1.
Karl Edward Wagner
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Karl Edward Wagner was an American writer, poet, editor and publisher of horror, science fiction, and heroic fantasy, who was born in Knoxville, Tennessee and originally trained as a psychiatrist. He wrote numerous dark fantasy and horror stories and his Carcosa publishing company issued four volumes of the best stories by some of the major authors of the so-called Golden Age pulp magazines. He is possibly best known for his creation of a series of stories featuring the character Kane and his disillusionment with the medical profession can be detected in the stories The Fourth Seal and Into Whose Hands. He described his philosophy as nihilistic, anarchistic and absurdist. Wagner also admired the cinema of Sam Peckinpah, stating I worship the film The Wild Bunch, Wagner was the fourth and youngest child of Aubrey J. Wagner and Dorothea Huber. His father was an official of the Tennessee Valley Authority, Wagner earned a history degree from Kenyon College during 1967, and a psychiatry degree from University of North Carolina-Chapel Hill. As noted above, he disliked the medical profession, which he abandoned upon establishing himself as a writer, Wagner was productive as both a writer and editor/anthologist, see below. His friends included the writer Manly Wade Wellman, two of whose collections he published with the Carcosa publishing imprint, Wagner died in his home in Chapel Hill, North Carolina, on October 14,1994, essentially of the consequences of longterm alcoholism. It was reported in a late 1994 issue of the Newsletter of the Horror Writers of America that Wagners causes of death were heart failure, Exorcisms and Ecstasies, a posthumous volume of uncollected stories, miscellany and tributes was published by small press publisher Fedogan & Bremer during 1997. Night Shade Books has published the complete Kane stories in two hardcover volumes and his three volumes of Echoes of Valor also featured restored versions of pulp-era fantasy stories by authors such as Fritz Leiber, C. L. Moore, Henry Kuttner, and Nictzin Dyalhis. Wagner wrote an unpublished Bran Mak Morn novel, Queen of the Night, Wagner created his own mystical and immortal pre-historical anti-hero, Kane, whose name and background are based on traditional conceptions of the biblical Cain. Kane is an immortal somewhat like the Wandering Jew Kanes character also includes elements of Robert E. Howards Solomon Kane and he is an immortal, cursed to wander the earth until he is destroyed by the violence that he himself has created. He sells his loyalty as a fighter to the highest bidder and he is a well-read and intelligent man who has traveled his world for centuries and is able to discuss music, poetry, politics, and many other subjects. He is also amoral and a born killer, the Kane stories are often classified as tales of sword and sorcery, which some critics have compared favourably to those of Howard and Michael Moorcock. Howards mighty-thewed barbarian Conan the Cimmerian, Wagner set about creating his own fantasy character while still attending medical school, the result was initially published as a paperback original during 1970 by West Coast pornography publisher Powell Publications, with a lurid cover. The text of the novel was altered by an unknown copyeditor to conform with the cover art, after publishing a pseudonymous pornographic novel with a small New York company, Wagner relinquished his chance to become a doctor and instead decided to write full-time. During 1973, Warner Paperback library published Death Angels Shadow, which collected the three original Kane novellas and he also began selling his stories and poems regularly to the growing small press magazine market. Several of his tales were published in Gary Hoppenstands Midnight Sunn, a magazine devoted to Kane
2.
.223 Remington
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The.223 Remington is a rifle cartridge. The name is pronounced either two-twenty-three or two-two-three Remington. It is commercially loaded with 0.224 inch diameter jacketed bullets, with weights ranging from 40 to 85 grains, a 90 gr Sierra Matchking bullet is available for reloaders. The.223 Rem was first offered to the sporting market in December 1963 in the Remington 760 rifle. In 1964 the.223 Rem cartridge was adopted for use in the Colt M16 rifle which became a standard rifle of the U. S. Army. The military version of the uses a 55 gr full metal jacket boattail design and was designated M193. In 1980 NATO modified the.223 Remington into a new design which is designated 5. 56×45mm NATO type SS109, the cartridge and rifle were developed as one unit by Fairchild Industries, Remington Arms, and several engineers working toward a goal developed by U. S. Early development work begins in 1957, a project to create a Small Caliber High Velocity firearm is created. Eugene Stoner of Armalite is invited to scale down the AR-10 design, Winchester is also invited to participate. It was then known as the.224 Springfield, concurrently with the SCHV project Springfield armory is developing a 7.62 mm rifle. Harvey is ordered to cease all work on the SCHV to avoid any competition of resources, eugene Stoner of Armalite had been advised to produce a scaled down version of the 7.62 mm AR-10 design. In May 1957 Stoner gives a live demonstration of the prototype of the AR-15 for General Wyman. As a result, CONARC orders rifles to test, Stoner and Sierra Bullets Frank Snow begin work on the.222 Remington cartridge. Using a ballistic calculator they determine that a 55 grain bullet would have to be fired at 3, robert Hutton starts development of a powder load to reach the 3,300 fps goal. He uses DuPont IMR4198, IMR3031 and an Olin Powder to work up loads, testing is done with a Remington 722 rifle with a 22 Apex Barrel. During a public demonstration the round penetrates the US steel helmet as required. But testing shows chamber pressures to be excessively high, Stoner contacts both Winchester and Remington about increasing the case capacity. Remington creates a larger cartridge which is called the.222 Special which is loaded with DuPont IMR4475 powder,1958, During parallel testing of the T44E4 and the AR-15 the T44E4 experiences 16 failures per 1,000 rounds fired compared to 6.1 for the AR-15
3.
.308 Winchester
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The.308 Winchester is a rimless, bottlenecked rifle cartridge and is the commercial cartridge from which the 7. 62×51mm NATO round was derived. The.308 Winchester was introduced in 1952, two prior to the NATO adoption of the 7. 62×51mm NATO T65. Winchester branded the cartridge and introduced it to the hunting market as the.308 Winchester. Winchesters Model 70 and Model 88 rifles were chambered for the new cartridge. Since then, the.308 Winchester has become the most popular short-action and it is also commonly used for civilian hunting, target shooting, Metallic Silhouette, bench rest target shooting, palma, metal matches and military sniping, and police sharpshooting. The relatively short case makes the.308 Winchester especially well-adapted for short-action rifles, when loaded with a bullet that expands, tumbles, or fragments in tissue, this cartridge is capable of high terminal performance. Their interchange is, however, considered safe by the Sporting Arms, the.308 Winchester has 3.64 ml cartridge case capacity. The exterior shape of the case was designed to promote reliable case feeding and extraction in bolt action rifles and machine guns alike, all dimensions in millimeters and inches. Americans would define the angle at alpha/2 =20 degrees. The common rifling twist rate for this cartridge is 305 mm,4 grooves, Ø lands =7.62 mm, Ø grooves =7.82 mm, land width =4.47 mm and the primer type is large rifle. Rulings the.308 Winchester can handle up to 415.00 MPa Pmax piezo pressure, regulated countries every rifle cartridge combo has to be proofed at 125% of this maximum C. I. P. pressure to certify for sale to consumers. This means that.308 Winchester chambered arms in C. I. P, regulated countries are currently proof tested at 519.00 MPa PE piezo pressure. North American SAAMI maximum pressure for the 308 Winchester is 62,000 PSI, the.308 Winchester is one of the most popular hunting cartridges in the United States, and possibly the world. It has gained popularity in countries as an exceptional cartridge for game in the medium- to large-sized class. In North America it is used extensively on whitetail deer, pronghorn, clay Harvey, an American gun writer, says it is usable on moose and elk. Layne Simpson, an American who has hunted in Sweden, says he is surprised how many hunters there use the cartridge, craig Boddington was told by a Norma Precision executive that the.308 is one of Normas best-selling calibers. In Africa the.308 Win is one of the most popular calibers among Bushveld hunters and is used on anything from duiker right up to the massive eland. The.308 Winchester has slightly more drop at range than the. 30-06 Springfield
4.
United States
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Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
5.
Winchester Repeating Arms Company
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The Winchester Repeating Arms Company was a prominent American maker of repeating firearms, located in New Haven, Connecticut. The ancestor of the Winchester Repeating Arms Company was the Horace Smith and Daniel Wesson partnership of Norwich, Jennings rifle was a commercial failure, and Robbins & Lawrence ceased production in 1852. Smith designed a much-improved rifle based on Jennings, and the partners also hired away Robbins & Lawrence shop foreman Benjamin Tyler Henry. In 1855 the Smith & Wesson partnership, in order to manufacture what they called the Volcanic lever-action rifle and pistol, sought investors and its largest stockholder was clothing manufacturer Oliver Winchester. The Volcanic rifle had only limited success, the company moved to New Haven in 1856, but by the end of that year became insolvent. Oliver Winchester and his partner John M. Davies purchased the firms assets from the remaining stockholders. After Smiths departure Benjamin Henry continued to work with a Smith development project, the self-contained metallic rimfire cartridge, Henry also supervised a new rifle design based loosely on the Volcanic to use the new ammunition, retaining only the general form of the breech mechanism and the tubular magazine. This became the Henry rifle of 1860, which was manufactured by the New Haven Arms Company, the Henry rifle ensured New Haven Arms success, and together with the Spencer rifle established the lever-action repeater in the firearms market. In 1866 Benjamin Henry, angered over what he believed was inadequate compensation, Oliver Winchester, hastening back from Europe, forestalled the move and reorganized New Haven Arms yet again as the Winchester Repeating Arms Company. Another extremely popular model was rolled out in 1873, the Model 1873 introduced the first Winchester center fire cartridge, the. 44-40 WCF. These rifle families are known as the Gun That Won the West. The Model 1873 was followed by the Model 1876, a version of the 73. It was chambered for longer, more powerful cartridges such as. 45-60 WCF. 45-75 WCF, Oliver Winchester died in December 1880, his son and successor, William Wirt Winchester, died of tuberculosis four months later. William Wirt Winchesters widow, Sarah Winchester, used her inheritance, several of these are still in production today through companies such as Browning, Rossi, Navy Arms and others which have revived several of the discontinued models or produced reproductions. The early years of the century found the Winchester Repeating Arms Company competing with new John Browning designs. The race to produce the first commercial self-loading rifle brought forth the.22 rimfire Winchester Model 1903 and later centerfire Model 1905, Model 1907, and Model 1910 rifles. Winchester engineers, after ten years of work, designed the Model 1911 to circumvent Brownings self-loading shotgun patents, one of Winchesters premier engineers, T. C. Johnson, was instrumental in the development of these self-loading firearms and went on to superintend the designs of Winchesters classic Model 1912, Model 52 and Model 54
6.
Cartridge (firearms)
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Military and commercial producers continue to pursue the goal of caseless ammunition. A cartridge without a bullet is called a blank, One that is completely inert is called a dummy. Some artillery ammunition uses the same concept as found in small arms. In other cases, the shell is separate from the propellant charge. In popular use, the bullet is often misused to refer to a complete cartridge. The cartridge case seals a firing chamber in all directions excepting the bore, a firing pin strikes the primer and ignites it. The primer compound deflagrates, it does not detonate, a jet of burning gas from the primer ignites the propellant. Gases from the burning powder pressurize and expand the case to seal it against the chamber wall and these propellant gases push on the bullet base. In response to pressure, the bullet will move in the path of least resistance which is down the bore of the barrel. After the bullet leaves the barrel, the pressure drops to atmospheric pressure. The case, which had been expanded by chamber pressure. This eases removal of the case from the chamber, brass is a commonly used case material because it is resistant to corrosion. A brass case head can be work-hardened to withstand the pressures of cartridges. The neck and body portion of a case is easily annealed to make the case ductile enough to allow reforming so that it can be reloaded many times. Steel is used in some plinking ammunition, as well as in military ammunition. Steel is less expensive than brass, but it is not feasible to reload, Military forces typically consider small arms cartridge cases to be disposable, one-time-use devices. However, case weight affects how much ammunition a soldier can carry, conversely, steel is more susceptible to contamination and damage so all such cases are varnished or otherwise sealed against the elements. One downside caused by the strength of steel in the neck of these cases is that propellant gas can blow back past the neck
7.
6mm Lee Navy
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The 6mm Lee Navy, also known as the 6mm U. S. N. Or.236 Navy, is an obsolete American rifle cartridge, the 6mm Lee Navy was in turn replaced by the.30 Army cartridge in 1899. By 1894, the U. S. Navy desired to adopt a modern small-bore, smokeless powder service cartridge, Naval authorities decided that the new cartridge should be adaptable to both rifles and machine guns. Noting that the military forces were adopting smaller and smaller caliber rifles with higher velocity cartridges. The government notice of bid requirements said no other calibers or cartridges would be considered, Winchester made the ammunition for the government, which in turn provided each competitor with 6 mm U. S. N. Cartridges and 0. 236-inch caliber rifle barrels, the latter supplied unchambered, the rifle action was required to withstand the firing of five overpressure cartridges with a chamber pressure of 60,000 psi. Several inventors and rifle manufacturers submitted models for testing, among them James Paris Lee, the Lee straight-pull won in repeated trials and the U. S. Navy adopted the round in 1895 as the Lee Rifle, Model of 1895, caliber 6-mm. As adopted by the Navy after tests at the Naval Torpedo Station, Cartridge featured a long, bottle-necked semi-rimmed brass case and a 135-grain round-nosed, cupro-nickel coated, steel-jacketed, lead-core bullet. The initial version utilized a 135-grain steel-jacketed lead core bullet with 2. 35-in, long case and 0. 517-inch rim, with a bullet diameter of 0.244 inches. The rifle powder for the new cartridge was Rifleite, a flake nitrocellulose smokeless powder originally developed for use in the British.303 cartridge, the new 6 mm cartridge achieved a muzzle velocity of 2,550 fps and was initially manufactured by Winchester for the Navy. After the adoption of the M1895 Lee, the rim of the government cartridge was redesigned with a slight bevel for optimum performance in the en bloc charger-loaded magazine of the M1895 rifle. The revised cartridge was designated the 6 mm U. S. N, but continued to be referred to in naval stores reports as the Ball Cartridge,6 mm. In March 1897, after reports of excessive chamber pressures and short barrel life despite the use of 4. The new M1895 Colt–Browning machine gun was modified to accept the new 112-grain loading the same year. Firing a 112-grain bullet at 2,560 ft/s from a 28 in barrel, the 112-grain roundnosed bullet had a flatter trajectory than its 135-grain predecessor at all ranges up to 500 yards, above this distance, the heavier bullet began to show an advantage. The new loading had a range of around 600-700 yards, at which point the blunt-tip bullet rapidly lost velocity. The 112-grain bullet, like its predecessor, demonstrated an inclination to instability unless rapidly rotated, the M1895 Lee rifle therefore received a rapid barrel rifling twist of one turn in 7.5 inches to keep the bullet from wobbling or tumbling at extended ranges. At some point, this rifling was changed in later production rifles to one turn in 10 inches RH
8.
Bullet
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The word bullet is a firearm term. A bullet is a projectile expelled from the barrel of a firearm, the term is from Middle French and originated as the diminutive of the word boulle which means small ball. Bullets are made of a variety of materials and they are available singly as they would be used in muzzle loading and cap and ball firearms, as part of a paper cartridge, and much more commonly as a component of metallic cartridges. Bullets are made in a numbers of styles and constructions depending on how they will be used. Many bullets have specialized functions, such as hunting, target shooting, training, defense, a bullet is not a cartridge. In paper and metallic cartridges a bullet is one component of the cartridge, bullet sizes are expressed by their weight and diameter in both English and Metric measurement systems. For example.22 caliber 55 grain bullets or 5. 56mm 55 grain bullets are the same caliber, the word bullet is often used colloquially to refer to a cartridge, which is a combination of the bullet, paper or metallic case/shell, powder, and primer. This use of bullet, when cartridge is intended, leads to confusion when the components of a cartridge are discussed or intended, the bullets used in many cartridges are fired at a muzzle velocity faster than the speed of sound. Meaning they are supersonic and thus can travel a substantial distance, bullet speed through air depends on a number of factors such as barometric pressure, humidity, air temperature, and wind speed. Subsonic cartridges fire bullets slower than the speed of sound and so there is no sonic crack and this means that a subsonic cartridge such as.45 ACP can be effectively suppressed to be substantially quieter than a supersonic cartridge such as the.223 Remington. Bullets do not normally contain explosives, but damage the target by impact. The first use of gunpowder in Europe was recorded in 1247 and it had been used in China for hundreds of years. Later in 1364 hand cannon appeared, early projectiles were made of stone. Stone was used in cannon and hand cannon, in cannon it was eventually found that stone would not penetrate stone fortifications which gave rise to the use of heavier metals for the round projectiles. Hand cannon projectiles developed in a similar following the failure of stone from siege cannon. The first recorded instance of a ball from a hand cannon penetrating armor occurred in 1425. In this photograph of shot retrieved from the wreck of the Mary Rose which was sunk in 1545, the round shot are clearly of different sizes and some are stone while others are cast iron. The development of the hand culverin and matchlock arquebus brought about the use of cast lead balls as projectiles, bullet is derived from the French word boulette, which roughly means little ball
9.
Grain (unit)
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A grain is a unit of measurement of mass, and, for the troy grain, equal to exactly 7001647989100000000♠64.79891 milligrams. It is nominally based upon the mass of a seed of a cereal. From the Bronze Age into the Renaissance the average masses of wheat, rather, expressions such as thirty-two grains of wheat, taken from the middle of the ear appear to have been ritualistic formulas, essentially the premodern equivalent of legal boilerplate. Another book states that Captain Henry Kater, of the British Standards Commission, the grain was the legal foundation of traditional English weight systems, and is the only unit that is equal throughout the troy, avoirdupois, and apothecaries systems of mass. The unit was based on the weight of a grain of barley. The fundamental unit of the pre-1527 English weight system known as Tower weights, was a different sort of known as the wheat grain. The Tower wheat grain was defined as exactly 45⁄64 of a troy grain.79891 milligrams, 7000100000000000000♠1 gram is approximately 7001154323600000000♠15.43236 grains. The unit formerly used by jewellers to measure pearls, diamonds, or other stones, called the jewellers grain or pearl grain, is equal to 1⁄4 of a carat. The grain was also the name of a traditional French unit equal to 6995531150000000000♠53.115 mg. In both British Imperial and U. S. customary units, there are precisely 7,000 grains per avoirdupois pound, the grain is commonly used to measure the mass of bullets and propellants. The term also refers to a particle of gunpowder, the size of which varies according to requirements. In archery, the grain is the unit used to weigh arrows. In dentistry, gold foil, used as a material to restore teeth, is measured in grains, in North America, the hardness of water is often measured in grains per US gallon of calcium carbonate equivalents. Otherwise, water hardness is measured in the metric unit parts per million, one grain per US gallon is approximately 6995171000000000000♠17.1 ppm. Soft water contains 1–4 gpg of calcium carbonate equivalents, while hard water contains 11–20 gpg, though no longer recommended, grains are still used occasionally in medicine as part of the apothecaries system, especially in prescriptions for older medicines such as aspirin or phenobarbital. For example, the dosage of a standard 6996325000000000000♠325 mg tablet of aspirin is sometimes given as 7000500000000000000♠5 grains, in that example the grain is approximated to 6995650000000000000♠65 mg, though the grain can also be approximated to 6995600000000000000♠60 mg, depending on the medication and manufacturer. The apothecaries system has its own system of notation, in which the symbol or abbreviation is followed by the quantity in lower case Roman numerals. For amounts less than one, the quantity is written as a fraction, or for one half, therefore, a prescription for tablets containing 325 mg of aspirin and 30 mg of codeine can be written ASA gr
10.
Rifling
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In firearms, rifling consists of helical grooves in the internal surface of a guns barrel, which impart a spin to a projectile around its long axis. This spin serves to stabilize the projectile, improving its aerodynamic stability. Rifling is often described by its twist rate, which indicates the distance the rifling takes to complete one revolution, such as 1 turn in 10 inches. A shorter distance indicates a faster twist, meaning that for a given velocity the projectile will be rotating at a spin rate. Barrels intended for long, small-diameter bullets, such as the ultra-low-drag, 80-grain 0.223 inch bullets, extremely long projectiles such as flechettes may require high twist rates, these projectiles must be inherently stable, and are often fired from a smoothbore barrel. Muskets were smoothbore, large caliber weapons using ball-shaped ammunition fired at low velocity. Due to the high cost and great difficulty of manufacturing, and the need to load readily from the muzzle. Consequently, on firing the ball bounced off the sides of the barrel when fired, barrel rifling was invented in Augsburg, Germany in 1498. In 1520 August Kotter, an armourer of Nuremberg, Germany improved upon this work, though true rifling dates from the mid-16th century, it did not become commonplace until the nineteenth century. The most successful weapons using rifling with black powder were breech loaders such as the Queen Anne pistol, the grooves most commonly used in modern rifling have fairly sharp edges. More recently, polygonal rifling, a throwback to the earliest types of rifling, has become popular, polygonal barrels tend to have longer service lives because the reduction of the sharp edges of the land reduces erosion of the barrel. Supporters of polygonal rifling also claim higher velocities and greater accuracy, polygonal rifling is currently seen on pistols from CZ, Heckler & Koch, Glock, Tanfoglio, and Kahr Arms, as well as the Desert Eagle. Such guns have achieved significant increases in velocity and range. Examples include the South African G5 and the German PzH2000, gain-twist rifling begins with very little change in the projectiles angular momentum during the first few inches of bullet travel after ignition during the transition from chamber to throat. This enables the bullet to remain undisturbed and trued to the case mouth. After engaging the rifling the bullet is progressively subjected to accelerated angular momentum as burning powder propels it down the barrel. By only gradually increasing the rate, torque is spread along a much longer section of barrel. Gain-twist rifling was used as early as the American Civil War, colt Army and Navy revolvers both employed gain-twist rifling
11.
Primer (firearms)
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In firearm ballistics, the primer is a component of pistol, rifle, and shotgun rounds. Early primers were simply the same black powder used to fire the weapon and this external powder was connected though a tube in the barrel that led to the main charge. As powder wont burn when wet, this led to difficulty, or even the inability, modern primers are shock sensitive chemicals. In smaller weapons the primer is usually integrated into the rear of a cartridge, in larger weapons like cannon the primer is a separate component placed inside the barrel to the rear of the main propellant charge. The first step to firing a firearm of any sort is igniting the propellant, the earliest firearms were cannons, which were simple closed tubes. There was an aperture, the touchhole, drilled in the closed end of the tube. This hole was filled with finely ground powder, which was ignited with a hot ember or torch. With the advent of firearms, this became an undesirable way of firing a gun. The first attempt to make the process of firing a small arm easier was the matchlock, the matchlock incorporated a lock that was actuated by a trigger, originally called a tricker. The lock was a lever which pivoted when pulled. The match was a burning fuse made of plant fibers that were soaked in a solution of nitrates, charcoal, and sulfur. This slow-match was ignited before the gun was needed, and it would slowly burn, after the gun was loaded and the touchhole primed with powder, the burning tip of the match was positioned so that the lock would bring it into contact with the touchhole. To fire the gun, it was aimed and the trigger pulled and this brought the match down to the touchhole, igniting the powder. With careful attention the slow-burning match could be burning for long periods of time. The next revolution in technology was the wheel-lock. It used a spring-loaded, serrated steel wheel which rubbed against a piece of iron pyrite, a key was used to wind the wheel and put the spring under tension. Once tensioned, the wheel was held in place by a trigger, when the trigger was pulled, the serrated edge of the steel rubbed against the pyrite, generating sparks. These sparks were directed into a pan, called the flash pan, the flashpan usually was protected by a spring-loaded cover that would slide out of the way when the trigger was pulled, exposing the powder to the sparks
12.
Rim (firearms)
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A rim is an external flange that is machined, cast, molded, stamped or pressed around the bottom of a firearms cartridge. Thus, rimmed cartridges are sometimes called flanged cartridges, almost all cartridges feature an extractor or headspacing rim, in spite of the fact that some cartridges are known as rimless cartridges. These types are rimmed, rimless, semi-rimmed, rebated rim and these categories describe the size of the rim in relation to the base of the case. The rimmed cartridge, sometimes called flanged cartridge, is the oldest of the types and has a rim that is larger in diameter than the base of the cartridge. Rimmed cartridges use the rim to hold the cartridge in the chamber of the firearm, because the rimmed cartridge headspaces on the rim, the case length is of less importance than rimless cartridges. This allows some firearms chambered for similar rimmed cartridges to safely chamber and fire shorter cartridges, rimmed cartridges are well suited to certain types of actions, such as revolvers, where the rim helps hold the cartridge in position, and break-action firearms. Semi-automatic handguns have been chambered in rimmed cartridges as well, for example a LAR Grizzly or Desert Eagle in.357 or.44 Magnum, under the metric cartridge designation system, a capitalized R added at the end of the designation denotes a rimmed cartridge. For example,7. 62×54mmR is a cartridge, while 7. 62×51mm is a rimless cartridge.45 Auto Rim. Examples of rimmed handgun cartridges include the.38 Special.357 Magnum, rimmed rifle cartridge examples include the.22 Hornet.303 British and 7. 62×54mmR. Rimless cases are not well suited to break-open and revolver actions, though they can be used with modifications, such as a spring-loaded extractor or, in a revolver. Crimping affects the length of the cartridge, and thus cannot be used on cartridges which headspace on the case mouth. Examples of rimless handgun cartridges include the 9mm Parabellum.40 S&W, rimless rifle examples include the.223 Remington.308 Winchester. 30-06 Springfield and 7. 92×57mm Mauser. On a semi-rimmed case the rim projects slightly beyond the base of the case, the tiny rim provides minimal interference feeding from a box magazine, while still providing enough surface to headspace on. Semi-rimmed cases are less common than the other types, if the chamber is cut shallow, so the case headspaces off the mouth, the rim is used for extraction only, a standard chamber will use the rim for both headspacing and extraction. Examples of more commonly encountered rimless handgun cartridges are.25 ACP.32 ACP and.38 ACP, while the.308 Marlin Express.338 Marlin Express and.444 Marlin are rifle cartridges that are semi-rimmed. Rebated rim cartridges have a rim that is smaller in diameter than the base of the case. Functionally the same as a case, the rebated rim provides some additional benefits when considered in conjunction with other cartridges. One example of a rebated rim cartridge is the.50 Action Express, by using the same rim dimensions as the.44 Magnum, a Desert Eagle could be converted from.44 Magnum to.50 AE by merely changing the barrel and magazine
13.
Prairie dog
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Prairie dogs are herbivorous burrowing rodents native to the grasslands of North America. The five species are, black-tailed, white-tailed, Gunnisons, Utah and they are a type of ground squirrel, found in the United States, Canada and Mexico. In the United States, they range primarily to the west of the Mississippi River, despite the name, they are not canines. Prairie dogs are named for their habitat and warning call, which similar to a dogs bark. The name was in use at least as early as 1774, the 1804 journals of the Lewis and Clark Expedition note that in September 1804, they discovered a Village of an animal the French Call the Prairie Dog. Its genus, Cynomys, derives from the Greek for dog mouse, the black-tailed prairie dog was first described by Lewis and Clark in 1804. Lewis described it in detail in 1806, calling it the barking squirrel.5 and 1.5 kilograms. Sexual dimorphism in body mass in the prairie dog varies 105 to 136% between the sexes, among the species, black-tailed prairie dogs tend to be the least sexually dimorphic, and white-tailed prairie dogs tend to be the most sexually dimorphic. Prairie dogs are herbivorous, though they eat some insects. They feed primarily on grasses and small seeds, in the fall, they eat broadleaf forbs. In the winter, lactating and pregnant females supplement their diets with snow for extra water and they also will eat roots, seeds, fruit, and buds. Grasses of various species are eaten, white-tailed prairie dogs have been observed to kill ground squirrels, a competing herbivore. Prairie dogs live mainly at altitudes ranging from 2,000 to 10,000 ft above sea level, the areas where they live can get as warm as 38 °C in the summer and as cold as −37 °C in the winter. As prairie dogs live in areas prone to environmental threats, including hailstorms, blizzards, burrows help prairie dogs control their body temperature as they are 5–10 °C during the winter and 15–25 °C in the summer. Prairie dog burrows are 5–10 m long and 2–3 m below the ground, the entrance holes are generally 10–30 cm in diameter. Prairie dog burrows can have up to six entrances, sometimes the entrances are simply flat holes in the ground, while at other times they are surrounded by mounds of soil either left as piles or hard packed. Some mounds, known as dome craters, can be as high as 0. 2–0.3 m high, other mounds, known as rim craters, can be as high as 1 m. Dome craters and rim craters serve as observation posts used by the animals to watch for predators and they also protect the burrows from flooding
14.
Groundhog
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The groundhog, also known as a woodchuck, or whistlepig, is a rodent of the family Sciuridae, belonging to the group of large ground squirrels known as marmots. It was first scientifically described by Carl Linnaeus in 1758, the groundhog is also referred to as a chuck, wood-shock, groundpig, whistler, thickwood badger, Canada marmot, monax, moonack, weenusk, and red monk. The name thickwood badger was given in the Northwest to distinguish the animal from the prairie badger, monax was an Indian name of the woodchuck, which meant the digger. Young groundhogs may be called chucklings, other marmots, such as the yellow-bellied and hoary marmots, live in rocky and mountainous areas, but the groundhog is a lowland creature. It is widely distributed in North America and common in the northeastern and central United States, groundhogs are found as far north as Alaska, with their habitat extending southeast to Georgia. The groundhog is the largest sciurid in its range, typically measuring 40 to 65 cm long and weighing 2 to 4 kg. In areas with natural predators and large amounts of alfalfa. Groundhogs are well adapted for digging, with short, powerful limbs and curved, unlike other sciurids, the groundhogs spine is curved, more like that of a mole, and the tail is comparably shorter as well — only about one-fourth of body length. The etymology of the woodchuck is unrelated to wood or chucking. It stems from an Algonquian name for the animal, wuchak, the similarity between the words has led to the popular tongue-twister, How much wood would a woodchuck chuck if a woodchuck could chuck wood. A woodchuck would chuck all the wood he could if a woodchuck could chuck wood, the groundhog prefers open country and the edges of woodland, and is rarely far from a burrow entrance. Since the clearing of forests provided it with a more suitable habitat. Groundhogs are often hunted for sport, which tends to control their numbers, however, their ability to reproduce quickly has tended to mitigate the depopulating effects of sport hunting. As a consequence, the groundhog is an animal to many people in the United States. In the wild, groundhogs can live up to six years with two or three being average, in captivity, groundhogs reportedly live from 9 to 14 years. Common predators for groundhogs include wolves, cougars, coyotes, foxes, bobcats, bears, eagles, young groundhogs are often at risk for predation by snakes, which easily enter the burrow. Man, the dog, and the red fox, in the order named, are the chief enemies of the groundhog. In areas of agriculture and dairying regions of the state of Wisconsin, particularly the southern parts
15.
Vermin
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Vermin are pests or nuisance animals, that spread diseases or destroy crops or livestock. Use of the term implies the need for extermination programs, since the term is defined in relation to human activities, which species are included vary from area to area and person to person. Varmint or varmit is an American-English colloquialism, particularly common to the American east and South-east within the bordering states of the vast Appalachia region. The term vermin is used to refer to a scope of organisms, including rodents, cockroaches, fleas, termites, lice, bed bugs. Birds which eat crops and fruit are an example. The American crow, is hated by farmers because of crop depredation. Pigeons, which have been introduced in urban environments, are also sometimes considered vermin. Some varieties of snakes and arachnids may also be referred to as vermin, vermin is also used as a term for vile people, an enemy of a state or nation, or certain ethnic groups that are considered subhuman. Species can develop into vermin if introduced into regions where they find living conditions. In such cases, humans often choose to fill the role of the predator to limit the danger to the environment, examples of vermin include goats on the Galápagos Islands, rabbits in Australia or cats on Prince Edward Islands. Rats, mice, and cockroaches are common urban and suburban vermin, hunting laws and definitions vary by province in Canada. Under Tudor vermin laws, many creatures were seen as competitors for the produce of the countryside, the declaration of the red kite as vermin led to its decline to the point of extirpation in the UK by the 20th century. However, the red kite is being reintroduced by the trans-location of breeding pairs from other parts of Europe, parasite Varmint hunting The dictionary definition of vermin at Wiktionary The New Brunswick Ministry of Natural Resources
16.
Marmot
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Marmots are large squirrels in the genus Marmota, of which there are 15 species. Other species prefer rough grassland and can be found widely across North America, the similarly-sized but more social prairie dog is not classified in the genus Marmota but in the related genus Cynomys. Marmots typically live in burrows, and hibernate there through the winter, most marmots are highly social and use loud whistles to communicate with one another, especially when alarmed. Marmots mainly eat greens and many types of grasses, berries, lichens, mosses, roots, the following is a list of all Marmota species recognized by Thorington and Hoffman plus the recently defined M. kastschenkoi. They divide marmots into two subgenera, the etymology of the term marmot is uncertain. It may have arisen from the Gallo-Romance prefix marm-, meaning to mumble or murmur, another possible origin is post-classical Latin, mus montanus, meaning mountain mouse. Beginning in 2010, Alaska celebrates February 2 as Marmot Day, the Marmot Burrow International Marmot Network
17.
.22 Hornet
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The.22 Hornet or 5. 6×35mmR is a varmint, small-game, predator, and competition centerfire rifle cartridge commercially introduced in 1930. It is considerably more powerful than the.22 WMR and the.17 HMR, the Hornet also differs very significantly from these in that it is not a rimfire but a centerfire cartridge. This makes it handloadable and reloadable, and thus much more versatile and it was the smallest commercially available.22 caliber centerfire cartridge until the introduction of the FN5. 7×28mm. The.22 Hornet fills the gap between such popular varmint/predator cartridges as the.22 WMR and the.223 Remington, in regard to muzzle velocity, muzzle energy and noise, it is well suited to vermin and predator control in relatively built-up areas. Harwoods cartridge was formed by necking down. 25-20 Winchester brass to.22 caliber, the modern.22 Hornets ancestry is generally attributed to experiments done in the 1920s using the black-powder.22 WCF at Springfield Armory. Winchester adopted what had so far been a cartridge in 1930. It was not until 1932 that any company began selling commercially made guns for the cartridge, wildcat variants of the.22 Hornet, such as the.22 K-Hornet, can boost bullet velocity and energy considerably above factory. Factory ammunition is available from all major manufacturers, generally with bullets weighing 34,35,45, or 46 grains. Muzzle velocity typically is in the 2,500 to 3,100 ft/s range, published handload data from major handloading-product companies shows how versatile the.22 Hornet can be. Beginning during World War II, aircrew survival rifles in.22 Hornet were developed and issued by the U. S. military and they were a bolt-action rifle with adjustable stock, a break-open rifle/shotgun over-under, and a takedown bolt-action rifle. Military survival issue.22 Hornet ammunition was loaded with soft-point expanding jacketed bullets, however, they were labeled Under no circumstances is the ammunition to be used for offensive or defensive measures against enemy personnel. This ammunition is provided for use with your emergency survival Rifle for the Killing of Game for food under emergency survival conditions only and it was later determined by the USAF that exigent circumstances and self defense would have exempted soft point ammunition from that provision. The.22 Hornet is a cartridge for the Field/Hunters pistol category in IHMSA. Survivalist Mel Tappan on the.22 Hornet, It is accurate, has no recoil. Ts performance limits its use to game and pests within 150 or 175 yards. It is by no means a deer cartridge, even with handloads. The Hornet is considered an optimal cartridge for hunting, though it is not as powerful as modern.22 centerfires. At mid-century, southern sportsman Henry Edwards Davis pronounced the Winchester Model 70 chambered for the Hornet the best commercial rifle for wild turkeys the world has ever seen
18.
Varmint hunting
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Varmint hunting is the practice of hunting vermin, generally small mammals targeted as a means of pest control, rather than for food. Varminter may refer to a varmint hunter, or describe hunting equipment either specifically designed for, or suitable for varmint hunting, such as a varmint rifle. Varmint hunters may hunt to exterminate a nuisance animal from their own property, to collect a bounty offered by another landowner or the government, the definitive varmints are ground burrowing animals such as groundhogs and prairie dogs. These animals are small and difficult to approach closely, and hunting requires a long range. Remington 700 SPS, Has a 26 heavy contour barrel with standard features include a hinged floorplate magazine, sling swivel studs. Ruger No.1 Varminter single-shot rifle, equipped with scope base and rings for telescopic sight, while the trigger is factory set and locked, the trigger does include sear engagement and overtravel adjustment screws, which can be adjusted by a gunsmith. Savage Model 12 Varminter, includes adjustable trigger, and free floated extended heavy barrel, no iron sights, sierra Varminter line of bullets, light weight, hollow point and soft point bullets designed for high velocities, minimal penetration, and maximum expansion needed for varmints. Pest control Nuisance wildlife management Rat-catcher Vermin
19.
.250-3000 Savage
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The. 250-3000 Savage is a rifle cartridge created by Charles Newton in 1915 and is also known as the.250 Savage. The name comes from its manufacturer, Savage Arms and the fact that the original load achieved a 3000 ft/s velocity with an 87 grain bullet. Charles Newton designed the 250-3000 Savage case to fit the popular Savage Model 99 lever-action rifle, Newton recommended loading 100 grain bullets at 2800 ft/s, but Savage Arms reduced bullet weight to obtain velocity of 3000 ft/s, making it the first American cartridge capable of that velocity. Achieving that velocity may have been the reason for the choice of the light-for-caliber 87 grain bullet, Newton questioned if the publicity advantages of velocity compensated for reduced penetration of the lighter bullet in larger game animals. The cartridge has a limit of 45,000 CUP set by SAAMI. It lacks the power of the bigger. 25-06 Remington but provides less noise, performance is very close to the.257 Roberts. Currently there are few new firearms being made in.250 Savage. It is an excellent cartridge with moderate recoil for hunting game on up to deer-sized game. Some varmint hunters use the version of this cartridge, known as the.250 Ackley or.250 Improved or.250 Ackley Improved as a dual-purpose intermediate-range cartridge. The.250 Ackley is the same basic cartridge with a steeper shoulder and this provides a velocity improvement of more than 250 ft/s over standard factory loads. List of rifle cartridges Table of handgun and rifle cartridges 6 mm caliber
20.
Winchester Model 54
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The Winchester Model 54 is a bolt-action rifle manufactured by the Winchester Repeating Arms Company. The 54 was the first successful production run civilian centerfire bolt action for Winchester, using a Mauser 98-type action, the 54 was a less-expensive derivation of the limited-production handmade Model 51 Imperial of 1919. The Model 54 was produced until 1936 when, with some modifications, the Model 54 had a relatively heavy two stage trigger pull, which was greatly improved in the Model 70. Standard chamberings included the.22 Hornet.220 Swift. 250-3000 Savage.257 Roberts.270 Winchester, 30-30 Winchester. 30-06 Springfield, 7x57mm Mauser,7. 65x53mm Argentine, and 9x57mm Mauser. Special order chamberings were made in. 25-35 Winchester.32 Winchester Special, introduced prior to the popularity of telescopic sights, it was intended for use with open or aperture sights, and the bolt throw makes the addition of a scope difficult. Winchester rifle T. C. Johnson Bolt Action Rifles, De Haas and Zwoll, p.576 Exploded view
21.
Winchester Model 70
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The Winchester Model 70 is a bolt-action sporting rifle. It has a place in American sporting culture and has been held in high regard by shooters since it was introduced in 1936. The action has some similarities to Mauser designs and it is a development of the earlier Winchester Model 54. The Model 70 was originally manufactured by the Winchester Repeating Arms Company between 1936 and 1980, from the early 1980s until 2006, Winchester rifles were manufactured by U. S. Repeating Arms under an agreement with Olin Corporation, allowing USRA to use the Winchester name, Model 70s were built in New Haven, Connecticut, from 1936 to 2006, when production ceased. In the fall of 2007, the Belgian company FN Herstal announced that Model 70 production would resume, as of 2012, new Winchester Model 70 rifles were being made by FN Herstal in Columbia, South Carolina. In 2013, assembly was moved to Portugal, in 1936, Winchester introduced the Model 70 bolt-action rifle to the American market. The Model 70 was largely based on the Model 54, and is still highly regarded by shooters and is often called The Riflemans Rifle. In 1999 Shooting Times magazine named the Model 70 the Bolt-action Rifle of the Century, throughout its life, the Model 70 has been offered in many grades and styles. The pre-1964 Model 70s were manufactured from 1936 through 1963 after which time significant changes in the design, pre-1964 Model 70s bring a substantial price premium due to a public perception that they were better, as they had several desirable features that the post-1964 version did not. The best way to identify a pre-1964 Model 70 Winchester rifles is the serial number, Model 70 rifles with serial numbers below 700,000 are the pre-1964 variety. The receivers of these Model 70s were machined from bar stock steel, the original Model 70 quickly established an excellent reputation with American sportsmen. It was a high-quality action of considerable strength, with 2 forward locking lugs and this feed is called controlled round feeding and is favored by a number of shooters who prefer rifles to feed reliably, especially those who pursue dangerous game. The main benefit of the blade type ejector is it is simpler, competing as it did with the Remington Model 700, it was decided that changes needed to be made in the face of rising labour costs. Accordingly, in 1964 Winchester made a number of changes to the Model 70. Few to none of these changes were popular with the rifle-buying public, the changes included dropping the controlled round feed feature, a change to the basic stock shape and the use of impressed checkering rather than cut checkering. Jack OConnor, long a proponent of the Model 70, wrote of the version that I was informed by Winchester brass that the Model 70 was being redesigned. I told them that I was glad to get the information so I could lay in four or five more before they loused the rifle up, then I saw the pilot model of New Model 70
22.
Minute and second of arc
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A minute of arc, arcminute, arc minute, or minute arc is a unit of angular measurement equal to 1/60 of one degree. Since one degree is 1/360 of a turn, one minute of arc is 1/21600 of a turn, a second of arc, arcsecond, or arc second is 1/60 of an arcminute, 1/3600 of a degree, 1/1296000 of a turn, and π/648000 of a radian. To express even smaller angles, standard SI prefixes can be employed, the number of square arcminutes in a complete sphere is 4 π2 =466560000 π ≈148510660 square arcminutes. The standard symbol for marking the arcminute is the prime, though a single quote is used where only ASCII characters are permitted. One arcminute is thus written 1′ and it is also abbreviated as arcmin or amin or, less commonly, the prime with a circumflex over it. The standard symbol for the arcsecond is the prime, though a double quote is commonly used where only ASCII characters are permitted. One arcsecond is thus written 1″ and it is also abbreviated as arcsec or asec. In celestial navigation, seconds of arc are used in calculations. This notation has been carried over into marine GPS receivers, which normally display latitude and longitude in the format by default. An arcsecond is approximately the angle subtended by a U. S. dime coin at a distance of 4 kilometres, a milliarcsecond is about the size of a dime atop the Eiffel Tower as seen from New York City. A microarcsecond is about the size of a period at the end of a sentence in the Apollo mission manuals left on the Moon as seen from Earth, since antiquity the arcminute and arcsecond have been used in astronomy. The principal exception is Right ascension in equatorial coordinates, which is measured in units of hours, minutes. These small angles may also be written in milliarcseconds, or thousandths of an arcsecond, the unit of distance, the parsec, named from the parallax of one arcsecond, was developed for such parallax measurements. It is the distance at which the radius of the Earths orbit would subtend an angle of one arcsecond. The ESA astrometric space probe Gaia is hoped to measure star positions to 20 microarcseconds when it begins producing catalog positions sometime after 2016, there are about 1.3 trillion µas in a turn. Currently the best catalog positions of stars actually measured are in terms of milliarcseconds, apart from the Sun, the star with the largest angular diameter from Earth is R Doradus, a red supergiant with a diameter of 0.05 arcsecond. The dwarf planet Pluto has proven difficult to resolve because its angular diameter is about 0.1 arcsecond, space telescopes are not affected by the Earths atmosphere but are diffraction limited. For example, the Hubble space telescope can reach a size of stars down to about 0. 1″
23.
.22-250 Remington
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The. 22-250 Remington is a very high-velocity, short action.22 caliber rifle cartridge primarily used for varmint hunting and small game hunting, though it finds occasional use on deer. This cartridge is sometimes known as the.22 Varminter or the.22 Wotkyns Original Swift. It is one of the fastest.22 cal, the. 22-250 started life as a wildcat cartridge developed from the.250 Savage case necked down to take a.224 caliber bullet. The. 22-250 is similar to, but was outperformed by the larger.220 Swift cartridge, however, it is in much wider use and has a larger variety of commercially available factory ammunition than the Swift. This makes it cheaper to shoot. The smaller powder load also contributes to more economical shooting if a person is doing their own reloads, both the Swift and the 22-250 shoot at very similar velocities and bullet weights so barrel wear when used and cooled equally is identical between the two calibers. Due to its rimless case the 22-250 also feeds from a box magazine with ease, in 1937 Phil Sharpe, one of the first gunsmiths to build a rifle for the. 22-250 and long time. It will handle all velocities from 1, 500ft/s up to 4, Sharpe credited the steep 28-degree shoulder for this performance. He insisted that it kept the powder burning in the rather than in the throat of the rifle, as well as prevented case stretching. Shoulder angle ranks along with primer, powders, bullets, neck length, body taper, loading density and all other features. The.22 Varminter seems to have a balanced combination of all desirable features and is not just an old cartridge pepped up with new powders. Accuracy was consistently excellent, with little need for either case trimming or neck reaming and he finished by saying he looked forward to the day when it would become a commercial cartridge. In 1963 the Browning Arms Company started to chamber its Browning High Power Rifle in the. 22-250 and this was a risky yet historical move on Brownings part as there was no commercial production of the. 22-250 at the time. John T. Amber, reporting on the development of the Browning rifle in the 1964 Gun Digest, called the event unprecedented. As far as I know, he wrote, this is the first time a first-line arms-maker has offered a rifle chambered for a cartridge that it—or some other production ammunition maker—cannot supply, Amber foresaw difficulties for the company but applauded Brownings courage in taking this step. He said he had his order in for one of the first heavy-barrel models, expected in June 1963, the. 22-250 was the first non-Weatherby caliber offered in the unique Weatherby Mark V rifle. Typical factory-loaded. 22-250 Remington can propel a 55 grain spitzer bullet at 3,680 ft/s with 1,654 ft·lbf of energy. Many other loads with lighter bullets are used to achieve velocities of over 4,000 ft/s, while still having effective energy for use in hunting small game, the. 22-250 is currently the fastest production cartridge, surpassing the.204 Ruger
24.
.222 Remington
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The.222 Remington, which is also known as the Triple Deuce/Triple Two/Treble Two is a centerfire rifle cartridge. Introduced in 1950, it was the first commercial rimless.22 cartridge made in the United States, as such, it was an entirely new design, without a parent case. The.222 Remington was a popular target cartridge from its introduction until the mid-1970s and it remains a popular vermin or varmint cartridge at short and medium ranges with preferred bullet weights of 40-55 grains and muzzle velocities from 3000-3500 fps. The.222 Remington was introduced in the Remington Arms Model 722 bolt action rifle, factory rifles often produce groups of one minute of arc or less with no tuning. The accuracy and flat trajectory of the resulted in the adoption of the round for varmint. The faster.220 Swift and. 22-250 Remington provided more reach than the.222 Remington and these larger cartridges have more power than the.222, but also more muzzle blast and barrel erosion. The.222 Remington is popular in Europe where it is known as 5. 7×43, Sako was one of the first European makers to introduce.222 Remington rifles and cartridges, and German and Austrian hunters quickly adopted the.222 Remington for hunting smaller deer sized game. The.222 Remington was finally eclipsed in benchrest competition by the 6mm PPC, the greater powder capacity put the velocities between the standard.222 Remington and the. 22-250. The cartridge was not accepted by the military, but it was introduced commercially, in 1963, the 5. 56×45mm NATO, also based on a stretched.222 case, was adopted along with the new M16 rifle. The NATO cartridge had a capacity only 5% less than the Magnum, the new 5. 56×45mm cartridge was commercialized by Remington as the.223 Remington. Given the close performance to other cartridges and military acceptance, both the.222 Remington and the.222 Magnum faded quickly into obsolescence, being replaced by the.223 Remington. While the.222 Remington is rarely found in current production in America, in addition to the.222 Magnum and.223 Remington, the.222 has also served as the parent case for the.221 Fireball, the fastest production handgun cartridge. The.222 Remington still is popular in Europe, where producers like Sako, Tikka. Examples of countries with such legislation include France and Spain
25.
Deer
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Deer are the ruminant mammals forming the family Cervidae. The two main groups are the Cervinae, including the muntjac, the deer and the chital, and the Capreolinae, including the elk, reindeer, the Western roe deer. Female reindeer, and male deer of all species, grow, in this they differ from permanently horned antelope, which are in the same order, Artiodactyla. The musk deer of Asia and water chevrotain of tropical African and Asian forests are not usually regarded as true deer and form their own families, Moschidae and Tragulidae, respectively. Deer appear in art from Palaeolithic cave paintings onwards, and they have played a role in mythology, religion and their economic importance includes the use of their meat as venison, their skins as soft, strong buckskin, and their antlers as handles for knives. Deer hunting has been a sport since at least the Middle Ages. Deer live in a variety of biomes, ranging from tundra to the tropical rainforest, while often associated with forests, many deer are ecotone species that live in transitional areas between forests and thickets and prairie and savanna. The majority of deer species inhabit temperate mixed deciduous forest, mountain mixed coniferous forest, tropical seasonal/dry forest. Clearing open areas within forests to some extent may actually benefit deer populations by exposing the understory and allowing the types of grasses, weeds, additionally, access to adjacent croplands may also benefit deer. However, adequate forest or brush cover must still be provided for populations to grow, however, fallow deer have been introduced to South Africa. There are also species of deer that are highly specialized, and live almost exclusively in mountains, grasslands, swamps. Some deer have a distribution in both North America and Eurasia. Examples include the caribou that live in Arctic tundra and taiga and moose that inhabit taiga, huemul deer of South Americas Andes fill the ecological niches of the ibex and wild goat, with the fawns behaving more like goat kids. Mountain slope habitats vary from moist coniferous/mixed forested habitats to dry forests with alpine meadows higher up. The foothills and river valleys between the mountain provide a mosaic of cropland and deciduous parklands. The rare woodland caribou have the most restricted range living at altitudes in the subalpine meadows. Elk and mule deer both migrate between the alpine meadows and lower coniferous forests and tend to be most common in this region, elk also inhabit river valley bottomlands, which they share with White-tailed deer. They also live in the aspen parklands north of Calgary and Edmonton, the adjacent Great Plains grassland habitats are left to herds of elk, American bison, and pronghorn antelope
26.
Netherlands
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The Netherlands, also informally known as Holland is the main constituent country of the Kingdom of the Netherlands. It is a densely populated country located in Western Europe with three territories in the Caribbean. The European part of the Netherlands borders Germany to the east, Belgium to the south, and the North Sea to the northwest, sharing borders with Belgium, the United Kingdom. The three largest cities in the Netherlands are Amsterdam, Rotterdam and The Hague, Amsterdam is the countrys capital, while The Hague holds the Dutch seat of parliament and government. The port of Rotterdam is the worlds largest port outside East-Asia, the name Holland is used informally to refer to the whole of the country of the Netherlands. Netherlands literally means lower countries, influenced by its low land and flat geography, most of the areas below sea level are artificial. Since the late 16th century, large areas have been reclaimed from the sea and lakes, with a population density of 412 people per km2 –507 if water is excluded – the Netherlands is classified as a very densely populated country. Only Bangladesh, South Korea, and Taiwan have both a population and higher population density. Nevertheless, the Netherlands is the worlds second-largest exporter of food and agricultural products and this is partly due to the fertility of the soil and the mild climate. In 2001, it became the worlds first country to legalise same-sex marriage, the Netherlands is a founding member of the EU, Eurozone, G-10, NATO, OECD and WTO, as well as being a part of the Schengen Area and the trilateral Benelux Union. The first four are situated in The Hague, as is the EUs criminal intelligence agency Europol and this has led to the city being dubbed the worlds legal capital. The country also ranks second highest in the worlds 2016 Press Freedom Index, the Netherlands has a market-based mixed economy, ranking 17th of 177 countries according to the Index of Economic Freedom. It had the thirteenth-highest per capita income in the world in 2013 according to the International Monetary Fund, in 2013, the United Nations World Happiness Report ranked the Netherlands as the seventh-happiest country in the world, reflecting its high quality of life. The Netherlands also ranks joint second highest in the Inequality-adjusted Human Development Index, the region called Low Countries and the country of the Netherlands have the same toponymy. Place names with Neder, Nieder, Nether and Nedre and Bas or Inferior are in use in all over Europe. They are sometimes used in a relation to a higher ground that consecutively is indicated as Upper, Boven, Oben. In the case of the Low Countries / the Netherlands the geographical location of the region has been more or less downstream. The geographical location of the region, however, changed over time tremendously
27.
Wales
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Wales is a country that is part of the United Kingdom and the island of Great Britain. It is bordered by England to the east, the Irish Sea to the north and west, and it had a population in 2011 of 3,063,456 and has a total area of 20,779 km2. Wales has over 1,680 miles of coastline and is mountainous, with its higher peaks in the north and central areas, including Snowdon. The country lies within the temperate zone and has a changeable. Welsh national identity emerged among the Celtic Britons after the Roman withdrawal from Britain in the 5th century, Llywelyn ap Gruffudds death in 1282 marked the completion of Edward I of Englands conquest of Wales, though Owain Glyndŵr briefly restored independence to Wales in the early 15th century. The whole of Wales was annexed by England and incorporated within the English legal system under the Laws in Wales Acts 1535–1542, distinctive Welsh politics developed in the 19th century. Welsh Liberalism, exemplified in the early 20th century by Lloyd George, was displaced by the growth of socialism, Welsh national feeling grew over the century, Plaid Cymru was formed in 1925 and the Welsh Language Society in 1962. Established under the Government of Wales Act 1998, the National Assembly for Wales holds responsibility for a range of devolved policy matters, two-thirds of the population live in south Wales, mainly in and around Cardiff, Swansea and Newport, and in the nearby valleys. Now that the countrys traditional extractive and heavy industries have gone or are in decline, Wales economy depends on the sector, light and service industries. Wales 2010 gross value added was £45.5 billion, over 560,000 Welsh language speakers live in Wales, and the language is spoken by a majority of the population in parts of the north and west. From the late 19th century onwards, Wales acquired its popular image as the land of song, Rugby union is seen as a symbol of Welsh identity and an expression of national consciousness. The Old English-speaking Anglo-Saxons came to use the term Wælisc when referring to the Celtic Britons in particular, the modern names for some Continental European lands and peoples have a similar etymology. The modern Welsh name for themselves is Cymry, and Cymru is the Welsh name for Wales and these words are descended from the Brythonic word combrogi, meaning fellow-countrymen. The use of the word Cymry as a self-designation derives from the location in the post-Roman Era of the Welsh people in modern Wales as well as in northern England and southern Scotland. It emphasised that the Welsh in modern Wales and in the Hen Ogledd were one people, in particular, the term was not applied to the Cornish or the Breton peoples, who are of similar heritage, culture, and language to the Welsh. The word came into use as a self-description probably before the 7th century and it is attested in a praise poem to Cadwallon ap Cadfan c. 633. Thereafter Cymry prevailed as a reference to the Welsh, until c.1560 the word was spelt Kymry or Cymry, regardless of whether it referred to the people or their homeland. The Latinised forms of names, Cambrian, Cambric and Cambria, survive as lesser-used alternative names for Wales, Welsh
28.
Northern Ireland
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Northern Ireland is a constituent unit of the United Kingdom in the north-east of Ireland. It is variously described as a country, province, region, or part of the United Kingdom, Northern Ireland shares a border to the south and west with the Republic of Ireland. In 2011, its population was 1,810,863, constituting about 30% of the total population. Northern Ireland was created in 1921, when Ireland was partitioned between Northern Ireland and Southern Ireland by an act of the British parliament, Northern Ireland has historically been the most industrialised region of Ireland. After declining as a result of the political and social turmoil of the Troubles, its economy has grown significantly since the late 1990s. Unemployment in Northern Ireland peaked at 17. 2% in 1986, dropping to 6. 1% for June–August 2014,58. 2% of those unemployed had been unemployed for over a year. Prominent artists and sports persons from Northern Ireland include Van Morrison, Rory McIlroy, Joey Dunlop, Wayne McCullough, some people from Northern Ireland prefer to identify as Irish while others prefer to identify as British. Cultural links between Northern Ireland, the rest of Ireland, and the rest of the UK are complex, in many sports, the island of Ireland fields a single team, a notable exception being association football. Northern Ireland competes separately at the Commonwealth Games, and people from Northern Ireland may compete for either Great Britain or Ireland at the Olympic Games. The region that is now Northern Ireland was the bedrock of the Irish war of resistance against English programmes of colonialism in the late 16th century, the English-controlled Kingdom of Ireland had been declared by the English king Henry VIII in 1542, but Irish resistance made English control fragmentary. Victories by English forces in war and further Protestant victories in the Williamite War in Ireland toward the close of the 17th century solidified Anglican rule in Ireland. In Northern Ireland, the victories of the Siege of Derry and their intention was to materially disadvantage the Catholic community and, to a lesser extent, the Presbyterian community. In the context of open institutional discrimination, the 18th century saw secret, militant societies develop in communities in the region and act on sectarian tensions in violent attacks. Following this, in an attempt to quell sectarianism and force the removal of discriminatory laws, the new state, formed in 1801, the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, was governed from a single government and parliament based in London. Between 1717 and 1775 some 250,000 people from Ulster emigrated to the British North American colonies and it is estimated that there are more than 27 million Scotch-Irish Americans now living in the US. By the close of the century, autonomy for Ireland within the United Kingdom, in 1912, after decades of obstruction from the House of Lords, Home Rule became a near-certainty. A clash between the House of Commons and House of Lords over a controversial budget produced the Parliament Act 1911, which enabled the veto of the Lords to be overturned. The House of Lords veto had been the unionists main guarantee that Home Rule would not be enacted, in 1914, they smuggled thousands of rifles and rounds of ammunition from Imperial Germany for use by the Ulster Volunteers, a paramilitary organisation opposed to the implementation of Home Rule
29.
Red deer
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The red deer is one of the largest deer species. The red deer inhabits most of Europe, the Caucasus Mountains region, Asia Minor, Iran, parts of western Asia and it also inhabits the Atlas Mountains region between Morocco and Tunisia in northwestern Africa, being the only species of deer to inhabit Africa. Red deer have been introduced to areas, including Australia, New Zealand, United States, Canada, Peru, Uruguay, Chile. In many parts of the world, the meat from red deer is used as a food source, Red deer are ruminants, characterized by a four-chambered stomach. Genetic evidence indicates the red deer as traditionally defined is a group, rather than a single species. It is probable that the ancestor of all red deer, including wapiti, originated in central Asia, although at one time red deer were rare in parts of Europe, they were never close to extinction. The red deer is the fourth-largest deer species behind moose, elk and it is a ruminant, eating its food in two stages and having an even number of toes on each hoof, like camels, goats and cattle. European red deer have a long tail compared to their Asian. The deer of Central and Western Europe vary greatly in size, large red deer stags, like the Caspian red deer or those of the Carpathian Mountains, may rival the wapiti in size. Female red deer are smaller than their male counterparts. The male red deer is typically 175 to 250 cm long and weighs 160 to 240 kg, the tail adds another 12 to 19 cm and shoulder height is about 95 to 130 cm. In Scotland, stags average 201 cm in length and 122 cm high at the shoulder. Size varies in different subspecies with the largest, the huge but small-antlered deer of the Carpathian Mountains, weighing up to 500 kg. At the other end of the scale, the Corsican red deer weighs about 80 to 100 kg, European red deer tend to be reddish-brown in their summer coats. The males of many subspecies also grow a short neck mane during the autumn, the male deer of the British Isles and Norway tend to have the thickest and most noticeable manes. Male Caspian red deer and Spanish red deer do not carry neck manes, male deer of all subspecies, however, tend to have stronger and thicker neck muscles than female deer, which may give them an appearance of having neck manes. Red deer hinds do not have neck manes, the European red deer is adapted to a woodland environment. Only the stags have antlers, which growing in the spring and are shed each year
30.
Sika deer
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The sika deer also known as the spotted deer or the Japanese deer, is a species of deer native to much of East Asia, and introduced to various other parts of the world. Previously found from northern Vietnam in the south to the Russian Far East in the north, it is now uncommon in areas, excluding Japan. Its name comes from shika, the Japanese word for deer, in Japan the species is known as the nihonjika. The sika deer is a member of the genus Cervus, a group of deer known as the true deer. Formerly, sika were grouped together in this genus with nine other species, now, only the sika and red deer remain, the latter being divided into three separate species, European red deer, central Asian red deer and American elk. Recent DNA evidence indicates these deer are not as closely related as previously thought, resulting in the creation of new species, the genera Rucervus, Rusa, and Przewalskium are where most of the former Cervus species now belong. The ancestor of all Cervus species probably originated in central Asia, all Cervus species can crossbreed and produce hybrids in areas where they coexist. Serious genetic pollution has occurred in many populations, especially in China, therefore, the status of many subspecies remains unclear. The status of C. n. hortulorum is particularly uncertain and might in fact be of mixed origin, the mainland subspecies have larger and more obvious spots, in contrast to the Taiwanese and Japanese subspecies, whose spots are nearly invisible. Many introduced populations are from Japan, so also lack significant spots. The color of the ranges from mahogany to black. During winter, the coat becomes darker and shaggier and the less prominent. They are medium-sized herbivores, though they show notable size variation across their several subspecies and considerable sexual dimorphism and they can vary from 50 to 110 cm tall at the shoulder and from 95 to 180 cm in head-and-body length. The tail measures about 7. 5–13 cm long, the largest subspecies is the Manchurian sika deer, in which males commonly weigh about 68–109 kg and females weigh 45–50 kg, with large stags scaling up to 160 kg. On the other end of the spectrum, in the Japanese sika deer, males weigh 40–70 kg. All sikas are compact and dainty-legged, with short, trim, wedge-shaped heads, when alarmed, they will often display a distinctive flared rump, much like the American elk. Sika stags have stout, upright antlers with an extra buttress up from the brow tine, a forward-facing intermediate tine breaks the line to the top, which is usually forked. Occasionally, sika antlers develop some palmation, females carry a pair of distinctive black bumps on the forehead
31.
Fallow deer
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The fallow deer is a ruminant mammal belonging to the family Cervidae. Some taxonomers include the rarer Persian fallow deer as a subspecies, the male fallow deer is known as a buck, the female is a doe, and the young a fawn. Adult bucks are 140–160 cm long, 85–95 cm in height, and typically 60–100 kg in weight, does are 130–150 cm long, 75–85 cm in shoulder height. The largest bucks may measure 190 cm long and weigh 150 kg, Fawns are born in spring around 30 cm and weigh around 4.5 kg. Their lifespan is around 12–16 years, much variation occurs in the coat colour of the species, with four main variants, common, menil, melanistic, and leucistic – a genuine colour variety, not albinistic. The white is the lightest coloured, almost white, common and menil are darker, common, Chestnut coat with white mottles, it is most pronounced in summer with a much darker, unspotted coat in the winter. The light-coloured area around the tail is edged with black, the tail is light with a black stripe. Menil, Spots are more distinct than common in summer and no black is seen around the patch or on the tail. In winter, spots are still clear on a brown coat. Melanistic, All-year the coat is black shading to greyish brown, no light-coloured tail patch or spots are seen. Leucistic, Fawns are cream-coloured, adults become pure white, especially in winter, dark eyes and nose are seen, with no spots. Most herds consist of the common coat variation, yet animals of the menil coat variation are not rare, the melanistic variation is generally rarer, and white is very much rarer still, although wild New Zealand herds often have a high melanistic percentage. Only bucks have antlers, which are broad and shovel-shaped from three years, in the first two years, the antler is a single spike. They are grazing animals, their habitat is mixed woodland. Agile and fast in case of danger, fallow deer can run at a speed of 30 mph over short distances. Fallow deer can also make jumps up to 1.75 m high, the fallow deer is a Eurasian deer that was a native to most of Europe during the last interglacial. The fallow deer was introduced to the Victoria Island in the Province of Neuquén by billionaire Aaron Anchorena and he freed wildlife of European and Asian origin, making them common inhabitants of the island and competing for land and food with the native huemul and pudu deer. The fallow deer was spread across central Europe by the Romans, until recently, the Normans were thought to have introduced them to Great Britain for hunting in the royal forests
32.
Hydrostatic shock (firearms)
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There is scientific evidence that hydrostatic shock can produce remote neural damage and produce incapacitation more quickly than blood loss effects. Human autopsy results have demonstrated brain hemorrhaging from fatal hits to the chest, thirty-three cases of fatal penetrating chest wounds by a single bullet were selected from a much larger set by excluding all other traumatic factors, including past history. It has often asserted that hydrostatic shock and other descriptions of remote wounding effects are nothing. Correspondence in the journal, Neurosurgery, reviews the published evidence, col. Chamberlin described what he called “explosive effects” and “hydraulic reaction” of bullets in tissue. liquids are put in motion by ‘shock waves’ or hydraulic effects. With liquid filled tissues, the effects and destruction of tissues extend in all directions far beyond the wound axis, col. Chamberlin recognized that many theories have been advanced in wound ballistics. During World War II he commanded an 8, 500-bed hospital center that treated over 67,000 patients during the fourteen months that he operated it, ackley estimates that 85% of the patients were suffering from gunshot wounds. Col. Chamberlin spent many hours interviewing patients as to their reactions to bullet wounds and he conducted many live animal experiments after his tour of duty. On the subject of wound ballistics theories, he wrote, Other World War II era scientists noted remote pressure wave effects in the peripheral nerves, dr. Fackler based his argument on the lithotriptor, a tool commonly used to break up kidney stones. The lithotriptor uses sonic pressure waves which are stronger than those caused by most handgun bullets, hence, Fackler argued, ballistic pressure waves cannot damage tissue either. Dr. Fackler claimed that a study of bullet wounds in Vietnam found “no cases of bones being broken, or major vessels torn. In only two cases, an organ that was not hit, suffered some disruption. ”Dr. Fackler cited a personal communication with R. F. Bellamy. However, Bellamy’s published findings the following year estimated that 10% of fractures in the set might be due to indirect injuries. Facklers critics argue that Facklers evidence does not contradict distant injuries, as Fackler claimed, a summary of the debate was published in 2009 as part of a Historical Overview of Wound Ballistics Research. The Wound Data and Munitions Effectiveness Team gathered data on wounds sustained during the Vietnam War, in their analysis of this data published in the Textbook of Military Medicine, Ronald Bellamy and Russ Zajtchuck point out a number of cases which seem to be examples of distant injuries. Bellamy and Zajtchuck describe three mechanisms of distant wounding due to pressure transients, 1) stress waves 2) shear waves and 3) a vascular pressure impulse. ”The WDMET data includes a case of a lung contusion resulting from a hit to the shoulder. The caption to Figure 4-40 says, “The pulmonary injury may be the result of a stress wave. ”They describe the possibility that a hit to a soldiers trapezius muscle caused temporary paralysis due to “the stress wave passing through the soldiers neck indirectly cervical cord dysfunction. ”In addition to waves, Bellamy. They estimate that 10% of bone fractures in the data may be the result of indirect injuries, that is, bones fractured by the bullet passing close to the bone without a direct impact. A Chinese experiment is cited which provides a formula estimating how pressure magnitude decreases with distance. ”Bellamy and Zajtchuck suggest the fracture in Figures 4-46, damage due to shear waves extends to even greater distances in abdominal injuries in the WDMET data
33.
Roe deer
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The European roe deer, also known as the western roe deer, chevreuil, or simply roe deer, is an Eurasian species of deer. The male of the species is referred to as a roebuck. The roe deer is small, reddish and grey-brown. The species is widespread in Europe, from the Mediterranean to Scandinavia and it is distinct from the somewhat larger Siberian roe deer. Scottish roe deer were introduced to the Lissadell Estate in Co, sligo in Ireland around 1870 by Sir Henry Gore-Booth, Bt. The Lissadell deer were noted for their occasional abnormal antlers and survived in that area for about 50 years before they died out. In England and Wales, roe have experienced an expansion in their range in the latter half of the 20th century. This increase in population also appears to be affecting woodland ecosystems, at the start of the 20th century, they were almost extinct in Southern England, but since then have hugely expanded their range for no apparent reason and possibly in some cases with human help. In 1884, roe were introduced from Württemberg in Germany into the Thetford Chase area, and these spread to populate most of Norfolk, Suffolk, and substantial parts of Cambridgeshire. At the same time, the population in Scotland and the Lake District had pushed further south beyond Yorkshire and Lancashire and into Derbyshire. Not being a species that needs large areas of woodland to survive, urban roe are now a feature of cities, notably Glasgow and Bristol. In Wales, they are common, but have been seen as far south west as Cardigan and as far north west as Bangor. German colonial administrators introduced roe deer to the island of Pohnpei in Micronesia and they are hunted by locals in very steep and heavily vegetated terrain. The meat is sold in markets and restaurants in Kolonia, the capital city of Pohnpei. Roe deer were introduced also to Australia, the roe deer is distinct from the somewhat larger Siberian roe deer found from the Ural Mountains to as far east as China and Siberia. It is known there are roe deer that live in the Red Forest near Chernobyl. The roe deer is a small deer, with a body length of 95–135 cm, a shoulder height of 65–75 cm. It has rather short, erect antlers and a body with a grey face
34.
P.O. Ackley
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Parker Otto Ackley was an American gunsmith, barrel maker, author, columnist, and wildcat cartridge developer. Ackley improved not only standard cartridges, but also other popular wildcats, Ackley began gunsmithing full-time in Oregon in 1936, but was interrupted by World War II. In 1945, he established a new shop in Trinidad, Colorado, for a complete biography read the book, P. O. It duplicates the ballistics of the vaunted 7mm Remington Mag, with 30% less propellant used and he also produced a number of experimental cartridges, not intended to be practical, but rather to test the limits of firearms. One of these cartridges was the.22 Eargesplitten Loudenboomer. This humorously named cartridge was developed by Ackley for Bob Hutton of Guns & Ammo magazine, ackleys loads only managed 4,600 ft/s, firing a 50-grain bullet. Based on a.378 Weatherby Magnum case, the case is impractically over-capacity for the bore diameter, the advent of new slower-burning smokeless powders may have changed the equation, but in a cartridge case that routinely holds over 100-grains of powder, it is hardly worth the effort. NOTE, The term Ackley Improved has been applied by various gunsmiths conceptually to many cartridges not extant during P. O. To accomplish this, the chamber for a rimless bottle necked improved cartridge must be shorter in the body than the original so that there is no headspace when the round is chambered
35.
Donkey
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The donkey or ass is a domesticated member of the horse family, Equidae. The wild ancestor of the donkey is the African wild ass, the donkey has been used as a working animal for at least 5000 years. There are more than 40 million donkeys in the world, mostly in underdeveloped countries, working donkeys are often associated with those living at or below subsistence levels. Small numbers of donkeys are kept for breeding or as pets in developed countries, a male donkey or ass is called a jack, a female a jenny or jennet, a young donkey is a foal. Jack donkeys are used to mate with female horses to produce mules. Asses were first domesticated around 3000 BC, probably in Egypt or Mesopotamia and they continue to fill important roles in many places today. While domesticated species are increasing in numbers, the African wild ass is an endangered species, as beasts of burden and companions, asses and donkeys have worked together with humans for millennia. Traditionally, the name for the donkey is Equus asinus asinus based on the principle of priority used for scientific names of animals. This means that the scientific name for the donkey is Equus africanus asinus when it is considered a subspecies. At one time, the ass was the more common term for the donkey. The first recorded use of donkey was in either 1784 or 1785, while the word ass has cognates in most other Indo-European languages, donkey is an etymologically obscure word for which no credible cognate has been identified. From the 18th century, donkey gradually replaced ass, and jenny replaced she-ass, by the end of the 17th century, changes in pronunciation of both ass and arse had caused them to become homophones. Donkeys vary considerably in size, depending on breed and management, the height at the withers ranges from 7.3 to 15.3 hands, and the weight from 80 to 480 kg. Working donkeys in the poorest countries have an expectancy of 12 to 15 years, in more prosperous countries. Donkeys are adapted to desert lands. Unlike wild and feral horses, wild donkeys in dry areas are solitary, each adult donkey establishes a home range, breeding over a large area may be dominated by one jack. Donkeys have large ears, which may pick up more distant sounds, donkeys can defend themselves by biting, striking with the front hooves or kicking with the hind legs. A jenny is normally pregnant for about 12 months, though the period varies from 11 to 14 months
36.
Delta L problem
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The delta L problem refers to certain firearm chambers and the incompatibility of some ammunition made for that chamber. ΔL is a Commission Internationale Permanente geometric dimensioning and tolerancing definition for cases that are longer than the chamber they have to fit in. Delta L essentially means difference in length, if the chamber in a C. I. P. Conforming firearm is shorter than a non-C. I. P, conforming maximum sized cartridge, use of that ammunition in the firearm may lead to chambering and/or feeding problems in the shoulder area of the chamber, or other headspace issues. The length specification S is a dimension for the computation of the dimensions of firearms cartridges. It designates the distance between the contact surface and the apex of the junction cone. When the length values for the peak of the junction cone measure of the cartridge and the chamber are compared it becomes clear that these values do not always agree. A precondition for such a comparison is that the angles are identical, since otherwise shifts will occur. But the corresponding lengths L1 and L2 are larger and this condition results from the fact that the length of the junction cone becomes larger if the diameter becomes smaller. With most European cartridges, the dimension S is always identical, on the other hand, many American cartridge designs exhibit an oversize designated as delta L. This leads to the situation that a cartridge manufactured at the upper limit can not be loaded into a chamber that was manufactured at the lower tolerance limit. The locking mechanism normally compensates a light oversize of 0.02 mm –0.03 mm without any problems, break barrel arms will not simply close when the cartridges and chamber dimensions are not in concert. For this reason the chambers of break barrel arms are manufactured with reamers that take ΔL into account. Generally bolt-action and break barrel hunting rifles in C. I. P, regulated countries are not cut to the minimum C. I. P. Chamber dimensions so this problem is mostly theoretical and these problems can also occur with other European made rifle brands. The main cause for the ΔL is that the two main ammunition and firearms industry standards organizations, C. I. P. This leads to officially sanctioned conflicting differences between European and American ammunition dimensions and chamber dimensions, since C. I. P. and SAAMI do not rule nor control civilian ammunition standards worldwide other causes for conflicting standards leading to ΔL issues are also possible. Published a ΔL cartridge and theoretical C. I. P, minimum chamber length shortage dimensions list
37.
Table of handgun and rifle cartridges
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Table of selected handgun, submachine gun, rifle and machine gun cartridges by common name. Data values are the highest found for the cartridge, and might not occur in the same load, number of manufacturers currently producing complete cartridges - e. g. Norma, RWS, Hornady, Winchester, Federal, Remington, Sellier&Bellot, Prvi Partizan. May be none for obsolete and wildcat cartridges, a guide to the recoil from the cartridge, and an indicator of bullet penetration potential. The. 30-06 Springfield is considered the limit for tolerable recoil for inexperienced rifle shooters
38.
Varmint rifle
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The varmint gun fills a design gap between the more powerful big-game rifles and the less powerful rimfire firearms. Varmint rifles can typically be distinguished from other light-caliber hunting or plinking rifles in the use of heavier barrels, use of magnifying optics allows for more accurate fire. Barrels will generally be free-floated, and other accurizing techniques will be performed, the stocks will generally have wider forends, designed for use on stable sandbag rests, and high combs for easy use with optics. Since part of the definition of a varmint is that it is a nuisance, varmints are not stalked and this makes weight of little consideration in a varmint rifle, so heavy barrels are common. Varmints are also not subject to the same bag limits as game animals are, folding shooting benches and sandbag rests help provide a stable base for the shooter, allowing the maximum accuracy to be extracted from the rifle. Since varmints are generally smaller animals, large, heavy bullets are not needed, a light, fast bullet gives a flat trajectory, making range estimation less vital for accurate shot placement. Velocities for modern varmint rounds are usually in excess of 3,000 ft/s and some such as the.220 Swift and this allows long range shots with a short time of flight, and little change in trajectory at different ranges. A bullet drop of only a couple of inches is enough to cause a miss on smaller varmint animals, fast, lightly constructed bullets have additional advantages of rapidly disintegrating upon initial contact. Disintegration minimizes the range of particles, and energy release of disintegration kills small animals more quickly than a penetrating wound. Rifles firing.22 caliber bullets became popular varmint guns after World War I, calibers up to.264 caliber, including.243 Winchester, 6mm Remington and. 25-06 Remington, became popular for ranges over 200 metres as the ballistic advantages of heavier bullets were recognized. For shorter ranges rimfire cartridges such as.22 Magnum.17 Hornady Magnum Rimfire, the.22 Long Rifle will also do, but the low muzzle velocities result in a supersonic to subsonic transition on the way to the target, which can negatively affect accuracy. 5. 6x52mmR was introduced by Savage Arms in 1912 by necking down the. 25-35 Winchester case to fire a. 228-inch-diameter bullet. The.220 Arrow is a modification of the.220 Swift.221 Remington Fireball is a shortened version of the.222 Remington introduced in the Remington XP-100 bolt action handgun in 1962. The cartridge has attained popularity in conventional rifles where low noise level is a consideration.222 Remington was a new cartridge introduced commercially in 1950. It enjoyed great popularity until eclipsed by its derivative, the.223 Remington.222 Remington Magnum was a lengthened version of the.222 Remington introduced in 1958. Only Weatherby rifles have been chambered for this cartridge.225 Winchester was a commercial modification of the.219 Zipper offered in the Winchester Model 70 from 1964 to 1971. Bolt-action rifles dominate the class, with a few specialized AR-15 variants, most bolt-action rifles, if accurized, can be successfully used for varmint hunting. The Remington XP-100 bolt-action pistol and its aptly named.221 Fireball cartridge, introduced in 1963, were developed for varmint hunting, for varmint and pest control in urban areas, air guns make suitable choices
39.
International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
40.
Rifle
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A rifle is a firearm designed to be fired from the shoulder, with a barrel that has a helical groove or pattern of grooves cut into the barrel walls. The raised areas of the rifling are called lands, which contact with the projectile. When the projectile leaves the barrel, this spin lends gyroscopic stability to the projectile and prevents tumbling and this allows the use of aerodynamically-efficient bullets and thus improves range and accuracy. The word rifle originally referred to the grooving, and a rifle was called a rifled gun, the word rifle is now used for any long hand-held aimed device activated by a trigger, such as Air rifles and the Personnel halting and stimulation response rifle. Rifles are used in warfare, hunting and shooting sports, formerly, rifles only fired a single projectile with each squeeze of the trigger. Modern rifles are capable of firing more than one round per trigger squeeze, some fire in an automatic mode. Thus, modern automatic rifles overlap to some extent in design, in fact, many light machine guns are adaptations of existing automatic rifle designs. A militarys light machine guns are chambered for the same caliber ammunition as its service rifles. Generally, the difference between a rifle and a machine gun comes down to weight, cooling system. Modern military rifles are fed by magazines, while machine guns are generally belt-fed, many machine guns allow the operator to quickly exchange barrels in order to prevent overheating, whereas rifles generally do not. Most machine guns fire from a bolt in order to reduce the danger of cook-off. Machine guns are often crewed by more than one soldier, the rifle is an individual weapon, the term rifle is sometimes used to describe larger crew-served rifled weapons firing explosive shells, for example, recoilless rifles. In many works of fiction a rifle refers to any weapon that has a stock and is shouldered before firing, the origins of rifling are difficult to trace, but some of the earliest practical experiments seem to have occurred in Europe during the 15th century. Archers had long realized that a twist added to the feathers of their arrows gave them greater accuracy. This might also have led to a increase in accuracy. Rifles were created as an improvement in the accuracy of smooth bore muskets, the black powder used in early muzzle-loading rifles quickly fouled the barrel, making loading slower and more difficult. Since musketeers could not afford to take the time to stop and clean their barrels in the middle of a battle, rifles were limited to use by sharpshooters, muskets were smoothbore, large caliber weapons using ball-shaped ammunition fired at relatively low velocity. Due to the high cost and great difficulty of manufacturing, and the need to load readily from the muzzle
41.
Henry rifle
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Designed by Benjamin Tyler Henry in 1860, the Henry was introduced in the early 1860s and produced through 1866 in the United States by the New Haven Arms Company. It was adopted in small quantities by the Union in the Civil War, many later found their way West, notably in the hands of the Sioux and Cheyenne in their obliteration of Custers U. S. Cavalry troops in June 1876. Modern versions of the weapon are produced by A. Uberti Firearms, most replicas are chambered in. 44-40 Winchester or.45 Long Colt. The original Henry rifle was a sixteen shot.44 caliber rimfire, lever-action, the Henry was an improved version of the earlier Volition Repeating Rifle, and later Volcanic Repeating Rifle. The Henry used copper rimfire cartridges with a 216 grain bullet over 25 grains of gunpowder, production was very small until the middle of 1864. Nine hundred were manufactured between summer and October 1862, by 1864, production had peaked at 290 per month, by the time production ended in 1866, approximately 14,000 units had been manufactured. For a Civil War soldier, owning a Henry rifle was a point of pride, letters home would call them Sixteen or Seventeen Shooters, depending whether a round was loaded in the chamber. Just 1,731 of the rifles were purchased by the government during the Civil War. The Commonwealth of Kentucky purchased a further 50, however 6 to 7 thousand saw use by the union on the field through private puchases by soldiers who could afford it. The relative fragility of Henrys compared to Spencer repeating rifles hampered their official acceptance, more Henrys were purchased by soldiers than by the government. Many infantry soldiers purchased Henrys with their reenlistment bounties of 1864, most of these units were associated with Shermans Western Troops. When used correctly, the brass framed rifles had a high rate of fire compared to any other weapon on the battlefield. Soldiers who saved their pay to buy one believed it would save their lives. To the amazed muzzleloader-armed Confederates who had to face this deadly sixteen shooter, it was called a rifle that you could load on Sunday, the Henry rifle used a.44 caliber cartridge with 26 to 28 grains of black powder. This gave it significantly less muzzle velocity and energy than other repeaters of the era, the lever action, on the down-stroke, ejected the spent cartridge from the chamber and cocked the hammer. A spring in the magazine forced the next round into the follower, locking the back into position pushed the new cartridge into the chamber. As designed, the Henry lacked any form of safety, when not in use its hammer rested on the cartridge rim, any impact on the back of the exposed hammer could cause a chambered round to fire. If left cocked, it was in the position without a safety
42.
Winchester rifle
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Winchester rifle is a comprehensive term describing a series of lever-action repeating rifles manufactured by the Winchester Repeating Arms Company. Developed from the 1860 Henry rifle, Winchester rifles were among the earliest repeaters, the Model 1873 was particularly successful, being colloquially known as The Gun that Won the West. In 1848, Walter Hunt of New York patented his Volition Repeating Rifle incorporating a tubular magazine, the Hunt rifle fired what he called the Rocket Ball, an early form of caseless ammunition in which the powder charge was contained in the bullets hollow base. Horace Smith and Daniel Wesson of Norwich, Connecticut acquired the Jennings patent from Robbins & Lawrence and its largest stockholder was Oliver Winchester. Smiths cartridge, the.22 Short, would be introduced commercially in 1857 with the landmark Smith & Wesson Model 1 revolver and is manufactured today. Wesson had left Volcanic soon after it was formed and Smith followed eight months later, Volcanic moved to New Haven in 1856, but by the end of that year became insolvent. Oliver Winchester purchased the firms assets from the remaining stockholders. Benjamin Henry continued to work with Smiths cartridge concept, and perfected the much larger, Henry also supervised the redesign of the rifle to use the new ammunition, retaining only the general form of the breech mechanism and the tubular magazine. This became the Henry rifle of 1860, which was manufactured by the New Haven Arms Company, confederates called the Henry that damned Yankee rifle that they load on Sunday and shoot all week. After the war, Oliver Winchester renamed New Haven Arms the Winchester Repeating Arms Company, the company modified and improved the basic design of the Henry rifle, creating the first Winchester rifle, the Model 1866. It retained the.44 Henry cartridge, was built on a bronze-alloy frame, and had an improved magazine. In 1873 Winchester introduced the steel-framed Model 1873 chambering the more potent. 44-40 centerfire cartridge, in 1876, in a bid to compete with the powerful single-shot rifles of the time, Winchester brought out the Model 1876. The first Winchester rifle – the Winchester Model 1866 – was originally chambered for the rimfire.44 Henry. Nelson Kings improved patent remedied flaws in the Henry rifle by incorporating a loading gate on the side of the frame and integrating a round, france purchased 6,000 Model 1866 rifles along with 4.5 million.44 Henry cartridges during the Franco-Prussian War. The Ottoman Empire purchased 45,000 Model 1866 muskets and 5,000 carbines in 1870 and 1871, the Model 1866 compelled Russians to develop a new rifle, the Mosin–Nagant, after the war. The Swiss Army initially selected the Model 1866 to replace their existing single-shot Milbank-Amsler rifles, however, ensuing political pressure to adopt a domestic design resulted in the Vetterli Model 1867, a bolt-action design utilizing a copy of the Winchesters tubular magazine, being adopted instead. Due to public demand, the Model 1866 continued to be manufactured and sold until 1899, the Model 1873 was one of the most successful Winchester rifles of its day, with Winchester marketing it as The Gun that Won the West. Still an icon in the day, it was manufactured between 1873 and 1923
43.
Winchester Model 1886
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The Winchester Model 1886 was a lever-action repeating rifle designed by John Browning to handle some of the more powerful cartridges of the period. Originally chambered in. 45-70. 45-90 WCF and. 40-82 WCF, it was offered in a half dozen other large cartridges. The Model 1886 continued the trend towards chambering heavier rounds, and had an all-new and it was designed by John Moses Browning, who had a long and profitable relationship with Winchester from the 1880s to the early 1900s. William Mason also contributed, making improvements to Brownings original design. In 1935 Winchester introduced a slightly modified M1886 as the Model 71, Winchester Repeating Arms Company Winchester Rifle
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Winchester Model 1892
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When asked by Winchester to design an improved lever action to compete with a recent Marlin offering, John Browning said he would have the prototype completed in under a month or it would be free. Within 2 weeks, Browning had a prototype of the 92. Calibers for the rifle vary and some are custom-chambered, the original rounds were the. 32-20. 38-40, and. 44-40 Winchester centerfire rounds, followed in 1895 by the new. 25-20. A few Model 92s chambered for.218 Bee were produced in 1936-38, rifles in. 44-40 proved to be most popular, far outstripping sales of the other chamberings. The Winchester Models 53 and 65 were relabeled Model 1892s, admiral Robert E. Peary carried an 1892 on his trips to the North Pole. and Secretary of War Patrick Hurley was presented with the one millionth rifle on December 13,1932. Famous Amazon explorer Percy Fawcett carried a Winchester 92 on his expeditions,1,007,608 Model 1892 rifles were made by the original Winchester company. The Depression greatly effected sales of the Winchester 92, and at the start of World War Two Winchester dropped production when it retooled for the war effort, production was not resumed after the war. Model 92 manufacture was resumed in the 1970s by Amadeo Rossi in Brazil, more recently by Chiappa Firearms, an Italian factory, by Browning in Japan, and by Winchester in Japan. In its modern form, using updated materials and production techniques, the Model 1892s action is strong enough to chamber high pressure handgun rounds, such as.357 Magnum.44 Magnum, and.454 Casull. Despite being designed for cartridges, the 1892s dual forward locking-block action is actually stronger than Brownings rear-locked Model 1894. John Wayne famously carried Model 92s in dozens of films and owned several personally, other notable screen 92s were those of Chuck Connors in The Rifleman TV series, and Steve McQueens Mares Leg in Wanted, Dead or Alive. This latter practice mirrored the real cowboys, who found it convenient to carry a rifle and a revolver chambered with the same ammunition. Garate, Anitua y Cia of Eibar, Spain copied the Model 1892 as El Tigre in.44 Largo with a 22-inch barrel,12 shot magazine, military sights, many were made with sling swivels. Production between 1915-1937 totalled 1,034,687 rifles, from 1923 on they were issued to various Spanish services including the Guardia Civil. El Tigre carbines were exported in large numbers to South American countries, Winchester ended production of the Model 1892 in 1941, however, arms manufacturers such as Browning, Chiappa and Rossi have continued to produce copies. Versions of the Model 1892 have continued to be produced almost continuously since Winchester ended its production run and they range in quality and price from midrange firearms to highly decorated presentation pieces. Winchester produced limited numbers of the Model 1892 in 1997, in November,2006, Winchester announced the Model 1892 John Wayne 100th Anniversary Rifle, chambered in Win 44-40. Since then, Winchester has offered several versions of the Model 1892, in early 2012, Winchester produced a limited number of Large Loop Carbines in 4 calibers.44 Magnum.357 Magnum. 44-40 and.45 Colt
