1.
Small sword
–
The small sword or smallsword is a light one-handed sword designed for thrusting which evolved out of the longer and heavier rapier of the late Renaissance. The height of the small swords popularity was between mid 17th and late 18th century and it is thought to have appeared in France and spread quickly across the rest of Europe. Militarily, small swords continued to be used as a sidearm for infantry officers. In some branches with strong traditions, this continues to the modern day. The carrying of swords by officers in combat conditions was frequent in World War I, the 1913 U. S. Army Manual of Bayonet Drill includes instructions for how to defend with a smallsword. As a rule, the blade of a sword is comparatively short at around 0.6 to 0.85 metres. It usually tapers to a point but may lack a cutting edge. It is typically triangular in cross-section, although some of the examples still have the rhombic and spindle-shaped cross-sections inherited from older weapons. This triangular cross-section may be ground for additional lightness. Many small swords of the period between the 17th and 18th centuries were found with colichemarde blades, the small sword guard is typically of the shell type, sometimes with two lobes that were decorated as clam shells. The shells were replaced with a simple curved oval disk. In later foils, the type evolved into the lunette or figure-8 guard, and the disk became the modern foil bell guard. However, they were maintained in a state on some weapons, including the Italian foil. In the 19th century, simple cross-hilt small swords were also produced, an example is the Model 1840 Army Noncommissioned Officers Sword, which is still used by the United States Army on ceremonial occasions. As the wearing of swords fell out of fashion and the small sword evolved into the duelling sword, small swords were used both by the military and as a dueling weapon. The use of the sword for infantry is covered in the US manual of 1861 titled The Militiamans Manual. In modern times, the sword is used as part of court uniform. A German version of the sword called Trauerdegen is still in use by the Reitendiener of the city of Hamburg in Germany
2.
Fencing
–
Fencing, also called Olympic fencing, is a sport in which two competitors fight using rapier-style swords, winning points by making contact with their opponent. Fencing was one of the first sports to be played in the Olympics, there are three forms of modern fencing, each using a different style of weapon and different rules, and as such the sport is divided into three competitive scenes, foil, épée, and sabre. Most competitive fencers choose to specialise in one weapon. Competitive fencing is one of five activities which have featured in every one of the modern Olympic Games, the other four being athletics, cycling, swimming. Fencing is governed by Fédération Internationale dEscrime, today, its head office is in Lausanne, Switzerland. The FIE is composed of 145 national federations, each of which is recognised by its countrys Olympic Committee as the representative of Olympic-style fencing in that country. The FIE maintains the current rules used for FIE sanctioned international events, including cups, world championships. The FIE handles proposals to change the rules the first year after an Olympic year in the annual congress, the US Fencing Association has slightly different rules, but usually adhere to FIE standards. Fencing traces its roots to the development of swordsmanship for duels, the ancestor of modern fencing originated in Spain, where several books on fencing were written. In conquest, the Spanish forces carried fencing around the world, particularly southern Italy, Fencing was mentioned in the play The Merry Wives of Windsor written sometime prior to 1602. The mechanics of modern fencing originated in the 18th century in an Italian school of fencing of the Renaissance, the Spanish school of fencing stagnated and was replaced by the Italian and French schools. There, he taught the aristocracy the fashionable art of swordsmanship and his school was run by three generations of his family and dominated the art of European fencing for almost a century. He established the rules of posture and footwork that still govern modern sport fencing. The first regularized fencing competition was held at the inaugural Grand Military Tournament and Assault at Arms in 1880, held at the Royal Agricultural Hall, the Tournament featured a series of competitions between army officers and soldiers. Each bout was fought for five hits and the foils were pointed with black to aid the judges, the Amateur Gymnastic & Fencing Association drew up an official set of fencing regulations in 1896. Fencing was part of the Olympics Games in the summer of 1896, starting with épée in 1933, side judges were replaced by the Laurent-Pagan electrical scoring apparatus, with an audible tone and a red or green light indicating when a touch landed. Foil was automated in 1956, sabre in 1988, the scoring box reduced the bias in judging, and permitted more accurate scoring of faster actions, lighter touches, and more touches to the back and flank than before. There are three weapons in modern fencing, foil, épée, and sabre, each weapon has its own rules and strategies
3.
Foil (fencing)
–
A foil is one of the three weapons used in the sport of fencing, all of which are metal. It is flexible, rectangular in section, and weighs under a pound. As with the épée, points are scored by contact with the tip. A foil fencers uniform features the lamé, a vest, electrically wired to record hits in such cases and it is the most commonly used weapon in competition. There are two types of foils, the nonelectric foil—also known as steam or dry—and the electric. The components common to both varieties are the pommel, grip, guard, thumb pad, and blade. The blades of both varieties are capped with a plastic or rubber piece, with a button at the tip in electric blades, lacking the button and associated electrical mechanism, a judge is required to determine the scoring and the victor in a tournaments with nonelectric foils. Nonelectric ones are used for practice. The blade itself is subdivided into 3 regions, the foible, or weak, the last third of the blade near the tip, the medium, and the forte, or strong, the third of the blade near the guard. Inside of the grip is the tang, which is threaded at the end to allow the pommel to fasten the foil assembly together. When an Italian grip is used, see below, a ricasso extends from under the guard, inside of the grips quillons, into the tang. The guard is fastened to the blade, plug, and grip assemblies by the pommel, a type of threaded fastener, beginning with the 1956 Olympics, scoring in foil has been accomplished by means of registering the touch with an electric circuit. A switch at the tip of the foil registers the touch, the electric foil contains a socket underneath the guard that connects to the scoring apparatus via the body cord and a wire that runs down a channel cut into the top of the blade. Electric foil sockets are fixed so that the body cord plugs into the weapon at the fencers wrist, the tip of the electric foil terminates in a button assembly that generally consists of a barrel, plunger, spring, and retaining screws. Color-coding is used, white or yellow indicates hits not on the target area. The modern foil is descended from the weapon for the small-sword. Rapier and even longsword foils are also known to have been used, although the foil as a blunted weapon for sword practice goes back to the 16th century, the use as a weapon for sport is more recent. The foil was used in France as a weapon in the middle of the 18th century in order to practise fast
4.
Sabre (fencing)
–
The sabre is one of the three weapons of modern fencing, and is alternatively spelled saber in American English. The sabre differs from the modern fencing weapons, the épée and foil, in that it is possible to score with the edge of the blade, for this reason, sabreur movements. For the other two weapons, valid touches are only scored using the point of the blade, like the foil, but unlike the épée, sabre uses the convention of right-of-way to determine who acquires the touch. The term sabreur refers to a fencer who fences with a sabre. The cross-section of the blade is l - or V-shaped, unlike the quadrangular shape of the foil. Adult blades are 88 cm in length, at the end of the blade, the point is folded over itself to form a button, although no actual button exists. The bell guard of the sword is curved around the handle, on electrical sabres, a socket for the body wire is found underneath the bell guard. A fastener known as a pommel is attached to the end of the sword to keep the bell guard, the handle of a sabre is standardly a straight sabre grip, as other grips are incompatible with the bell guard. Pistol grips are incompatible with the sabre, the entire weapon is generally 105 cm long, the maximum weight is 500g, but most competition swords are closer to 400g. It is shorter than the foil or épée, and lighter than the épée, the sabres blade is sometimes likened to a matchstick insofar as it is easy to snap but relatively cheap to replace. Like other weapons used in fencing, the modern sabre uses a connection to register touches. The sabreuse wears a lamé, a conductive vest, to complete the circuit, sabre was the last weapon in fencing to make the transition over to using electrical equipment. This occurred in 1988,32 years after foil and 52 years after the épée, unlike the other two weapons, there is very little difference between an electric sabre and a steam or dry one. The blade itself is the same in steam and electric sabres, an electric sabre has a socket, which is generally a 2-prong or bayonet foil socket with the two contacts shorted together. The electric sabre also has insulation on the pommel and on the inside of the guard to prevent a connection between the sabre and the lamé. This is undesirable because it extends the lamé onto the sabre. Early electric sabres were equipped with a capteur socket, the capteur was a device that was intended to detect a parry by use of an accelerometer. If a parry was detected, the electronics were supposed to invalidate any subsequent closing of the circuit due to the flexible blade whipping around the parry
5.
Fuller (weapon)
–
A fuller is a rounded or beveled groove or slot in the flat side of a blade that is made using a blacksmithing tool called a spring swage. These grooves are often called blood grooves or blood gutters as well as fullers, a fuller is often used to lighten the blade, much the way that the shape of an I-beam allows a given amount of strength to be achieved with less material. When combined with proper distal tapers, heat treatment and blade tempering and this effect lessens as the blade is reduced in length. A blade is said to be fullered after introduction of the groove, the term fuller is from the Old English fuliere, meaning one who fulls cloth. It is derived from the Latin word fullo, the first recorded use of the term as a blacksmithing tool is from 1864, according to Websters Dictionary. The term used in historical Europe is largely unknown, and due to the changing nature of language. King Thrasamund of the Vandals was recorded in a letter to King Theodoric the Ostrogoth, giving thanks for a gift of swords, the French often use the term goutiere or cannelure. The ancient Viking term is unknown, as a verb, the old French term gutter meant to cut small hollows, as in the gutter of a crossbow. Therefore, in descriptions, fuller is often the preferred choice. As a blacksmithing tool, a fuller is a type of swage, a swage is a tool that has a particular shape forged into its surface, which is used to imprint that shape into the metal. Swage blocks are often anvil-like blocks with various shapes forged in them, the term swage is from the Old French souage, meaning decorative groove or ornamental moulding. Fullers, in particular, are swages that have a cylindrical or beveled face, if a groove is to be applied to both sides of the steel, two fullers may be used at the same time, sandwiching the workpiece in the middle. Often, one fuller will have a peg that holds it securely in the anvil, while the other fuller will have a handle and a flat head, for striking with a hammer. A blade being fullered will generally be pulled through the fullers as they are being hammered, until the entire groove is the proper depth. As the fullers make the groove, they typically displace material to the side and these ridges may be hammered flat, widening the blade, or they are often shaped with other swages, increasing the strength of the blade by creating thicker areas in its cross section. Fullers have a variety of uses beyond bladesmithing and they are often used for drawing out steel, which consists of hammering a short block into a long bar. The fullers will often be used to notch the block or bar, if the fullers are longer than the block is wide, they will tend to elongate the block rather than raise bulges from the surface. After notching, the block is hammered smooth, elongating it further, fullers are also used for many other shaping processes in blacksmithing, from making hinges and latches to plow parts and horseshoes
6.
Fabian Kauter
–
Fabian Kauter is a Swiss épée fencer, four-time European team champion and bronze medallist in the 2011 and 2013 World Fencing Championships. Kauters first sport was football, but a series of injuries lead him to turn to another sport and he took up fencing at age ten. His father, Christian Kauter, is a two-time Olympic medalist, Kauter also pursues a musical career under the artist name YuRi. He released in 2009 his first album Summer in Sibirie, followed in 2012 by Kopf über Wasser, in 2013, he co-founded I believe in you, a crowdfunding platform for sport projects in Switzerland. Kauter placed third in the European Fencing Championship 2007 and in the World Fencing Championship 2011, in 2012, he won at Buenos Aires his first gold medal in a World Cup competition. A few months later, he competed in mens épée at the 2012 Summer Olympics and he earned a bronze medal in the 2013 Berne Grand Prix and in the 2013 World Fencing Championships in Budapest. In the 2013–2014 season, he won the Vancouver Grand Prix after defeating reigning world champion Nikolai Novosjolov in the final and became no.1 in FIE rankings
7.
Piste (fencing)
–
In modern fencing, the piste or strip is the playing area. Regulations require the piste to be 14 metres long and between 1.5 and 2 metres wide. The last two metres on each end are hash-marked to warn a fencer before he/she backs off the end of the strip, the piste is also marked at the centre and at the en garde lines, located two metres either side of the center line. Retreating off the end of the strip with both feet results in a touch awarded for the opponent. Going off the side of the strip with one or both halts the fencing action, and is penalized by allowing the opponent to advance one metre before being replaced on guard. If the offending fencer would then be replaced behind the rear limit of the strip because of this, if play is halted for any reason other than stepping off the side of the piste a fencer may never be replaced on guard behind the rear line. After each touch, fencers begin again at the en garde line,4 metres apart, or if these lines are not available, if no touch is scored but play was halted, the fencers come en garde at the position they were stopped. Most pistes at fencing tournaments are grounded to the scoring box, there are different types of piste,1. Rubber conductive piste Made from conductive material with a back, lightweight. Aluminium section piste Made from sections of rolled aluminum which are bolted together, metallic piste Made from woven metal with no backing, weighs approximately 70 kg International Rules International Rules US Fencing Rules
8.
Fencing practice and techniques
–
The modern weapons for sport fencing are the foil, épée, and sabre. A fencing bout takes place on a strip, or piste, two meters either side of the midpoint, there are two en-garde lines, where the fencers stand at the beginning of the bout. There are also two warning lines two metres from end of the strip, to let a retreating fencer know that he/she is nearly out of space. Retreating off of the scores a touch for the opponent. There are at least three people involved, two fencers and a referee, formerly called a Director or President of the jury, the referee may be assisted by a jury of two or four line-judges. This was common prior to the introduction of electronic scoring. Their function is similar to that of linesmen in soccer. Their primary job used to be to watch for hits scored, consequently, the arrival of the electronic scoring apparatus has rendered them largely redundant. Under current FIE rules, a fencer may ask for two side-judges if they think that the referee is failing to notice some infringement of the rules on their opponents part, the referee stands at the side of the piste. The fencers walk on piste fully dressed, aside from the mask, if necessary, they plug their body wires into the spools connected to the electronic scoring apparatus and test their weapons against each other, to make sure everything is functioning. They then retreat to their en-garde lines, prior to starting a bout, the fencers must salute each other. Refusal to do so can result in a suspension or disqualification. Both fencers must salute each other and the referee and they may choose to salute the audience. In non-electric events the four judges should also be saluted, the most likely source of the modern fencing salute is the Present arms command from military drill, which originated in the 16th century. After the salutes are completed, the referee will call En garde, the fencers put on their masks and adopt the fencing stance with the front foot behind the en-garde line and, in foil, with the blade in the sixte line. They are now in the on-guard position, in some countries, the fencers are required to confirm that they are. Finally the referee will call Play. or Fence. and the bout will start, judging is often done in French, in which case the referee will say En garde. Or, if both fencers are female, En garde and this is the start of a phrase i. e. an any unbroken chain of recognisable offensive and defensive actions, such as lunging or parrying performed by the two fencers
9.
Millisecond
–
A millisecond is a thousandth of a second. 10 milliseconds are called a centisecond,100 milliseconds are called a decisecond. To help compare orders of magnitude of different times, this page lists times between 10−3 seconds and 100 seconds, see also times of other orders of magnitude
10.
Grip (sport fencing)
–
In fencing, the grip, also called the handle, is the part of the weapon which is gripped by the fencers hand. There are two types of commonly used today in competitive foil and épée, French, which is a straight grip with a pommel at the end of it. Virtually all high level foil fencers use a grip, in épée. Both kinds of grip optimize hitting with the point of the sword, there are a number of grips which are no longer common or are currently illegal in competitive fencing. The Italian grip is legal but is not used commonly, a number of grips, including the Dos Santos, the Gardere, and the Spanish, which combine a French grip pommel with pistol grip style prongs, are illegal for competition. The rationale for these grips being illegal is that they would allow both the extended reach of the French and the strength of the pistol grip. Sabre, which is the fencing weapon that allows cutting with the edge of the blade, has only one kind of grip. Sabre grips are made of plastic, rubber over metal or plastic, wood. The French grip is contoured to the curve of the hand, compared to the other primary grip used in modern sport fencing, the pistol grip, the French is thought to have greater speed and maneuverability, but less strength and stability. The French grip also allows the fencer to post, holding the grip towards the pommel and this gives the fencer a longer reach while lessening strength and stability, and allows for an expanded repertoire of counterattacks and remises of attacks. It contours entirely to ones hand and is much like a pistol. There are several types of grips, such as the basic Visconti, the German, and the Russian. The subtle variations in the grip may correspond loosely to different fencing styles. In high-level fencing, pistol grips are universally preferred in foil, a substantial number of épéeists at all levels use French grips while posting because of the longer reach. Posting is almost unheard of in foil, as it decreases ones ability to parry successfully, in the 1940s and 50s, it was very popular with sport fencers in America and many other countries, until being supplanted by the pistol grip. Its advocates say that it has most of the French grips agility with a greater degree of power. The Italian grip consists of a handle, usually wood or aluminium covered in grip tape, as well as a crossbar. The fencers fingers actually rest upon the ricasso, which is part of the blade and this not only gives great security, but great sensitivity
11.
Force
–
In physics, a force is any interaction that, when unopposed, will change the motion of an object. In other words, a force can cause an object with mass to change its velocity, force can also be described intuitively as a push or a pull. A force has both magnitude and direction, making it a vector quantity and it is measured in the SI unit of newtons and represented by the symbol F. The original form of Newtons second law states that the net force acting upon an object is equal to the rate at which its momentum changes with time. In an extended body, each part usually applies forces on the adjacent parts, such internal mechanical stresses cause no accelation of that body as the forces balance one another. Pressure, the distribution of small forces applied over an area of a body, is a simple type of stress that if unbalanced can cause the body to accelerate. Stress usually causes deformation of materials, or flow in fluids. In part this was due to an understanding of the sometimes non-obvious force of friction. A fundamental error was the belief that a force is required to maintain motion, most of the previous misunderstandings about motion and force were eventually corrected by Galileo Galilei and Sir Isaac Newton. With his mathematical insight, Sir Isaac Newton formulated laws of motion that were not improved-on for nearly three hundred years, the Standard Model predicts that exchanged particles called gauge bosons are the fundamental means by which forces are emitted and absorbed. Only four main interactions are known, in order of decreasing strength, they are, strong, electromagnetic, weak, high-energy particle physics observations made during the 1970s and 1980s confirmed that the weak and electromagnetic forces are expressions of a more fundamental electroweak interaction. Since antiquity the concept of force has been recognized as integral to the functioning of each of the simple machines. The mechanical advantage given by a machine allowed for less force to be used in exchange for that force acting over a greater distance for the same amount of work. Analysis of the characteristics of forces ultimately culminated in the work of Archimedes who was famous for formulating a treatment of buoyant forces inherent in fluids. Aristotle provided a discussion of the concept of a force as an integral part of Aristotelian cosmology. In Aristotles view, the sphere contained four elements that come to rest at different natural places therein. Aristotle believed that objects on Earth, those composed mostly of the elements earth and water, to be in their natural place on the ground. He distinguished between the tendency of objects to find their natural place, which led to natural motion, and unnatural or forced motion
12.
Newton (unit)
–
The newton is the International System of Units derived unit of force. It is named after Isaac Newton in recognition of his work on classical mechanics, see below for the conversion factors. One newton is the force needed to one kilogram of mass at the rate of one metre per second squared in direction of the applied force. In 1948, the 9th CGPM resolution 7 adopted the name newton for this force, the MKS system then became the blueprint for todays SI system of units. The newton thus became the unit of force in le Système International dUnités. This SI unit is named after Isaac Newton, as with every International System of Units unit named for a person, the first letter of its symbol is upper case. Note that degree Celsius conforms to this rule because the d is lowercase. — Based on The International System of Units, section 5.2. Newtons second law of motion states that F = ma, where F is the applied, m is the mass of the object receiving the force. The newton is therefore, where the symbols are used for the units, N for newton, kg for kilogram, m for metre. In dimensional analysis, F = M L T2 where F is force, M is mass, L is length, at average gravity on earth, a kilogram mass exerts a force of about 9.8 newtons. An average-sized apple exerts about one newton of force, which we measure as the apples weight, for example, the tractive effort of a Class Y steam train and the thrust of an F100 fighter jet engine are both around 130 kN. One kilonewton,1 kN, is 102.0 kgf,1 kN =102 kg ×9.81 m/s2 So for example, a platform rated at 321 kilonewtons will safely support a 32,100 kilograms load. Specifications in kilonewtons are common in safety specifications for, the values of fasteners, Earth anchors. Working loads in tension and in shear, thrust of rocket engines and launch vehicles clamping forces of the various moulds in injection moulding machines used to manufacture plastic parts
13.
Ground (electricity)
–
Electrical circuits may be connected to ground for several reasons. In mains powered equipment, exposed parts are connected to ground to prevent user contact with dangerous voltage when electrical insulation fails. In electrical power systems, a protective ground conductor is an essential part of the safety Earthing system. Connection to ground also limits the build-up of static electricity when handling flammable products or electrostatic-sensitive devices, in some telegraph and power transmission circuits, the earth itself can be used as one conductor of the circuit, saving the cost of installing a separate return conductor. For measurement purposes, the Earth serves as a constant potential reference against which other potentials can be measured, an electrical ground system should have an appropriate current-carrying capability to serve as an adequate zero-voltage reference level. In electronic circuit theory, a ground is usually idealized as a source or sink for charge. Where a real ground connection has a significant resistance, the approximation of zero potential is no longer valid, stray voltages or earth potential rise effects will occur, which may create noise in signals or if large enough will produce an electric shock hazard. This is usually a large conductor attached to one side of the power supply which serves as the return path for current from many different components in the circuit. Long-distance electromagnetic telegraph systems from 1820 onwards used two or more wires to carry the signal and return currents. During dry weather, the ground connection often developed a high resistance, an electrical connection to earth can be used as a reference potential for radio frequency signals for certain kinds of antennas. The part directly in contact with the earth - the earth electrode - can be as simple as a rod or stake driven into the earth. Because high frequency signals can flow to earth due to capacitative effects, because of this, a complex system of buried rods and wires can be effective. An ideal signal ground maintains a fixed potential regardless of how much current flows into ground or out of ground. Some types of transmitting antenna systems in the VLF, LF, MF, sometimes a counterpoise is used as a ground plane, supported above the ground. Electrical power distribution systems are connected to ground to limit the voltage that can appear on distribution circuits. A distribution system insulated from ground may attain a high potential due to transient voltages caused by arcing, static electricity, a ground connection of the system dissipates such potentials and limits the rise in voltage of the grounded system. In a mains electricity wiring installation, the ground conductor typically refers to three different conductors or conductor systems as listed below. Equipment earthing conductors provide a connection between non-current-carrying metallic parts of equipment and the earth
14.
Body cord
–
In fencing, a body cord serves as the connection between a fencer and a reel of wire that is part of a system for electrically detecting that the weapon has touched the opponent. There are two types, one for epee, and one for foil and sabre, Épée body cords consist of two sets of three prongs each connected by a wire. One set plugs into the weapon, with the other connecting to the reel. Foil and saber body cords have only two irregularly sized prongs on the side, with the third wire connecting instead to the fencers lamé. The need in foil and saber to distinguish between on and off-target touches requires a connection to the valid target area. The three wires of the cord are known as the A, B, and C lines. At the reel connector The B pin is in the middle, the A pin is 1.5 cm to one side of B, and this asymmetrical arrangement ensures that the cord cannot be plugged in the wrong way around. The A line is the line, the B line is the weapon line. Although it works differently for each weapon, a valid touch always involves the connection of the A and B lines. In all three weapons, the C line is connected to the body of the weapon, and sometimes to the strip as well. In foil, the A line is connected to the lamé, the B line is normally connected to the C line through the tip. The tip is not touching either of the above, Off-target hit, in Épée, the A and B lines run up separate wires to the tip. When the tip is depressed, it connects the A and B lines, however, if the tip is touching your opponents weapon or the grounded strip, nothing happens when it is depressed, as the current is redirected to the C line. Grounded strips are particularly important in Épée, as without one, in Sabre, similarly to Foil, the A line is connected to the lamé, but both the B and C lines are connected to the body of the weapon. Any contact between your B/C line and your opponents A line results in a valid touch, there is no need for grounded strips in Sabre, as hitting something other than your opponents lame does nothing. Typically, a fencer wears a body cord under their jacket, the wire is threaded through the sleeve of the weapon arm as it is being donned. Most gloves feature a small hole designed around the use of a body cord, in officially sanctioned tournaments, the plug that fits into the weapon must be secured with an additional device, usually a small clip. The other end of the wire is connected to the reel, in addition, foilists and saberists must connect their alligator clips to their lamés
15.
Set screw
–
A set screw is a type of screw generally used to secure an object within or against another object, normally not using a nut. The most common examples are securing a pulley or gear to a shaft, set screws are usually headless, meaning that the screw is fully threaded and has no head projecting past the major diameter of the screw thread. If a set screw has a head, the thread will extend all the way to the head, a blind set screw is almost always driven with an internal-wrenching drive, such as a hex socket, star, square socket, or slot. The set screw passes through a hole in the outer object and is tightened against the inner object to prevent it from moving relative to the outer object. It exerts compressional or clamping force through the tip that projects through the hole. An example application is when a set screw is screwed into a pulley hub so that its end-point bears firmly against the shaft, the fastening action is by friction between the screw and the shaft, often with some amount of elastic or plastic deformation of one or both. Set screws are not always the best way to resist the torque of driven shafts, to reduce the chance of slipping and to increase load capacity, a detent may be milled or ground at the part of the shaft where the set screws point contacts. The detent, however, must be aligned with the threaded hole prior to fastening. The operator can feel the screw push the flat into final alignment as he or she makes the last half- or quarter-turn that tightens the screw. Set screws can successfully hold against heavy-torque applications if the details are right, for example, endmill holders of the solid type typically use large set screws holding against flats to fasten the endmill, and heavy loads are resisted. However, small set screws without flats are prone to spinning and galling if overloaded, the use of keys and keyways instead of, or in combination with, set screws is common for applications requiring high torque resistance or transmission. For longer life, set screws are usually made of alloy steel, hardened set screws often leave a plastic deformation, in the form of a circular or semicircular mark, in the shaft that the screw sets against. This has both pros and cons, on the pro side, such deformation increases the holding power of the joint, as the screw is essentially making its own detent on a small but effective scale. On the con side, if one is aiming to have a blemish-free cosmetic finish on the part being set against, in most set screw applications, this consideration is irrelevant. Another con is that plastic deformation can cause corresponding high points in the shaft surrounding the circular mark. This can result in difficulties during dis-assembly if a bearing or other tightly toleranced part needs to slide past this area, use of a flat mitigates this problem. Set screws appear with a variety of tip types, the different shaped tips have different properties that engineers can utilize. If an engineer were to use a detent to ensure proper nesting of the screw, one might often need to use a flat point when the screw must press perfectly flat against a surface
16.
Shim (spacer)
–
A shim is a thin and often tapered or wedged piece of material, used to fill small gaps or spaces between objects. Shims are typically used in order to support, adjust for better fit, shims may also be used as spacers to fill gaps between parts subject to wear. Many materials make suitable shim stock, or base material, depending on the context, wood, stone, plastic, metal, or even paper. High quality shim stock can be commercially, for example as laminated shims. Laminated shim stock is stacked foil that can be peeled off one layer at a time to adjust the thickness of the shim, in automobiles, shims are commonly used to adjust the clearance or space between two parts. For example, shims are inserted into or under bucket tappets to control valve clearances, clearance is adjusted by changing the thickness of the shim. In Assembly and Weld Fixtures precision metal shims are used two parts so that the final production parts are created within the product drawings specified tolerances. In carpentry, small pieces of wood may be used to align gaps between larger timbers, in luthiery, shims made of various materials are often used to adjust neck alignment and can be used beneath a nut or saddle to raise the height of either. In masonry, small stones may be used to align or fill gaps between larger bricks or slabs, special CPU shims are used to protect the central processing unit when installing a heat sink. This is accomplished by manual shimming of individual shims, or automatic shimming procedure, to the Point, A Brief History of the Shim
17.
Etching
–
Etching is traditionally the process of using strong acid or mordant to cut into the unprotected parts of a metal surface to create a design in intaglio in the metal. In modern manufacturing, other chemicals may be used on other types of material, as a method of printmaking, it is, along with engraving, the most important technique for old master prints, and remains in wide use today. In a number of variants such as microfabrication etching and photochemical milling it is a crucial technique in much modern technology. In traditional pure etching, a plate is covered with a waxy ground which is resistant to acid. The artist then scratches off the ground with an etching needle where he or she wants a line to appear in the finished piece. The échoppe, a tool with an oval section, is also used for swelling lines. The plate is dipped in a bath of acid, technically called the mordant or etchant. The acid bites into the metal where it is exposed, leaving behind lines sunk into the plate, the remaining ground is then cleaned off the plate. The plate is inked all over, and then the ink wiped off the surface, the plate is then put through a high-pressure printing press together with a sheet of paper. The paper picks up the ink from the lines, making a print. The process can be repeated many times, typically several hundred impressions could be printed before the shows much sign of wear. The work on the plate can also be added to by repeating the whole process, Etching has often been combined with other intaglio techniques such as engraving or aquatint. The process as applied to printmaking is believed to have been invented by Daniel Hopfer of Augsburg, Hopfer was a craftsman who decorated armour in this way, and applied the method to printmaking, using iron plates. Apart from his prints, there are two examples of his work on armour, a shield from 1536 now in the Real Armeria of Madrid. The switch to copper plates was made in Italy. On the other hand, the handling of the ground and acid need skill and experience, prior to 1100 AD, the New World Hohokam independently utilized the technique of acid etching in marine shell designs. Jacques Callot from Nancy in Lorraine made important technical advances in etching technique and he developed the échoppe, a type of etching-needle with a slanting oval section at the end, which enabled etchers to create a swelling line, as engravers were able to do. Callot also appears to have responsible for an improved, harder, recipe for the etching ground
18.
Jacques Callot
–
Jacques Callot was a baroque printmaker and draftsman from the Duchy of Lorraine. He is an important person in the development of the old master print and he made more than 1,400 etchings that chronicled the life of his period, featuring soldiers, clowns, drunkards, Gypsies, beggars, as well as court life. He also etched many religious and military images, and many prints featured extensive landscapes in their background, Callot was born and died in Nancy, the capital of Lorraine, now in France. He came from an important family, and he describes himself as having noble status in the inscriptions to his prints. At the age of fifteen he was apprenticed to a goldsmith and he probably then studied etching with Antonio Tempesta in Florence, where he lived from 1612 to 1621. More than 2,000 preparatory drawings and studies for prints survive, but no paintings by him are known, during his period in Florence he became an independent master, and worked often for the Medici court. After the death of Cosimo II de Medici during 1621, he returned to Nancy where he lived for the rest of his life, visiting Paris and he was commissioned by the courts of Lorraine, France and Spain, and by publishers, mostly in Paris. Although he remained in Nancy, his prints were distributed widely through Europe and his technique was exceptional, and was helped by important technical advances he made. He developed the échoppe, a type of etching-needle with an oval section at the end. Previously the risk of foul-biting had always been present, preventing an engraver from investing too much time on a plate that risked being ruined by foul-biting. Now etchers could do the detailed work that was previously the monopoly of engravers. He also made extensive and sophisticated use of multiple stoppings-out than previous etchers had done. He achieved unprecedented subtlety in effects of distance and light and shade by careful control of this process, most of his prints were relatively small – as much as about six inches or 15 cm on their longest dimension. One of his devotees, the Parisian Abraham Bosse spread Callots innovations all over Europe with the first published manual of etching and his most famous prints are his two series of prints each on the Miseries and Misfortunes of War. These are known as Les Grandes Misères de la guerre, consisting of 18 prints published during 1633, at the end the generals are rewarded by their monarch. Callots series of Grotesque Dwarves were to inspire Derby porcelain and other companies to create pottery figures known as Mansion House Dwarves or Grotesque Dwarves. The former title comes from a father and son who were paid to wander around the Mansion House in London wearing oversized hats that contained advertisements. Varie Figure Gobbi - Series of 21 etchings,1616 A large series depicting commedia dellarte figures called Balli di Sfessania, in a simple, caricature-like style, Series on the Lives of Christ and Mary
19.
Spatha
–
The spatha was a type of straight and long sword, measuring between 0.75 and 1 m, in use in the territory of the Roman Empire during c. the 1st to 6th centuries CE. Later swords from the 7th to 10th centuries, like the Viking swords, are recognizable derivatives, the Roman spatha was used in war and in gladiatorial fights. The spatha apparently replaced the gladius in the front ranks, giving the infantry more reach when thrusting, while the infantry version had a long point, versions carried by the cavalry had a rounded tip that prevented accidental stabbing of the cavalrymans own foot or horse. Archaeologically many instances of the spatha have been found in Britain and it was used extensively by Germanic warriors. It is unclear whether it came from the Pompeii gladius or the longer Celtic swords, or whether it served as a model for the various arming swords, the spatha remained popular throughout the Migration Period. It evolved into the sword of the High Middle Ages by the 12th century. The word comes from the Latin spatha, which derives from Greek σπάθη, meaning any broad blade, of wood or metal, the Greek word σπάθη was used in the middle Archaic period for various types of Iron Age swords. The word does not appear in Homeric Greek, but it is mentioned in the works of Alcaeus of Mytilene and it is likely that spatha is the romanization of a Doric Greek σπάθα The word survives in Modern Greek as σπάθη and σπαθί. The Latin word became the French épée, Catalan espasa, Portuguese and Spanish espada, Italian spada, Romanian spadă and Albanian shpata, the English word spatula comes from Latin spatula, the diminutive of spatha. English spade, from Old English spadu or spædu, is the Germanic cognate, derived from a Common Germanic *spadō, the earlier gladius sword was gradually replaced by the spatha from the late 2nd to the 3rd century. From the early 3rd century, legionaries and cavalrymen began to wear their swords on the side, perhaps because the scutum had been abandoned. In the imperial period, the Romans adopted the original Greek term, spáthē, as spatha, spatha appears first in Pliny and then Seneca with different meanings, a spatula, a metal-working implement, a palm-leaf and so on. There is no hint of any native Roman sword called a spatha, referring to an actual sword, the term first appears in the pages of Tacitus with reference to an incident of the early Empire. Tacitus does not identify the auxiliaries, and since the Romans employed both transplanted soldiers and local levies, it impossible to know the origins of the Roman auxiliaries in Tacitus account, most examples of spathae come from Germany and Eastern Europe, however. There is an excellent chance that the owners of the spathae were Germanic, there is no indication in Tacitus either that they were cavalry, overall, the Romans used both cavalry and infantry. When the spathae next appeared, after a lacuna of about two centuries, they became the standard weapon of heavy infantry. The Romans could have borrowed this weapon from the auxiliaries, probably Germanic mercenaries, spatha was certainly not a Germanic name, nor is there any indication anywhere what its Germanic name was. There are a plenitude of Germanic names, such as Old English sweord, bill, and so on, but no evidence to tie any name to the spatha, the spatha remained in use in the Byzantine Empire and its army
20.
Civilian
–
In general, a civilian is a person who is not a member of the military or of a police or firefighting force, as defined by Merriam Websters Dictionary. From the perspective of the U. S, in military and law enforcement slang, the term Civies or Civvies are often used to refer civilian population or civilian clothing. Under the laws of war, a civilian is one not being a member of the services and does not take a direct part of hostilities in times of armed conflict. The term civilian is slightly different from a non-combatant under the laws of war, the privileges that they enjoy under international law depends on whether the conflict is an internal one or an international one. The word civilian goes back to the late 14th century and is from Old French civilien, Civilian is believed to have been used to refer to non-combatants as early as 1829. The term non-combatant now refers to people in general who are not taking part of hostilities, there is no intermediate status, nobody in enemy hands can be outside the law. We feel that this is a satisfactory solution – not only satisfying to the mind, but also, the ICRC has expressed the opinion that If civilians directly engage in hostilities, they are considered unlawful or unprivileged combatants or belligerents. They may be prosecuted under the law of the detaining state for such action. According to Article 50 of the 1977 Protocol I Additional to the Geneva Conventions,1, a civilian is any person who does not belong to one of the categories of persons referred to in Article 4A, and of the Third Convention and in Article 43 of this Protocol. In case of whether a person is a civilian, that person shall be considered to be a civilian. The civilian population comprises all persons who are civilians, the presence within the civilian population of individuals who do not come within the definition of civilians does not deprive the population of its civilian character. The definition is negative and defines civilians as persons who do not belong to definite categories, the categories of persons mentioned in Article 4A, and of the Third Convention and in Article 43 of the Protocol I are combatants. Therefore, the Commentary to the Protocol pointed that, any one who is not a member of the forces is a civilian. Civilians cannot take part in armed conflict, civilians are given protection under the Geneva Conventions and Protocols thereto. Article 51 describes the protection that must be given to the civilian population, chapter III of Protocol I regulates the targeting of civilian objects. The actual position of the civilian in modern war remains problematical, starting in the 1980s, it was often claimed that 90 percent of the victims of modern wars were civilians. The claim was repeated on Wikipedias Did You Know on 14 December 2010 and these claims, though widely believed, are not supported by detailed examination of the evidence, particularly that relating to wars that are central to the claims. It has lost none of its political, legal and moral salience, although it is often assumed that civilians are essentially passive onlookers of war, sometimes they have active roles in conflicts
,_Graveur.-_Le_duel_%C3%A0_l%27%C3%A9p%C3%A9e.png)
