1.
Small sword
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The small sword or smallsword is a light one-handed sword designed for thrusting which evolved out of the longer and heavier rapier of the late Renaissance. The height of the small swords popularity was between mid 17th and late 18th century and it is thought to have appeared in France and spread quickly across the rest of Europe. Militarily, small swords continued to be used as a sidearm for infantry officers. In some branches with strong traditions, this continues to the modern day. The carrying of swords by officers in combat conditions was frequent in World War I, the 1913 U. S. Army Manual of Bayonet Drill includes instructions for how to defend with a smallsword. As a rule, the blade of a sword is comparatively short at around 0.6 to 0.85 metres. It usually tapers to a point but may lack a cutting edge. It is typically triangular in cross-section, although some of the examples still have the rhombic and spindle-shaped cross-sections inherited from older weapons. This triangular cross-section may be ground for additional lightness. Many small swords of the period between the 17th and 18th centuries were found with colichemarde blades, the small sword guard is typically of the shell type, sometimes with two lobes that were decorated as clam shells. The shells were replaced with a simple curved oval disk. In later foils, the type evolved into the lunette or figure-8 guard, and the disk became the modern foil bell guard. However, they were maintained in a state on some weapons, including the Italian foil. In the 19th century, simple cross-hilt small swords were also produced, an example is the Model 1840 Army Noncommissioned Officers Sword, which is still used by the United States Army on ceremonial occasions. As the wearing of swords fell out of fashion and the small sword evolved into the duelling sword, small swords were used both by the military and as a dueling weapon. The use of the sword for infantry is covered in the US manual of 1861 titled The Militiamans Manual. In modern times, the sword is used as part of court uniform. A German version of the sword called Trauerdegen is still in use by the Reitendiener of the city of Hamburg in Germany
2.
Fencing
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Fencing, also called Olympic fencing, is a sport in which two competitors fight using rapier-style swords, winning points by making contact with their opponent. Fencing was one of the first sports to be played in the Olympics, there are three forms of modern fencing, each using a different style of weapon and different rules, and as such the sport is divided into three competitive scenes, foil, épée, and sabre. Most competitive fencers choose to specialise in one weapon. Competitive fencing is one of five activities which have featured in every one of the modern Olympic Games, the other four being athletics, cycling, swimming. Fencing is governed by Fédération Internationale dEscrime, today, its head office is in Lausanne, Switzerland. The FIE is composed of 145 national federations, each of which is recognised by its countrys Olympic Committee as the representative of Olympic-style fencing in that country. The FIE maintains the current rules used for FIE sanctioned international events, including cups, world championships. The FIE handles proposals to change the rules the first year after an Olympic year in the annual congress, the US Fencing Association has slightly different rules, but usually adhere to FIE standards. Fencing traces its roots to the development of swordsmanship for duels, the ancestor of modern fencing originated in Spain, where several books on fencing were written. In conquest, the Spanish forces carried fencing around the world, particularly southern Italy, Fencing was mentioned in the play The Merry Wives of Windsor written sometime prior to 1602. The mechanics of modern fencing originated in the 18th century in an Italian school of fencing of the Renaissance, the Spanish school of fencing stagnated and was replaced by the Italian and French schools. There, he taught the aristocracy the fashionable art of swordsmanship and his school was run by three generations of his family and dominated the art of European fencing for almost a century. He established the rules of posture and footwork that still govern modern sport fencing. The first regularized fencing competition was held at the inaugural Grand Military Tournament and Assault at Arms in 1880, held at the Royal Agricultural Hall, the Tournament featured a series of competitions between army officers and soldiers. Each bout was fought for five hits and the foils were pointed with black to aid the judges, the Amateur Gymnastic & Fencing Association drew up an official set of fencing regulations in 1896. Fencing was part of the Olympics Games in the summer of 1896, starting with épée in 1933, side judges were replaced by the Laurent-Pagan electrical scoring apparatus, with an audible tone and a red or green light indicating when a touch landed. Foil was automated in 1956, sabre in 1988, the scoring box reduced the bias in judging, and permitted more accurate scoring of faster actions, lighter touches, and more touches to the back and flank than before. There are three weapons in modern fencing, foil, épée, and sabre, each weapon has its own rules and strategies
3.
Foil (fencing)
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A foil is one of the three weapons used in the sport of fencing, all of which are metal. It is flexible, rectangular in section, and weighs under a pound. As with the épée, points are scored by contact with the tip. A foil fencers uniform features the lamé, a vest, electrically wired to record hits in such cases and it is the most commonly used weapon in competition. There are two types of foils, the nonelectric foil—also known as steam or dry—and the electric. The components common to both varieties are the pommel, grip, guard, thumb pad, and blade. The blades of both varieties are capped with a plastic or rubber piece, with a button at the tip in electric blades, lacking the button and associated electrical mechanism, a judge is required to determine the scoring and the victor in a tournaments with nonelectric foils. Nonelectric ones are used for practice. The blade itself is subdivided into 3 regions, the foible, or weak, the last third of the blade near the tip, the medium, and the forte, or strong, the third of the blade near the guard. Inside of the grip is the tang, which is threaded at the end to allow the pommel to fasten the foil assembly together. When an Italian grip is used, see below, a ricasso extends from under the guard, inside of the grips quillons, into the tang. The guard is fastened to the blade, plug, and grip assemblies by the pommel, a type of threaded fastener, beginning with the 1956 Olympics, scoring in foil has been accomplished by means of registering the touch with an electric circuit. A switch at the tip of the foil registers the touch, the electric foil contains a socket underneath the guard that connects to the scoring apparatus via the body cord and a wire that runs down a channel cut into the top of the blade. Electric foil sockets are fixed so that the body cord plugs into the weapon at the fencers wrist, the tip of the electric foil terminates in a button assembly that generally consists of a barrel, plunger, spring, and retaining screws. Color-coding is used, white or yellow indicates hits not on the target area. The modern foil is descended from the weapon for the small-sword. Rapier and even longsword foils are also known to have been used, although the foil as a blunted weapon for sword practice goes back to the 16th century, the use as a weapon for sport is more recent. The foil was used in France as a weapon in the middle of the 18th century in order to practise fast
4.
Sabre (fencing)
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The sabre is one of the three weapons of modern fencing, and is alternatively spelled saber in American English. The sabre differs from the modern fencing weapons, the épée and foil, in that it is possible to score with the edge of the blade, for this reason, sabreur movements. For the other two weapons, valid touches are only scored using the point of the blade, like the foil, but unlike the épée, sabre uses the convention of right-of-way to determine who acquires the touch. The term sabreur refers to a fencer who fences with a sabre. The cross-section of the blade is l - or V-shaped, unlike the quadrangular shape of the foil. Adult blades are 88 cm in length, at the end of the blade, the point is folded over itself to form a button, although no actual button exists. The bell guard of the sword is curved around the handle, on electrical sabres, a socket for the body wire is found underneath the bell guard. A fastener known as a pommel is attached to the end of the sword to keep the bell guard, the handle of a sabre is standardly a straight sabre grip, as other grips are incompatible with the bell guard. Pistol grips are incompatible with the sabre, the entire weapon is generally 105 cm long, the maximum weight is 500g, but most competition swords are closer to 400g. It is shorter than the foil or épée, and lighter than the épée, the sabres blade is sometimes likened to a matchstick insofar as it is easy to snap but relatively cheap to replace. Like other weapons used in fencing, the modern sabre uses a connection to register touches. The sabreuse wears a lamé, a conductive vest, to complete the circuit, sabre was the last weapon in fencing to make the transition over to using electrical equipment. This occurred in 1988,32 years after foil and 52 years after the épée, unlike the other two weapons, there is very little difference between an electric sabre and a steam or dry one. The blade itself is the same in steam and electric sabres, an electric sabre has a socket, which is generally a 2-prong or bayonet foil socket with the two contacts shorted together. The electric sabre also has insulation on the pommel and on the inside of the guard to prevent a connection between the sabre and the lamé. This is undesirable because it extends the lamé onto the sabre. Early electric sabres were equipped with a capteur socket, the capteur was a device that was intended to detect a parry by use of an accelerometer. If a parry was detected, the electronics were supposed to invalidate any subsequent closing of the circuit due to the flexible blade whipping around the parry
5.
Fuller (weapon)
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A fuller is a rounded or beveled groove or slot in the flat side of a blade that is made using a blacksmithing tool called a spring swage. These grooves are often called blood grooves or blood gutters as well as fullers, a fuller is often used to lighten the blade, much the way that the shape of an I-beam allows a given amount of strength to be achieved with less material. When combined with proper distal tapers, heat treatment and blade tempering and this effect lessens as the blade is reduced in length. A blade is said to be fullered after introduction of the groove, the term fuller is from the Old English fuliere, meaning one who fulls cloth. It is derived from the Latin word fullo, the first recorded use of the term as a blacksmithing tool is from 1864, according to Websters Dictionary. The term used in historical Europe is largely unknown, and due to the changing nature of language. King Thrasamund of the Vandals was recorded in a letter to King Theodoric the Ostrogoth, giving thanks for a gift of swords, the French often use the term goutiere or cannelure. The ancient Viking term is unknown, as a verb, the old French term gutter meant to cut small hollows, as in the gutter of a crossbow. Therefore, in descriptions, fuller is often the preferred choice. As a blacksmithing tool, a fuller is a type of swage, a swage is a tool that has a particular shape forged into its surface, which is used to imprint that shape into the metal. Swage blocks are often anvil-like blocks with various shapes forged in them, the term swage is from the Old French souage, meaning decorative groove or ornamental moulding. Fullers, in particular, are swages that have a cylindrical or beveled face, if a groove is to be applied to both sides of the steel, two fullers may be used at the same time, sandwiching the workpiece in the middle. Often, one fuller will have a peg that holds it securely in the anvil, while the other fuller will have a handle and a flat head, for striking with a hammer. A blade being fullered will generally be pulled through the fullers as they are being hammered, until the entire groove is the proper depth. As the fullers make the groove, they typically displace material to the side and these ridges may be hammered flat, widening the blade, or they are often shaped with other swages, increasing the strength of the blade by creating thicker areas in its cross section. Fullers have a variety of uses beyond bladesmithing and they are often used for drawing out steel, which consists of hammering a short block into a long bar. The fullers will often be used to notch the block or bar, if the fullers are longer than the block is wide, they will tend to elongate the block rather than raise bulges from the surface. After notching, the block is hammered smooth, elongating it further, fullers are also used for many other shaping processes in blacksmithing, from making hinges and latches to plow parts and horseshoes
6.
Fabian Kauter
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Fabian Kauter is a Swiss épée fencer, four-time European team champion and bronze medallist in the 2011 and 2013 World Fencing Championships. Kauters first sport was football, but a series of injuries lead him to turn to another sport and he took up fencing at age ten. His father, Christian Kauter, is a two-time Olympic medalist, Kauter also pursues a musical career under the artist name YuRi. He released in 2009 his first album Summer in Sibirie, followed in 2012 by Kopf über Wasser, in 2013, he co-founded I believe in you, a crowdfunding platform for sport projects in Switzerland. Kauter placed third in the European Fencing Championship 2007 and in the World Fencing Championship 2011, in 2012, he won at Buenos Aires his first gold medal in a World Cup competition. A few months later, he competed in mens épée at the 2012 Summer Olympics and he earned a bronze medal in the 2013 Berne Grand Prix and in the 2013 World Fencing Championships in Budapest. In the 2013–2014 season, he won the Vancouver Grand Prix after defeating reigning world champion Nikolai Novosjolov in the final and became no.1 in FIE rankings
7.
Piste (fencing)
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In modern fencing, the piste or strip is the playing area. Regulations require the piste to be 14 metres long and between 1.5 and 2 metres wide. The last two metres on each end are hash-marked to warn a fencer before he/she backs off the end of the strip, the piste is also marked at the centre and at the en garde lines, located two metres either side of the center line. Retreating off the end of the strip with both feet results in a touch awarded for the opponent. Going off the side of the strip with one or both halts the fencing action, and is penalized by allowing the opponent to advance one metre before being replaced on guard. If the offending fencer would then be replaced behind the rear limit of the strip because of this, if play is halted for any reason other than stepping off the side of the piste a fencer may never be replaced on guard behind the rear line. After each touch, fencers begin again at the en garde line,4 metres apart, or if these lines are not available, if no touch is scored but play was halted, the fencers come en garde at the position they were stopped. Most pistes at fencing tournaments are grounded to the scoring box, there are different types of piste,1. Rubber conductive piste Made from conductive material with a back, lightweight. Aluminium section piste Made from sections of rolled aluminum which are bolted together, metallic piste Made from woven metal with no backing, weighs approximately 70 kg International Rules International Rules US Fencing Rules
8.
Fencing practice and techniques
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The modern weapons for sport fencing are the foil, épée, and sabre. A fencing bout takes place on a strip, or piste, two meters either side of the midpoint, there are two en-garde lines, where the fencers stand at the beginning of the bout. There are also two warning lines two metres from end of the strip, to let a retreating fencer know that he/she is nearly out of space. Retreating off of the scores a touch for the opponent. There are at least three people involved, two fencers and a referee, formerly called a Director or President of the jury, the referee may be assisted by a jury of two or four line-judges. This was common prior to the introduction of electronic scoring. Their function is similar to that of linesmen in soccer. Their primary job used to be to watch for hits scored, consequently, the arrival of the electronic scoring apparatus has rendered them largely redundant. Under current FIE rules, a fencer may ask for two side-judges if they think that the referee is failing to notice some infringement of the rules on their opponents part, the referee stands at the side of the piste. The fencers walk on piste fully dressed, aside from the mask, if necessary, they plug their body wires into the spools connected to the electronic scoring apparatus and test their weapons against each other, to make sure everything is functioning. They then retreat to their en-garde lines, prior to starting a bout, the fencers must salute each other. Refusal to do so can result in a suspension or disqualification. Both fencers must salute each other and the referee and they may choose to salute the audience. In non-electric events the four judges should also be saluted, the most likely source of the modern fencing salute is the Present arms command from military drill, which originated in the 16th century. After the salutes are completed, the referee will call En garde, the fencers put on their masks and adopt the fencing stance with the front foot behind the en-garde line and, in foil, with the blade in the sixte line. They are now in the on-guard position, in some countries, the fencers are required to confirm that they are. Finally the referee will call Play. or Fence. and the bout will start, judging is often done in French, in which case the referee will say En garde. Or, if both fencers are female, En garde and this is the start of a phrase i. e. an any unbroken chain of recognisable offensive and defensive actions, such as lunging or parrying performed by the two fencers
9.
Millisecond
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A millisecond is a thousandth of a second. 10 milliseconds are called a centisecond,100 milliseconds are called a decisecond. To help compare orders of magnitude of different times, this page lists times between 10−3 seconds and 100 seconds, see also times of other orders of magnitude
10.
Grip (sport fencing)
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In fencing, the grip, also called the handle, is the part of the weapon which is gripped by the fencers hand. There are two types of commonly used today in competitive foil and épée, French, which is a straight grip with a pommel at the end of it. Virtually all high level foil fencers use a grip, in épée. Both kinds of grip optimize hitting with the point of the sword, there are a number of grips which are no longer common or are currently illegal in competitive fencing. The Italian grip is legal but is not used commonly, a number of grips, including the Dos Santos, the Gardere, and the Spanish, which combine a French grip pommel with pistol grip style prongs, are illegal for competition. The rationale for these grips being illegal is that they would allow both the extended reach of the French and the strength of the pistol grip. Sabre, which is the fencing weapon that allows cutting with the edge of the blade, has only one kind of grip. Sabre grips are made of plastic, rubber over metal or plastic, wood. The French grip is contoured to the curve of the hand, compared to the other primary grip used in modern sport fencing, the pistol grip, the French is thought to have greater speed and maneuverability, but less strength and stability. The French grip also allows the fencer to post, holding the grip towards the pommel and this gives the fencer a longer reach while lessening strength and stability, and allows for an expanded repertoire of counterattacks and remises of attacks. It contours entirely to ones hand and is much like a pistol. There are several types of grips, such as the basic Visconti, the German, and the Russian. The subtle variations in the grip may correspond loosely to different fencing styles. In high-level fencing, pistol grips are universally preferred in foil, a substantial number of épéeists at all levels use French grips while posting because of the longer reach. Posting is almost unheard of in foil, as it decreases ones ability to parry successfully, in the 1940s and 50s, it was very popular with sport fencers in America and many other countries, until being supplanted by the pistol grip. Its advocates say that it has most of the French grips agility with a greater degree of power. The Italian grip consists of a handle, usually wood or aluminium covered in grip tape, as well as a crossbar. The fencers fingers actually rest upon the ricasso, which is part of the blade and this not only gives great security, but great sensitivity
11.
Force
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In physics, a force is any interaction that, when unopposed, will change the motion of an object. In other words, a force can cause an object with mass to change its velocity, force can also be described intuitively as a push or a pull. A force has both magnitude and direction, making it a vector quantity and it is measured in the SI unit of newtons and represented by the symbol F. The original form of Newtons second law states that the net force acting upon an object is equal to the rate at which its momentum changes with time. In an extended body, each part usually applies forces on the adjacent parts, such internal mechanical stresses cause no accelation of that body as the forces balance one another. Pressure, the distribution of small forces applied over an area of a body, is a simple type of stress that if unbalanced can cause the body to accelerate. Stress usually causes deformation of materials, or flow in fluids. In part this was due to an understanding of the sometimes non-obvious force of friction. A fundamental error was the belief that a force is required to maintain motion, most of the previous misunderstandings about motion and force were eventually corrected by Galileo Galilei and Sir Isaac Newton. With his mathematical insight, Sir Isaac Newton formulated laws of motion that were not improved-on for nearly three hundred years, the Standard Model predicts that exchanged particles called gauge bosons are the fundamental means by which forces are emitted and absorbed. Only four main interactions are known, in order of decreasing strength, they are, strong, electromagnetic, weak, high-energy particle physics observations made during the 1970s and 1980s confirmed that the weak and electromagnetic forces are expressions of a more fundamental electroweak interaction. Since antiquity the concept of force has been recognized as integral to the functioning of each of the simple machines. The mechanical advantage given by a machine allowed for less force to be used in exchange for that force acting over a greater distance for the same amount of work. Analysis of the characteristics of forces ultimately culminated in the work of Archimedes who was famous for formulating a treatment of buoyant forces inherent in fluids. Aristotle provided a discussion of the concept of a force as an integral part of Aristotelian cosmology. In Aristotles view, the sphere contained four elements that come to rest at different natural places therein. Aristotle believed that objects on Earth, those composed mostly of the elements earth and water, to be in their natural place on the ground. He distinguished between the tendency of objects to find their natural place, which led to natural motion, and unnatural or forced motion
12.
Newton (unit)
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The newton is the International System of Units derived unit of force. It is named after Isaac Newton in recognition of his work on classical mechanics, see below for the conversion factors. One newton is the force needed to one kilogram of mass at the rate of one metre per second squared in direction of the applied force. In 1948, the 9th CGPM resolution 7 adopted the name newton for this force, the MKS system then became the blueprint for todays SI system of units. The newton thus became the unit of force in le Système International dUnités. This SI unit is named after Isaac Newton, as with every International System of Units unit named for a person, the first letter of its symbol is upper case. Note that degree Celsius conforms to this rule because the d is lowercase. — Based on The International System of Units, section 5.2. Newtons second law of motion states that F = ma, where F is the applied, m is the mass of the object receiving the force. The newton is therefore, where the symbols are used for the units, N for newton, kg for kilogram, m for metre. In dimensional analysis, F = M L T2 where F is force, M is mass, L is length, at average gravity on earth, a kilogram mass exerts a force of about 9.8 newtons. An average-sized apple exerts about one newton of force, which we measure as the apples weight, for example, the tractive effort of a Class Y steam train and the thrust of an F100 fighter jet engine are both around 130 kN. One kilonewton,1 kN, is 102.0 kgf,1 kN =102 kg ×9.81 m/s2 So for example, a platform rated at 321 kilonewtons will safely support a 32,100 kilograms load. Specifications in kilonewtons are common in safety specifications for, the values of fasteners, Earth anchors. Working loads in tension and in shear, thrust of rocket engines and launch vehicles clamping forces of the various moulds in injection moulding machines used to manufacture plastic parts
13.
Ground (electricity)
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Electrical circuits may be connected to ground for several reasons. In mains powered equipment, exposed parts are connected to ground to prevent user contact with dangerous voltage when electrical insulation fails. In electrical power systems, a protective ground conductor is an essential part of the safety Earthing system. Connection to ground also limits the build-up of static electricity when handling flammable products or electrostatic-sensitive devices, in some telegraph and power transmission circuits, the earth itself can be used as one conductor of the circuit, saving the cost of installing a separate return conductor. For measurement purposes, the Earth serves as a constant potential reference against which other potentials can be measured, an electrical ground system should have an appropriate current-carrying capability to serve as an adequate zero-voltage reference level. In electronic circuit theory, a ground is usually idealized as a source or sink for charge. Where a real ground connection has a significant resistance, the approximation of zero potential is no longer valid, stray voltages or earth potential rise effects will occur, which may create noise in signals or if large enough will produce an electric shock hazard. This is usually a large conductor attached to one side of the power supply which serves as the return path for current from many different components in the circuit. Long-distance electromagnetic telegraph systems from 1820 onwards used two or more wires to carry the signal and return currents. During dry weather, the ground connection often developed a high resistance, an electrical connection to earth can be used as a reference potential for radio frequency signals for certain kinds of antennas. The part directly in contact with the earth - the earth electrode - can be as simple as a rod or stake driven into the earth. Because high frequency signals can flow to earth due to capacitative effects, because of this, a complex system of buried rods and wires can be effective. An ideal signal ground maintains a fixed potential regardless of how much current flows into ground or out of ground. Some types of transmitting antenna systems in the VLF, LF, MF, sometimes a counterpoise is used as a ground plane, supported above the ground. Electrical power distribution systems are connected to ground to limit the voltage that can appear on distribution circuits. A distribution system insulated from ground may attain a high potential due to transient voltages caused by arcing, static electricity, a ground connection of the system dissipates such potentials and limits the rise in voltage of the grounded system. In a mains electricity wiring installation, the ground conductor typically refers to three different conductors or conductor systems as listed below. Equipment earthing conductors provide a connection between non-current-carrying metallic parts of equipment and the earth
14.
Body cord
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In fencing, a body cord serves as the connection between a fencer and a reel of wire that is part of a system for electrically detecting that the weapon has touched the opponent. There are two types, one for epee, and one for foil and sabre, Épée body cords consist of two sets of three prongs each connected by a wire. One set plugs into the weapon, with the other connecting to the reel. Foil and saber body cords have only two irregularly sized prongs on the side, with the third wire connecting instead to the fencers lamé. The need in foil and saber to distinguish between on and off-target touches requires a connection to the valid target area. The three wires of the cord are known as the A, B, and C lines. At the reel connector The B pin is in the middle, the A pin is 1.5 cm to one side of B, and this asymmetrical arrangement ensures that the cord cannot be plugged in the wrong way around. The A line is the line, the B line is the weapon line. Although it works differently for each weapon, a valid touch always involves the connection of the A and B lines. In all three weapons, the C line is connected to the body of the weapon, and sometimes to the strip as well. In foil, the A line is connected to the lamé, the B line is normally connected to the C line through the tip. The tip is not touching either of the above, Off-target hit, in Épée, the A and B lines run up separate wires to the tip. When the tip is depressed, it connects the A and B lines, however, if the tip is touching your opponents weapon or the grounded strip, nothing happens when it is depressed, as the current is redirected to the C line. Grounded strips are particularly important in Épée, as without one, in Sabre, similarly to Foil, the A line is connected to the lamé, but both the B and C lines are connected to the body of the weapon. Any contact between your B/C line and your opponents A line results in a valid touch, there is no need for grounded strips in Sabre, as hitting something other than your opponents lame does nothing. Typically, a fencer wears a body cord under their jacket, the wire is threaded through the sleeve of the weapon arm as it is being donned. Most gloves feature a small hole designed around the use of a body cord, in officially sanctioned tournaments, the plug that fits into the weapon must be secured with an additional device, usually a small clip. The other end of the wire is connected to the reel, in addition, foilists and saberists must connect their alligator clips to their lamés
15.
Set screw
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A set screw is a type of screw generally used to secure an object within or against another object, normally not using a nut. The most common examples are securing a pulley or gear to a shaft, set screws are usually headless, meaning that the screw is fully threaded and has no head projecting past the major diameter of the screw thread. If a set screw has a head, the thread will extend all the way to the head, a blind set screw is almost always driven with an internal-wrenching drive, such as a hex socket, star, square socket, or slot. The set screw passes through a hole in the outer object and is tightened against the inner object to prevent it from moving relative to the outer object. It exerts compressional or clamping force through the tip that projects through the hole. An example application is when a set screw is screwed into a pulley hub so that its end-point bears firmly against the shaft, the fastening action is by friction between the screw and the shaft, often with some amount of elastic or plastic deformation of one or both. Set screws are not always the best way to resist the torque of driven shafts, to reduce the chance of slipping and to increase load capacity, a detent may be milled or ground at the part of the shaft where the set screws point contacts. The detent, however, must be aligned with the threaded hole prior to fastening. The operator can feel the screw push the flat into final alignment as he or she makes the last half- or quarter-turn that tightens the screw. Set screws can successfully hold against heavy-torque applications if the details are right, for example, endmill holders of the solid type typically use large set screws holding against flats to fasten the endmill, and heavy loads are resisted. However, small set screws without flats are prone to spinning and galling if overloaded, the use of keys and keyways instead of, or in combination with, set screws is common for applications requiring high torque resistance or transmission. For longer life, set screws are usually made of alloy steel, hardened set screws often leave a plastic deformation, in the form of a circular or semicircular mark, in the shaft that the screw sets against. This has both pros and cons, on the pro side, such deformation increases the holding power of the joint, as the screw is essentially making its own detent on a small but effective scale. On the con side, if one is aiming to have a blemish-free cosmetic finish on the part being set against, in most set screw applications, this consideration is irrelevant. Another con is that plastic deformation can cause corresponding high points in the shaft surrounding the circular mark. This can result in difficulties during dis-assembly if a bearing or other tightly toleranced part needs to slide past this area, use of a flat mitigates this problem. Set screws appear with a variety of tip types, the different shaped tips have different properties that engineers can utilize. If an engineer were to use a detent to ensure proper nesting of the screw, one might often need to use a flat point when the screw must press perfectly flat against a surface
16.
Shim (spacer)
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A shim is a thin and often tapered or wedged piece of material, used to fill small gaps or spaces between objects. Shims are typically used in order to support, adjust for better fit, shims may also be used as spacers to fill gaps between parts subject to wear. Many materials make suitable shim stock, or base material, depending on the context, wood, stone, plastic, metal, or even paper. High quality shim stock can be commercially, for example as laminated shims. Laminated shim stock is stacked foil that can be peeled off one layer at a time to adjust the thickness of the shim, in automobiles, shims are commonly used to adjust the clearance or space between two parts. For example, shims are inserted into or under bucket tappets to control valve clearances, clearance is adjusted by changing the thickness of the shim. In Assembly and Weld Fixtures precision metal shims are used two parts so that the final production parts are created within the product drawings specified tolerances. In carpentry, small pieces of wood may be used to align gaps between larger timbers, in luthiery, shims made of various materials are often used to adjust neck alignment and can be used beneath a nut or saddle to raise the height of either. In masonry, small stones may be used to align or fill gaps between larger bricks or slabs, special CPU shims are used to protect the central processing unit when installing a heat sink. This is accomplished by manual shimming of individual shims, or automatic shimming procedure, to the Point, A Brief History of the Shim
17.
Etching
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Etching is traditionally the process of using strong acid or mordant to cut into the unprotected parts of a metal surface to create a design in intaglio in the metal. In modern manufacturing, other chemicals may be used on other types of material, as a method of printmaking, it is, along with engraving, the most important technique for old master prints, and remains in wide use today. In a number of variants such as microfabrication etching and photochemical milling it is a crucial technique in much modern technology. In traditional pure etching, a plate is covered with a waxy ground which is resistant to acid. The artist then scratches off the ground with an etching needle where he or she wants a line to appear in the finished piece. The échoppe, a tool with an oval section, is also used for swelling lines. The plate is dipped in a bath of acid, technically called the mordant or etchant. The acid bites into the metal where it is exposed, leaving behind lines sunk into the plate, the remaining ground is then cleaned off the plate. The plate is inked all over, and then the ink wiped off the surface, the plate is then put through a high-pressure printing press together with a sheet of paper. The paper picks up the ink from the lines, making a print. The process can be repeated many times, typically several hundred impressions could be printed before the shows much sign of wear. The work on the plate can also be added to by repeating the whole process, Etching has often been combined with other intaglio techniques such as engraving or aquatint. The process as applied to printmaking is believed to have been invented by Daniel Hopfer of Augsburg, Hopfer was a craftsman who decorated armour in this way, and applied the method to printmaking, using iron plates. Apart from his prints, there are two examples of his work on armour, a shield from 1536 now in the Real Armeria of Madrid. The switch to copper plates was made in Italy. On the other hand, the handling of the ground and acid need skill and experience, prior to 1100 AD, the New World Hohokam independently utilized the technique of acid etching in marine shell designs. Jacques Callot from Nancy in Lorraine made important technical advances in etching technique and he developed the échoppe, a type of etching-needle with a slanting oval section at the end, which enabled etchers to create a swelling line, as engravers were able to do. Callot also appears to have responsible for an improved, harder, recipe for the etching ground
18.
Jacques Callot
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Jacques Callot was a baroque printmaker and draftsman from the Duchy of Lorraine. He is an important person in the development of the old master print and he made more than 1,400 etchings that chronicled the life of his period, featuring soldiers, clowns, drunkards, Gypsies, beggars, as well as court life. He also etched many religious and military images, and many prints featured extensive landscapes in their background, Callot was born and died in Nancy, the capital of Lorraine, now in France. He came from an important family, and he describes himself as having noble status in the inscriptions to his prints. At the age of fifteen he was apprenticed to a goldsmith and he probably then studied etching with Antonio Tempesta in Florence, where he lived from 1612 to 1621. More than 2,000 preparatory drawings and studies for prints survive, but no paintings by him are known, during his period in Florence he became an independent master, and worked often for the Medici court. After the death of Cosimo II de Medici during 1621, he returned to Nancy where he lived for the rest of his life, visiting Paris and he was commissioned by the courts of Lorraine, France and Spain, and by publishers, mostly in Paris. Although he remained in Nancy, his prints were distributed widely through Europe and his technique was exceptional, and was helped by important technical advances he made. He developed the échoppe, a type of etching-needle with an oval section at the end. Previously the risk of foul-biting had always been present, preventing an engraver from investing too much time on a plate that risked being ruined by foul-biting. Now etchers could do the detailed work that was previously the monopoly of engravers. He also made extensive and sophisticated use of multiple stoppings-out than previous etchers had done. He achieved unprecedented subtlety in effects of distance and light and shade by careful control of this process, most of his prints were relatively small – as much as about six inches or 15 cm on their longest dimension. One of his devotees, the Parisian Abraham Bosse spread Callots innovations all over Europe with the first published manual of etching and his most famous prints are his two series of prints each on the Miseries and Misfortunes of War. These are known as Les Grandes Misères de la guerre, consisting of 18 prints published during 1633, at the end the generals are rewarded by their monarch. Callots series of Grotesque Dwarves were to inspire Derby porcelain and other companies to create pottery figures known as Mansion House Dwarves or Grotesque Dwarves. The former title comes from a father and son who were paid to wander around the Mansion House in London wearing oversized hats that contained advertisements. Varie Figure Gobbi - Series of 21 etchings,1616 A large series depicting commedia dellarte figures called Balli di Sfessania, in a simple, caricature-like style, Series on the Lives of Christ and Mary
19.
Spatha
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The spatha was a type of straight and long sword, measuring between 0.75 and 1 m, in use in the territory of the Roman Empire during c. the 1st to 6th centuries CE. Later swords from the 7th to 10th centuries, like the Viking swords, are recognizable derivatives, the Roman spatha was used in war and in gladiatorial fights. The spatha apparently replaced the gladius in the front ranks, giving the infantry more reach when thrusting, while the infantry version had a long point, versions carried by the cavalry had a rounded tip that prevented accidental stabbing of the cavalrymans own foot or horse. Archaeologically many instances of the spatha have been found in Britain and it was used extensively by Germanic warriors. It is unclear whether it came from the Pompeii gladius or the longer Celtic swords, or whether it served as a model for the various arming swords, the spatha remained popular throughout the Migration Period. It evolved into the sword of the High Middle Ages by the 12th century. The word comes from the Latin spatha, which derives from Greek σπάθη, meaning any broad blade, of wood or metal, the Greek word σπάθη was used in the middle Archaic period for various types of Iron Age swords. The word does not appear in Homeric Greek, but it is mentioned in the works of Alcaeus of Mytilene and it is likely that spatha is the romanization of a Doric Greek σπάθα The word survives in Modern Greek as σπάθη and σπαθί. The Latin word became the French épée, Catalan espasa, Portuguese and Spanish espada, Italian spada, Romanian spadă and Albanian shpata, the English word spatula comes from Latin spatula, the diminutive of spatha. English spade, from Old English spadu or spædu, is the Germanic cognate, derived from a Common Germanic *spadō, the earlier gladius sword was gradually replaced by the spatha from the late 2nd to the 3rd century. From the early 3rd century, legionaries and cavalrymen began to wear their swords on the side, perhaps because the scutum had been abandoned. In the imperial period, the Romans adopted the original Greek term, spáthē, as spatha, spatha appears first in Pliny and then Seneca with different meanings, a spatula, a metal-working implement, a palm-leaf and so on. There is no hint of any native Roman sword called a spatha, referring to an actual sword, the term first appears in the pages of Tacitus with reference to an incident of the early Empire. Tacitus does not identify the auxiliaries, and since the Romans employed both transplanted soldiers and local levies, it impossible to know the origins of the Roman auxiliaries in Tacitus account, most examples of spathae come from Germany and Eastern Europe, however. There is an excellent chance that the owners of the spathae were Germanic, there is no indication in Tacitus either that they were cavalry, overall, the Romans used both cavalry and infantry. When the spathae next appeared, after a lacuna of about two centuries, they became the standard weapon of heavy infantry. The Romans could have borrowed this weapon from the auxiliaries, probably Germanic mercenaries, spatha was certainly not a Germanic name, nor is there any indication anywhere what its Germanic name was. There are a plenitude of Germanic names, such as Old English sweord, bill, and so on, but no evidence to tie any name to the spatha, the spatha remained in use in the Byzantine Empire and its army
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Civilian
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In general, a civilian is a person who is not a member of the military or of a police or firefighting force, as defined by Merriam Websters Dictionary. From the perspective of the U. S, in military and law enforcement slang, the term Civies or Civvies are often used to refer civilian population or civilian clothing. Under the laws of war, a civilian is one not being a member of the services and does not take a direct part of hostilities in times of armed conflict. The term civilian is slightly different from a non-combatant under the laws of war, the privileges that they enjoy under international law depends on whether the conflict is an internal one or an international one. The word civilian goes back to the late 14th century and is from Old French civilien, Civilian is believed to have been used to refer to non-combatants as early as 1829. The term non-combatant now refers to people in general who are not taking part of hostilities, there is no intermediate status, nobody in enemy hands can be outside the law. We feel that this is a satisfactory solution – not only satisfying to the mind, but also, the ICRC has expressed the opinion that If civilians directly engage in hostilities, they are considered unlawful or unprivileged combatants or belligerents. They may be prosecuted under the law of the detaining state for such action. According to Article 50 of the 1977 Protocol I Additional to the Geneva Conventions,1, a civilian is any person who does not belong to one of the categories of persons referred to in Article 4A, and of the Third Convention and in Article 43 of this Protocol. In case of whether a person is a civilian, that person shall be considered to be a civilian. The civilian population comprises all persons who are civilians, the presence within the civilian population of individuals who do not come within the definition of civilians does not deprive the population of its civilian character. The definition is negative and defines civilians as persons who do not belong to definite categories, the categories of persons mentioned in Article 4A, and of the Third Convention and in Article 43 of the Protocol I are combatants. Therefore, the Commentary to the Protocol pointed that, any one who is not a member of the forces is a civilian. Civilians cannot take part in armed conflict, civilians are given protection under the Geneva Conventions and Protocols thereto. Article 51 describes the protection that must be given to the civilian population, chapter III of Protocol I regulates the targeting of civilian objects. The actual position of the civilian in modern war remains problematical, starting in the 1980s, it was often claimed that 90 percent of the victims of modern wars were civilians. The claim was repeated on Wikipedias Did You Know on 14 December 2010 and these claims, though widely believed, are not supported by detailed examination of the evidence, particularly that relating to wars that are central to the claims. It has lost none of its political, legal and moral salience, although it is often assumed that civilians are essentially passive onlookers of war, sometimes they have active roles in conflicts
21.
Duel
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A duel is an arranged engagement in combat between two individuals with matched weapons in accordance with agreed-upon rules. Duels in this form were chiefly practiced in early modern Europe with precedents in the code of chivalry. During the 17th and 18th centuries, duels were fought with swords. But beginning in the late 18th century in England, duels were more commonly fought using pistols, fencing and pistol duels continued to co-exist throughout the 19th century. The duel was based on a code of honor, on rare occasions, duels with pistols or swords were fought between women, these were sometimes known as petticoat duels. Legislation against dueling goes back to the medieval period, the Fourth Council of the Lateran outlawed duels, and civil legislation in the Holy Roman Empire against dueling was passed in the wake of the Thirty Years War. From the early 17th century, duels became illegal in the countries where they were practiced, Dueling largely fell out of favor in England by the mid-19th century and in Continental Europe by the turn of the 20th century. Dueling declined in the Eastern United States in the 19th century and by the time the American Civil War broke out, dueling had begun to decline, public opinion, not legislation, caused the change. In Western society, the concept of a duel developed out of the medieval judicial duel. In Medieval society, judicial duels were fought by knights and squires to end various disputes, countries like Germany, United Kingdom, and Ireland practiced this tradition. Judicial combat were of two forms in society, the feat of arms and chivalric combat. The feat of arms were done to settle hostilities between two parties and supervised by a judge. The battle was fought when one partys honor was disrespected or challenged upon in which the conflict cannot be resolved in court, a spiked hand guard for pumbling, and extra grip for half swording. The duel lasted until the party was too weak to fight back. In early cases, the party was then subsequently executed. If a traveling venans did not have weapons or horse to meet the challenge, one might be provided, if a lady passed unescorted, she would leave behind a glove or scarf, to be rescued and returned to her by a future knight who passed that way. The Roman Catholic Church was critical of dueling throughout medieval history, judicial duels were deprecated by the Lateran Council of 1215, but the judicial duel persisted in the Holy Roman Empire into the 15th century. The word duel comes from the Latin duellum, cognate with bellum, during the early Renaissance, dueling established the status of a respectable gentleman, and was an accepted manner to resolve disputes
22.
Rapier
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Rapier or Espada Ropera, is a loose term for a type of slender, sharply pointed sword. With such designing features, rapier is optimized to be a thrusting weapon and this weapon was mainly used in Early Modern Europe during the 16th and 17th centuries. The word rapier generally refers to a relatively long-bladed sword characterized by a hilt which is constructed to provide protection for the hand wielding the sword. Some historical rapier samples also feature a blade mounted on a typical rapier hilt. The term rapier can be confusing because this weapon can be categorized as a type of broadsword. While the rapier blade might be enough to cut to some degree, it is designed to perform quick. The blade might be sharpened along its length or sharpened only from the center to the tip. Pallavicini, a master in 1670, strongly advocated using a weapon with two cutting edges. A typical example would weigh 1 kilogram and have a long and slender blade of 2.5 centimetres or less in width,104 centimetres or more in length. The blade length of quite a few examples, particularly the Italian rapiers in the early 17th century, is well over 45 inches. The word rapier is a German word to describe what was considered to be a foreign weapon, the word rapier was not used by Italian, Spanish, and French masters during the apogee of this weapon, the terms spada, espada, and épée being instead the norm. To avoid the confusion of lumping all swords together, some categorize such swords by their function, for example, John Clements categorizes thrusting swords with poor cutting abilities as rapiers, and swords with both good thrusting and cutting abilities as cut and thrust swords. Some, however, look at the rapier in its entire time-line, one might wear a rapier with a swept hilt and edges on the same day as another might wear one with a cup hilt and an edgeless blade. Rapiers often have complex, sweeping hilts designed to protect the hand wielding the sword, rings extend forward from the crosspiece. In some later samples, rings are covered with metal plates, there were hardly any sample that features plates covering the rings prior to the 1600s. Many hilts include a knuckle bow extending down from the crosspiece protecting the grip, a fat pommel secures the grip to the weapon and provides some weight to balance the long blade. Various rapier masters divided the blade into two, three, four, five or even nine parts. The forte, strong, is part of the blade closest to the hilt, in cases where a master divides the blade into an even number of parts
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Hilt
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The hilt of a sword is its handle, consisting of a guard, grip and pommel. The guard may contain a crossguard or quillons, a ricasso may also be present, but this is rarely the case. A tassel or sword knot may be attached to the guard or pommel, the pommel is an enlarged fitting at the top of the handle. They were originally developed to prevent the sword slipping from the hand, from around the 11th century in Europe they became heavy enough to be a counterweight to the blade. This gave the sword a point of not too far from the hilt allowing a more fluid fighting style. Depending on sword design and swordsmanship style, the pommel may also be used to strike the opponent, pommels have appeared in a wide variety of shapes, including oblate spheroids, crescents, disks, wheels, and animal or bird heads. They are often engraved or inlayed with various designs and occasionally gilt, ewart Oakeshott introduced a system of classification of medieval pommel forms in his The Sword in the Age of Chivalry to stand alongside his blade typology. Oakeshott pommel types are enumerated with capital letters A–Z, with subtypes indicated by numerals, one of the most common forms, found throughout the 10th to 15th centuries. I, a disk with wide chamfered edges, the disk being much smaller than in H. I1 is a hexagonal variant J, as I. T1 to T5 are variants of this basic type U, key-shaped type of the half of the 15th century V. W, a wheel shape Z, square shape, with its sub-types used to closely define the area and age, Z1 and Z2b, Z3. The grip is the handle of the sword and it was usually of wood or metal, and often covered with shagreen. Shark skin proved to be the most durable in temperate climates but deteriorated in hot climates, alternatively, many sword types opt for ray skin instead, referred to in katana construction as the same. Whatever material covered the grip, it was usually glued on and held on with wire wrapped around it in a helix. It is a misconception that the cross-guard protects the users entire hand from the opponents sword. Only with the abandonment of the shield and then the armoured gauntlet did a full hand guard become necessary, the crossguard still protected the user from a blade that was deliberately slid down the length of the blade to cut off or injure the hand. Early swords do not have true guards but simply a form of stop to prevent the hand slipping up the blade when thrusting as they were used in conjunction with a shield. From the 11th century, European sword guards took the form of a straight crossbar perpendicular to the blade, beginning in the 16th century in Europe, guards became more and more elaborate, with additional loops and curved bars or branches to protect the hand
24.
Johan Harmenberg
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Johan Harmenberg is a Swedish epee fencer. Harmenberg completed two years of study at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in 1975, leaving his course early before returning to Sweden and he has won eight individual and/or team epee gold medals at Olympic, World Championships, and World Cup competitions. He earned his World Championship titles in Individual Épée and Team Épée events at the 1977 competitions in Buenos Aires and he also won a bronze medal in Team Épée at the 1979 World Championships in Hamburg. Harmenberg captured three Individual Épée World Cup Championships within four years,1977,1979, and 1980 and he also won team titles at the 1977 and 1980 World Cups. At the 1980 Moscow Olympic Games, he won a medal in the Individual Épée. In three of the matches he won by only one touch. He is the only Swede to have won a gold medal in fencing. Harmenberg was a member of the Swedish épée team as well, Harmenberg, who is Jewish, was inducted into the International Jewish Sports Hall of Fame in 1997. Harmenberg has since had a career in medical pharmacology, publishing a variety of papers relating to viral immunology. After stints as VP of pharmaceutical development at Medivir, Chief Medical officer at Algeta ASA, is currently Medical Director and VP of clinical development at Axelar AB in Stockholm, Johan co-authored Épée 2.0, The Birth of the New Fencing Paradigm, and Épée 2. List of select Jewish fencers Jewish Sports Legends bio Jewish Sports bio Jews in Sports bio Johan Harmenberg 50 år
25.
World Fencing Championships
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The World Championships in Fencing is an annual competition organized by the Fédération Internationale dEscrime or FIE. The world championships are, after the Olympic Games, the most prominent international competition in the sport of fencing, contestants may participate in foil, épée, and sabre events. The FIE first organized an international fencing championship in Paris in 1921, the competition in its early years was named the European Championships and the initial participants were members of the fencing federations of the FIE. In 1921, the event was mens épée individual. In 1922 and 1923, mens sabre individual was also held, in 1925, only mens sabre individual was held. Since 1926, mens individual events have held in all three weapons, épée, foil, and sabre. In 1929, womens foil was added to the program as well as a mens team event. Mens épée and sabre teams were added in 1930 and womens team in 1932. Womens épée individual and team events were added in 1988 and womens sabre individual, after the 1936 Olympics, the government of Benito Mussolini in Italy offered national recognition and privileges to winners of Olympic or world titles but not European titles. The Italian fencing federation requested that the FIE change the name of the European Championships to World Championships, the FIE approved this request and gave retroactive World Championship status to the previous European Championships. Since 1921, the FIE championships have occurred annually except for an interruption forced by World War II from 1939 to 1946, the fencing competitions at the Summer Olympics have served as the World Championships of the year for the relevant events. Since 1932, World Championships have been held during the Olympic years only for events not being held during that years Summer Olympics. For the years 1932,1936,1948,1952, and 1956, a World Championship in these two events was again held in 1992 for the same reason. Finally, in 1996 the IOC added these two events to the Olympic program and the FIE again stopped holding a World Championship in an Olympic year. For the 2004 Olympics, the IOC allowed womens sabre to be contested at the Olympics, the FIE reluctantly agreed to this condition and has satisfied it by not contesting two of the team events at the Olympics but holding World Championships for them instead during those years. Beginning in 1950, the FIE also sanctioned an annual competitions which it called the Junior World Criterium. Entries were originally restricted to those 21 years of age or lower, in 1964, the name of the competition was officially changed to Junior World Championships and world championship status was retroactively granted to the participants of the previous competitions. Beginning in 1987, the FIE began sanctioning an annual called the Cadet World Championships
26.
Olympic medal
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An Olympic medal is awarded to successful competitors at one of the Olympic Games. There are three classes of medal, gold, awarded to the winner, silver, awarded to the 1st runner-up, the granting of awards is laid out in detail in the Olympic protocols. Medal designs have varied considerably since the first Olympic Games in 1896, particularly in size, the medals of the Winter Olympic Games never had a common design, but regularly feature snowflakes. In addition to supporting their Olympic athletes, some countries provide sums of money and gifts to medal winners, depending on the classes. The olive wreath was the prize for the winner at the Ancient Olympic Games and it was an olive branch, of the wild-olive tree that grew at Olympia, intertwined to form a circle or a horse-shoe. According to Pausanias it was introduced by Heracles as a prize for the winner of the race to honour Zeus. When the modern Olympic Games began in 1896 medals started to be given to successful olympian competitors, however, gold medals were not awarded at the inaugural Olympics in 1896 in Athens, Greece. The winners were given a silver medal and an olive branch, while runners-up received a laurel branch. In 1900, most winners received cups or trophies instead of medals, the custom of the sequence of gold, silver, and bronze for the first three places dates from the 1904 Summer Olympics in St. Louis, Missouri in the United States. The International Olympic Committee has retroactively assigned gold, silver and bronze medals to the three best placed athletes in each event of the 1896 and 1900 Games. If there is a tie for any of the top three places all competitors are entitled to receive the appropriate medal according to IOC rules, medals are not the only awards given to competitors, every athlete placed first to eighth receives an Olympic diploma. Also, at the main host stadium, the names of all winners are written onto a wall. Finally, as noted below, all receive a participation medal. The IOC dictates the physical properties of the medals and has the decision about the finished design.925 grade. Third place, It is mostly copper with tin and zinc. They were made by the Paris Mint, which made the medals for the 1900 Olympic Games. This started the tradition of giving the responsibility of minting the medals to the host city, for the next few Olympiads the host city also chose the medal design. Until 1912 the gold medals were made of solid gold, in 1923 the International Olympic Committee launched a competition for sculptors to design the medals for the Summer Olympic Games
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Glossary of fencing
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This is a glossary of terms used in fencing. Absence of blade The situation in a bout when the blades are not touching. Advance The ‘advance’ is the forward movement. The front foot moves first, beginning by lifting the toes, straighten the leg at the knee, pushing the heel out in front. Land on the heel, and then bring the foot up to en garde stance. Also, the advance is used in general for any movement forward by either step, cross. Advance-Lunge An advance followed immediately by a lunge, the extension can occur before or during the advance, but always before the lunge. A good long-distance attack, especially in combination with Handwork, an Advance, followed by a lunge might have a tempo of 1-2---3, but an advance-lunge should have a tempo of 1--2-3. Allez French for go, command used to action in a match. Appel Stamping the front foot to the ground, to produce a sound to distract or startle the opponent and this may be made during an advance, or directly from an en garde position. It may precede a lunge, or be used merely as a distraction, an appel is also sometimes called a half-Advance. This action may also be used to halt a bout, often by stamping the trailing foot insistently, arrêt à bon temps see #Stop Hit. Assault A friendly combat between two fencers, where score may or may not be kept, and is not a part of any competition. Formerly, public exhibitions were often conducted as assaults, rather than as round-robin or direct-elimination events, Attack The initial offensive action made by extending the sword arm and continuously threatening the valid target of the opponent with the point. Attaque au Fer An attack on the blade, e. g. beat, expulsion. Avertissement A warning, used to indicate a minor rule infraction by one of the fencers, backsword A type of heavy sabre, generally single-edged with a ‘false edge’ down the top third of the back of the blade. In use from the 16th to 20th centuries, balestra A footwork preparation, consisting of a jump forwards. It is most often, but not always, immediately followed by a lunge and it is faster than an advance forward, which helps change the rhythm and timing of moves
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Gold medal
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A gold medal is a medal awarded for highest achievement in a non-military field. Its name derives from the use of at least a fraction of gold in form of plating or alloying in its manufacture, others offer only the prestige of the award. Many organizations now award gold medals either annually or extraordinarily, including UNESCO, while some gold medals are solid gold, others are gold-plated or silver-gilt, like those of the Olympic Games, the Lorentz Medal, the United States Congressional Gold Medal and the Nobel Prize medal. Nobel Prize medals consist of 18 karat green gold plated with 24 karat gold, before 1980 they were struck in 23 karat gold. In the United States, Congress would enact a resolution asking the President to reward those responsible, the commanding officer would receive a gold medal and his officers silver medals. Other countries similarly honored their military and naval victors in a similar fashion, Medals have historically been given as prizes in various types of competitive activities, especially athletics. Traditionally, medals are made of the metals, Gold Silver Bronze Occasionally. This standard was adopted for Olympic competition at the 1904 Summer Olympics, at the 1896 event, silver was awarded to winners and bronze to runners-up, while at 1904 other prizes were given, not medals. At the modern Olympic Games, winners of a sporting discipline receive a medal in recognition of their achievement. At the Ancient Olympic Games only one winner per event was crowned with kotinos, aristophanes in Plutus makes a remark why victorious athletes are crowned with wreath made of wild olive instead of gold. When Tigranes, an Armenian general learned this, he uttered to his leader, what kind of men are these against whom you have brought us to fight. Men who do not compete for possessions, but for honour, hence medals were not awarded at the ancient Olympic Games. At the 1896 Summer Olympics, winners received a silver medal, in 1900, most winners received cups or trophies instead of medals. The next three Olympics awarded the winners solid gold medals, but the medals themselves were smaller, the use of gold rapidly declined with the onset of the First World War and also with the onset of the Second World War. The last series of Olympic medals to be made of gold were awarded at the 1912 Olympic Games in Stockholm. Olympic Gold medals are required to be made from at least 92. 5% silver, all Olympic medals must be at least 60mm in diameter and 3mm thick. Minting the medals is the responsibility of the Olympic host, from the 1972 Summer Olympics through 2000, Cassiolis design remained on the obverse with a custom design by the host city on the reverse. Noting that Cassiolis design showed a Roman amphitheater for what originally were Greek games, Winter Olympics medals have been of more varied design
29.
Olympic Games
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The Olympic Games are considered the worlds foremost sports competition with more than 200 nations participating. The Olympic Games are held four years, with the Summer and Winter Games alternating by occurring every four years. Their creation was inspired by the ancient Olympic Games, which were held in Olympia, Greece, Baron Pierre de Coubertin founded the International Olympic Committee in 1894, leading to the first modern Games in Athens in 1896. The IOC is the body of the Olympic Movement, with the Olympic Charter defining its structure. The evolution of the Olympic Movement during the 20th and 21st centuries has resulted in changes to the Olympic Games. The IOC has had to adapt to a variety of economic, political, as a result, the Olympics has shifted away from pure amateurism, as envisioned by Coubertin, to allowing participation of professional athletes. The growing importance of mass media created the issue of corporate sponsorship, World wars led to the cancellation of the 1916,1940, and 1944 Games. Large boycotts during the Cold War limited participation in the 1980 and 1984 Games, the Olympic Movement consists of international sports federations, National Olympic Committees, and organising committees for each specific Olympic Games. As the decision-making body, the IOC is responsible for choosing the host city for each Games, the IOC also determines the Olympic programme, consisting of the sports to be contested at the Games. There are several Olympic rituals and symbols, such as the Olympic flag and torch, over 13,000 athletes compete at the Summer and Winter Olympic Games in 33 different sports and nearly 400 events. The first, second, and third-place finishers in each event receive Olympic medals, gold, silver, the Games have grown so much that nearly every nation is now represented. This growth has created numerous challenges and controversies, including boycotts, doping, bribery, every two years the Olympics and its media exposure provide unknown athletes with the chance to attain national and sometimes international fame. The Games also constitute an opportunity for the host city and country to themselves to the world. The Ancient Olympic Games were religious and athletic festivals held every four years at the sanctuary of Zeus in Olympia, competition was among representatives of several city-states and kingdoms of Ancient Greece. These Games featured mainly athletic but also combat such as wrestling. It has been written that during the Games, all conflicts among the participating city-states were postponed until the Games were finished. This cessation of hostilities was known as the Olympic peace or truce and this idea is a modern myth because the Greeks never suspended their wars. The truce did allow those religious pilgrims who were travelling to Olympia to pass through warring territories unmolested because they were protected by Zeus
30.
Fencing World Cup
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The FIE Fencing World Cup is an international fencing competition held by the Fédération Internationale dEscrime. In each weapon, three Grand Prix, five World Cup events and several events are contested each season. The five top results as well as the Olympic Games or World Fencing Championships, for teams, up to five World Cup events are held each year. The four top results as well as the Olympic Games or World Fencing Championships, World Cup competitions are governed by the FIE rules for competitions. The 16 top-ranked fencers in FIE rankings are exempt from the qualification phase, all other competitors fence in pools of 7 fencers, or a mix of pools of 6 and pools of 7 if the number of fencers is not divisible by 7. The composition of the pools takes into account FIE rankings and the nationality of the fencers, pools bouts last 3 minutes, or until a fencer has scored 5 hits. The 16 top-ranked fencers after the pools phase access directly the table of 64, the other fences compete in direct elimination tables until 32 fencers are selected to complete the table of 64. Direct elimination bouts last for three periods of three minutes, with a one-minute rest between each period, or until a fencer has scored 15 hits, Fencing at the Summer Olympics World Fencing Championships Asian Fencing Championships European Fencing Championships FIE Fencing World Cup
31.
Colichemarde
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Colichemarde is a type of small sword blade that was popular from the late 17th century to the middle 18th century. The small sword is considered to be a descendant of the transition rapier, the shape of a colichemarde blade features a wide forte, which abruptly tapers to a much narrower form at a point varying between a fifth to a third of the blade length from the hilt. The blade cross section was most often triangular and hollow-ground and this configuration combines good parrying characteristics, due to the wide blade forte, with the good maneuverablity and thrusting characteristics imparted by the narrow blade foible. Its lighter weight, shorter length and superior balance, compared to the rapier, allowed faster and this enabled the fencer to achieve a more precisely targeted thrust on an adversary. The point where the blade of a sword joins the tang was a weak point. The tang was often made of iron and forge-welded to the steel of the blade. A wider blade at this point of transition, such as is seen in the colichemarde, the colichemarde blade configuration is widely thought to have been an invention of Graf von Königsmark, due to the similarity in pronunciation of their names. However, the first blades of this date from before the Counts lifetime. The colichemarde first appeared about 1680 and was popular during the next 40 years at the royal European courts and it was especially popular with the officers of the French and Indian War period. George Washington was presented with one during his inauguration, the widespread misapprehension that the colichemarde quickly ceased to be produced after 1720 dates to the opinion given by Sir Richard Burton in his The Book of the Sword dating to 1884. However, many securely dated colichemarde swords from as late as the 1770s can be found in collections and this sword appeared at about the same time as the foil. However the foil was created for practicing fencing at court, while the colichemarde was created for dueling and it made frequent appearances in the duels of New Orleans. A descendant of the colichemarde is the épée, a fencing weapon. With the appearance of the pistol as a self-defence weapon. Sabre Duel Rapier Smallsword Flame-bladed sword Side-sword
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International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
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History of fencing
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The oldest surviving manual on western swordsmanship dates to around 1300, although historical references date fencing schools back to the 12th century. Modern fencing originated in the 18th century in the Italian school of fencing of the Renaissance, the Spanish school didnt become prominent until the 19th century. Nowadays, these three schools are the most influential around the world, the English term fencing, in the sense of the action or art of using the sword scientifically, dates to the late 16th century, when it denoted systems designed for the Renaissance rapier. It is derived from the latinate defence, the verb to fence derived from the noun fence, originally meaning the act of defending, etymologically derived from Old French defens defence, ultimately from the Latin. The first attestation of Middle English fens defence dates to the 14th century, the first known English use of Spain in reference to Renaissance swordsmanship is in William Shakespeares Merry Wives of Windsor, Alas sir, I cannot fence. This specialized usage replaced the generic fight, the origins of armed combat are prehistoric, beginning with club, spear and axe. Fighting with shield and sword developed in the Bronze Age, bladed weapons such as the khopesh appeared in the Middle Bronze Age and the proper sword in the Late Bronze Age. The first historical evidence from archaeology of a fencing contest was found on the wall of a temple within Egypt built at a time dated to approximately 1190 B. C. Tomb frescoes from Paestum show paired fighters with helmets, spears and shields, Romans who frequented the gymnasia and baths often fenced with a stick whose point was covered with a ball. Vegetius, the Late Roman military writer, described practicing against a post, vegetius describes how the Romans preferred the thrust over the cut, because puncture wounds enter the vital organs directly whereas cuts are often stopped by armour and bone. Raising the arm to deliver a cut exposes the side to a thrust and this doctrine was exploited by Italian fencing masters in the 16th Century and became the primary rationale behind both the Italian and French schools of fencing. Sword fighting schools can be found in European historical records dating back to the 12th century, in later times sword fighting teachers were paid by rich patrons to produce books about their fighting systems, called treatises. Sword fighting schools were forbidden in some European cities during the medieval period, the earliest surviving treatise on sword fighting, stored at the Royal Armouries Museum in Leeds, England, dates from around 1300 AD and is from Germany. It is known as I.33 and written in medieval Latin and Middle High German and deals with a system of using the sword. From 1400 onward, a number of sword fighting treatises survived from across Europe, with the majority from the 15th century coming from Germany. Some treatises cover weapons available to the classes, such as großes Messer and sword. Wrestling, both with and without weapons, armoured and unarmoured, was featured heavily in the early sword fighting treatises. The very first manual of fencing was published during 1471, by Diego de Valera, Fencing practice went through a revival, with the Marxbruder group, sometime about 1487 A. D. the group having formed some form of Fencing Guild
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Historical fencing in Scotland
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There is some evidence on historical fencing as practiced in Scotland in the Early Modern Era, especially fencing with the Scottish basket-hilted broadsword during the 17th to 18th centuries. He was also known as Judge and Arbitrator of all who make any publick Trial of Skill in the Noble Art of the Sword, within the Kingdom of Scotland. Sir William Hope - a Scottish fencing master who wrote a number of books on fencing, his most important works being the New Method, and the Vade-Mecum. Donald McBane - Born in Inverness, Donald joined the British Army, fought in the Highlands, Donald later wrote a book on his extensive experience in swordsmanship and his life in the army. Captain James Miller - a Scottish fencing master who dedicated his treatise of 1735 to John Campbell, 2nd Duke of Argyll. Thomas Page - an English shop owner who served in the Norwich Artillery Company and he dedicated his Broadsword treatise to John Hobart, 1st Earl of Buckinghamshire, Lord Lieutenant of the County of Norfolk. Captain G. Sinclair - An officer in the 42nd Regiment of Foot, or Black Watch and he wrote two treatises on the Broadsword or Singlestick, Anti-Pugilism in 1790, and a later revision/renaming of the same treatise under the title Cudgel-Playing Modernized and Improved in 1800. Archibald MacGregor - Archibald MacGregor was a Paisley fencing master who toured Scotland in the late 1700s giving lectures, John Taylor - Served as Broadsword Master to the Light Horse Volunteers of London and Westminster. His ten lesson system is shown in the works of Henry Angelo, thomas Mathewson - an Englishman who taught the art of Scottish Broadsword. He wrote his treatise in 1805, the footwork is sword leg forward with the other leg behind, similar to modern fencing. Traversing footwork allows one to step off the center-line of attack, the following Guards are listed in these texts, Inside Guard, Defends the left side of your face Outside Guard, Defends the right side of your face. Medium Guard, A stationary position that defends cuts from neither outside or inside ones line of defense, tip is usually facing up, but in Mathewsons treatise, the tip is aimed at the opponent, and the body is in a lunging position. Hanging Guard, Another default guard that defends the head, hilt is held above head, with tip facing diagonally down to the left side. St. George Guard, A horizontal guard defending the top of ones head, Half-Hanging Guard, Similar to the hanging guard, but held lower to defend a cut 4. Half-circle Guard, Similar to Half-Hanging guard, but the tip hangs to the right, one may also hold the guard above the head and defend a cut at the right side of the head, similar to the regular Hanging Guard. Inside Half-Hanger, Defends a cut at the belly, and the tip hangs straight down, outside Half-Hanger, Defends a cut at the ribs on ones back, and the tip hangs straight down, hilt held to the right side. This technique was taught by Angelo, Taylor and Rowlandson, in the 17th-18th century, there were a number of warriors and soldiers that developed a reputation as skilled duellists. He joined Montrose at Dundee in 1644 and fought for the Kings cause throughout the campaign, Ranald MacDonald, aka Ranald of the Shield - The hero of 1645
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Outline of fencing
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The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to fencing, Fencing – family of combat sports using bladed weapons. Fencing is one of four sports which have featured at every one of the modern Olympic Games. Also known as fencing to distinguish it from historical fencing. Form of hand-to-hand combat – lethal or non-lethal physical confrontation between two or more persons at very short range that does not involve the use of firearms or other distance weapons, contact sport – involve a degree of player-to-player or player-to-object contact. Competitive sport – sport in one or more participants or teams compete against one another. The one that is the most successful in achieving the objective of the game or sport event is the winner, amateur sport – competitive sport in which participants engage largely or entirely without remuneration. Individual sport – sport in which participants compete as individuals, recreational sport – sport engaged in as a leisure time activity. Spectator sport – sport that is characterized by the presence of spectators, or watchers, spectator sports are a form of entertainment. Foil fencing – uses a foil, a thrusting weapon, targeting the torso, including the back. Touches are scored only with the tip, hits with the side of the blade do not count, touches that land outside of the target area stop the action, and are not scored. Only a single hit can be scored by either fencer at one time, If both fencers hit at the same time, the referee uses the rules of right of way to determine which fencer gets the point. Sabre fencing – uses a saber, a cutting and thrusting weapon, targeting the entire body above the waist. Hits with the edges of the blade as well as the tip are valid, as in foil, touches which land outside of the target area are not scored. However, unlike foil, these off-target touches do not stop the action, in the case of both fencers landing a scoring touch, the referee determines which fencer receives the point for the action, again through the use of right of way. Épée fencing – uses an épée, a thrusting weapon. All hits must be with the tip and not the sides of the blade, touches hit by the side of the blade do not halt the action. Unlike foil and sabre, Épée does not use right of way, however, if the score is tied at the last point and a double touch is scored, nobody is awarded the point. The last two metres on each end is hash-marked, to warn a fencer before he/she backs off the end of the strip, retreating off the end of the strip with both feet gets a touch against
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Classical fencing
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Classical fencing is the style of fencing as it existed during the 19th and early 20th century. One must not forget that this regularity is not possible unless the adversary is a party to it and it is a conventional bout, which consists of parries, attacks, and returns, all rhyming together. Classical fencing weapons included the standard foil, épée, and sabre, during the classical period, fencing was used both for sport and preparation for the duel. Fencing as a sport was one of the events in the Olympic Games and widely practiced at schools. Additionally, there were professional fencers competing for prize money, Fencing tournaments were extremely popular events, with spectators flocking to see the most celebrated swordsmen battle it out on the piste. In many cases, fencers of the period trained for sport fencing the same way they trained for duels—indeed, many fought highly celebrated duels. Dueling went into decline after World War I, following the wartime deaths of many members of the classes that practiced it. After World War II, dueling went out of use in Europe except for rare exceptions, training for a duel, once almost mandatory for males of aristocratic backgrounds, all but disappeared, along with the classes themselves. Fencing continued as a sport like boxing or karate, with tournaments, however, the need to prepare for a duel with sharps all but vanished. Scoring was done by means of four judges who determined if a hit was made, two side judges stood behind and to the side of each fencer, and watched for hits made by that fencer on the opponents target. A director followed the fencing from a point several feet away from the center of the action, at the end of each action, after calling Halt. the director would describe the action, and then poll the judges in turn. The judges would answer Yes, Yes, but off-target, No, if the judges differed or abstained, the director could overrule them with his vote. This method was used, but had limitations. There also were problems with bias, well-known fencers were often given the benefit of mistakes, aldo Nadi complained about this in his autobiography The Living Sword in regard to his famous match with Lucien Gaudin. The article in the Daily Courier described a new invention, the scoring machine. Starting with épée in the 1930s, side judges were replaced by an electrical scoring apparatus, with an audible tone and a red or green light indicating when a touch landed. The scoring box reduced the bias in judging, and permitted more accurate scoring of faster actions, lighter touches, the advent of the electrical scoring apparatus had far-reaching consequences. The electrical scoring apparatus and the 20th centurys overall modernization of athletic activities occurred alongside an increase in the emphasis on fencing as a sport
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Academic fencing
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It is a traditional, strictly regulated épée / rapier fight between two male members of different fraternities with sharp weapons. The German technical term Mensur in the 16th century referred to the distance between each of the fencers. Modern academic fencing, the Mensur, is neither a duel nor a sport and it is a traditional way of training and educating character and personality, thus, in a mensur bout, there is neither winner nor loser. In contrast to sport fencing, the participants stand their ground at a fixed distance, at the beginning of the tradition, duelers wore only their normal clothing or light-cloth armor on arm, torso, and throat. In recent years, fencers are protected by mail or padding for the body, fencing arm, fencing hand, in Austria and Switzerland a nose guard is uncommon. They fence at arms length and stand more or less in one place, while attempting to hit the areas of their opponents face. Flinching or dodging is not allowed, the goal being less to avoid injury than to endure it stoically, two physicians are present to attend to injuries and stop the fight if necessary. The participants, or Paukanten, use specially developed swords, the so-called Mensurschläger, exists in two versions. The most common weapon is the Korbschläger with a basket-type guard, some universities in the eastern part of Germany use the so-called Glockenschläger, which is equipped with a bell-shaped guard. These universities are Leipzig, Berlin, Greifswald, Dresden, Tharandt, Halle on the Saale, Frankfurt-an-der-Oder, in Jena, both Korbschläger and Glockenschläger are used. Studentenverbindungen from some cities use Glockenschläger because their tradition had its origin in one of the eastern universities. The scar resulting from a hit is called a smite, and was seen as a badge of honour, especially in the half of the 19th century. Today, it is not easy for an outsider to identify Mensur scars due to medical treatment. Also the number of mandatory Mensuren were reduced in the half of the 20th century. Most Mensur scars are located on the temple of the forehead. Scars on the cheek and chin are rather uncommon today and sometimes due to accidents, starting in Spain at the end of the 15th century, the dueling sword became a regular part of the attire of noblemen throughout Europe. In the Holy Roman Empire, this became usual among students, brawling and fighting were regular occupations of students in the German-speaking areas during the early modern period. In line with developments in the aristocracy and the military, regulated duels were introduced to the academic environment, the basis of this was the conviction that being a student meant being something different from the rest of the population
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Collegiate fencing
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Collegiate fencing has existed for a long time. Some of the earliest programs in the US came from the Ivy League schools, both clubs and varsity teams participate in the sport, however only the varsity teams may participate in the NCAA championship tournament. The first NCAA fencing tournament was held at Northwestern University in 1941, due to the limited number of colleges that have fencing teams, teams fence inter-division, and all divisions participate in the NCAA Championships. Collegiate fencing tournaments are tournaments in a sense, but contrary to what many people expect. Schools compete against each one at a time. In each weapon and gender, three fencers from each school fence three fencers on the team in five-touch bouts. A fencers individual results in tournaments and regional championships are used to select the fencers who will compete in NCAA championships. Individual results for fencers from each school are combined to judge the overall performance. According to official NCAA regulations, colleges are limited to granting five full fencing scholarships per year, list of NCAA fencing schools Intercollegiate Fencing Association National Intercollegiate Womens Fencing Association United States Association of Collegiate Fencing Clubs U. S. Fencing Coaches Association College athletics High school fencing
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