1.
Air gun
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Both the rifle and handgun forms typically propel metallic projectiles, either the non-spherical pellets, or the spherical BBs. Certain types of air guns may also propel arrows or darts, the first air guns were developed in the 1500s. The guns have used in hunting, sporting and warfare. Air guns use three types of power, depending on the design, spring-piston, pneumatic and compressed carbon dioxide, Air guns represent the oldest pneumatic technology. The oldest existing mechanical air gun, an air gun dating back to about 1580, is in the Livrustkammaren Museum in Stockholm. This is the time most historians recognize as the beginning of the air gun. In the 17th century, air guns, in calibers. 30–.51, were used to hunt big game deer and these air rifles were charged using a pump to fill an air reservoir and gave velocities from 650 to 1,000 feet per second. They were also used in warfare, the most recognized example being the Girandoni air rifle, at that time, they had compelling advantages over the primitive firearms of the day. For example, air guns could be discharged in wet weather and rain, moreover, they were quieter than a firearm of similar caliber, had no muzzle flash, and were smokeless. Thus, they did not disclose the shooters position or obscure the shooters view, in the hands of skilled soldiers, they gave the military a distinct advantage. France, Austria and other nations had special sniper detachments using air rifles, the Austrian 1770 model was named Windbüchse. The air reservoir was a removable, club-shaped, butt, the Windbüchse carried twenty-two.51 caliber lead balls in a tubular magazine. A skilled shooter could fire off one magazine in about thirty seconds, a shot from this air gun could penetrate an inch thick wooden board at a hundred paces, an effect roughly equal to that of a modern 9×19mm or.45 ACP caliber pistol. The celebrated Lewis and Clark Expedition carried an air gun. It held 22.46 caliber round balls in a tubular magazine mounted on the side of the barrel, the butt served as the air reservoir and had a working pressure of 800 psi. The rifle was said to be capable of 22 aimed shots per minute and had a bore of 0.452 in. One of the first commercially successful and mass-produced air guns was manufactured by the W. F and their first model air gun was called the Challenger and marketed in 1888. Their next model was the Chicago followed by the King, the Chicago model was sold by Sears, Roebuck for 73 cents in its catalog
2.
Pellet (air gun)
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A pellet is a non-spherical projectile designed to be fired from an air gun. It can have a flat, round, hollow or pointed tip, from the waist back, the pellet is hollow, and flares out to full diameter when pressurized by the gun. The head, or solid part in front of the waist, is sized to fit the bore just touching the rifling. This keeps the pellet centred in the bore, while keeping the friction as low as possible, the effect of friction is used in order to keep the pellet stationary until the piston has reached the end of its travel, compressing as much air as is possible. The skirt of the pellet is thin, and made of a material, usually lead or lead alloy. When shot, the skirt will obturate to fit the bore and provide a good seal, in a smoothbore barrel, the skirt will still flare to provide a tight seal, but since there is no rifling, the pellet will not spin, and is less accurate. In most cases of type, the solid head in the front. However, this is not always the case, and some types of this nature will tumble in flight. When this happens the pellet will not leave a clean, round hole in the paper and this phenomenon is known as keyholing. Pellets are designed to travel at subsonic speeds, high velocities can cause light pellets to overly deform, or even break apart in flight. The transition from subsonic to supersonic velocities will cause almost all pellets to tumble, the closer a pellet gets to the speed of sound, the more unstable it becomes. This is a problem for high powered break-barrel and pre-charged pneumatic air rifles, a few companies have addressed this issue by manufacturing heavier than normal pellets for use in these high powered air guns. The heavier weight of these pellets ensure that they travel at speeds well below the sound barrier, resulting in less tumbling. Their weight also makes them susceptible to air resistance, and thus imparts more kinetic energy downrange. Match pellets are used for the 10 metre air rifle and 10 metre air pistol disciplines and these 4.5 mm calibre pellets have wadcutter heads, meaning the front is flat, that leave clean round holes in paper targets for easy scoring. Match pellets are offered in tins and more elaborate packagings that avoid deformation, match pellets are made of soft lead. The antimony content is used to control the hardness of the soft lead alloy and it is a very soft alloy, which makes it easy to process. Since the soft lead alloy is prone to strongly deform when striking a bullet catcher, it loses its kinetic energy
3.
Ballistics
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A ballistic body is a body with momentum which is free to move, subject to forces, such as the pressure of gases in a gun or a propulsive nozzle, by rifling in a barrel, by gravity, or by air drag. The earliest known ballistic projectiles were stones and spears, and the throwing stick. The oldest evidence of stone-tipped projectiles, which may or may not have been propelled by a bow, dating to c.64,000 years ago, were found in Sibudu Cave, present day-South Africa. The oldest evidence of the use of bows to shoot arrows dates to about 10,000 years ago and they had shallow grooves on the base, indicating that they were shot from a bow. The oldest bow so far recovered is about 8,000 years old, archery seems to have arrived in the Americas with the Arctic small tool tradition, about 4,500 years ago. The first devices identified as guns appeared in China around 1000 AD, and by the 12th century the technology was spreading through the rest of Asia, the word ballistics comes from the Greek βάλλειν ballein, meaning to throw. A projectile is any object projected into space by the exertion of a force, although any object in motion through space is a projectile, the term most commonly refers to a ranged weapon. Mathematical equations of motion are used to analyze projectile trajectory, examples of projectiles include balls, arrows, bullets, artillery shells, rockets, etc. Throwing is the launching of a projectile by hand, although some other animals can throw, humans are unusually good throwers due to their high dexterity and good timing capabilities, and it is believed that this is an evolved trait. Evidence of human throwing dates back 2 million years, the 90 mph throwing speed found in many athletes far exceeds the speed at which chimpanzees can throw things, which is about 20 mph. This ability reflects the ability of the shoulder muscles and tendons to store elasticity until it is needed to propel an object. A sling is a projectile weapon used to throw a blunt projectile such as a stone. A sling has a cradle or pouch in the middle of two lengths of cord. The sling stone is placed in the pouch, the middle finger or thumb is placed through a loop on the end of one cord, and a tab at the end of the other cord is placed between the thumb and forefinger. The sling is swung in an arc, and the tab released at a precise moment and this frees the projectile to fly to the target. A bow is a piece of material which shoots aerodynamic projectiles called arrows. A string joins the two ends and when the string is drawn back, the ends of the stick are flexed, when the string is released, the potential energy of the flexed stick is transformed into the velocity of the arrow. Archery is the art or sport of shooting arrows from bows, a catapult is a device used to launch a projectile a great distance without the aid of explosive devices — particularly various types of ancient and medieval siege engines
4.
Weapon
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A weapon, arm, or armament is any device used with intent to inflict damage or harm to living beings, structures, or systems. Weapons are used to increase the efficacy and efficiency of such as hunting, crime, law enforcement, self-defense. In a broader context, weapons may be construed to include anything used to gain a strategic, something that has been re-purposed, converted, or enhanced to become a weapon of war is termed weaponized, such as a weaponized virus or weaponized lasers. The use of objects as weapons has been observed among chimpanzees, however, this can not be confirmed using physical evidence because wooden clubs, spears, and unshaped stones would not have left an unambiguous record. The earliest unambiguous weapons to be found are the Schöninger Speere, the first defensive structures and fortifications appeared in the Bronze Age, indicating an increased need for security. Weapons designed to breach fortifications followed soon after, for example the battering ram was in use by 2500 BC, although early Iron Age swords were not superior to their bronze predecessors, once iron-working developed, around 1300 BC in Greece Alex Webb, Metalworking in Ancient Greece. Domestication of the horse and widespread use of spoked wheels by ca.2000 BC, led to the light, the mobility provided by chariots were important during this era. Spoke-wheeled chariot usage peaked around 1300 BC and then declined, ceasing to be militarily relevant by the 4th century BC. Cavalry developed once horses were bred to support the weight of a man, the horse extended the range and increased the speed of attacks. Ships built as weapons or warships such as the trireme were in use by the 7th century BC and these ships were eventually replaced by larger ships by the 4th century BC. European warfare during the Post-classical history was dominated by groups of knights supported by massed infantry. They were involved in combat and sieges which involved various siege weapons. Knights on horseback developed tactics for charging with lances providing an impact on the enemy formations, whereas infantry, in the age before structured formations, relied on cheap, sturdy weapons such as spears and billhooks in close combat and bows from a distance. As armies became more professional, their equipment was standardized and infantry transitioned to pikes, pikes are normally seven to eight feet in length, in conjunction with smaller side-arms. In Eastern and Middle Eastern warfare, similar tactics were developed independent of European influences, the introduction of gunpowder from the Far East at the end of this period revolutionized warfare. Formations of musketeers, protected by pikemen came to dominate open battles, the European Renaissance marked the beginning of the implementation of firearms in western warfare. Guns and rockets were introduced to the battlefield, firearms are qualitatively different from earlier weapons because they release energy from combustible propellants such as gunpowder, rather than from a counter-weight or spring. This energy is released very rapidly and can be replicated without much effort by the user, therefore even early firearms such as the arquebus were much more powerful than human-powered weapons. During the U. S. Civil War various technologies including the gun and ironclad warship emerged that would be recognizable and useful military weapons today
5.
Ammunition
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Ammunition is the general term used for the material fired, scattered, dropped or detonated from any weapon. The term ammunition can be traced back to the mid 17th century, broadly speaking, ammunition refers to both expendable weapons and the component parts of other weapons that create the effect on a target. Nearly all weapons will require some form of ammunition to operate, the word comes from the French la munition, which refers to the material used for war. The terms ammunition and munitions are used interchangeably, although the term munition now usually refers to both the actual weapons system alongside the ammunition required to operate it. The purpose of ammunition is to project a force against a target to have an effect. The most iconic example of ammunition is the cartridge, which all components required to deliver the weapon effect in a single package. Ammunition comes in a range of sizes and types and is often designed to work only in specific weapons systems. However, there are internationally recognized standards for certain types that enable their use across different weapons. There are also types of ammunition that are designed to have a specialized effect on a target, such as armor-piercing shells and tracer ammunition. Ammunition is commonly colored in a manner to assist in the identification. A round is a cartridge containing a projectile, propellant, primer. A shell is a form of ammunition that is fired by a large cannon or artillery piece. Before the mid-19th century, these shells were made of solid materials. However, since that time, they are often filled with high-explosives. A shot refers to a release of a weapons system. This may involve firing just one round or piece of ammunition, a dud refers to loaded ammunition that fails to function as intended, typically failing to detonate on landing. However, it can refer to ammunition that fails to fire inside the weapon, known as a misfire, or when the ammunition only partially functions. Dud ammunition, which is classified as an ordnance, is regarded as highly dangerous
6.
Field target
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Field target is an outdoor air gun discipline originated by the National Air Rifle and Pistol Association in the United Kingdom in 1980. In UK rules, competitors aim to shoot the small “kill” zone that forms part of a larger metal faceplate and these face plates are often shaped to resemble small game animals, although there is currently a move towards simple geometric shapes. On most competition targets, the hit zone forms the end of a lever that tips the faceplate backwards when successfully hit. These targets have to be reset by tugging on a length of cord attached to the faceplate above the hinge, targets are shot from open “gates” in a firing line, and are divided into “lanes” of two targets each. Many competitions impose a restriction of 2 minutes to shoot both targets after a competitor first looks through his or her sights. Targets may be placed at any distance between 10 yards and 55 yards from the firing line, targets are often placed at about the same height as the shooter, but it is not uncommon for them to appear high up banks or in trees, or down steep slopes. The targets are painted with the kill a contrasting color to aid visibility, although the paint is removed by hits during competitions. Most competitors carry a small beanbag or cushion to sit on while shooting, in competition, 20% of the lanes will be designated as compulsory standing or kneeling, and there must be as even a split as possible between the two. Most competitions have 40 targets arranged in 20 lanes, so it is usual to have 2 standing lanes and 2 kneeling lanes, grand Prix events have 25 lanes, so there will be 2 lanes of one position and 3 of the other. Standing or kneeling targets must be no more than 45 yards from the firing line, points are scored with 1 for a hit, and 0 for a miss. The highest score of a competition forms the benchmark for all the other scores – they are calculated as a percentage of this rather than the total number of targets. This means that competitors attending a shoot on a day will not necessarily affect their average score over a season. Members of the British Field Target Association are graded according to their performance every six months and your average percentage score over this period determines which of the four grades you are given – C, B, A and AA. Prizes at shoots are awarded by grade, so less experienced shooters still have a chance of winning a trophy if they perform well, pistols are far less common than rifles in FT, and they are shot in special events designed to accommodate the differences in shooting style. In the UK,0.177 inch caliber rifles are the most popular, one downside is that. 177” pellets are very light and can be affected more by light crosswinds than the heavier pellets of a. 22” rifle. Pre-Charged Pneumatic rifles are more popular than spring guns as the lower recoil provides more confidence in aim for most people. There are some FT shooters who compete at a high level with a spring gun. Telescopic sights are favored for obvious reasons – it is impossible to see the kill zone of the furthest targets clearly with the naked eye, another advantage of high-magnification scopes is their ability to act as a simple range-finding tool
7.
BB gun
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BB guns are a type of air gun designed to fire spherical metal projectiles similar to shot pellets of approximately the same size. Modern BB guns usually have a barrel with a caliber of 4.5 mm and are available in many varieties. These guns usually use steel BB shots, plated either with zinc or copper to resist corrosion, some manufacturers still make lead balls around 0.48 to 0.50 g in weight and slightly larger in diameter, which are generally intended for use in rifled barrels. The term BB gun is often used to describe a pellet gun. Although in many cases a steel BB can be fired in a pellet gun, similarly, the term is also often used incorrectly to address airsoft guns, which shoot plastic balls that are larger but much less dense. The term BB originated from the nomenclature of the size of steel used in a shotgun. Size BB shots were normally 0.180 inches, but tended to vary considerably in size due to the loose tolerances in shotgun shells. They called these round shots, but the BB name was well established, and most users continued calling their guns BB guns. Subsequently, the term BB became generic, referring to any small spherical projectiles of various calibers and this includes bearing balls often utilized by anti-personnel mines.177 caliber lead/steel shots used by air guns, plastic round balls, small marbles and many others. It has become ubiquitous to refer to any ball, such as a BB. However, BBs should not be confused with a ball bearing, BB guns can use any of the operating mechanisms used for air guns. However, due to the inherent limited accuracy and short range of the BB, only the simpler and less expensive mechanisms are generally used for guns designed to fire only BBs. Because the strength of the steel BB does not allow it to be swaged with the low energies used to accelerate it through the barrel and this limits accuracy because little spin is imparted on the BB. It also limits range, because some of the air used to accelerate it is lost around the BB. Since a BB will easily roll unhindered down the barrel, it is common to find guns that use a magnet in the mechanism to hold the BB at the rear of the barrel until it is fired. The traditional, and still most common powerplant for BB guns is the spring piston, the lever-action rifle was the first type of BB gun, and still dominates the inexpensive youth BB gun market. The Daisy Model 25, modeled after a shotgun with a trombone pump-action mechanism. Lever-action models generally have very low velocities, around 84 m/s, the Daisy Model 25 typically achieved the highest velocities of its day, ranging from 114 to 145 m/s
8.
Ballistic coefficient
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In ballistics, the ballistic coefficient of a body is a measure of its ability to overcome air resistance in flight. It is inversely proportional to the negative acceleration — a high number indicates a low negative acceleration and this is roughly the same as saying that the projectile in question possesses low drag, although some meaning is lost in the generalization. BC is a function of mass, diameter, and drag coefficient, here are several methods to compute i or Cd, i =2 n ⋅4 n −1 n Where, i = Coefficient of form. N = number of calibers of the projectiles ogive, where n is unknown, n =4 Where, n = number of calibers of the projectiles ogive. L = length of the head in number of calibers, or A drag coefficient can also be calculated mathematically, C d =8 ρ ⋅ v 2 ⋅ π ⋅ d 2 Where, Cd = drag coefficient. ρ = density of the projectile, V = projectile velocity at range. π ≈3.14159 d = measured cross section of projectile in m or in or From standard physics as applied to “G” models, i = C G C p Where, CG = drag coefficient of 1.00 from any “G” model, reference drawing, projectile. Cp = drag coefficient of the actual test projectile at range, when needed, these terms and denotations shall be followed in bold font to denote the accepted Wikipedia standard. All Ordnance size and velocities are nominal or averaged as is historically and mathematically customary, in 1537, Niccolò Tartaglia did some test firing to determine the maximum angle and range for a shot. His conclusion was near 45 degrees and he noted that the shot trajectory was continuously curved. In 1636, Galileo Galilei published results in Dialogues Concerning Two New Sciences and he found that a falling body had a constant acceleration. This allowed Galileo to show that a trajectory was a curve. Circa 1665, Sir Isaac Newton derived the law of air resistance, newtons experiments on drag were through air and fluids. He showed that drag on shot increases proportionately with the density of the air, cross sectional area, newton’s experiments were only at low velocities to about 260 m/s. This challenge supposes that air resistance increases exponentially to the velocity of a projectile, keill gave no solution for his challenge. Johann Bernoulli took up this challenge and soon thereafter solved the problem and air resistance varied as “any power” of velocity and this is the precursor to the concept of the “standard projectile”. In 1742, Benjamin Robins invented the ballistic pendulum and this was a simple mechanical device that could measure a projectiles velocity. Robins reported muzzle velocities ranging from 1,400 ft/s to 1,700 ft/s, in 1844, the Electro-ballistic chronograph was invented and by 1867 the electro-ballistic chronograph was accurate to with in one ten millionth of a second
9.
Gamo (airgun manufacturer)
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The company is based in Spain and is the largest producer of guns and rifles in Europe, and the largest producer of pellets in the world. The company was founded in 1959, as El Gamo, today Gamo production includes rifles, pistols, ammunition and optics. They produce primarily low end air guns intended for mass market, in 2011 Gamo introduced its IGT range. The IGT range replaces a conventional spring powered power plant with a gas cylinder or gas ram. Achieves a velocity of 1100 feet per second, 2011- Whisper IGT- A gas ram air rifle with a noise moderator in synthetic stock. Promoted through by its gas ram technology under the name IGT internationally, in the US the model was launched under the name of Silent Stalker Whisper. With very little emphasis on the gas ram technology, extreme CO2 Whisper Whisper X Whisper Deluxe Whisper VH Whisper Fusion CSI Camo Viper Viper Express Viper Skeet Viper Max Rocket Shadow CSI Shadow RSV Shadow 1000 is 177. /0
10.
Muzzle energy
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Muzzle energy is the kinetic energy of a bullet as it is expelled from the muzzle of a firearm. It is often used as an indication of the destructive potential of a given firearm or load. The heavier the bullet and especially the faster it moves, the higher its muzzle energy, the general formula for the kinetic energy is E k =12 m v 2 where v is the velocity of the bullet m is the mass of the bullet. A subsonic variant of ammunition that would otherwise be supersonic has its velocity limited to less than the speed of sound, for ammunition with this limitation the muzzle energy is variable only with respect to the bullet mass m. In the SI system the above Ek will be in unit joule if the mass, m, is in kilogram, in United States engineering units, particular care must be taken to ensure that consistent units are used. Mass, m, is given in grains and the speed, v, in feet per second but kinetic energy. Most sporting arms publications within the United States report muzzle energies in foot-pound force.163 ft/s2 rather than the standard of 32.1739 ft/s2 is used. The formula therefore becomes E k =12 m v 2 × The bullet energy, remaining energy, down range energy, and impact energy of a projectile may also be calculated using the above formulas. It must be stressed that muzzle energy is dependent upon the previously listed. Also note that the energy is only an upper limit for how much energy is transmitted to the target. While the above list mentions some averages, there is variation in commercial ammunition. A180 grain bullet fired from.357 magnum handgun can achieve an energy of 580 foot-pounds. A110 grain bullet fired from the gun might only achieve 400 foot-pounds of muzzle energy. Some.45 Colt ammunition can produce 1,200 foot-pounds of muzzle energy, some jurisdictions stipulate minimum muzzle energies for hunting. In Germany airsoft guns with an energy of no more than 0.5 J are exempt from the gun law. Free recoil Muzzle velocity Power factor Edward F. Obert, Thermodynamics, Mc Graw-Hill encyclopedia of Science and Technology, volume ebe-eye and ice-lev, 9th Edition, Mc Graw-Hill,2002
11.
Air gun laws
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This is a list of laws concerning air guns by country. While in some air guns are not subject to any specific regulation, in most there are laws. There may be minimum ages for possession, and sales of air guns and ammunition may be restricted. Some areas in the world require permits and background similar to those required for firearms proper. Australian law is quite restrictive and differs on a basis, however, as general rule all air guns - regardless of action - are considered firearms for purposes of law. Air rifles are considered Class A firearms and as such are subject to licensing, Air pistols are considered handguns and require membership and attendance at a pistol club for six months before allowing ownership, and to shoot in four competitions per year to keep the licence. Paintball markers are treated differently to other airguns, refer to the section on legality for a state-by-state breakdown. Airsoft guns are prohibited except in the Northern Territory and the ACT. Airguns in the first group may be purchased by anyone over 18, airguns in the second group can only be purchased by people registered in the army, transportation depends on authorization, and usage is allowed only in places approved by the army. Airguns of any kind may not be carried openly, there is no muzzle energy limit for any type or calibre. Scopes with magnification equal or above 6 times and/or over 35 milimeters, or equipment that mark the target, are restricted to civilians, the permitted equipment has to be registered in the civilians document, this process is called Apostilamento. The document for a registry is called Certificado de Registro de Atirador. Air guns can freely bought and owned by any person older than 18 years old, only pistols with muzzle energy exceeding 7.5 joules are not allowed. There is no muzzle energy limit for rifles. Open carry of airguns is not allowed, the use of air guns is restriced non-public places, being shooting ranges, inside a house or a backyard that is not easily accessible from the street. Air guns with both a muzzle velocity greater than 152.4 meters per second and/or a muzzle energy greater than 5.7 joules are firearms for purposes of both the Firearms Act and the Criminal Code. Usually the manufacturer’s specifications are used to determine the muzzle velocity. Air pistols are classified as restricted if their barrel is longer than 105 mm or prohibited if their barrel length is 105 mm or less, however, they are considered to be firearms under the Criminal Code if they are used to commit a crime
