates, silicate compounds, including the minerals, consist of silicate anions whose charge is balanced by various cations. Myriad silicate anions can exist, and each can form compounds with many different cations, hence this class of compounds is very large. Both minerals and synthetic materials fit in this class, in the vast majority of silicates, including silicate minerals, the Si occupies a tetrahedral environment, being surrounded by 4 oxygen centres. In these structures, the bonds to silicon conform to the octet rule. These tetrahedra sometimes occur as isolated SiO4−4 centres, but most commonly, commonly the silicate anions are chains, double chains, sheets, and three-dimensional frameworks. All these such species have negligible solubility in water at normal conditions, silicates are well characterized as solids, but are less commonly observed in solution. The anion SiO4−4 is the base of silicic acid, Si4. Instead, solutions of silicates are usually observed as mixtures of condensed, the nature of soluble silicates is relevant to understanding biomineralization and the synthesis of aluminosilicates, such as the industrially important catalysts called zeolites. Although the tetrahedron is the coordination geometry for silicon compounds. A well-known example of such a high number is hexafluorosilicate. Octahedral coordination by 6 oxygen centres is observed, at very high pressure, even SiO2 adopts this geometry in the mineral stishovite, a dense polymorph of silica found in the lower mantle of the Earth. This structure is formed by shock during meteorite impacts. In geology and astronomy, the silicate is used to denote types of rock that consist predominantly of silicate minerals. On Earth, a variety of silicate minerals occur in an even wider range of combinations as a result of the processes that form
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Rare-earth element
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Scandium and yttrium are considered rare earth elements because they tend to occur in the same ore deposits as the lanthanides and exhibit similar chemical properties. They are not especially rare, but they tend to occur together in nature and are difficult to separate from one another, however, because of their geochemical properties, rare earth elements are typically dispersed and not often found concentrated as rare earth minerals in economically exploitable ore deposits. The first such mineral discovered was gadolinite, a composed of cerium, yttrium, iron, silicon. This mineral was extracted from a mine in the village of Ytterby in Sweden, a table listing the seventeen rare earth elements, their atomic number and symbol, the etymology of their names, and their main usages is provided here. The distinction between the groups is more to do with atomic volume and geological behavior, Rare earth elements became known to the world with the discovery of the black mineral Ytterbite by Lieutenant Carl Axel Arrhenius in 1787, at a quarry in the village of Ytterby, Sweden. Arrheniuss ytterbite reached Johan Gadolin, a Royal Academy of Turku professor, anders Gustav Ekeberg isolated beryllium from the gadolinite but failed to recognize other elements that the ore contained. After this discovery in 1794 a mineral from Bastnäs near Riddarhyttan, Sweden, in 1803 they obtained a white oxide and called it ceria. Martin Heinrich Klaproth independently discovered the same oxide and called it ochroia, in 1839 Carl Gustav Mosander, an assistant of Berzelius, separated ceria by heating the nitrate and dissolving the product in nitric acid. He called the oxide of the soluble salt lanthana and it took him three more years to separate the lanthana further into didymia and pure lanthana. Didymia, although not further separable by Mosanders techniques, was a mixture of oxides, in 1842 Mosander also separated the yttria into three oxides, pure yttria, terbia and erbia. The earth giving pink salts he called terbium, the one that yielded yellow peroxide he called erbium, so in 1842 the number of known rare earth elements had reached six, yttrium, cerium, lanthanum, didymium, erbium and terbium. This confusion led to false claims of new elements, such as the mosandrium of J. Lawrence Smith. There were no further discoveries for 30 years, and the element didymium was listed in the table of elements with a molecular mass of 138. In 1879 Delafontaine used the new process of optical-flame spectroscopy. Also in 1879, the new element samarium was isolated by Paul Émile Lecoq de Boisbaudran from the mineral samarskite, the samaria earth was further separated by Lecoq de Boisbaudran in 1886 and a similar result was obtained by Jean Charles Galissard de Marignac by direct isolation from samarskite. They named the element gadolinium after Johan Gadolin, and its oxide was named gadolinia, the fractional crystallization of the oxides then yielded europium in 1901. In 1839 the third source for rare earths became available and this is a mineral similar to gadolinite, uranotantalum. This mineral from Miass in the southern Ural Mountains was documented by Gustave Rose, the exact number of rare earth elements that existed was highly unclear, and a maximum number of 25 was estimated
31.
Magma
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Besides molten rock, magma may also contain suspended crystals, dissolved gas and sometimes gas bubbles. Magma often collects in magma chambers that may feed a volcano or solidify underground to form an intrusion, magma is capable of intruding into adjacent rocks, extrusion onto the surface as lava, and explosive ejection as tephra to form pyroclastic rock. Magma is a complex high-temperature fluid substance, temperatures of most magmas are in the range 700 °C to 1300 °C, but very rare carbonatite magmas may be as cool as 600 °C, and komatiite magmas may have been as hot as 1600 °C. Environments of magma formation and compositions are commonly correlated, environments include subduction zones, continental rift zones, mid-ocean ridges and hotspots. Despite being found in such locales, the bulk of the Earths crust. Except for the outer core, most of the Earth takes the form of a rheid. Magma, as liquid, preferentially forms in high temperature, low pressure environments within several kilometers of the Earths surface, magma compositions may evolve after formation by fractional crystallization, contamination, and magma mixing. By definition rock formed of solidified magma is called igneous rock, melting of solid rocks to form magma is controlled by three physical parameters, temperature, pressure, and composition. Mechanisms are discussed in the entry for igneous rock, as a rock melts, its volume changes. When enough rock is melted, the small globules of melt link up, under pressure within the earth, as little as a fraction of a percent partial melting may be sufficient to cause melt to be squeezed from its source. The degree of melting is critical for determining what type of magma is produced. The degree of partial melting required to form a melt can be estimated by considering the relative enrichment of incompatible elements versus compatible elements, incompatible elements commonly include potassium, barium, cesium, and rubidium. Rock types produced by small degrees of melting in the Earths mantle are typically alkaline. Typically, primitive melts of this composition form lamprophyre, lamproite, kimberlite and sometimes nepheline-bearing mafic rocks such as alkali basalts, pegmatite may be produced by low degrees of partial melting of the crust. Some granite-composition magmas are eutectic melts, and they may be produced by low to high degrees of melting of the crust. At high degrees of melting of the crust, granitoids such as tonalite, granodiorite and monzonite can be produced. Being only the time in recorded history that magma had been reached, IDDP decided to invest in the hole. A cemented steel case was constructed in the hole with a perforation at the close to the magma
32.
Hafnium
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Hafnium is a chemical element with symbol Hf and atomic number 72. A lustrous, silvery gray, tetravalent transition metal, hafnium chemically resembles zirconium and is found in many zirconium minerals and its existence was predicted by Dmitri Mendeleev in 1869, though it was not identified until 1923, making it the penultimate stable element to be discovered. Hafnium is named after Hafnia, the Latin name for Copenhagen, Hafnium is used in filaments and electrodes. Some semiconductor fabrication processes use its oxide for integrated circuits at 45 nm, some superalloys used for special applications contain hafnium in combination with niobium, titanium, or tungsten. Hafnium is a shiny, silvery, ductile metal that is corrosion-resistant, a notable physical difference between these metals is their density, with zirconium having about one-half the density of hafnium. The most notable properties of hafnium are its high thermal neutron-capture cross-section. Hafnium reacts in air to form a film that inhibits further corrosion. The metal is not readily attacked by acids but can be oxidized with halogens or it can be burnt in air, like its sister metal zirconium, finely divided hafnium can ignite spontaneously in air, producing an effect similar to that obtained in Dragons Breath. The metal is resistant to concentrated alkalis, the chemistry of hafnium and zirconium is so similar that the two cannot be separated on the basis of differing chemical reactions. The melting points and boiling points of the compounds and the solubility in solvents are the differences in the chemistry of these twin elements. At least 34 isotopes of hafnium have been observed, ranging in number from 153 to 186. The five stable isotopes are in the range of 176 to 180, the radioactive isotopes half-lives range from only 400 ms for 153Hf, to 2.0 petayears for the most stable one, 174Hf. The nuclear isomer 178m2Hf was at the center of a controversy for several years regarding its use as a weapon. Hafnium is estimated to make up about 5.8 ppm of the Earths upper crust by mass, rarely, the Hf/Zr ratio increases during crystallization to give the isostructural mineral hafnon SiO4, with atomic Hf > Zr. An old name for a variety of zircon containing unusually high Hf content is alvite, a potential source of hafnium is trachyte tuffs containing rare zircon-hafnium silicates eudialyte or armstrongite, at Dubbo in New South Wales, Australia. Hafnium reserves have been estimated to last under 10 years by one source if the world population increases. In reality, since hafnium occurs with zirconium, hafnium can always be a byproduct of extraction to the extent that the low demand requires. The heavy mineral sands ore deposits of the titanium ores ilmenite and rutile yield most of the mined zirconium, zirconium is a good nuclear fuel-rod cladding metal, with the desirable properties of a very low neutron capture cross-section and good chemical stability at high temperatures
33.
Gemstone
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A gemstone is a piece of mineral crystal which, in cut and polished form, is used to make jewelry or other adornments. However, certain rocks or organic materials that are not minerals are used for jewelry and are therefore often considered to be gemstones as well. Most gemstones are hard, but some soft minerals are used in jewelry because of their luster or other properties that have aesthetic value. Rarity is another characteristic that lends value to a gemstone, apart from jewelry, from earliest antiquity engraved gems and hardstone carvings, such as cups, were major luxury art forms. A gem maker is called a lapidary or gemcutter, a worker is a diamantaire. The carvings of Carl Fabergé are significant works in this tradition, the traditional classification in the West, which goes back to the ancient Greeks, begins with a distinction between precious and semi-precious, similar distinctions are made in other cultures. In modern usage the precious stones are diamond, ruby, sapphire, other stones are classified by their color, translucency and hardness. Another unscientific term for semi-precious gemstones used in art history and archaeology is hardstone, in modern times gemstones are identified by gemologists, who describe gems and their characteristics using technical terminology specific to the field of gemology. The first characteristic a gemologist uses to identify a gemstone is its chemical composition, for example, diamonds are made of carbon and rubies of aluminium oxide. Next, many gems are crystals which are classified by their crystal system such as cubic or trigonal or monoclinic, another term used is habit, the form the gem is usually found in. For example, diamonds, which have a crystal system, are often found as octahedrons. Gemstones are classified into different groups, species, and varieties, for example, ruby is the red variety of the species corundum, while any other color of corundum is considered sapphire. Other examples are the Emerald, aquamarine, red beryl, goshenite, heliodor, and morganite, gems are characterized in terms of refractive index, dispersion, specific gravity, hardness, cleavage, fracture, and luster. They may exhibit pleochroism or double refraction and they may have luminescence and a distinctive absorption spectrum. Material or flaws within a stone may be present as inclusions, gemstones may also be classified in terms of their water. This is a grading of the gems luster, transparency. Very transparent gems are considered first water, while second or third water gems are those of a lesser transparency, there is no universally accepted grading system for gemstones. Diamonds are graded using a system developed by the Gemological Institute of America in the early 1950s, historically, all gemstones were graded using the naked eye
34.
Diamond
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Diamond is a metastable allotrope of carbon, where the carbon atoms are arranged in a variation of the face-centered cubic crystal structure called a diamond lattice. Diamond is less stable than graphite, but the rate from diamond to graphite is negligible at standard conditions. Diamond is renowned as a material with superlative physical qualities, most of which originate from the covalent bonding between its atoms. In particular, diamond has the highest hardness and thermal conductivity of any bulk material and those properties determine the major industrial application of diamond in cutting and polishing tools and the scientific applications in diamond knives and diamond anvil cells. Because of its extremely rigid lattice, it can be contaminated by very few types of impurities, such as boron, small amounts of defects or impurities color diamond blue, yellow, brown, green, purple, pink, orange or red. Diamond also has relatively high optical dispersion, most natural diamonds are formed at high temperature and pressure at depths of 140 to 190 kilometers in the Earths mantle. Carbon-containing minerals provide the source, and the growth occurs over periods from 1 billion to 3.3 billion years. Diamonds are brought close to the Earths surface through deep volcanic eruptions by magma, Diamonds can also be produced synthetically in a HPHT method which approximately simulates the conditions in the Earths mantle. An alternative, and completely different growth technique is chemical vapor deposition, several non-diamond materials, which include cubic zirconia and silicon carbide and are often called diamond simulants, resemble diamond in appearance and many properties. Special gemological techniques have developed to distinguish natural diamonds, synthetic diamonds. The word is from the ancient Greek ἀδάμας – adámas unbreakable, the name diamond is derived from the ancient Greek αδάμας, proper, unalterable, unbreakable, untamed, from ἀ-, un- + δαμάω, I overpower, I tame. Diamonds have been known in India for at least 3,000 years, Diamonds have been treasured as gemstones since their use as religious icons in ancient India. Their usage in engraving tools also dates to early human history, later in 1797, the English chemist Smithson Tennant repeated and expanded that experiment. By demonstrating that burning diamond and graphite releases the same amount of gas, the most familiar uses of diamonds today are as gemstones used for adornment, a use which dates back into antiquity, and as industrial abrasives for cutting hard materials. The dispersion of light into spectral colors is the primary gemological characteristic of gem diamonds. In the 20th century, experts in gemology developed methods of grading diamonds, four characteristics, known informally as the four Cs, are now commonly used as the basic descriptors of diamonds, these are carat, cut, color, and clarity. A large, flawless diamond is known as a paragon and these conditions are met in two places on Earth, in the lithospheric mantle below relatively stable continental plates, and at the site of a meteorite strike. The conditions for diamond formation to happen in the mantle occur at considerable depth corresponding to the requirements of temperature and pressure
35.
Persian language
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Persian, also known by its endonym Farsi, is one of the Western Iranian languages within the Indo-Iranian branch of the Indo-European language family. It is primarily spoken in Iran, Afghanistan, and Tajikistan and it is mostly written in the Persian alphabet, a modified variant of the Arabic script. Its grammar is similar to that of many contemporary European languages, Persian gets its name from its origin at the capital of the Achaemenid Empire, Persis, hence the name Persian. A Persian-speaking person may be referred to as Persophone, there are approximately 110 million Persian speakers worldwide, with the language holding official status in Iran, Afghanistan, and Tajikistan. For centuries, Persian has also been a cultural language in other regions of Western Asia, Central Asia. It also exerted influence on Arabic, particularly Bahrani Arabic. Persian is one of the Western Iranian languages within the Indo-European family, other Western Iranian languages are the Kurdish languages, Gilaki, Mazanderani, Talysh, and Balochi. Persian is classified as a member of the Southwestern subgroup within Western Iranian along with Lari, Kumzari, in Persian, the language is known by several names, Western Persian, Parsi or Farsi has been the name used by all native speakers until the 20th century. Since the latter decades of the 20th century, for reasons, in English. Tajiki is the variety of Persian spoken in Tajikistan and Uzbekistan by the Tajiks, according to the Oxford English Dictionary, the term Persian as a language name is first attested in English in the mid-16th century. Native Iranian Persian speakers call it Fārsi, Farsi is the Arabicized form of Pārsi, subsequent to Muslim conquest of Persia, due to a lack of the phoneme /p/ in Standard Arabic. The origin of the name Farsi and the place of origin of the language which is Fars Province is the Arabicized form of Pārs, in English, this language has historically been known as Persian, though Farsi has also gained some currency. Farsi is encountered in some literature as a name for the language. In modern English the word Farsi refers to the language while Parsi describes Zoroastrians, some Persian language scholars such as Ehsan Yarshater, editor of Encyclopædia Iranica, and University of Arizona professor Kamran Talattof, have also rejected the usage of Farsi in their articles. The international language-encoding standard ISO 639-1 uses the code fa, as its system is mostly based on the local names. The more detailed standard ISO 639-3 uses the name Persian for the dialect continuum spoken across Iran and Afghanistan and this consists of the individual languages Dari and Iranian Persian. Currently, Voice of America, BBC World Service, Deutsche Welle, Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty also includes a Tajik service and an Afghan service. This is also the case for the American Association of Teachers of Persian, The Centre for Promotion of Persian Language and Literature, Persian is an Iranian language belonging to the Indo-Iranian branch of the Indo-European family of languages
36.
Jargoon
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Jargoon or jargon is a name applied by gemologists to those zircons which are fine enough to be cut as gemstones, but are not of the red color which characterizes the hyacinth or jacinth. The word is related to Persian zargun, some of the finest jargoons are green, others brown and yellow, whilst some are colorless. The colorless jargoon may be obtained by heating certain colored stones, when zircon is heated it sometimes changes in color, or altogether loses it, and at the same time usually increases in density and brilliancy. The so-called Matura diamonds, formerly sent from Matara, in Sri Lanka, were decolorized zircons, the zircon has strong refractive power, and its lustre is almost adamantine, but it lacks the fire of the diamond. The specific gravity of zircon is subject to variation in different varieties. Church found the specific gravity of a fine leaf-green jargoon to be as low as 3.982, and that of a pure white jargoon as high as 4.705. Jargoon and tourmaline, when cut as gems, are mistaken for each other. Moreover, in tourmaline the dichroism is strongly marked, whereas in jargoon it is remarkably feeble, the refractive indices of jargoon are much higher than those of tourmaline
37.
Jacinth
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Jacinth /ˈdʒæsɪnθ/ is an orange-red transparent variety of zircon used as a gemstone. Jacinth is also a flower of a blue or deep purple. It has been supposed to designate the same stone as the mentioned in Exodus 28,19 as the first stone of the third row in the high priests breast-plate. In Revelation 9,17, the word is simply descriptive of colour, jacinths are mentioned as decorating the city of Iram in Richard Francis Burtons translation of the Arabian Nights. J. R. R. where there are seven mountains of magnificent stones, and as for those towards the east was of coloured stone, and one of pearl, and one of jacinth, and those towards the south of red stone. Two gold necklaces inlaid with jacinths and amethysts are given to Ganelon as a gift for his wife in The Song of Roland. And then there came the Queen, Bramimunde, said to the Count, Lord, I love you well, for my lord and all his men esteem you so. I wish to send your wife two necklaces, they are all gold, jacinths, and amethysts, they are more than all the wealth of Rome. Your Emperor has never seen their like and he has taken them, thrusts them into his boot. Jacinth was also used by e. e. cummings in the poem You Are Tired, in Dungeons and Dragons, jacinths are often referred to as an orange gemstone, and used to fulfill that function in prismatic magic items, where the color red is represented by rubies
38.
Hyacinth (plant)
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Hyacinthus is a small genus of bulbous, fragrant flowering plants in the family Asparagaceae, subfamily Scilloideae. These are commonly called hyacinths /ˈhaɪəsɪnθs/, the genus is native to the eastern Mediterranean. Hyacinths should also not be confused with the genus Muscari, which are known as grape hyacinths. Hyacinthus grows from bulbs, each producing around four to six linear leaves and one to three spikes or racemes of flowers. In the wild species, the flowers are spaced with as few as two per raceme in H. litwinovii and typically six to eight in H. orientalis. Cultivars of H. orientalis have much denser flower spikes and are more robust. Linnaeus defined the genus Hyacinthus widely to include species now placed in genera of the subfamily Scilloideae, such as Muscari. Hyacinthus was formerly the genus of the separate family Hyacinthaceae. The genus Hyacinthus is considered native to the eastern Mediterranean, including Turkey, Turkmenistan, Iran, Iraq, Lebanon, Syria and it is widely naturalized elsewhere, including Europe, Korea, the United States, central Mexico, Cuba and Haiti. The Dutch, or common hyacinth of house and garden culture was so popular in the 18th century that over 2,000 cultivars were grown in the Netherlands, its chief commercial producer. This hyacinth has a dense spike of fragrant flowers in shades of red, blue, white, orange, pink. A form of the hyacinth is the less hardy and smaller blue- or white-petalled Roman hyacinth of florists. These flowers need indirect sunlight and should be watered moderately, Hyacinth bulbs are poisonous, they contain oxalic acid. Handling hyacinth bulbs can cause skin irritation. Hyacinths are often associated with spring and rebirth, the hyacinth flower is used in the Haft-Seen table setting for the Persian New Year celebration, Nowruz, held at the Spring Equinox. The Persian word for hyacinth is سنبل, the color of the blue flower hyacinth plant varies between mid-blue = violet blue and bluish purple. Within this range, can be found, Persenche, which is an American color name, the color analysis of Persenche is 73% ultramarine, 9% red and 18% white. List of early spring flowers Tekhelet - meaning turquoise or blue in Hebrew was translated as hyakinthos, coccoris, Patricia The Curious History of the Bulb Vase
39.
Ancient Greek
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Ancient Greek includes the forms of Greek used in ancient Greece and the ancient world from around the 9th century BC to the 6th century AD. It is often divided into the Archaic period, Classical period. It is antedated in the second millennium BC by Mycenaean Greek, the language of the Hellenistic phase is known as Koine. Koine is regarded as a historical stage of its own, although in its earliest form it closely resembled Attic Greek. Prior to the Koine period, Greek of the classic and earlier periods included several regional dialects, Ancient Greek was the language of Homer and of fifth-century Athenian historians, playwrights, and philosophers. It has contributed many words to English vocabulary and has been a subject of study in educational institutions of the Western world since the Renaissance. This article primarily contains information about the Epic and Classical phases of the language, Ancient Greek was a pluricentric language, divided into many dialects. The main dialect groups are Attic and Ionic, Aeolic, Arcadocypriot, some dialects are found in standardized literary forms used in literature, while others are attested only in inscriptions. There are also several historical forms, homeric Greek is a literary form of Archaic Greek used in the epic poems, the Iliad and Odyssey, and in later poems by other authors. Homeric Greek had significant differences in grammar and pronunciation from Classical Attic, the origins, early form and development of the Hellenic language family are not well understood because of a lack of contemporaneous evidence. Several theories exist about what Hellenic dialect groups may have existed between the divergence of early Greek-like speech from the common Proto-Indo-European language and the Classical period and they have the same general outline, but differ in some of the detail. The invasion would not be Dorian unless the invaders had some relationship to the historical Dorians. The invasion is known to have displaced population to the later Attic-Ionic regions, the Greeks of this period believed there were three major divisions of all Greek people—Dorians, Aeolians, and Ionians, each with their own defining and distinctive dialects. Often non-west is called East Greek, Arcadocypriot apparently descended more closely from the Mycenaean Greek of the Bronze Age. Boeotian had come under a strong Northwest Greek influence, and can in some respects be considered a transitional dialect, thessalian likewise had come under Northwest Greek influence, though to a lesser degree. Most of the dialect sub-groups listed above had further subdivisions, generally equivalent to a city-state and its surrounding territory, Doric notably had several intermediate divisions as well, into Island Doric, Southern Peloponnesus Doric, and Northern Peloponnesus Doric. The Lesbian dialect was Aeolic Greek and this dialect slowly replaced most of the older dialects, although Doric dialect has survived in the Tsakonian language, which is spoken in the region of modern Sparta. Doric has also passed down its aorist terminations into most verbs of Demotic Greek, by about the 6th century AD, the Koine had slowly metamorphosized into Medieval Greek
40.
Crust (geology)
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In geology, the crust is the outermost solid shell of a rocky planet or natural satellite, which is chemically distinct from the underlying mantle. The crust of the Earth is composed of a variety of igneous, metamorphic. The crust is underlain by the mantle, the upper part of the mantle is composed mostly of peridotite, a rock denser than rocks common in the overlying crust. The boundary between the crust and mantle is conventionally placed at the Mohorovičić discontinuity, a boundary defined by a contrast in seismic velocity, the crust occupies less than 1% of Earths volume. The crust of the Earth is of two types, oceanic and continental. The oceanic crust is 5 km to 10 km thick and is composed primarily of basalt, diabase, the continental crust is typically from 30 km to 50 km thick and is mostly composed of slightly less dense rocks than those of the oceanic crust. Some of these less dense rocks, such as granite, are common in the continental crust, both the continental and oceanic crust float on the mantle. Because the continental crust is thicker, it both to greater elevations and greater depth than the oceanic crust. The slightly lower density of continental rock compared to basaltic oceanic rock contributes to the higher relative elevation of the top of the continental crust. As the top of the continental crust reaches elevations higher than that of the oceanic, the temperature of the crust increases with depth, reaching values typically in the range from about 200 °C to 400 °C at the boundary with the underlying mantle. The crust and underlying relatively rigid uppermost mantle make up the lithosphere, because of convection in the underlying plastic upper mantle and asthenosphere, the lithosphere is broken into tectonic plates that move. The temperature increases by as much as 30 °C for every kilometer locally in the part of the crust. Earth has probably always had some form of basaltic crust, in contrast, the bulk of the continental crust is much older. The oldest continental crustal rocks on Earth have ages in the range from about 3.7 to 4, some zircon with age as great as 4.3 billion years has been found in the Narryer Gneiss Terrane. The average age of the current Earths continental crust has been estimated to be about 2.0 billion years, most crustal rocks formed before 2.5 billion years ago are located in cratons. Such old continental crust and the underlying mantle asthenosphere are less dense than elsewhere in Earth, formation of new continental crust is linked to periods of intense orogeny, these periods coincide with the formation of the supercontinents such as Rodinia, Pangaea and Gondwana. The continental crust has a composition similar to that of andesite. The most abundant minerals in Earths continental crust are feldspars, which make up about 41% of the crust by weight, followed by quartz at 12%, Continental crust is enriched in incompatible elements compared to the basaltic ocean crust and much enriched compared to the underlying mantle
. PMID 26483481. Retrieved 2015-10-20. Early edition, published online before print.
