1.
.45 (film)
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.45 is an independent 2006 thriller film starring Milla Jovovich, Angus Macfadyen, Aisha Tyler, Stephen Dorff, and Sarah Strange. Gary Lennon, whose last feature was 1995s Drunks, wrote, variety describes the film as a doublecross pic set in the underworld of Hells Kitchen.45 was released theatrically in Greece, Taiwan, Singapore, Japan, South Korea, and Mexico. Big Al, and his girlfriend Kat, are small-time crooks dealing in guns and stolen goods in Queens and they seem to have a fun relationship full of sex and booze. Living in an apartment, they both traffic in illegal handguns, while also cleverly avoiding the NYPD and ATF. However, Vic, Kats best friend still has a crush on her, hates Big Al, Big Al is almost arrested in a police sting, but is released when they realize he is unarmed. as Kat was holding the guns. Returning home, they catch a thief trying to take their new TV out the window and they call the police and berate them for not catching the real crooks, all the while surrounded by the stolen goods that are their livelihood. Meeting up with his old partner Reilly they steal a car as Al tries to him to come back to help Al run the gun business. However, Kat has plans on her own, she wants to sell guns on her own to provide since she wants to move out of Queens and into a classier neighborhood, maybe by the beach. She meets up with Jose, a dealer and Big Als rival. However, Clancy, a local snitch working for Al, notices them, Kat returns home and pretends to have been out with Vic, upsetting Al. When Jose brazenly comes to Als local bar, and comes on to Kat, Al, Clancy, Al comes home later and based on comments from Clancy, accuses Kat of having sex with the spic. He forces her to confess to lying to him and then beats her up, leaving her with an eye and bleeding lip. At the police precinct, Kat is questioned by Liz, a member of a womens group that offers protection via sanctuary or court order. Liz explains that Al doesnt really love her, and she used to be in a marriage of her own. However, Kat refuses to press charges, but ultimately decides to leave, however, Big Al sneaks in through the window as she is packing, threatens her with death if she ever leaves, and saying there is nowhere she can hide from him. When Liz and Vic arrive to take her, he convinces Kat to tell them she wants to stay, Liz threatens to end him if he ever touches Kat, but they ultimately leave without her. While convincing Al the relationship is back the way it was, she devises a plan, seeming to seduce Vic, Reilly, Jose and Liz. After convincing Al to stay home one evening, a hooded figure takes Big Als special jacket with his name on it, and his registered.45 handgun, the next day, Big Al goes into church and threatens the priest, Father Duffel, saying he abhors weakness
2.
.45 Colt
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The.45 Colt or.45 Long Colt cartridge is a handgun cartridge dating to 1872. It is a black-powder revolver round developed for the Colt Single Action Army revolver and this cartridge was adopted by the U. S. Army in 1873 and served as an official US military handgun cartridge for 14 years. Colt began work on the revolver in 1871, and submitted a sample to the U. S. Army in late 1872, the revolver was accepted for purchase in 1873. The cartridge is an inside lubricated type, the rebated heel type bullet design of its predecessor, the.44 Colt, was eliminated, since it was an outside lubricated type, which would pick up dirt and grit during handling. The.45 Colt replaced the.50 caliber Model 1871 Remington single shot pistol, while the Colt remained popular, the Smith & Wesson M1875 Army Schofield Revolver was approved as an alternate which created a logistic problem for the Army. Adoption of the.45 M1887 Military Ball Cartridge resolved the Armys ammunition logistic problems, the M1887 Govt round was replaced by the.38 Long Colt in 1892. In 1909, the.45 M1909 round was issued along with the.45 Colt New Service revolver and this round was never loaded commercially, and is almost identical to the original.45 Colt round, except having a larger diameter rim. The rim is large enough that it cannot be loaded in adjacent chambers in the rod-ejector Colt model, the.45 Colt remains popular with renewed interest in Cowboy Action Shooting. The modern.45 Colt bullet has changed as well, and it is now.451 inches in diameter for jacketed bullets, the.45 Colt became the basis for other rounds, such as the.454 Casull. The.45 Colt originally was a cartridge, but modern loadings use smokeless powder. The original black-powder loads called for 28 to 40 grains of powder behind a 230-to-255-grain lead bullet. These loads developed muzzle velocities of up to 1,050 ft/s, because of this power and its excellent accuracy, the.45 Colt was the most-used cartridge at the time of its introduction, succeeding the.44 WCF. The.45 Colt at that time did not enjoy the. 44-40s advantage of a Winchester rifle chambered for it, the rumor was that early.45 Colt cartridges had a very minimal rim, and would not eject reliably. Currently manufactured brass has a rim of adequate diameter for such uses, modern Winchesters, Marlins and replicas have remedied this omission almost 100 years after the fact, and the.45 Colt is now available in modern lever-action rifles. While this has one of numerous arguments to explain the lack of a rifle chambered in.45 Colt, in fact. It required the expiration of those original patents for the.45 Colt to become available in a rifle, todays standard factory loads develop around 400 ft·lbf of muzzle energy at about 860 ft/s, making it roughly equivalent to modern.45 ACP loads. There are Cowboy Action Shooting loads which develop muzzle velocities of around 750 ft/s, cartridges of the World states that.45 Colt should never be loaded to more than 800 fps. Some handloads and factory manufactured cartridges put this round in the class as the.44 Magnum using special revolvers
3.
Full metal jacket bullet
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A full metal jacket bullet is a small-arms projectile consisting of a soft core encased in a shell of harder metal, such as gilding metal, cupronickel, or less commonly a steel alloy. In military nomenclature, it is often labeled ball ammunition, the harder gilding was less prone to deformation than softer exposed lead, which improved feeding. Jacketed bullets had been in use since at least 1882, in general, a bullet jacket allows for higher muzzle velocities than bare lead without depositing significant amounts of metal in the bore. It also prevents damage to bores from steel or armor-piercing core materials, historically, the first successful full metal jacket rifle bullets were invented by Col. Eduard Rubin of the Swiss Army in 1882. Full metal jacket bullets were first used as ammunition in 1886. By design, fully jacketed projectiles have less capacity to expand after contact with the target than a hollow-point projectile. While this can be an advantage, it can also be a disadvantage as an FMJ bullet may pierce completely through a target, leading to severe wounding. Furthermore, a projectile that goes completely through a target can cause unintentional damage downrange of the target, the bullet design inspired the title of the film Full Metal Jacket, by Stanley Kubrick, Michael Herr, and Gustav Hasford. Hollow-point bullet Soft-point bullet Huon, Jean, military Rifle and Machine Gun Cartridges. International Peace Conference at The Hague, which entered force on September 4,1900. Photos showing terminal effects of British Mark 7.303 bullets
4.
Hollow-point bullet
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It is also used for controlled penetration, where over-penetration could cause collateral damage. Both of these goals are meant to maximize stopping power, jacketed hollow points or plated hollow points are covered in a coating of harder metal to increase bullet strength and to prevent fouling the barrel with lead stripped from the bullet. Plastic-tipped bullets are a type of bullet meant to confer the aerodynamic advantage of the spitzer bullet and this process is commonly referred to as mushrooming, because the resulting shape, a widened, rounded nose on top of a cylindrical base, typically resembles a mushroom. The greater frontal surface area of the expanded bullet limits its depth of penetration into the target and this jacket provides additional strength to the bullet, and can help prevent it from leaving deposits of lead inside the bore. In controlled expansion bullets, the jacket and other design characteristics help to prevent the bullet from breaking apart. For bullets designed for shooting, some such as the Sierra Matchking incorporate a cavity in the nose. Match or target hollow-point bullets are designed for target use. A hollow-point boat-tail bullet is a match-grade bullet design that uses the concept of a tail to give it a lower drag coefficient. Only the base of the bullet has a boat tail-like shape – the meplat is still pointed, some hollow-point boat-tail bullets with longer, more aerodynamic profiles are known as very-low-drag bullets. Terminal ballistics testing of hollow point bullets is generally performed in ballistic gelatin, or some other medium intended to simulate tissue, Test results are generally given in terms of expanded diameter, penetration depth, and weight retention. How these factors are interpreted depends on the use of the bullet. Solid lead bullets, when cast from an alloy, will often deform. This, combined with the velocity and penetration attainable with muzzleloading firearms. The first hollow-point bullets were marketed in the late 19th century as express bullets, in addition to providing increased velocities, the hollow also turned out to provide significant expansion, especially when the bullets were cast in a soft lead alloy. Originally intended for rifles, the popular. 32-20. 38-40, with the advent of smokeless powder, velocities increased, and bullets got smaller, faster, and lighter. These new bullets needed to be jacketed to handle the conditions of firing, the new full metal jacket bullets tended to penetrate straight through a target and produce little damage. This led to the development of the soft point bullet and later jacketed hollow-point bullets at the British arsenal in Dum Dum, designs included the.303 Mk III, IV & V and the.455 Mk III Manstopper cartridges. Although such bullet designs were quickly outlawed for use in warfare, in modern ammunition, the use of hollow points is primarily limited to handgun ammunition, which tends to operate at much lower velocities than rifle ammunition
5.
Pistol
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A pistol is a type of handgun. In some usage, the term refers to a subset of handguns. In other usage, the term is interchangeable with handgun, some handgun experts and dictionaries make a technical distinction that views pistols as a subset of handguns, others use the terms interchangeably. But UK/rest of Commonwealth usage does not always make this distinction, for example, the official designation of the Webley Mk VI revolver was Pistol, Revolver, Webley, No.1 Mk VI. The English word was introduced in ca.1570 from the Middle French pistolet, the etymology of the French word pistolet is disputed. The first suggestion derives the word from Czech píšťala, a type of hand-cannon used in the Hussite Wars during the 1420s, the Czech word was adopted in German as pitschale, pitschole, petsole, and variants. The second suggestion is less likely, the use of the word as a designation of a gun is not documented before 1605 in Italy, long after it was used in French, the Czech word is well documented since the Hussite wars in 1420s. Other suggestions include from Middle High German pischulle or from Middle French pistole, also it is suggested that early pistols were carried by cavalry in holsters hung from the pommel of a horses saddle. The most common types of pistol are the shot. Single shot handguns were mainly seen during the era of flintlock and musket weaponry where the pistol was loaded with a ball and fired by a flint striker. However, as technology improved, so did the single shot pistol, new operating mechanisms were created, and due to this, they are still made today. It is the oldest type of pistol, and is used to hunt wild game. Multi-barreled pistols were common during the time as single shot pistols. As designers looked for ways to increase fire rates, multiple barrels were added to all guns including pistols, one example of a multi-barreled pistol is the Ducks foot pistol, which generally had either four or eight barrels, although some 20th century models had three barrels. Around 1850, pistols such as the Jarre harmonica gun were produced that had a sliding magazine, the sliding magazine contained pinfire cartridges or speedloaders. The magazine needed to be moved manually in many designs, hence distinguishing them from semi-automatic pistols, with the development of the revolver in the 19th century, gunsmiths had finally achieved the goal of a practical capability for delivering multiple loads to one handgun barrel in quick succession. The semi-automatic pistol was the step in the development of the pistol. By avoiding multiple chambers—which need to be individually reloaded—semi-automatic pistols delivered faster rates of fire, an example of a modern blow back action semi-automatic pistol is the HK VP70
6.
World War I
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World War I, also known as the First World War, the Great War, or the War to End All Wars, was a global war originating in Europe that lasted from 28 July 1914 to 11 November 1918. More than 70 million military personnel, including 60 million Europeans, were mobilised in one of the largest wars in history and it was one of the deadliest conflicts in history, and paved the way for major political changes, including revolutions in many of the nations involved. The war drew in all the worlds great powers, assembled in two opposing alliances, the Allies versus the Central Powers of Germany and Austria-Hungary. These alliances were reorganised and expanded as more nations entered the war, Italy, Japan, the trigger for the war was the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria, heir to the throne of Austria-Hungary, by Yugoslav nationalist Gavrilo Princip in Sarajevo on 28 June 1914. This set off a crisis when Austria-Hungary delivered an ultimatum to the Kingdom of Serbia. Within weeks, the powers were at war and the conflict soon spread around the world. On 25 July Russia began mobilisation and on 28 July, the Austro-Hungarians declared war on Serbia, Germany presented an ultimatum to Russia to demobilise, and when this was refused, declared war on Russia on 1 August. Germany then invaded neutral Belgium and Luxembourg before moving towards France, after the German march on Paris was halted, what became known as the Western Front settled into a battle of attrition, with a trench line that changed little until 1917. On the Eastern Front, the Russian army was successful against the Austro-Hungarians, in November 1914, the Ottoman Empire joined the Central Powers, opening fronts in the Caucasus, Mesopotamia and the Sinai. In 1915, Italy joined the Allies and Bulgaria joined the Central Powers, Romania joined the Allies in 1916, after a stunning German offensive along the Western Front in the spring of 1918, the Allies rallied and drove back the Germans in a series of successful offensives. By the end of the war or soon after, the German Empire, Russian Empire, Austro-Hungarian Empire, national borders were redrawn, with several independent nations restored or created, and Germanys colonies were parceled out among the victors. During the Paris Peace Conference of 1919, the Big Four imposed their terms in a series of treaties, the League of Nations was formed with the aim of preventing any repetition of such a conflict. This effort failed, and economic depression, renewed nationalism, weakened successor states, and feelings of humiliation eventually contributed to World War II. From the time of its start until the approach of World War II, at the time, it was also sometimes called the war to end war or the war to end all wars due to its then-unparalleled scale and devastation. In Canada, Macleans magazine in October 1914 wrote, Some wars name themselves, during the interwar period, the war was most often called the World War and the Great War in English-speaking countries. Will become the first world war in the sense of the word. These began in 1815, with the Holy Alliance between Prussia, Russia, and Austria, when Germany was united in 1871, Prussia became part of the new German nation. Soon after, in October 1873, German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck negotiated the League of the Three Emperors between the monarchs of Austria-Hungary, Russia and Germany
7.
John Browning
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He is regarded as one of the most successful firearms designers of the 20th century, in the development of modern automatic and semi-automatic firearms, and is credited with 128 gun patents. He made his first firearm at age 13 in his fathers gun shop, Browning influenced nearly all categories of firearms design. He invented or made significant improvements to single-shot, lever-action, and slide-action, rifles and his most significant contributions were arguably in the area of autoloading firearms. He developed the first autoloading pistols that were reliable and compact by inventing the telescoping bolt, integrating the bolt and barrel shroud into what is known as the pistol slide. Brownings telescoping bolt design is now found on every modern semi-automatic pistol. Browning also made significant contributions to automatic cannon development, some of these arms are still manufactured, often with only minor changes in detail and cosmetics to those assembled by Browning or his licensees. His guns are some of the most copied guns in the world, Browning was a member of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints and served a two-year mission in Georgia beginning on March 28,1887. His father Jonathan Browning, who was among the thousands of Mormon pioneers in the exodus from Nauvoo, Illinois to Utah. John Moses worked in his fathers Ogden shop from the age of seven, where he was taught basic engineering and manufacturing principles, production examples of the Model 1885 Single Shot Rifle caught the attention of the Winchester Repeating Arms Company, who dispatched a representative to evaluate the competition. Winchester bought the design for $8,000 and moved production to their Connecticut factory, Winchester manufactured several popular small arms designed by John M. Browning. For decades in the late 19th Century-early 20th Century, Browning designs and Winchester firearms were synonymous, as was the custom of the time, Brownings earlier designs had been licensed exclusively to Winchester for a single fee payment. With this new product, Browning introduced in his negotiations a continuous royalty fee based upon unit sales, if the new shotgun became highly successful, Browning stood to make substantially more fee income over the prior license fee arrangements. Winchester management was displeased with the change in their relationship. Remington Arms was also approached, however the president of Remington died of an attack as Browning waited to offer them the gun. This forced Browning to look overseas to produce the shotgun, however, Remington would later produce a copy of the Auto-5 as the Model 11 which was used by the US Military and was also sold to the civilian market. The Browning Auto-5 was continuously manufactured as a highly popular throughout the 20th century. This shift marked the end of an era of Winchester-Browning collaboration, John Browning was known as a dedicated and tireless innovator and experimenter who sought breakthrough consumer-oriented features and performance and reliability improvements in small arms designs. He did not retire from his career in his elder years, but dedicated his entire adult life—literally to his last day—to these pursuits
8.
Overpressure ammunition
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This is done typically to produce rounds with a higher muzzle velocity and stopping power, such as ammunition used for defensive purposes. Because of this, +P ammunition is found in handgun calibers which might be used for defensive purposes. Magnum cartridges, such as.357 Magnum or, for example, the.357 Magnum is slightly longer than the.38 Special, the lower powered round from which it was derived. +P ammunition, however, is identical to standard ammunition of its caliber. This was done when the ammunition manufacturers lowered the pressure of their standard rounds, +P ammunition was designed to replicate the performance of what had been standard pressure cartridges. +P cartridges are not recommended to be used in firearms of questionable quality, the burning characteristics of black powder used in early cartridges meant that these cartridges operated at low pressures, generally under 25,000 psi. With the advent of smokeless powder, which has a far greater energy density than black powder, cartridges such as the. 32-20 Winchester and. 44-40 Winchester were chambered in both revolvers and lever action rifles, and the rifles actions could handle much higher pressures. This led to machine gun only loads in these calibers, which provided far more velocity and energy in the rifles, but were not safe in the revolvers due to the higher pressures they generated. These loads were dropped due to a combination of safety concerns. The first modern smokeless powder cartridge deliberately loaded by a manufacturer to higher than standard pressure was the.38 ACP. This cartridge provided performance similar to other.38 caliber cartridges of the time, like the rifle only loads, the.38 Super could still be chambered in the older.38 ACP guns, producing a dangerous combination. Capable of reaching a muzzle energy of 500 ft/lbs, the.38 Super remains a viable defensive cartridge, though it is most popular in shooting sports such as IPSC. A similar move to a high pressure loading was done on the.38 Special in 1930, producing the. 38-44 HV loadings, official +P pressures are established by the SAAMI for certain cartridges, in general the +P pressure is approximately 10% higher than the standard pressure. SAAMI does not have a +P+ pressure standard, but this indicates a higher than the +P loading. In both cases this is below the pressure of a proof test cartridge, proof pressures are established by the SAAMI, as a percentage of the working pressure, so this places an upper bound on the +P+ pressures of 30–40%. By way of comparison, magnum calibers may be loaded to nearly twice the pressure of the rounds from which they were derived, overpressure rounds are commonly defensive rounds and are loaded by police and others in need of maximum power in a compact firearm. Accordingly, most overpressure rounds are hollow points or other types of expanding ammunition, higher pressure is not the same as high pressure, +P cartridges are generally loaded to pressures far below those typically found in magnum cartridges. Cartridges that are commonly boosted with +P pressures are the 9 mm Luger.45 ACP, and.38 Special, which are all cartridges that date from the early 20th century
9.
.45 Auto Rim
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11. 5x23R is a rimmed cartridge specifically designed to be fired in revolvers originally chambered for the.45 ACP cartridge. The Peters Cartridge Company developed the cartridge in 1920 for use in the M1917 revolver, the M1917 had previously been used with half-moon clips that held three rounds of the rimless. 45ACP. If half-moon or moon clips are not used with a cartridge in a revolver. In revolver cylinders not engineered to allow. 45ACP to headspace properly, as in early production Colt M1917s, adding the rim solved both these issues. Loads offered were similar to the standard military loads for the. 45ACP and this was done to reduce barrel wear in the shallow rifled revolvers in which it was to be used. The. 45AR case is stronger than the. 45ACP case and has a larger case capacity. It can deliver similar performance to standard pressure loadings in older, the round is currently still in production by Corbon in their DPX and Performance Match lines of ammunition and is also manufactured by Georgia Arms
10.
Bullet
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The word bullet is a firearm term. A bullet is a projectile expelled from the barrel of a firearm, the term is from Middle French and originated as the diminutive of the word boulle which means small ball. Bullets are made of a variety of materials and they are available singly as they would be used in muzzle loading and cap and ball firearms, as part of a paper cartridge, and much more commonly as a component of metallic cartridges. Bullets are made in a numbers of styles and constructions depending on how they will be used. Many bullets have specialized functions, such as hunting, target shooting, training, defense, a bullet is not a cartridge. In paper and metallic cartridges a bullet is one component of the cartridge, bullet sizes are expressed by their weight and diameter in both English and Metric measurement systems. For example.22 caliber 55 grain bullets or 5. 56mm 55 grain bullets are the same caliber, the word bullet is often used colloquially to refer to a cartridge, which is a combination of the bullet, paper or metallic case/shell, powder, and primer. This use of bullet, when cartridge is intended, leads to confusion when the components of a cartridge are discussed or intended, the bullets used in many cartridges are fired at a muzzle velocity faster than the speed of sound. Meaning they are supersonic and thus can travel a substantial distance, bullet speed through air depends on a number of factors such as barometric pressure, humidity, air temperature, and wind speed. Subsonic cartridges fire bullets slower than the speed of sound and so there is no sonic crack and this means that a subsonic cartridge such as.45 ACP can be effectively suppressed to be substantially quieter than a supersonic cartridge such as the.223 Remington. Bullets do not normally contain explosives, but damage the target by impact. The first use of gunpowder in Europe was recorded in 1247 and it had been used in China for hundreds of years. Later in 1364 hand cannon appeared, early projectiles were made of stone. Stone was used in cannon and hand cannon, in cannon it was eventually found that stone would not penetrate stone fortifications which gave rise to the use of heavier metals for the round projectiles. Hand cannon projectiles developed in a similar following the failure of stone from siege cannon. The first recorded instance of a ball from a hand cannon penetrating armor occurred in 1425. In this photograph of shot retrieved from the wreck of the Mary Rose which was sunk in 1545, the round shot are clearly of different sizes and some are stone while others are cast iron. The development of the hand culverin and matchlock arquebus brought about the use of cast lead balls as projectiles, bullet is derived from the French word boulette, which roughly means little ball
11.
Grain (unit)
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A grain is a unit of measurement of mass, and, for the troy grain, equal to exactly 7001647989100000000♠64.79891 milligrams. It is nominally based upon the mass of a seed of a cereal. From the Bronze Age into the Renaissance the average masses of wheat, rather, expressions such as thirty-two grains of wheat, taken from the middle of the ear appear to have been ritualistic formulas, essentially the premodern equivalent of legal boilerplate. Another book states that Captain Henry Kater, of the British Standards Commission, the grain was the legal foundation of traditional English weight systems, and is the only unit that is equal throughout the troy, avoirdupois, and apothecaries systems of mass. The unit was based on the weight of a grain of barley. The fundamental unit of the pre-1527 English weight system known as Tower weights, was a different sort of known as the wheat grain. The Tower wheat grain was defined as exactly 45⁄64 of a troy grain.79891 milligrams, 7000100000000000000♠1 gram is approximately 7001154323600000000♠15.43236 grains. The unit formerly used by jewellers to measure pearls, diamonds, or other stones, called the jewellers grain or pearl grain, is equal to 1⁄4 of a carat. The grain was also the name of a traditional French unit equal to 6995531150000000000♠53.115 mg. In both British Imperial and U. S. customary units, there are precisely 7,000 grains per avoirdupois pound, the grain is commonly used to measure the mass of bullets and propellants. The term also refers to a particle of gunpowder, the size of which varies according to requirements. In archery, the grain is the unit used to weigh arrows. In dentistry, gold foil, used as a material to restore teeth, is measured in grains, in North America, the hardness of water is often measured in grains per US gallon of calcium carbonate equivalents. Otherwise, water hardness is measured in the metric unit parts per million, one grain per US gallon is approximately 6995171000000000000♠17.1 ppm. Soft water contains 1–4 gpg of calcium carbonate equivalents, while hard water contains 11–20 gpg, though no longer recommended, grains are still used occasionally in medicine as part of the apothecaries system, especially in prescriptions for older medicines such as aspirin or phenobarbital. For example, the dosage of a standard 6996325000000000000♠325 mg tablet of aspirin is sometimes given as 7000500000000000000♠5 grains, in that example the grain is approximated to 6995650000000000000♠65 mg, though the grain can also be approximated to 6995600000000000000♠60 mg, depending on the medication and manufacturer. The apothecaries system has its own system of notation, in which the symbol or abbreviation is followed by the quantity in lower case Roman numerals. For amounts less than one, the quantity is written as a fraction, or for one half, therefore, a prescription for tablets containing 325 mg of aspirin and 30 mg of codeine can be written ASA gr
12.
Rifling
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In firearms, rifling consists of helical grooves in the internal surface of a guns barrel, which impart a spin to a projectile around its long axis. This spin serves to stabilize the projectile, improving its aerodynamic stability. Rifling is often described by its twist rate, which indicates the distance the rifling takes to complete one revolution, such as 1 turn in 10 inches. A shorter distance indicates a faster twist, meaning that for a given velocity the projectile will be rotating at a spin rate. Barrels intended for long, small-diameter bullets, such as the ultra-low-drag, 80-grain 0.223 inch bullets, extremely long projectiles such as flechettes may require high twist rates, these projectiles must be inherently stable, and are often fired from a smoothbore barrel. Muskets were smoothbore, large caliber weapons using ball-shaped ammunition fired at low velocity. Due to the high cost and great difficulty of manufacturing, and the need to load readily from the muzzle. Consequently, on firing the ball bounced off the sides of the barrel when fired, barrel rifling was invented in Augsburg, Germany in 1498. In 1520 August Kotter, an armourer of Nuremberg, Germany improved upon this work, though true rifling dates from the mid-16th century, it did not become commonplace until the nineteenth century. The most successful weapons using rifling with black powder were breech loaders such as the Queen Anne pistol, the grooves most commonly used in modern rifling have fairly sharp edges. More recently, polygonal rifling, a throwback to the earliest types of rifling, has become popular, polygonal barrels tend to have longer service lives because the reduction of the sharp edges of the land reduces erosion of the barrel. Supporters of polygonal rifling also claim higher velocities and greater accuracy, polygonal rifling is currently seen on pistols from CZ, Heckler & Koch, Glock, Tanfoglio, and Kahr Arms, as well as the Desert Eagle. Such guns have achieved significant increases in velocity and range. Examples include the South African G5 and the German PzH2000, gain-twist rifling begins with very little change in the projectiles angular momentum during the first few inches of bullet travel after ignition during the transition from chamber to throat. This enables the bullet to remain undisturbed and trued to the case mouth. After engaging the rifling the bullet is progressively subjected to accelerated angular momentum as burning powder propels it down the barrel. By only gradually increasing the rate, torque is spread along a much longer section of barrel. Gain-twist rifling was used as early as the American Civil War, colt Army and Navy revolvers both employed gain-twist rifling
13.
Primer (firearms)
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In firearm ballistics, the primer is a component of pistol, rifle, and shotgun rounds. Early primers were simply the same black powder used to fire the weapon and this external powder was connected though a tube in the barrel that led to the main charge. As powder wont burn when wet, this led to difficulty, or even the inability, modern primers are shock sensitive chemicals. In smaller weapons the primer is usually integrated into the rear of a cartridge, in larger weapons like cannon the primer is a separate component placed inside the barrel to the rear of the main propellant charge. The first step to firing a firearm of any sort is igniting the propellant, the earliest firearms were cannons, which were simple closed tubes. There was an aperture, the touchhole, drilled in the closed end of the tube. This hole was filled with finely ground powder, which was ignited with a hot ember or torch. With the advent of firearms, this became an undesirable way of firing a gun. The first attempt to make the process of firing a small arm easier was the matchlock, the matchlock incorporated a lock that was actuated by a trigger, originally called a tricker. The lock was a lever which pivoted when pulled. The match was a burning fuse made of plant fibers that were soaked in a solution of nitrates, charcoal, and sulfur. This slow-match was ignited before the gun was needed, and it would slowly burn, after the gun was loaded and the touchhole primed with powder, the burning tip of the match was positioned so that the lock would bring it into contact with the touchhole. To fire the gun, it was aimed and the trigger pulled and this brought the match down to the touchhole, igniting the powder. With careful attention the slow-burning match could be burning for long periods of time. The next revolution in technology was the wheel-lock. It used a spring-loaded, serrated steel wheel which rubbed against a piece of iron pyrite, a key was used to wind the wheel and put the spring under tension. Once tensioned, the wheel was held in place by a trigger, when the trigger was pulled, the serrated edge of the steel rubbed against the pyrite, generating sparks. These sparks were directed into a pan, called the flash pan, the flashpan usually was protected by a spring-loaded cover that would slide out of the way when the trigger was pulled, exposing the powder to the sparks
14.
Cartridge (weaponry)
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Military and commercial producers continue to pursue the goal of caseless ammunition. A cartridge without a bullet is called a blank, One that is completely inert is called a dummy. Some artillery ammunition uses the same concept as found in small arms. In other cases, the shell is separate from the propellant charge. In popular use, the bullet is often misused to refer to a complete cartridge. The cartridge case seals a firing chamber in all directions excepting the bore, a firing pin strikes the primer and ignites it. The primer compound deflagrates, it does not detonate, a jet of burning gas from the primer ignites the propellant. Gases from the burning powder pressurize and expand the case to seal it against the chamber wall and these propellant gases push on the bullet base. In response to pressure, the bullet will move in the path of least resistance which is down the bore of the barrel. After the bullet leaves the barrel, the pressure drops to atmospheric pressure. The case, which had been expanded by chamber pressure. This eases removal of the case from the chamber, brass is a commonly used case material because it is resistant to corrosion. A brass case head can be work-hardened to withstand the pressures of cartridges. The neck and body portion of a case is easily annealed to make the case ductile enough to allow reforming so that it can be reloaded many times. Steel is used in some plinking ammunition, as well as in military ammunition. Steel is less expensive than brass, but it is not feasible to reload, Military forces typically consider small arms cartridge cases to be disposable, one-time-use devices. However, case weight affects how much ammunition a soldier can carry, conversely, steel is more susceptible to contamination and damage so all such cases are varnished or otherwise sealed against the elements. One downside caused by the strength of steel in the neck of these cases is that propellant gas can blow back past the neck
15.
Colt's Manufacturing Company
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Colts Manufacturing Company is an American firearms manufacturer, founded in 1855 by Samuel Colt. It is the corporation to Colts earlier firearms-making efforts, which started in 1836. Colts earliest designs played a role in the popularization of the revolver. Although Samuel Colt did not invent the concept, his designs resulted in the first very successful ones. The most famous Colt products include the Colt Walker, made 1847 in the facilities of Eli Whitney Jr. Though they did not develop it, for a long time Colt was also responsible for all AR-15 and M16 rifle production. The most successful and famous of these are numerous M16 carbines, including the Colt Commando family, in 2002, Colt Defense was split off from Colts Manufacturing Company. Colts Manufacturing Company now serves the market, while Colt Defense serves the law enforcement, military. The two companies remained in the same West Hartford, Connecticut location cross-licensing certain merchandise before reuniting in 2013, following the loss of its M4 contract in 2013, Colt was briefly in Chapter 11 Bankruptcy, starting in 2015. Samuel Colt received a British patent on his design for a revolver in 1835. That same year, he founded his first corporation for its manufacture, the first firearm manufactured at the new Paterson plant, however, was the Colt First Model Ring Lever rifle beginning in 1837. This was followed thereafter in late 1837 by the introduction of the Colt Paterson. This corporation suffered quality problems in production, making firearms with interchangeable parts was still rather new, and it was not yet easy to replicate across different factories. Interchangeability was not complete in the Paterson works, and traditional gunsmithing techniques did not fill the gap entirely there, the Colt Paterson revolver found patchy success and failure, some worked well, while others had problems. The United States Marine Corps and United States Army reported quality problems with these earliest Colt revolvers, production had ended at the New Jersey corporation by 1842. Colt made another attempt at revolver production in 1846 and submitted a prototype to the US government, during the Mexican–American War, this prototype was seen by Captain Samuel Hamilton Walker who made some suggestions to Colt about making it in a larger caliber. Having no factory or machinery to produce the pistols, Samuel Colt collaborated with the Whitney armory of Whitneyville and this armory was run by the family of Eli Whitney. Eli Whitney Jr, the son of the patriarch, was the head of the family armory
16.
Semi-automatic pistol
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One cartridge is fired each time the trigger of a semi-automatic pistol is pulled, the pistols disconnector ensures this behavior. Additional terms sometimes used as synonyms for a semi-automatic pistol are automatic pistol, self-loading pistol, autopistol, a semi-automatic pistol harnesses the energy of one shot to reload the chamber for the next. After a round is fired, the spent casing is ejected, most pistols use recoil operation to do this, but some pistols use blowback or gas operation. Most types of semi-automatic pistols rely on a magazine to store ammunition before it is fired. Typically, the first round is loaded into the chamber by pulling back. This is called racking the slide or racking the gun, after the trigger is pulled and the round is fired, the recoil operation of the handgun automatically extracts and ejects the shell casing and reloads the chamber. This mode of operation allows for faster reloading and storing a larger number of cartridges than a revolver. Each pull of the trigger on a DAO semi-automatic pistol requires the amount of pressure. The Kel-Tec P-32 is an example of a DAO action, DAO semi-automatic pistols are most generally recommended only in the smaller, self-defense, concealable pistols, rather than in target or hunting pistols. A notable exception is Glock-brand pistols which optimize preset triggers, and this allows for significantly shorter trigger pulls than DAO. The trigger spring can be replaced with a one and paired with a low-strength sear connector resulting in lightened trigger pulls to improve a shooters accuracy. Standard modern semi-automatic pistols are double action, also sometimes known as double-action/single-action. In this design, the hammer or striker may be either thumb-cocked or activated by pulling the trigger when firing the first shot, the hammer or striker is recocked automatically during each firing cycle. In double-action pistols, the first pull of the trigger requires roughly twice as much pressure as subsequent firings, the Beretta 92F/FS, a full-sized, service, semi-automatic pistol is an example of this style of action. A common mode of carry for DA semi-automatic pistols is with the full, a round chambered. In contrast, a single-action semi-automatic pistol must be cocked by first operating the slide or bolt, or, if a round is already chambered, the famed Colt M1911 is an example of this style of action. All SA semi-automatic pistols exhibit this feature, and automatically cock the hammer when the slide is first racked to chamber a round, a round can also be manually inserted in the chamber with the slide locked back. Then the safety can be applied, the normal mode of carrying an SA semi-automatic pistol is condition 1, popularly known as cocked and locked
17.
M1911 pistol
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The M1911 is a single-action, semi-automatic, magazine-fed, recoil-operated pistol chambered for the.45 ACP cartridge. It served as the sidearm for the United States Armed Forces from 1911 to 1986. It was first used in stages of the Philippine–American War, and was widely used in World War I, World War II, the Korean War. The pistols formal designation as of 1940 was Automatic Pistol, Caliber.45, M1911 for the model of 1911 or Automatic Pistol, Caliber.45, M1911A1 for the M1911A1. The designation changed to Pistol, Caliber.45, Automatic, the U. S. procured around 2.7 million M1911 and M1911A1 pistols in military contracts during its service life. The M1911 was replaced by the 9mm Beretta M9 pistol as the standard U. S. sidearm in October 1986, but due to its popularity among users, it has not been completely phased out. Modernized derivative variants of the M1911 are still in use by units of the U. S. Army Special Forces. Designed by John Browning, the M1911 is the best-known of his designs to use the short recoil principle in its basic design, the pistol was widely copied, and this operating system rose to become the preeminent type of the 20th century and of nearly all modern centerfire pistols. It is popular with civilian shooters in competitive events such as USPSA, IDPA, International Practical Shooting Confederation, compact variants are popular civilian concealed carry weapons in the U. S. because of the designs relatively slim width and stopping power of the.45 ACP cartridge. The M1911 pistol originated in the late 1890s as the result of a search for a suitable self-loading pistol to replace the variety of then in service. Maxim had designed a self-loading rifle in the 1880s, but was preoccupied with machine guns, nevertheless, the application of his principle of using cartridge energy to reload led to several self-loading pistols in 1896. The designs caught the attention of various militaries, each of which programs to find a suitable one for their forces. In the U. S. such a program would lead to a formal test at the turn of the 20th century, during the end of 1899 and start of 1900, a test of self-loading pistols was conducted, which included entries from Mauser, Mannlicher, and Colt. This led to a purchase of 1,000 DWM Luger pistols, chambered in 7. 65mm Luger, during field trials these ran into some problems, especially with stopping power. Other governments had made similar complaints, consequently, DWM produced an enlarged version of the round, the 9×19mm Parabellum, a necked-up version of the 7.65 mm round. Fifty of these were tested as well by the U. S. Army in 1903, American units fighting Moro guerrillas during the Philippine–American War using the then-standard Colt M1892 revolver. The problems prompted the then–Chief of Ordnance, General William Crozier and this led to the 1906 trials of pistols from six firearms manufacturing companies. Of the six designs submitted, three were eliminated early on, leaving only the Savage, Colt, and DWM designs chambered in the new.45 ACP cartridge and these three still had issues that needed correction, but only Colt and Savage resubmitted their designs
18.
United States Cavalry
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The United States Cavalry, or U. S. Cavalry, was the designation of the mounted force of the United States Army from the late 18th to the early 20th century. Cavalry is also used in the name of the 1st Cavalry Division for heraldic/lineage/historical purposes, originally designated as United States Dragoons, the forces were patterned after cavalry units employed during the Revolutionary War. Immediately preceding World War II, the U. S. Cavalry began transitioning to a mechanized, mounted force, during World War II, the Armys cavalry units operated as horse-mounted, mechanized, or dismounted forces. The last horse-mounted cavalry charge by a U. S. Cavalry unit took place on the Bataan Peninsula, the 26th Cavalry Regiment of the Philippine Scouts executed the charge against Japanese forces near the village of Morong on 16 January 1942. The U. S. Cavalry branch was absorbed into the Armor branch as part of the Army Reorganization Act of 1950, today, cavalry designations and traditions continue with regiments of both armor and aviation units that perform the cavalry mission. The 1st Cavalry Division is the only division in the United States Army with a cavalry designation. The division maintains a detachment of horse-mounted cavalry for ceremonial purposes, Washington saw the intimidating effect of the small force of British 17th Light Dragoons, which panicked his militia infantry at White Plains. In late 1776, Congress authorized Washington to establish a force of 3,000 men. On 12 December 1776, Congress converted Elisha Sheldons militia regiment into the Regiment of Light Dragoons, in March 1777, Washington established the Corps of Continental Light Dragoons consisting of four regiments of 280 men, each organised in six troops. Pulaskis efforts led to friction with the American officers, resulting in his resignation, pulaskis Legion consisted of dragoons, riflemen, grenadiers, and infantry. Battle engagements in South Carolina largely seriously attrited the 1st and 3rd Regiments in the spring of 1780, following the capture of Charleston, South Carolina on 12 May 1780, the remnants tried to regroup and reconstitute in Virginia and North Carolina. In August,1780, Armands Legion was with General Gates at the disastrous Battle of Camden, the most significant engagement of the war involving Continental light dragoons was the Battle of Cowpens in January 1781. The British responded by organizing a force of dragoons and infantry under British Lt-Col Banastre Tarleton to stop the raids. Later, the 3rd Legionary Corps participated in Greenes maneuvers across North Carolina, in 1783, the Continental Army was discharged and the dragoons were released. The first cavalry unit formed by the Congress of the United States of America was a squadron of four troops commanded by Major Michael Rudolph on 5 March 1792, in 1799, Congress established a provision for mobilization of three cavalry regiments in the event of a war. Equipment for 3,000 men and horses was procured and stored, the Congressional act of 12 April 1808 authorized a standing regiment of light dragoons consisting of eight troops. As war loomed, Congress authorized another regiment of dragoons on 11 January 1812. These regiments were known afterwards as the First and Second United States Dragoons
19.
Colt Single Action Army
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The Colt SAA has been offered in over 30 different calibers and various barrel lengths. Its overall appearance has remained consistent since 1873, Colt has discontinued its production twice, but brought it back due to popular demand. The revolver was popular with ranchers, lawmen, and outlaws alike and its design has influenced the production of numerous other models from other companies. The Colt SAA revolver is a piece of Americana, known as The Gun That Won the West. For the design, Colt turned to two of its best engineers, William Mason and Charles Brinckerhoff Richards who had developed a number of revolvers and black powder conversions for the company. Their effort was designed for the United States government service revolver trials of 1872 by Colts Patent Firearms Manufacturing Company, production began in 1873 with the Single Action Army model 1873, also referred to as the New Model Army Metallic Cartridge Revolving Pistol. The very first production Single Action Army, serial number 1, thought lost for years after its production, was found in a barn in Nashua. It was chambered in.45 Colt, a centerfire design containing charges of up to 40 grains of fine-grained black powder, relative to period cartridges and most later handgun rounds, it was quite powerful in its full loading. The Colt Single Action Army revolver, along with the 1870 and 1875 Smith & Wesson Model 3 Schofield revolver, the Colt.45 is a famous piece of American history, known as The Gun That Won the West. The Single Action Army became available in barrel lengths of 4¾, 5½ as well as the Cavalry standard. The shorter barrelled revolvers are sometimes called the Civilian or Gunfighter model, there was also a variant with a sub 4 barrel, without an ejector rod unofficially referred to as the Sheriffs Model, Bankers Special, or Storekeeper. From 1875 until 1880 Colt marketed a single-action revolver in.44 rimfire Henry caliber in a number range from no.1 to 1,863. A Flattop Target Model was listed in Colts catalogs from 1890 to 1898, Colt manufactured 914 of these revolvers with a frame which was flat on top and fitted with an adjustable leaf rear sight. The front sight consisted of a base with an interchangeable blade, in 1920, larger, highly visible sights replaced the original thin blade and notch. The revolvers remained essentially unchanged from that point until cessation of manufacture at the beginning of World War II, from 1873 through 1940, production of the Colt Single Action Army reached 357,859. This is identified as the Pre War or First Generation of the model, calibers, at least thirty in all, ranged from.22 rimfire through.476 Eley, with approximately half, or 158,884, chambered for.45 Colt. The next most prevalent were the. 44-40 Winchester Center fire at 71,392, 38-40 at 50,520, 32-20 Winchester at 43,284 and, the 41 Colt at 19,676. All original, good condition, U. S. Cavalry and Artillery Single Action Armies are among the most valuable to collectors, especially valuable, often going for well over $10,000, are the OWA and the rare Henry Nettleton inspected Single Action Army Colts
20.
Revolver
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A revolver is a repeating handgun that has a revolving cylinder containing multiple chambers and at least one barrel for firing. Revolvers might be regarded as a subset of pistols, or as a subset of handguns. Though the term revolver usually only refers to handguns, other firearms may also have a revolving chamber and these include some models of grenade launchers, shotguns, and rifles. Most revolvers contain five or six rounds in the cylinder, though the original name was revolving gun, the short-hand revolver is universally used. The revolver allows the user to fire multiple rounds without reloading, each time the user cocks the hammer, the cylinder revolves to align the next chamber and round with the hammer and barrel, which gives this type of firearm its name. In a single-action revolver, the user pulls the back with his free hand or thumb. In a double-action revolver, pulling the trigger moves the back, then releases it. Loading and unloading a double-action revolver requires the operator to swing out the cylinder and insert the proper ammunition, the first guns with multichambered cylinders that revolved to feed one barrel were made in the late 16th century in Europe. They were expensive and rare curiosities, not until the 19th century would revolvers become common weapons of industrial production. One of the first was a flintlock revolver patented by Elisha Collier in 1814, the first percussion revolver was made by Lenormand of Paris in 1820 and the first percussion cap revolver was invented by the Italian Francesco Antonio Broccu in 1833. He received a prize of 300 francs for his invention, although he did not patent it, however, in 1835 a similar handgun was patented by Samuel Colt, who would go on to make the first mass-produced revolver. The first cartridge revolvers were produced around 1854 by Eugene Lefaucheux, revolvers soon became standard for nearly all uses. In the early 20th century, semi-automatic pistols were developed, which can hold more rounds, Automatic pistols also have a flat profile, more suitable for concealed carry. Automatic pistols have almost completely replaced revolvers in military and law enforcement use, revolvers still remain popular as back-up and off-duty handguns among American law enforcement officers and security guards. Also, revolvers are still common in the American private sector as defensive, in the development of firearms, an important limiting factor was the time it took to reload the weapon after it was fired. While the user was reloading, the weapon was useless, several approaches to the problem of increasing the rate of fire were developed, the earliest being multi-barrelled weapons which allowed two or more shots without reloading. Later weapons featured multiple barrels revolving along a single axis, the earliest examples of what today is called a revolver were made in Germany in the late 16th century. These weapons featured a barrel with a revolving cylinder holding the powder
21.
.38 Long Colt
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It is slightly more powerful than the.38 Short Colt, or.38 SC. The.38 SC and.38 LC differ in length, and in bullet diameter, weight. The.38 Long Colts predecessor, the.38 Short Colt, used a bullet of 130 grains at a nominal 770 ft/s. The cylindrical shank or bearing surface of the bullet, just in front of the case mouth, is.374 or.375 in in diameter. A smaller-diameter portion of the bullet, the heel, is crimped inside the mouth, and the lubricant is outside the case. In contrast, the.38 Long Colt uses a. 357–.358 in bullet and this keeps the waxy lubricant from collecting grit which can damage the revolvers barrel. Colt, however, retained the single-diameter charge hole, so the bullet was grossly undersize as it traveled through the chamber throat. It was supposed to expand in the throat and be swaged down, or reduced again in diameter, as it entered the barrel, velocity was the same 770 ft/s, but bullets weighed 150 grains, resulting in a muzzle energy of 198 ft·lbf. A typical instance occurred in 1905 and was recounted by Col. Louis A. LaGarde, Antonio Caspi. He was shot four times at close range in an encounter by a.38 Colts revolver loaded with U. S. Army regulation ammunition. He was finally stunned by a blow on the forehead from the end of a Springfield carbine. Col. LaGarde noted Caspis wounds were fairly well-placed, three entered the chest, perforating the lungs. One passed through the body, one lodged near the back, the fourth round went though the right hand and exited through the forearm. Army Ordnance also purchased a number of M1902 revolvers for issue to officers deploying overseas. The.38 Long Colt remained in service until 1909, when the.45 M1909 cartridge was issued along with the.45 Colt New Service revolver as the new military sidearm for the U. S. Army. In civilian use, the.38 LC was chambered in a number of Colt revolvers, various U. S. police forces also adopted the cartridge. However, the cartridge became nearly extinct after Smith & Wessons more powerful.38 Special cartridge became popular as a civilian. By 1908, even Colt was chambering their new Police Positive and New Army revolvers in.38 Colt Special,9 mm caliber Table of handgun and rifle cartridges Cartridge Dimensions at Steves Pages Ballistics By The Inch.38 Long Colt Results
22.
Moro people
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There are around 13 indigenous communities, of which the majority have converted to the religion of Islam and are now Muslims or Moros, most are the followers of Islam of the Shafii madhhab. The term Moro came into use during the Spanish colonial period by the Spaniards and it was originally used to refer to the Berber/Arab Muslims who ruled Muslim Spain, but for a time it came to be used informally by the Spaniards to refer to all Muslims. The term is also self-prescribed by the communities themselves, on both declarations, the signatories used the word, Moro Nation which translates as Bangsa Moro. In modern history, influential groups such as the Moro National Liberation Front espoused the Moro identity to unify all Muslim groups in the Philippines and this is different from the Filipino identity as it was more seen as an epithet to Catholic converted ethnic groups. The Moro people mostly live in Mindanao, Sulu and Palawan, many Moros also have emigrated to Malaysia, Indonesia and Brunei in the last half of the 20th century due to the conflict in the Southern Philippines. Newer communities can be today in Kota Kinabalu, Sandakan, Semporna in neighbouring Sabah, Malaysia, North Kalimantan in Indonesia. The recently coined term Bangsamoro, derived from the old Malay word bangsa, the term Bangsamoro carries the aspiration of the Filipino Muslims to have an Islamic country or state. The term was used again by the Spanish when they arriving in the Philippine archipelago. Marvic Leonen, who was the Chief Peace Negotiator for Philippine government with the Moro Islamic Liberation Front, has said, There is Bangsamoro, the place, there is Bangsamoro, the identity. The established historical, social and political factors of the Moro communities made them a separate country unethically annexed to the emerging Philippine Republic. It was later adopted as a name for separatist organisations such as the Moro National Liberation Front, the Framework Agreement on the Bangsamoro recognises Bangsamoro as an identity and calls for the creation of a new autonomous political entity called Bangsamoro. The native Moro Communities of Mindanao and Sulu are termed considered as Filipino Muslim by the Philippine government and it includes the cities of Cotabato, Dapitan, Dipolog, General Santos, Iligan, Marawi. Conflict immediately broke out on the following the decision, with nearly half a million people displaced. This definition of the people by the bangsamoro is purely owned by the bangsamoro. Moro by definition still means Muslim who are still the minority population of Mindanao, the Bangsamoro share similarities with the Malay people of Malaysia, Indonesia, Brunei, Singapore and southern Thailand, while being distinct from them. Islam is the most dominant influence on the Moro cultures since the era of the Sultanate of Maguindanao, large and small mosques can be found all over the region. In accordance with Islamic Law, alcohol and fornication are prohibited, pork and pork byproducts are not permissible. Another practice is fasting during Ramadan and providing charity for the poor, the Hajj is also a major requirement as it is one of the five pillars of Islam
23.
Moro Rebellion
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The Moro Rebellion was an armed conflict between the Moro people and the United States military. The word Moro is a term for ethnic Muslims who lived in the Southern Philippines, an area that includes Mindanao, Jolo, the Moros have a 400-year history of resisting foreign rule. The 400-year-long resistance against the Japanese, Americans, and Spanish by the Moro Muslims persisted and morphed into their current war for independence against the Philippine state, a culture of jihad emerged among the Moros due to the centuries long war against the Spanish invaders. The United States claimed the territories of the Philippines after the Spanish–American War, the ethnic Moro Muslim population of the southern Philippines resisted both Spanish and United States colonization. The Spaniards were restricted to a handful of coastal garrisons or Forts, after a series of unsuccessful attempts during the centuries of Spanish rule in the Philippines, Spanish forces occupied the abandoned city of Jolo, Sulu, the seat of the Sultan of Sulu, in 1876. The Spaniards and the Sultan of Sulu signed the Spanish Treaty of Peace on July 22,1878, control of the Sulu archipelago outside of the Spanish garrisons was handed to the Sultan. Despite the very nominal claim to the Moro territories, Spain ceded them to the United States in the Treaty of Paris which signaled the end of the Spanish–American War. Following the American occupation of the Northern Philippines during 1899, Spanish forces in the Southern Philippines were abolished, American forces took control over the Spanish government in Jolo on May 18,1899, and at Zamboanga in December 1899. The Moros resisted the new American colonizers like they did the Spanish, the Spanish, American, and Philippine governments have all been fought against by the Muslims of Sulu and Mindanao. Despite the sultans pan-Islamic ideology, he aided the American forces because he felt no need to cause hostilities between the West and Muslims. Abdul Hamid wrote the letter, which was sent to Mecca where two Sulu chiefs brought it home to Sulu and it was successful, and the Sulu Mohammedans. Refused to join the insurrectionists and had placed themselves under the control of army, as the Moros have never asked more than that, it is not surprising, that they refused all overtures made, by Aguinaldos agents, at the time of the Filipino insurrection. If the reader will pause to consider what this means in men and also the millions in money, he will appreciate this wonderful piece of diplomacy, Once the Americans subdued the northern Filipinos, the Bates Treaty with the Moros was violated by the Americans and they invaded Moroland. After the war in 1915, the Americans imposed the Carpenter Treaty on Sulu, First Republic forces in the southern Philippines were commanded by General Nicolas Capistrano, and American forces conducted an expedition against him in the winter of 1900–1901. On March 27,1901, Capistrano surrendered, a few days later, General Emilio Aguinaldo was captured in Luzon. This major victory in the war in the north allowed the Americans to devote resources to the south. On August 31,1901, Brig. Gen. George Whitefield Davis replaced Kobbe as the commander of the Department of Mindanao-Jolo, Davis adopted a conciliatory policy towards the Moros. American forces under his command had standing orders to buy Moro produce when possible, peaceful Moros would not be disarmed
24.
.30-40 Krag
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Since the cartridge it was replacing was the. 45-70 Government, the round was considered small-bore at the time. The design selected was ultimately the Krag–Jørgensen, formally adopted as the M1892 Springfield and it was also used in M1893 and later Gatling guns. After a brief experiment with a 230-grain bullet loading, the.30 Army loading was standardized in 1894 using a 220-grain metal-jacketed round-nose bullet with 40 grains of nitrocellulose powder. This loading developed a velocity of 2,000 ft/s in the 30-inch barrel of the Krag rifle. The rimmed. 30-40 round was known as.30 Army. The first use of a smokeless powder round by Winchester was a shot in 30-40. From the outset, the. 30-40 cartridge proved popular for hunting, in 1899, a Krag in. 30-40 caliber was used to shoot the world-record Rocky Mountain elk. The record stood until the half of the 20th century. The new loading increased the velocity in the rifle version of the Krag to 2,200 ft/s at 45,000 psi. However, once the new loading was issued, reports of cracked locking lugs on service Krags began to surface, in March 1900 the remaining stocks of this ammunition were returned to the arsenals, broken down, and reloaded back to the original 2,000 ft/s specification. In 1903, after recommendations from the infantry Small Arms Board, the new cartridge was designated by its year of adoption, the. 30-03. Handbook of the Gatling Gun, Caliber.30
25.
United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland
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The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland was established as a sovereign state on 1 January 1801 by the Acts of Union 1800, which merged the kingdoms of Great Britain and Ireland. The growing desire for an Irish Republic led to the Irish War of Independence, Northern Ireland remained part of the United Kingdom, and the state was consequently renamed the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland. Britain financed the European coalition that defeated France in 1815 in the Napoleonic Wars, the British Empire thereby became the foremost world power for the next century. The Crimean War with Russia and the Boer wars were relatively small operations in a largely peaceful century, rapid industrialisation that began in the decades prior to the states formation continued up until the mid-19th century. A devastating famine, exacerbated by government inaction in the century, led to demographic collapse in much of Ireland. It was an era of economic modernization and growth of industry, trade and finance. Outward migration was heavy to the colonies and to the United States. Britain also built up a large British Empire in Africa and Asia, India, by far the most important possession, saw a short-lived revolt in 1857. In foreign policy Britain favoured free trade, which enabled its financiers and merchants to operate successfully in many otherwise independent countries, as in South America. Britain formed no permanent military alliances until the early 20th century, when it began to cooperate with Japan, France and Russia, and moved closer to the United States. A brief period of limited independence for Ireland came to an end following the Irish Rebellion of 1798, the British governments fear of an independent Ireland siding against them with the French resulted in the decision to unite the two countries. This was brought about by legislation in the parliaments of both kingdoms and came into effect on 1 January 1801, however, King George III was bitterly opposed to any such Emancipation and succeeded in defeating his governments attempts to introduce it. When the Treaty of Amiens ended the war, Britain agreed to return most of the territories it had seized, in May 1803, war was declared again. In 1806, Napoleon issued the series of Berlin Decrees, which brought into effect the Continental System and this policy aimed to eliminate the threat from the British by closing French-controlled territory to foreign trade. Frances population and agricultural capacity far outstripped that of the British Isles, Napoleon expected that cutting Britain off from the European mainland would end its economic hegemony. The Spanish uprising in 1808 at last permitted Britain to gain a foothold on the Continent, after Napoleons surrender and exile to the island of Elba, peace appeared to have returned. The Allies united and the armies of Wellington and Blucher defeated Napoleon once, simultaneous with the Napoleonic Wars, trade disputes, arming hostile Indians and British impressment of American sailors led to the War of 1812 with the United States. The war was little noticed in Britain, which could devote few resources to the conflict until the fall of Napoleon in 1814, American frigates inflicted a series of defeats on the Royal Navy, which was short on manpower due to the conflict in Europe
26.
.303 British
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The.303 British or 7. 7×56mmR, is a. 303-inch calibre rimmed rifle cartridge first developed in Britain as a black-powder round put into service in December 1888 for the Lee–Metford rifle. In 1891 the cartridge was adapted to use smokeless powder and it was the standard British and Commonwealth military cartridge from 1889 until the 1950s when it was replaced by the 7. 62×51mm NATO. The.303 British has 3.64 ml cartridge case capacity, americans would define the shoulder angle at alpha/2 ≈17 degrees. The common rifling twist rate for this cartridge is 254 mm,5 grooves, Ø lands =7.70 millimetres, Ø grooves =7.92 millimetres, land width =2.12 millimetres and the primer type is Berdan or Boxer. Rulings the.303 British can handle up to 365.00 MPa Pmax piezo pressure, regulated countries every rifle cartridge combo has to be proofed at 125% of this maximum C. I. P. pressure to certify for sale to consumers. This means that.303 British chambered arms in C. I. P, regulated countries are currently proof tested at 456.00 MPa PE piezo pressure. The SAAMI Maximum Average Pressure for this cartridge is 49,000 psi piezo pressure, the measurement. 303-inch is the nominal size of the bore measured between the lands which follows the older black powder nomenclature. Measured between the grooves, the size of the bore is. 311-inch. Bores for many.303 military surplus rifles are found ranging from around. 309-inch up to. 318-inch. Recommended bullet diameter for standard.303 British cartridges is. 312-inch, the bolt thrust of the.303 British is relatively low compared to many other service rounds used in the early 20th century. The original.303 British service cartridge employed black powder as a propellant, and was adopted for the Lee–Metford rifle, ballistite was a stick-type smokeless powder composed of soluble nitrocellulose and nitroglycerine. Unlike Cordite, Riflelite was a powder, and contained no nitroglycerine. After extensive testing, the Committee on Explosives selected Cordite for use in the Mark II.303 British service cartridge, the initial.303 Mark I and Mk II service cartridges employed a 215-grain, round-nosed, copper-nickel full-metal-jacketed bullet with a lead core. After tests determined that the bullet had too thin a jacket when used with cordite. This led to the introduction of the Cartridge S. A. Ball.303 inch Cordite Mark III, similar hollow-point bullets were used in the Mk IV and Mk V loadings, which were put into mass production. The design of the Mk IV hollow-point bullet shifted bullet weight rearwards, improving stability, the remaining stocks were used for target practice. The concern about expanding bullets was brought up at the 1899 Hague Convention by Swiss, the British and American defense was that they should not focus on specific bullet designs, like hollow-points, but instead on rounds that caused superfluous injury. The parties in the end agreed to abstain from using expanding bullets, as a result, the Mark III and other expanding versions of the.303 were not issued during the Second Boer War
27.
Expanding bullet
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Expanding bullets are projectiles designed to expand on impact, increasing in diameter to limit penetration and/or produce a larger diameter wound for faster incapacitation. Therefore, they are used for hunting and by police departments. Two typical designs are the hollow-point bullet and the soft-point bullet, expanding bullets are designed to expand on impact, sometimes as much as twice the diameter. This will slow the bullet down and more of its energy will be transferred to the target. For this reason expanding bullets are used in hunting because their stopping power increases the chance of a quick kill. There are a number of used for hunting different game. Bullets used for medium and large game need better penetration, which means bullets designed to maintain integrity, the velocities at which the bullets hit affect their expansion and penetration. Expanding bullets are less likely to pass through the target, and this reduces the risk of accidental shootings. For this reason, and to maximize the effect, law enforcement organizations use expanding bullets. Even then some penetration is needed, e. g. to penetrate a windshield or heavy clothing, expanding bullets were given the name Dum-dum, or dumdum, after an early British example produced in the Dum Dum Arsenal, near Calcutta, India by Captain Neville Bertie-Clay. There were several expanding bullets produced by this arsenal for the.303 British cartridge, including soft point and these were not the first expanding bullets, however, hollow point expanding bullets were commonly used for hunting thin skinned game in express rifles as early as the mid-1870s. The use of the term Dum-dum, applied to expanding bullets other than the early.303 designs, is considered slang by most ammunition and ballistics sources. Manufacturers have many terms to describe the construction of the various types of expanding bullets. The expansion itself is sometimes called mushrooming, another early name was General Tweedies mushroom bullet, cited in the New York Times in 1892. Early bullets were made in the form of spheres of nearly pure lead. These would often flatten upon impact with the target, causing a larger wound than the diameter of the ball. The adoption of rifling allowed the use of longer, heavier bullets, in this case expansion was a side effect of materials, and there is no evidence that the bullets were designed to expand upon impact. The earliest examples of bullets designed to expand on impact were those fired by express rifles
28.
Louis La Garde
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Louis Anatole La Garde, Colonel, Medical Corps U. S. Army, was born in Thibodaux, Louisiana and was the son of Justin de La Garde and Aurelia Daspit, both members of colonial French families. He attended the Louisiana Military Academy at Alexandria and matriculated at Bellevue Hospital Medical College in New York in 1870 and after two years of continuous attendance was graduated in 1872. He left Roosevelt Hospital to accept an appointment as acting assistant surgeon in the Army, effective March 30,1874 and he spent four years in this status, then at Fort Elliott, Texas, and Camp Robinson, Nebraska. During the winter of 1876-77 he was in the field with General R. S and he next spent five years in the Indian Territory, first in camp on the North Fork of the Canadian River and then at Fort Reno. While at the latter post he took leave in 1881 and was married in Franklin, Kentucky, to Frances Neely, of a pioneer family, on June 6,1883, he was promoted to captain. He served at Fort Ellis, Mont. in the Yellowstone National Park, in the winter of 1889-90 he spent four months in the New York Postgraduate Medical School studying diseases of the eye, one of the first medical officers of the army to become expert in this field. He served with this hospital in Jackson Park from February to November 1893, acting also as attending surgeon to all officers, the results of this work were published in the Report of The Surgeon General for 1893. He presented a paper on this subject before the military section of the first Pan-American Medical Congress which met in Washington in September 1893. In November 1893 he went to the headquarters of the Department of Colorado at Denver as attending surgeon, and accompanied troops on strike duty. In September 1894 he went to Fort Logan, Col. where he spent a year, during which time he was professor of hygiene at the University of Denver and organized a laboratory for the city of Denver. In October 1895 he was assigned as attending surgeon at Boston and he took this hospital to Cuba on the transport Saratoga with command of General Shafter and operated it at Siboney, receiving into it all the wounded from the battle of Santiago de Cuba. While on this duty he was charged with the evacuation of the wounded to the United States and he was stricken with yellow fever himself on August 5 and was shipped on the transport Catania to Montauk Point, N. Y. Ordered to Washington he was given board duty until December 12,1898, during the following five years he was given a multitude of varied duties. He was appointed to the board for the examination of candidates for the medical corps and he was a member of the board for revision of the medical supply table and of the board to revise instruction for rendering first aid in emergencies. With the reopening of the Army Medical School in 1901 he lectured to the class on the results of gunshot wounds, in later sessions he lectured on the duties of medical officers. He drew the plans upon which the expansion of the hospital at the Soldiers’ Home has since been made, while at this hospital he did all of the operative surgery. In 1899 he was elected professor of surgery at New York University. He was a delegate to the meeting of the American Medical Association at New Orleans in 1903
29.
Gram
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The gram is a metric system unit of mass. Originally defined as the weight of a volume of pure water equal to the cube of the hundredth part of a metre. The only unit symbol for gram that is recognised by the International System of Units is g following the numeric value with a space, the SI does not support the use of abbreviations such as gr, gm or Gm. The word gramme was adopted by the French National Convention in its 1795 decree revising the system as replacing the gravet introduced in 1793. Its definition remained that of the weight of a centimetre of water. French gramme was taken from the Late Latin term gramma and this word, ultimately from Greek γράμμα letter had adopted a specialised meaning in Late Antiquity of one twenty-fourth part of an ounce, corresponding to about 1.14 grams. This use of the term is found in the carmen de ponderibus et mensuris composed around 400 AD, the gram was the fundamental unit of mass in the 19th-century centimetre–gram–second system of units. The gram is today the most widely used unit of measurement for non-liquid ingredients in cooking and grocery shopping worldwide. 1 gram =15.4323583529 grains 1 grain =0.06479891 grams 1 avoirdupois ounce =28.349523125 grams 1 troy ounce =31.1034768 grams 100 grams =3.527396195 ounces 1 gram =5 carats 1 gram =8. 1 gram is roughly equal to 1 small paper clip or pen cap, the Japanese 1 yen coin has a mass of one gram. Conversion of units Duella Gold gram Orders of magnitude Gram at Encyclopædia Britannica
30.
Winchester Repeating Arms Company
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The Winchester Repeating Arms Company was a prominent American maker of repeating firearms, located in New Haven, Connecticut. The ancestor of the Winchester Repeating Arms Company was the Horace Smith and Daniel Wesson partnership of Norwich, Jennings rifle was a commercial failure, and Robbins & Lawrence ceased production in 1852. Smith designed a much-improved rifle based on Jennings, and the partners also hired away Robbins & Lawrence shop foreman Benjamin Tyler Henry. In 1855 the Smith & Wesson partnership, in order to manufacture what they called the Volcanic lever-action rifle and pistol, sought investors and its largest stockholder was clothing manufacturer Oliver Winchester. The Volcanic rifle had only limited success, the company moved to New Haven in 1856, but by the end of that year became insolvent. Oliver Winchester and his partner John M. Davies purchased the firms assets from the remaining stockholders. After Smiths departure Benjamin Henry continued to work with a Smith development project, the self-contained metallic rimfire cartridge, Henry also supervised a new rifle design based loosely on the Volcanic to use the new ammunition, retaining only the general form of the breech mechanism and the tubular magazine. This became the Henry rifle of 1860, which was manufactured by the New Haven Arms Company, the Henry rifle ensured New Haven Arms success, and together with the Spencer rifle established the lever-action repeater in the firearms market. In 1866 Benjamin Henry, angered over what he believed was inadequate compensation, Oliver Winchester, hastening back from Europe, forestalled the move and reorganized New Haven Arms yet again as the Winchester Repeating Arms Company. Another extremely popular model was rolled out in 1873, the Model 1873 introduced the first Winchester center fire cartridge, the. 44-40 WCF. These rifle families are known as the Gun That Won the West. The Model 1873 was followed by the Model 1876, a version of the 73. It was chambered for longer, more powerful cartridges such as. 45-60 WCF. 45-75 WCF, Oliver Winchester died in December 1880, his son and successor, William Wirt Winchester, died of tuberculosis four months later. William Wirt Winchesters widow, Sarah Winchester, used her inheritance, several of these are still in production today through companies such as Browning, Rossi, Navy Arms and others which have revived several of the discontinued models or produced reproductions. The early years of the century found the Winchester Repeating Arms Company competing with new John Browning designs. The race to produce the first commercial self-loading rifle brought forth the.22 rimfire Winchester Model 1903 and later centerfire Model 1905, Model 1907, and Model 1910 rifles. Winchester engineers, after ten years of work, designed the Model 1911 to circumvent Brownings self-loading shotgun patents, one of Winchesters premier engineers, T. C. Johnson, was instrumental in the development of these self-loading firearms and went on to superintend the designs of Winchesters classic Model 1912, Model 52 and Model 54
31.
Frankford Arsenal
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Opened in 1816 on 20 acres of land purchased by President James Madison, it was the center of U. S. military small-arms ammunition design and development until its closure in 1977. Among the many other products manufactured at the arsenal were fire-control and range-finding instruments, by the end of the war, the arsenal employed over 1,000 workers. During the Gettysburg Campaign, the arsenal provided tens of thousands of muskets, among the innovations extensively tested at the Arsenal was the Gatling Gun, an early form of machine gun that saw extensive service in the Indian Wars. During World War I and World War II, the arsenal was again busy with supplying the war efforts, providing a source of jobs. The Arsenal was part of the U. S, Arsenal System -- dedicated military establishments spread throughout the country to perform specific military missions for the Government. From the beginning, the Frankford Arsenal was involved in the design, as military weapons became more complex, the Centers role expanded to cover the development of a whole range of the Armys more advanced weapon systems. The Arsenal contained the world-famous Pitman-Dunn Laboratories along with a number of other R&D departments, New portable and imbedded computer applications saw the development of the LASER rangefinder, fielded artillery computational machines and radar systems. During the Vietnam War, experiments in caseless ammunition, far-infrared low-light-level technologies, the labs were supported by a full range of first-class drafting and machine shops scattered throughout the many buildings of the Center. Everything from milling, to electroplating, to printed circuit board fabrication could be accomplished by “The Shops”. The Optical Lens Design Facility was one of the finest in the country, the Optical Assembly shop also refurbished field binoculars. Once a newly designed system was manufactured, complete structural and environmental testing was necessary to insure that the device could withstand the rigors of a fielded environment and this was accomplished in the Arsenal’s environmental testing and evaluation facility. As the U. S. military-industrial complex grew, the Arsenal could no longer compete as a manufacturing entity, more and more of its programs were farmed out to industry. The Arsenal’s functions were transferred to the Picatinny Arsenal in New Jersey. During the presidential campaign of 1976, vice presidential candidate Walter Mondale stood in front of the Frankford Arsenal, the Carter/Mondale ticket won the election but the promise was not fulfilled, the arsenal closed for U. S. government use in 1977. Before closing, many designs were developed and tested, including the use of aluminum. The northernmost part of the site was assumed by the Pennsylvania Fish and Boat Commission for use as a boat ramp, the southernmost part is currently being used as a light-industrial and office park. Each round of ammunition was marked with the headstamp F A on its base, early metallic cartridges produced at Frankford were not head-stamped. These were either Martin or Benet primed copper cases, early cartridges were stamped F for Frankford or R for rifle or C for carbine
32.
Remington Arms
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Remington Arms Company, LLC is an American manufacturer of firearms and ammunition in the United States. It was founded in 1816 by Eliphalet Remington in Ilion, New York, as E. Remington, Remington is Americas oldest gun maker and Its Americas oldest factory that still makes its original product-guns. It is the only U. S. company which produces both firearms and ammunition domestically and is the largest U. S. producer of shotguns, Remington has also developed or adopted more cartridges than any other gun maker or ammunition manufacturer in the world. Additionally its products are distributed in over 60 foreign countries, making its distribution base, Remington Arms is part of the Freedom Group, which is owned by Cerberus Capital Management. Remington built a new plant in Huntsville, Alabama which is now building Modern Sporting Rifles, the Remington company was founded in 1816. Eliphalet Remington II believed he could build a gun than he could buy. Farming communities in the region were famous for their skills and self-sufficiency. Remingtons father was a blacksmith, and wanted to expand his business into rifle barrel production, local residents often built their own rifles to save on costs, but purchased the barrel. Remingtons father sent him to a barrel maker in a major city to purchase a barrel. At the time, the method was to heat and wrap long flat bars of iron around a rod of the caliber desired. By heating and hammering the coiled bars around the central rod, after the young man returned home, his family added a successful barrel making operation to his fathers forge, in Ilion Gorge, New York. Remington began designing and building a rifle for himself. At age 23, he entered a match, though he only finished second. Before Remington left the field day, he had received so many orders from other competitors that he was now officially in the gunsmithing business. By 1828, the moved to nearby Ilion, New York. On March 7,1888, ownership of E. Remington & Sons left possession of the Remington family and was sold to new owners, Marcellus Hartley, at this time the name was formally changed to the Remington Arms Company. The Bridgeport site became the home of Remingtons ammunition plant, in 1912, Remington and Union Metallic Cartridge Company were combined into a single entity, called Remington UMC. In 1915, the plant at Ilion was expanded, and with this expansion became basically the same plant as today, during World War I, Remington produced arms under contract for several Allied powers
33.
.45 Schofield
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The.45 Schofield or.45 Smith & Wesson is a revolver cartridge developed by Smith & Wesson for their S&W Model 3 American top-break revolver. It is similar to the.45 Colt round though shorter and with a slightly larger rim, US government arsenals supplied.45 Schofield cartridges for the Schofield revolver and the Colt Army revolver to simplify their armament needs. 45 Colt cartridges cannot be used in.45 Schofield firearms and this cartridge was originally designed as a black powder round. The Schofield revolver was patented in the USA on 20 June 1871 and 22 April 1873 by Smith & Wesson and it was a Smith & Wesson Model 3 that was modified by Major George Schofield to make it easier for a cavalryman to reload while riding. While the Colt 45 had more power, the speed at which a cavalryman could reload a Schofield was less than 30 seconds, by 1879, the U. S. Army had purchased 8,285 of the revolvers. Due to its power and recoil compared to the Colt.45, it was easier to shoot accurately. It became the standard cartridge of the Army, though the Colt 1873 still was the main issue side arm of the Army, the.45 Schofield cartridge was shorter than the.45 Colt. It could be used in both the Schofield and the Colt 45 Peacemaker, but the.45 Colt was too long to use in the Schofield. As a result, by the 1880s the army finally standardized on a.45 cartridge designed to fire in both revolvers, the M1887 Military Ball Cartridge, the M1887 was made at Frankford Arsenal, and was issued only to the military. The Schofield was quite a popular handgun in the old west, because of the larger diameter rim on the S&W cartridge, the rims would sometimes interfere with each other when attempting to load every chamber of a.45 Colt chambered revolver. Current production.45 S&W cases have a diameter larger than.45 Colt. Production of the.45 Colt cartridge was discontinued by the Frankford Arsenal with the.45 M1877 ball revolver cartridge being adopted as the only.45 revolver cartridge issued from then on. In the early 1880s the Benet cartridge primer was retired and the modern Boxer type primer was adopted for all military production of revolver ammunition. 11 mm caliber List of cartridges by caliber List of handgun cartridges.45 Schofield Revolver Reloading info U. S, patent 138,047 Schofield, G. W. Revolving Fire-Arm, Issued 1873
34.
Deutsche Waffen und Munitionsfabriken
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In 1896 Loewe founded Deutsche Waffen- und Munitionsfabriken with a munitions plant in Karlsruhe, formerly Deutsche Metallpatronenfabrik Lorenz, and the weapons plant in Berlin. Shares that Loewe had in other gun- and ammunition plants were transferred to DWM and this included Waffenfabrik Mauser, Fabrique Nationale dArmes de Guerre in Belgium and Waffen- und Munitionsfabrik A. G. in Budapest. The DWM was orchestrated by Isidor Loewe, as his brother Ludwig had died in 1886, karl Maybach was employed by the Loewe company in 1901. DWM introduced the Pistol Parabellum in the early 1900s and it was worked on by Georg Luger and Hugo Borchardt. DWM manufactured the Maschinengewehr 01 and Maschinengewehr 08, licensed version/clone of the Maxim machine gun, the MG08 would be the main German machine gun of the First World War, alongside the somewhat different, air cooled Parabellum MG 14/17 for aviation use. Along with being one of the arms suppliers of Imperial Germany. They also supplied the world with the Mauser rifle system, becoming one of the worlds largest arms manufacturers, due the fact that the Mauser rifle was one of Germanys main exports before the First World War, DWM proved to be an important part of the pre-war German economy. Many of their weapons were used by German troops up through the Second World War. DWM had its own system of codes, and the DWM three digit-code still is important in differentiating vintage ammunitions. Furthermore, the DWM cases got no caliber names, so one did not get misleading caliber designations in reformed cartridges, DWM was taken over by the Quandt Group in 1929. At this point the involvement of the Loewe company came to an end, the original Ludwig Loewe & Company merged with the Gesellschaft für Elektrische Unternehmungen in 1929. DWM underwent a number of changes following World War I. DWM was no longer allowed to produce military equipment after World War I, after the national-socialist takeover of power in Germany, the company added vormals Deutsche -Waffen und Munitionsfabriken to the company name in 1933. In 1936 DWM reverted to its old name, a recent film, The Silence of the Quandts, took a critical look at their wartime activities. After denazification hearings in 1948, no repercussions followed, in the 1950s the Berlin branch of the company started using the name Deutsche Waggon- und Maschinenfabriken GmbH, but still using the original DWM logo. The new name reflected the fact that the Berlin branch had switched to the renovation and building of railroad, the Berlin branch became Waggon Union, a manufacturer of rail vehicles and bus bodies. The Karlsruhe branch changed its name into IWK or Industriewerke Karlsruhe, in 2007 the Karlsruhe-Augsburg company moved its seat to Augsburg and reverted to the name KUKA, the original name of the Augsburg company, short for Keller und Knappich Augsburg. Following the takeover by the Quandt Group in 1929 the manager of DWM, Paul von Gontard had married Clara Busch, daughter of American brewer of German origin Adolphus Busch in 1895 and joined his wife in the USA, becoming involved in the Anheuser-Busch company
35.
Savage Arms
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The Savage Arms Company is a firearms manufacturing company based in Westfield, Massachusetts, with a division located in Canada. The company makes a variety of rimfire and centerfire rifles, as well as marketing the Stevens single-shot rifles, Arthur Savage founded Savage Arms in 1894, Utica, New York. Within 20 years, they were producing rifles, handguns, the Model 1895 won a New York National Guard contract, but the contract was cancelled due to political controversy. The Model 1895 was developed into the more successful Model 1899, later renamed Model 99. Savage marketed a series of.32 and.380 caliber pocket pistols, the Models 1907,1915, Savage merged with the Driggs-Seabury Ordnance Company during World War I and produced Lewis machine guns at Driggs-Seaburys former plant in Sharon, Pennsylvania. Savage also produced Model 1899 muskets for the Montreal Home Guard during World War I, the Indian Head Logo, in 1919, Chief Lame Deer approached Arthur to purchase lever-action rifles for the Indian reservation and the two men struck a deal. The tribe would get discounted rifles and Savage would get their support and it was at this time in the companys history, that Arthur Savage added the Indian head logo--a direct gift from the Chief--to the company name. In 1920, Savage bought Stevens Arms, in 1939, Savage introduced the Model 24 combination gun, which sold over a million copies as of 1983. Savage was one of the few U. S. makers of affordable double barrel shotguns, including the Fox Model B and Model 311, the notes were due in 1927. During World War II, Savage turned again to military production, Savage made most of the Thompson submachine guns used in World War II. As quality wood was earmarked for military gun stock production, Savage produced some Model 24. 22/.410 combo guns, after the war, it produced the first motorized lawnmower. From the 1960s to the 1980s, the company had a variety of owners, Savage eventually ran into financial trouble in 1988 and filed for bankruptcy protection. Production was then reduced to the basic Model 110 bolt-action rifle, a turn-around began in 1995 with the company returning to private ownership, led by Ronald Coburn, previously of Smith & Wesson. In 2002, the company started selling a factory-installed, safe, user-adjustable trigger, the AccuStock, an aluminum stock embedded rail system to further enhance action stability and accuracy, was introduced by Savage in 2009. This new technology is now available on several of their models, in 2003, the Shooting Industry Academy of Excellence awarded Savage the Manufacturer of the Year. On February 5,2013, Coburn announced that he was stepping down after a 25-year tenure as chairman, on February 6,2013, Savage Sports announced the appointment of Ron Johnson as its new Chief Executive Officer. Johnson most recently served as President of the Sporting Group within Alliant Techsystems, aTKs Sporting Group markets firearm accessories and ammunition under brands that include Weaver Optics, Federal Premium, Speer Ammo and Blazer. ATK announced the purchase of Savage for $315 million on May 13,2013, with the purchase, Johnson remained with Bowtech, who was not part of the sale, and Al Kasper began tenure as CEO
36.
Luger pistol
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The Pistole Parabellum 1908—or Parabellum-Pistole —is a toggle-locked recoil-operated semi-automatic pistol. The design was patented by Georg J, the first Parabellum pistol was adopted by the Swiss army in May 1900. In German Army service, it was succeeded and partly replaced by the Walther P38 in caliber 9×19mm Parabellum, the Luger is well known from its use by Germans during World War I and World War II, along with the interwar Weimar Republic and the postwar East German Volkspolizei. Although the P.08 was introduced in 7. 65mm Parabellum, because of its association with Nazi Germany, the pistol has been used in fictional works by many villainous characters over the past several decades. After a round is fired, the barrel and toggle assembly travel rearward due to recoil, after moving roughly 13 mm rearward, the toggle strikes a cam built into the frame, causing the knee joint to hinge and the toggle and breech assembly to unlock. At this point the barrel impacts the frame and stops its rearward movement, the toggle and breech assembly subsequently travel forward under spring tension and the next round from the magazine is loaded into the chamber. The entire sequence occurs in a fraction of a second and this results in either the breech block not clearing the top cartridge of the magazine, or becoming jammed open on the cartridges base. In World War I, as guns were found to be effective in trench warfare. The Luger pistol was manufactured to exacting standards and had a service life. Bill Ruger praised the Lugers 145° grip angle and duplicated it in his.22 LR pistol, the Swiss Army evaluated the Luger pistol in 7. 65×21 mm Parabellum and adopted it in 1900 as its standard side arm, designated Pistole 1900, in 1901. This model uses a 120 mm barrel, the Luger pistol was accepted by the Imperial German Navy in 1904. The Navy model had a 150 mm barrel and a rear sight. This version is known as Pistole 04, in 1908, the German Army adopted the Luger to replace the Reichsrevolver in front-line service. The Pistole 08 had a 100 mm barrel and was chambered in 9×19mm Parabellum, the P.08 was the usual side arm for German Army personnel in both world wars, though it was being replaced by the Walther P38 starting in 1938. In 1930, Mauser took over manufacture of the P.08. 65×53mm, only the first batch wore crests and the Legend Ejercito Boliviano stamped in the receiver. The Lange Pistole 08 or Artillery Luger was a carbine for use by German Army artillerymen as a sort of early Personal Defense Weapon. It had a 200 mm barrel, an 8-position tangent rear sight, when set for long range use the rear sight element visibly moves to the left to compensate for spin drift. It was sometimes used with a 32-round drum magazine, early issue LP08s had micrometer adjustable front and rear sights which required a 2-pin tool for adjustment
37.
John T. Thompson
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John Taliaferro Thompson, was a United States Army officer best remembered as the inventor of the Thompson submachine gun. Born on December 31,1860 in Newport, Kentucky, Thompson grew up on a succession of Army posts and had decided on the military as a career by the age of sixteen and his father was Lt. Col. James Thompson, his mother was Maria Taliaferro. After a year at Indiana University in 1877, he gained an appointment to the United States Military Academy and his first duty station was in his birthplace of Newport, where he was assigned to the 2nd Artillery as a second lieutenant. He then attended engineering and artillery schools, and was assigned to the Armys Ordnance Department in 1890. During this period he began his specialization in small arms, while the rest of the Army was plagued with logistical problems, Thompson ran ordnance supply operations to Cuba in a highly efficient manner. Over 18,000 tons of munitions were transferred to the battlefield from his Tampa command without any accidents, Thompson was promoted to colonel, the youngest such in the Army at the time. It was also this war which offered Thompson his first exposure to automatic weapons and this unit later played a significant role in the Battle of San Juan Hill. After the war Thompson was appointed chief of the Small Arms Division for the Ordnance Department, while in this position he supervised development of the M1903 Springfield rifle and chaired the ordnance board that approved the M1911 pistol. For the latter he devised unusual tests involving firing the weapon at donated human cadavers, World War I began in Europe in 1914, and Thompson was sympathetic to the Allied cause. While with the company he supervised the construction of the Eddystone Plant in Chester, Pennsylvania and it manufactured Pattern 1914 Enfield rifles for British forces, and Mosin–Nagant rifles for Russia. Thompson studied several designs and was impressed with a delayed-blowback breech system designed by John Blish, with Blish as a partner, Thompson obtained the necessary venture capital to form the Auto-Ordnance Company, and set to work fine-tuning what eventually became the Thompson submachine gun. When the United States finally entered the war in 1917, Thompson returned to the Army and was promoted to the rank of brigadier general and he served as Director of Arsenals throughout the remainder of the war, in which capacity he supervised all small-arms production for the Army. For this service he was awarded the Distinguished Service Medal and he retired again after the war, in December 1918, and went back to work perfecting the Tommy Gun. Thompson originally pursued the Autorifle concept, a rifle utilizing the Blish principle delayed-blowback action to avoid the complexity of recoil-operated and gas-operated actions, testing found that the military issue. 30-06 cartridge was too powerful to work satisfactorily using the Blish system. Thompson eventually decided to use the same.45 caliber ammunition in the Thompson submachine gun that he had vetted for use in the M1911 while in the Army, the weapon was patented in 1920, but the major source for contracts had dried up with the armistice. Thompson therefore marketed the weapon to civilian law enforcement agencies, who bought it in respectable quantities, however, by 1928 low sales had led the company to financial crisis, and Thompson was replaced as head of the Auto-Ordnance Company. Thompson died at the age of 79 on June 21,1940 and is buried on the grounds of the United States Military Academy in West Point, New York. Shortly after his death, the entry of the U. S. into World War II prompted the Army to order the Thompson submachine gun in large quantities
38.
Litre
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The litre or liter is an SI accepted metric system unit of volume equal to 1 cubic decimetre,1,000 cubic centimetres or 1/1,000 cubic metre. A cubic decimetre occupies a volume of 10×10×10 centimetres and is equal to one-thousandth of a cubic metre. The original French metric system used the litre as a base unit. The word litre is derived from an older French unit, the litron, whose name came from Greek — where it was a unit of weight, not volume — via Latin, and which equalled approximately 0.831 litres. The litre was also used in subsequent versions of the metric system and is accepted for use with the SI. The spelling used by the International Bureau of Weights and Measures is litre, the less common spelling of liter is more predominantly used in American English. One litre of water has a mass of almost exactly one kilogram. Subsequent redefinitions of the metre and kilogram mean that this relationship is no longer exact, a litre is defined as a special name for a cubic decimetre or 10 centimetres ×10 centimetres ×10 centimetres. Hence 1 L ≡0.001 m3 ≡1000 cm3, from 1901 to 1964, the litre was defined as the volume of one kilogram of pure water at maximum density and standard pressure. The kilogram was in turn specified as the mass of a platinum/iridium cylinder held at Sèvres in France and was intended to be of the mass as the 1 litre of water referred to above. It was subsequently discovered that the cylinder was around 28 parts per million too large and thus, during this time, additionally, the mass-volume relationship of water depends on temperature, pressure, purity and isotopic uniformity. In 1964, the definition relating the litre to mass was abandoned in favour of the current one, although the litre is not an official SI unit, it is accepted by the CGPM for use with the SI. CGPM defines the litre and its acceptable symbols, a litre is equal in volume to the millistere, an obsolete non-SI metric unit customarily used for dry measure. The litre is often used in some calculated measurements, such as density. One litre of water has a mass of almost exactly one kilogram when measured at its maximal density, similarly,1 millilitre of water has a mass of about 1 g,1,000 litres of water has a mass of about 1,000 kg. It is now known that density of water depends on the isotopic ratios of the oxygen and hydrogen atoms in a particular sample. The litre, though not an official SI unit, may be used with SI prefixes, the most commonly used derived unit is the millilitre, defined as one-thousandth of a litre, and also often referred to by the SI derived unit name cubic centimetre. It is a commonly used measure, especially in medicine and cooking, Other units may be found in the table below, where the more often used terms are in bold
39.
Headspace (firearms)
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In firearms, headspace is the distance measured from the part of the chamber that stops forward motion of the cartridge to the face of the bolt. Used as a verb, headspace refers to the interference created between this part of the chamber and the feature of the cartridge that achieves the correct positioning, different cartridges have their datum lines in different positions in relation to the cartridge. For example,5.56 NATO ammunition headspaces off the shoulder of the cartridge, if the headspace is too short, ammunition that is in specification may not chamber correctly. If headspace is too large, the ammunition may not fit as intended or designed, the cartridge is said to be rimless if the extractor groove is machined into the head of the case so the rim is the same diameter as the adjacent part of the case. Most modern automatic firearms use rimless cartridges, straight-walled rimless cartridges often headspace on the forward lip of the cartridge as shown in the diagram at the top of this article. This necessitates careful attention to consistent case length, bottle-necked rimless cartridges may headspace on the conical shoulder between the narrow neck and the larger diameter portion of the case. All small arms cartridges have a flange at the base of the case called a rim, the part of the firearm called an extractor claw hooks over the rim to extract the spent case from the chamber after it has been fired. The cartridge is said to be of a type when the rim is of larger diameter than the remainder of the case. Most early cartridges were rimmed, and the ledge at the rear of the chamber prevents the cartridge from moving forward. Headspace for rimmed cartridges is the space between that forward ledge and the face when the action is closed. Some large rimless magnum cartridges have a belt formed above the extractor groove and this belt is of slightly larger diameter than the adjacent case, so the cartridge can headspace from the forward edge of the belt closest to the bullet. The original purpose of the belt was to give accurate headspacing for cartridges with shallow shoulder angles, where longitudinal precision of seating using such a shoulder presents difficulties. In effect this was similar to the function of a rim. Some more or less straight cartridges have no bottleneck to headspace on, such cylindrical shaped cartridge cases use the case mouth as a forward positioned flange used for headspacing. There are four types of control to consider based on the case type used. This style of case relies on the face of the case neck. It is from this circular conic section face, as a datum, examples include.308 Winchester.223 Remington, and 7. 92×57mm Mauser. For a rimmed case, where the rim extends beyond the diameter of the case, such as with.22 Long Rifle. 30-30 Winchester, a rimmed case can have straight, tapered, or bottlenecked case walls
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Proof test
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A proof test is a form of stress test to demonstrate the fitness of a load-bearing structure, or rescue strop. An individual proof test may apply only to the unit tested, such a structure is often subjected to loads above that expected in actual use, demonstrating safety and design margin. Proof testing is nominally a nondestructive test, particularly if both design margins and test levels are well-chosen, however, unit failures are by definition considered to have been destroyed for their originally-intended use and load levels. Proof tests may be performed before a new design or unit is allowed to service, or perform additional uses. Cranes and derricks are proof tested when called on for potentially dangerous load levels or high-valued cargoes, similarly, items which are smaller and more common are nevertheless in the load path and a failure risk if not tested. Testing generally involves lifting weight or drawing tension equal to or greater than design levels, an overspeed proof test involves physically running the machine at high speed up to the test speed. This may be done during manufacture as a proof test. Physical overspeed tests may be undertaken on some machines to verify operation of the overspeed protection systems. Operation at speeds above the operating speed can greatly increase stress levels in rotating parts. Failing flywheels, rotors, etc. may present a risk in case of a failure. Historically, swords would be tested by impact before issuance- the British test. Vessels which may be a risk, such as utility-scale water towers, chemical-handling equipment, or very-high-pressure storage tanks. Rocket stage tankage, being high-valued and often the primary structure, are proof-tested when redesigned. Testing involves exposure to higher pressures than design levels, or in some cases. A firearms chamber and barrel become pressure vessels for brief periods, in firearm terminology, a proof test is a test wherein a deliberately over-pressured round is fired from a firearm in order to verify that the firearm is not defective and will not explode on firing. The firearm is inspected after the test, and if it is found to be in sound condition, in many jurisdictions a proof test and valid proof mark are required for the sale of firearms. A proof round is an assembly designed to be used in proof testing, this can use a fixed cartridge. A proof shot is a special projectile used in a round or other projectile weapons
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Pounds per square inch
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The pound per square inch or, more accurately, pound-force per square inch is a unit of pressure or of stress based on avoirdupois units. Now converting the psi to standard atmospheres,1 atm =101325 Pa =101325 Pa 6894.757293168 Pa / psi ≈14.70 psi Therefore,1 atmosphere is approximately 14.7 pounds per square inch. Pounds per square inch absolute is used to make it clear that the pressure is relative to a rather than the ambient atmospheric pressure. Since atmospheric pressure at sea level is around 14.7 psi, the converse is pounds per square inch gauge or pounds per square inch gage, indicating that the pressure is relative to atmospheric pressure. For example, a bicycle tire pumped up to 65 psi above atmospheric pressure. When gauge pressure is referenced to something other than ambient atmospheric pressure, the kilopound per square inch is a scaled unit derived from psi, equivalent to a thousand psi. Ksi are not widely used for gas pressures and they are mostly used in materials science, where the tensile strength of a material is measured as a large number of psi. The conversion in SI Units is 1 ksi =6.895 MPa, the megapound per square inch is another multiple equal to a million psi. It is used in mechanics for the modulus of the materials. The conversion in SI Units is 1 Mpsi =6.895 GPa, inch of water,0.036 psid Blood pressure – clinically normal human blood pressure,2.32 psig/1.55 psig Natural gas residential piped in for consumer appliance, 4–6 psig. Boost pressure provided by a turbocharger, 6–15 psig NFL football,12. 5–13.5 psig Atmospheric pressure at sea level,14
