1.
100th United States Congress
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It met in Washington, D. C. from January 3,1987, to January 3,1989, during the last two years of Ronald Reagans presidency. The apportionment of seats in the House of Representatives was based on the Twentieth Census of the United States in 1980, both chambers had a Democratic majority. L. 100–17,101 Stat.132 July 22,1987 — McKinney-Vento Act, 100–77,101 Stat.482 August 20,1987 — Malcolm Baldrige National Quality Improvement Act of 1987, Pub. L. 100–107,101 Stat.724 September 29,1987 — Balanced Budget and Emergency Deficit Control Reaffirmation Act of 1987, 100–119, title I January 7,1988 — Computer Security Act of 1987, Pub. L. 100–235,101 Stat.1724 March 22,1988 - Civil Rights Restoration Act of 1987 Pub. L, 100–259 June 27,1988 — Supreme Court Case Selections Act of 1988, Pub. L. 100–352,102 Stat.662 July 1,1988 — Medicare Catastrophic Coverage Act, 100–360,102 Stat.683 August 4,1988 — Worker Adjustment and Retraining Notification Act, Pub. L. 100–379,102 Stat.890 August 10,1988 — Civil Liberties Act of 1988, 100–383, title I,101 Stat.904 October 13,1988 — Family Support Act, Pub. L. 100–485,102 Stat.2343 October 17,1988 — Indian Gaming Regulatory Act, 100–497,102 Stat.2467 October 24,1988 — Health Maintenance Organization Amendments of 1988, Pub. L. 100–517,102 Stat.2578 October 25,1988 — Department of Veterans Affairs Act, 100–527,102 Stat.2635 November 4,1988 - AIDS amendments of 1988, Pub. L. 100–607,102 Stat.3048 November 17,1988 — Water Resources Development Act of 1988, 100–676 November 18,1988 — Anti-Drug Abuse Act of 1988, Pub. L. Sergeant at Arms, Henry K. Giugni Parliamentarian, William H. Brown Historian, Richard A. Baker Chaplain, the Historical Atlas of Political Parties in the United States Congress. The Historical Atlas of United States Congressional Districts, biographical Directory of the U. S. Congress U. S. House of Representatives, Congressional History U. S. Senate, Statistics and Lists House of Representatives Session Calendar for the 100th Congress. Congressional Pictorial Directory for the 100th Congress, official Congressional Directory for the 100th Congress
2.
102nd United States Congress
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It met in Washington, DC from January 3,1991, to January 3,1993, during the last two years of the administration of U. S. President George H. W. Bush. The apportionment of seats in this House of Representatives was based on the 1980 United States Census, both chambers had a Democratic majority. L. 102–4,105 Stat.11 November 21,1991, Civil Rights Act of 1991, 102–166,105 Stat.1071 December 9,1991, High Performance Computing and Communication Act of 1991, Pub. L. 102–194 December 12,1991, Soviet Nuclear Threat Reduction Act of 1991, 102–228,105 Stat.1691 October 9,1992, Chinese Student Protection Act of 1992, Pub. L. 102–404,106 Stat.1969 October 23,1992, Former Soviet Union Demilitarization Act of 1992 Pub. L, 102–484,106 Stat.2315 October 23,1992, Weapons of Mass Destruction Control Act, Pub. L. 102–484,106 Stat.2567 October 28,1992, Intermodal Surface Transportation Efficiency Act, 102–548,106 Stat.3646 October 28,1992, Land Remote Sensing Policy Act, Pub. L. 102–555,106 Stat.4163 November 2,1992, High Seas Driftnet Fisheries Enforcement Act of 1992, 102–582,106 Stat.4900 November 4,1992, Abandoned Barge Act of 1992, Pub. L. Senators are listed in order of seniority, and Representatives are listed by district, halverson Historian, Richard A. Baker Parliamentarian, Alan Frumin Secretary, Walter J. Stewart Secretary for the Majority, C. Abbott Saffold Secretary for the Minority, Howard O. Green, Congress U. S. House of Representatives, Congressional History U. S. Senate, Statistics and Lists House of Representatives Session Calendar for the 102nd Congress. Congressional Pictorial Directory for the 102nd Congress, official Congressional Directory for the 102nd Congress
3.
United States Capitol
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The United States Capitol, often called the Capitol Building or Capitol Hill, is the home of the United States Congress, and the seat of the legislative branch of the U. S. federal government. It sits atop Capitol Hill at the end of the National Mall in Washington. Though not at the center of the Federal District, the Capitol forms the origin point for the Districts street-numbering system. The original building was completed in 1800 and was subsequently expanded, like the principal buildings of the executive and judicial branches, the Capitol is built in a distinctive neoclassical style and has a white exterior. Both its east and west elevations are referred to as fronts, though only the east front was intended for the reception of visitors. In 2014, scaffolding was erected around the dome for a project scheduled to be completed by early 2017. All exterior scaffolding was removed by the end of summer 2016, prior to establishing the nations capital in Washington, D. C. the United States Congress and its predecessors had met in Philadelphia, New York City, and a number of other locations. In September 1774, the First Continental Congress brought together delegates from the colonies in Philadelphia, followed by the Second Continental Congress, Congress requested that John Dickinson, the Governor of Pennsylvania, call up the militia to defend Congress from attacks by the protesters. In what became known as the Pennsylvania Mutiny of 1783, Dickinson sympathized with the protesters and refused to remove them from Philadelphia. As a result, Congress was forced to flee to Princeton, New Jersey, on June 21,1783, and met in Annapolis, Maryland, the United States Congress was established upon ratification of the United States Constitution and formally began on March 4,1789. New York City remained home to Congress until July 1790, when the Residence Act was passed to pave the way for a permanent capital. As part of the legislation, Philadelphia was chosen as a capital for ten years, until the nations capital in Washington. Pierre Charles LEnfant was given the task of creating the city plan for the new capital city, in reviewing LEnfants plan, Thomas Jefferson insisted the legislative building be called the Capitol rather than Congress House. The word Capitol comes from Latin and is associated with the Temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus on Capitoline Hill, the connection between the two is not, however, crystal clear. In spring 1792, United States Secretary of State Thomas Jefferson proposed a competition to solicit designs for the Capitol and the Presidents House. The prize for the competition was $500 and a lot in the Federal City, the most promising of the submissions was by Stephen Hallet, a trained French architect. However, Hallets designs were overly fancy, with too much French influence, a late entry by amateur architect William Thornton was submitted on January 31,1793, to much praise for its Grandeur, Simplicity, and Beauty by Washington, along with praise from Thomas Jefferson. Thornton was inspired by the east front of the Louvre, as well as the Paris Pantheon for the portion of the design
4.
Vice President of the United States
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The executive power of both the vice president and the president is granted under Article Two, Section One of the Constitution. The vice president is elected, together with the president. The Office of the Vice President of the United States assists, as the president of the United States Senate, the vice president votes only when it is necessary to break a tie. Additionally, pursuant to the Twelfth Amendment, the president presides over the joint session of Congress when it convenes to count the vote of the Electoral College. Currently, the president is usually seen as an integral part of a presidents administration. The Constitution does not expressly assign the office to any one branch, causing a dispute among scholars whether it belongs to the executive branch, the legislative branch, or both. The modern view of the president as a member of the executive branch is due in part to the assignment of executive duties to the vice president by either the president or Congress. Mike Pence of Indiana is the 48th and current vice president and he assumed office on January 20,2017. The formation of the office of vice president resulted directly from the compromise reached at the Philadelphia Convention which created the Electoral College, the delegates at Philadelphia agreed that each state would receive a number of presidential electors equal to the sum of that states allocation of Representatives and Senators. The delegates assumed that electors would typically choose to favor any candidate from their state over candidates from other states, under a plurality election process, this would tend to result in electing candidates solely from the largest states. Consequently, the delegates agreed that presidents must be elected by a majority of the number of electors. To guard against such stratagems, the Philadelphia delegates specified that the first runner-up presidential candidate would become vice president, the process for selecting the vice president was later modified in the Twelfth Amendment. Each elector still receives two votes, but now one of those votes is for president, while the other is for vice president. The requirement that one of those votes be cast for a candidate not from the electors own state remains in effect. S, other statutorily granted roles include membership of both the National Security Council and the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution. As President of the Senate, the president has two primary duties, to cast a vote in the event of a Senate deadlock and to preside over. For example, in the first half of 2001, the Senators were divided 50-50 between Republicans and Democrats and Dick Cheneys tie-breaking vote gave the Republicans the Senate majority, as President of the Senate, the vice president oversees procedural matters and may cast a tie-breaking vote. As President of the Senate, John Adams cast 29 tie-breaking votes that was surpassed by John C. Calhoun with 31. Adamss votes protected the presidents sole authority over the removal of appointees, influenced the location of the national capital, on at least one occasion Adams persuaded senators to vote against legislation he opposed, and he frequently addressed the Senate on procedural and policy matters
5.
George H. W. Bush
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George Herbert Walker Bush is an American politician who was the 41st President of the United States from 1989 to 1993 and the 43rd Vice President of the United States from 1981 to 1989. Republican Party, he was previously a congressman, ambassador, and he is the oldest living former President and Vice President. Prior to his sons presidency, he was referred to as George Bush or President Bush. Bush was born in Milton, Massachusetts, to Prescott Bush and Dorothy Walker Bush. Following the attack on Pearl Harbor in 1941, Bush postponed his university studies, enlisted in the U. S. Navy on his 18th birthday and he served until the end of the war, then attended Yale University. Graduating in 1948, he moved his family to West Texas and entered the oil business, Bush became involved in politics soon after founding his own oil company, serving as a member of the House of Representatives and Director of Central Intelligence, among other positions. He failed to win the Republican nomination for President in 1980, but was chosen as a mate by party nominee Ronald Reagan. During his tenure, Bush headed administration task forces on deregulation, in 1988, Bush ran a successful campaign to succeed Reagan as President, defeating Democratic opponent Michael Dukakis. Foreign policy drove the Bush presidency, military operations were conducted in Panama and the Persian Gulf, the Berlin Wall fell in 1989, and the Soviet Union dissolved two years later. Domestically, Bush reneged on a 1988 campaign promise and, after a struggle with Congress and his presidential library was dedicated in 1997, and he has been active—often alongside Bill Clinton—in various humanitarian activities. Besides being the 43rd president, his son George also served as the 46th Governor of Texas and is one of only two other being John Quincy Adams—to be the son of a former president. His second son, Jeb Bush, served as the 43rd Governor of Florida, George Herbert Walker Bush was born at 173 Adams Street in Milton, Massachusetts, on June 12,1924, to Prescott Sheldon Bush and Dorothy Bush. The Bush family moved from Milton to Greenwich, Connecticut, shortly after his birth, growing up, his nickname was Poppy. Bush began his education at the Greenwich Country Day School in Greenwich. Following the attack on Pearl Harbor in December 1941, Bush decided to join the US, Navy, so after graduating from Phillips Academy in 1942, he became a naval aviator at the age of 18. He was assigned to Torpedo Squadron as the officer in September 1943. The following year, his squadron was based on USS San Jacinto as a member of Air Group 51, during this time, the task force was victorious in one of the largest air battles of World War II, the Battle of the Philippine Sea. After Bushs promotion to Lieutenant on August 1,1944, San Jacinto commenced operations against the Japanese in the Bonin Islands, Bush piloted one of four Grumman TBM Avenger aircraft from VT-51 that attacked the Japanese installations on Chichijima
6.
Dan Quayle
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James Danforth Dan Quayle is an American politician. He was the 44th Vice President of the United States from 1989 to 1993 under President George H. W. Bush, Senator from the state of Indiana. A native of Indianapolis, Indiana, Quayle spent most of his living in Paradise Valley, Arizona. He married Marilyn Tucker in 1972 and obtained his J. D. from the Indiana University Robert H. McKinney School of Law in 1974. He practiced law in Huntington, Indiana, with his wife before his election to the United States House of Representatives in 1976, in 1980 Quayle won election to the Senate. In 1988, Vice President George H. W. Bush, the Bush/Quayle ticket won the 1988 election over Democrats Michael Dukakis and Lloyd Bentsen. As vice president, Quayle made official visits to 47 countries and was appointed chairman of the National Space Council and he secured re-nomination for vice-president in 1992, but Democrat Bill Clinton and his vice presidential running mate, Al Gore, defeated the Bush/Quayle ticket. In 1994, Quayle published his memoir entitled Standing Firm but declined to run for office in this time period because he was suffering from phlebitis. He sought the Republican presidential nomination in 2000, but withdrew, in 2016, he endorsed Donald Trump for president. Quayle and his wife reside in Paradise Valley, Arizona, Quayle is currently the chairman of global investments at Cerberus Capital Management. Quayle was born in Indianapolis, Indiana, to Martha Corinne and he has sometimes been incorrectly referred to as James Danforth Quayle III. In his memoirs, he points out that his name was simply James Danforth Quayle. The name Quayle originates from the Isle of Man, where his great-grandfather was born, pulliam, was a wealthy and influential publishing magnate who founded Central Newspapers, Inc. owner of over a dozen major newspapers such as The Arizona Republic and The Indianapolis Star. James C. Quayle moved his family to Arizona in 1955 to run a branch of the publishing empire. Quayle reported his net worth in 1988 as $1.2 million, after spending much of his youth in Arizona, Quayle returned to his native Indiana and graduated from Huntington High School in Huntington, in 1965. After receiving his degree, Quayle joined the Indiana Army National Guard and served from 1969–1975, while serving in the Guard, he earned a Juris Doctor degree in 1974 at the Indiana University Robert H. McKinney School of Law. He met his wife, Marilyn, who was taking night classes at the same law school at the time. Quayle became an investigator for the Consumer Protection Division of the Office of the Indiana Attorney General in July 1971, later that year, he became an administrative assistant to Governor Edgar Whitcomb
7.
President pro tempore of the United States Senate
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The president pro tempore of the United States Senate, also president pro tem, is the second-highest-ranking official of the United States Senate. Unlike the vice president, the president pro tempore is a member of the Senate. Selected by the Senate at large, the president pro tempore has enjoyed many privileges, during the vice presidents absence, the president pro tempore is empowered to preside over Senate sessions. Since 1890, the most senior senator in the majority party has generally chosen to be president pro tempore. This tradition has been observed without interruption since 1949, the current President pro tempore of the Senate is Utah Republican Orrin Hatch. Elected on January 6,2015, he is the 90th person to serve in this office, although the position is in some ways analogous to the Speaker of the House of Representatives, the powers of the president pro tempore are far more limited. The president pro tempore is third in the line of succession, following the vice president. Additional duties include appointment of various officers, certain commissions, advisory boards. The officeholder is an ex member of various boards and commissions. With the secretary and sergeant at arms, the president pro tempore maintains order in Senate portions of the Capitol, the office of president pro tempore was established by the Constitution of the United States in 1789. The first president pro tempore, John Langdon, was elected on April 6 the same year, originally, the president pro tempore was appointed on an intermittent basis when the vice president was not present to preside over the Senate. Until the 1960s, it was practice for the vice president to preside over daily Senate sessions. Until 1891, the president pro tempore only served until the return of the president to the chair or the adjournment of a session of Congress. Between 1792 and 1886, the president pro tempore was second in the line of succession following the vice president. When President Andrew Johnson, who had no president, was impeached and tried in 1868. Wades radicalism is thought by historians to be a major reason why the Senate. The President pro tempore and the Speaker of the House were removed from the line of succession in 1886. Both were restored to it in 1947, though this time with the president pro tempore following the speaker, William P. Frye served as President pro tempore from 1896 to 1911 (54th–62nd Congress, a tenure longer than anyone else
8.
Robert Byrd
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Robert Carlyle Bob Byrd was a United States Senator from West Virginia. A member of the Democratic Party, Byrd served as a U. S, Representative from 1953 until 1959 and as a U. S. He was the longest-serving Senator in United States history, in addition, he was, at the time of his death, the longest-serving member in the history of the United States Congress, a record later surpassed by Representative John Dingell of Michigan. Byrd was the last remaining member of the U. S. Senate to have served during the presidency of Dwight Eisenhower, Byrd is also the only West Virginian to have served in both houses of the state legislature and both houses of Congress. Byrd served in the West Virginia House of Delegates from 1947 to 1950, initially elected to the United States House of Representatives in 1952, Byrd served there for six years before being elected to the Senate in 1958. As President pro tempore—a position he held four times in his career—he was third in the line of succession, after the Vice President. Serving three different tenures as Chairman of the United States Senate Committee on Appropriations enabled Byrd to steer a great deal of money toward projects in West Virginia. Critics derided his efforts as pork barrel spending, while Byrd argued that the federal projects he worked to bring to West Virginia represented progress for the people of his state. He filibustered against the 1964 Civil Rights Act and supported the Vietnam War, but later renounced racism and segregation, renowned for his knowledge of Senate precedent and parliamentary procedure, Byrd wrote a four-volume history of the Senate in later life. Near the end of his life, Byrd was in declining health and was hospitalized several times and he died on June 28,2010, and was buried at Columbia Gardens Cemetery in Arlington, Virginia. Robert Byrd was born on November 20,1917 as Cornelius Calvin Sale, Jr. in North Wilkesboro, North Carolina, to Cornelius Calvin Sale Sr. when he was ten months old, his mother died in the 1918 flu pandemic. In accordance with his mothers wishes, his father dispersed their children among relatives, Calvin Jr. was adopted by his aunt and uncle, Titus and Vlurma Byrd, who changed his name to Robert Carlyle Byrd and raised him in the coal-mining region of southern West Virginia. Byrd was valedictorian of his 1934 graduating class at Mark Twain High School in Tams, on May 29,1936, Byrd married Erma Ora James who was born to a coal mining family in Floyd County, Virginia. Her family moved to Raleigh County, West Virginia, where she met Byrd when they attended the high school. In the early 1940s, Byrd recruited 150 of his friends and associates to create a new chapter of the Ku Klux Klan in Sophia, according to Byrd, a Klan official told him, You have a talent for leadership, Bob. The country needs young men like you in the leadership of the nation, Byrd later recalled, Suddenly lights flashed in my mind. Someone important had recognized my abilities, I was only 23 or 24 years old, and the thought of a political career had never really hit me. But strike me that night, it did, Byrd became a recruiter and leader of his chapter
9.
Jim Wright
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James Claude Wright Jr. Wright was a Democratic U. S. Congressman from Texas who served 34 years in the U. S. House of Representatives and was the Speaker of the House from 1987 to 1989, Wright resigned from the House in 1989 because of a scandal. Wright was born in Fort Worth, the son of Marie, because his father was a traveling salesman, Wright and his two sisters were reared in numerous communities in Texas and Oklahoma. In December 1941, Wright enlisted in the United States Army Air Forces and he trained as a bombardier and earned a Distinguished Flying Cross flying during combat in B-24 Liberators with the 530th Bomb Squadron, 380th Bomb Group in the South Pacific during World War II. His retelling of his exploits is contained in his 2005 book The Flying Circus. After the war, he made his home in Weatherford, where he joined partners in forming a Trade Show exhibition, as a Democrat, he won his first election without opposition in 1946 to the Texas House of Representatives, where he served from 1947 to 1949. He was defeated in his bid for reelection in 1948, after a rival claimed that Wright was weak in opposing communism and interracial marriage. He was the mayor of Weatherford from 1950 to 1954, in 1953, he served as president of the League of Texas Municipalities. In 1954, he was elected to Congress from Texass 12th congressional district and he won despite the fervid opposition of Amon G. Carter, publisher of the Fort Worth Star-Telegram newspaper and later the benefactor of the Amon Carter Museum. Carter supported the incumbent Democrat Wingate Lucas, Wright would be re-elected fourteen times, gradually rising in prominence in the party and in Congress. He developed a close relationship thereafter with Amon G. Carter, in 1956, Wright refused to join most of his regional colleagues in signing the segregationist Southern Manifesto. In 1957, he voted for the Civil Rights Act, which created the Division of Civil Rights within the U. S. Justice Department, signed by U. S. President Dwight Eisenhower, the law was pushed through Congress by U. S. Senator Lyndon B. Johnson and Speaker Sam Rayburn, however, Wright refused to support the Civil Rights Act of 1964, which required desegregation of public accommodations and established the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission. It was signed into law by Wrights friend, President Johnson, in 1961, Wright finished in third place in the special election called to fill the U. S. Senate seat vacated by then Vice President Lyndon Johnson. Two finalists for the Senate emerged from a field of seventy-one candidates, college professor John G. Tower, then of Wichita Falls, narrowly defeated the interim appointee William Blakley, a Dallas industrialist, in a runoff election. Tower hence became the first Republican senator from Texas since Reconstruction, Wright was riding in the motorcade in Dallas on November 22,1963 when President John F. Kennedy was assassinated. Wright continued to serve in the House and became a member of the Public Works Committee. In the Dallas/Fort Worth Metroplex, Jim Wright is infamous for the Wright Amendment, passed in 1979, the Wright Amendment was originally designed to protect the then-fledgling Dallas/Fort Worth International Airport
10.
Tom Foley
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Foley was the first Speaker of the House since 1862 to be defeated in a re-election campaign. He served as the United States Ambassador to Japan from 1997 to 2001 under President Bill Clinton, Foley was born in Spokane, Washington, the son of Helen Marie, a school teacher, and Ralph E. Foley, a Superior Court Judge. He was of Irish Catholic descent, in 1946, he graduated from the Jesuit-run Gonzaga Preparatory School in Spokane. He went on to attend Gonzaga University in Spokane and the University of Washington in Seattle, following law school, Foley entered private practice. In 1958, he working in the Spokane County prosecutors office as a deputy prosecuting attorney. In 1961, he joined the Washington Attorney Generals office as an assistant attorney general, in 1961, Foley moved to Washington, D. C. and joined the staff of Senator Henry Jackson, the then-Democratic Senator From Washington. He left Jacksons employ in 1964 at his urging to run for Congress, in 1964, Foley was unopposed for the Democratic nomination for Washingtons 5th congressional seat, which included Spokane. He faced 11-term Republican incumbent Walt Horan in the election and won by seven points. He was re-elected without significant difficulty until 1978, when he defeated conservative activist Duane Alton. The next race in 1980 was also close, when physician John Sonneland finished just 4 points back, though the fifth district became increasingly conservative, Foley didnt face serious opposition again until his defeat in 1994. In 1981, Foley was chosen majority whip by the House Democratic caucus and served in capacity until 1987. In 1989, Jim Wright of Texas stepped down as Speaker of the House amid an ethics scandal and he became the first Speaker from a state west of the Rocky Mountains. Foley brought suit, challenging the constitutionality of a law setting eligibility requirements on federal offices. Foley won his suit, with a United States district court declaring that states did not have the authority under the United States Constitution to limit the terms of federal officeholders, nethercutt vowed that if elected, he would not serve more than three terms in the House. Foley lost in a narrow race, Foley became the first sitting Speaker of the House to lose his bid for re-election since Galusha A. He is sometimes viewed as a casualty of the term limits controversy of the early 1990s. President Bill Clinton attributed his defeat to his support for the Federal Assault Weapons Ban of 1994, here is a chart of the voting results in Foleys election race. There are subtotals for the city of Spokane, rural Spokane County, from 1995 to 1998, Foley was head of the Federal City Council, a group of business, civic, education, and other leaders interested in economic development in Washington, D. C
11.
Party leaders of the United States Senate
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The Senate Majority and Minority Leaders are two United States Senators and members of the party leadership of the United States Senate. They are elected to their positions in the Senate by their party caucuses, the Senate Democratic Caucus. By rule, the Presiding Officer gives the Majority Leader priority in obtaining recognition to speak on the floor of the Senate, the Assistant Majority and Minority Leaders of the United States Senate are the second-ranking members of each partys leadership. The main function of the Majority and Minority Whips is to gather votes on major issues, because they are the second ranking member of the Senate, if there is no floor leader present, the whip may become acting floor leader. Before 1969, the titles were Majority Whip and Minority Whip. The Senate is currently composed of 52 Republicans,46 Democrats, the current leaders are Republican Majority Leader Mitch McConnell of Kentucky and Democratic Minority Leader Chuck Schumer of New York. The current Assistant Majority Leader is Republican John Cornyn of Texas, the current Assistant Minority Leader/Whip is Democrat Dick Durbin of Illinois. The Democrats began the practice of electing floor leaders in 1920 while they were in the minority, John W. Kern was a Democratic Senator from Indiana. While the title was not official, he is considered to be the first Senate party leader from 1913 through 1917, the Constitution designates the Vice President of the United States as President of the United States Senate. The Constitution also calls for a President pro tempore to serve as the leader of the body when the President of the Senate is absent, for these reasons, it is the Majority Leader who, in practice, manages the Senate. This is in contrast to the House of Representatives where the elected Speaker of the House has a deal of discretionary power. The Democratic Party first selected a leader in 1920, the Republican Party first formally designated a leader in 1925. gov Republican Majority Democratic Minority
12.
Democratic Party (United States)
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The Democratic Party is one of the two major contemporary political parties in the United States, along with the Republican Party. The Democrats dominant worldview was once socially conservative and fiscally classical liberalism, while, especially in the rural South, since Franklin D. Roosevelt and his New Deal coalition in the 1930s, the Democratic Party has also promoted a social-liberal platform, supporting social justice. Today, the House Democratic caucus is composed mostly of progressives and centrists, the partys philosophy of modern liberalism advocates social and economic equality, along with the welfare state. It seeks to provide government intervention and regulation in the economy, the party has united with smaller left-wing regional parties throughout the country, such as the Farmer–Labor Party in Minnesota and the Nonpartisan League in North Dakota. Well into the 20th century, the party had conservative pro-business, the New Deal Coalition of 1932–1964 attracted strong support from voters of recent European extraction—many of whom were Catholics based in the cities. After Franklin D. Roosevelts New Deal of the 1930s, the pro-business wing withered outside the South, after the racial turmoil of the 1960s, most southern whites and many northern Catholics moved into the Republican Party at the presidential level. The once-powerful labor union element became smaller and less supportive after the 1970s, white Evangelicals and Southerners became heavily Republican at the state and local level in the 1990s. However, African Americans became a major Democratic element after 1964, after 2000, Hispanic and Latino Americans, Asian Americans, the LGBT community, single women and professional women moved towards the party as well. The Northeast and the West Coast became Democratic strongholds by 1990 after the Republicans stopped appealing to socially liberal voters there, overall, the Democratic Party has retained a membership lead over its major rival the Republican Party. The most recent was the 44th president Barack Obama, who held the office from 2009 to 2017, in the 115th Congress, following the 2016 elections, Democrats are the opposition party, holding a minority of seats in both the House of Representatives and the Senate. The party also holds a minority of governorships, and state legislatures, though they do control the mayoralty of cities such as New York City, Los Angeles, Chicago, Houston, and Washington, D. C. The Democratic Party traces its origins to the inspiration of the Democratic-Republican Party, founded by Thomas Jefferson, James Madison and that party also inspired the Whigs and modern Republicans. Organizationally, the modern Democratic Party truly arose in the 1830s, since the nomination of William Jennings Bryan in 1896, the party has generally positioned itself to the left of the Republican Party on economic issues. They have been liberal on civil rights issues since 1948. On foreign policy both parties changed position several times and that party, the Democratic-Republican Party, came to power in the election of 1800. After the War of 1812 the Federalists virtually disappeared and the national political party left was the Democratic-Republicans. The Democratic-Republican party still had its own factions, however. As Norton explains the transformation in 1828, Jacksonians believed the peoples will had finally prevailed, through a lavishly financed coalition of state parties, political leaders, and newspaper editors, a popular movement had elected the president
13.
United States Senate
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The United States Senate is the upper chamber of the United States Congress which, along with the House of Representatives, the lower chamber, composes the legislature of the United States. The composition and powers of the Senate are established by Article One of the United States Constitution. S. From 1789 until 1913, Senators were appointed by the legislatures of the states represented, following the ratification of the Seventeenth Amendment in 1913. The Senate chamber is located in the wing of the Capitol, in Washington. It further has the responsibility of conducting trials of those impeached by the House, in the early 20th century, the practice of majority and minority parties electing their floor leaders began, although they are not constitutional officers. This idea of having one chamber represent people equally, while the other gives equal representation to states regardless of population, was known as the Connecticut Compromise, there was also a desire to have two Houses that could act as an internal check on each other. One was intended to be a Peoples House directly elected by the people, the other was intended to represent the states to such extent as they retained their sovereignty except for the powers expressly delegated to the national government. The Senate was thus not designed to serve the people of the United States equally, the Constitution provides that the approval of both chambers is necessary for the passage of legislation. First convened in 1789, the Senate of the United States was formed on the example of the ancient Roman Senate, the name is derived from the senatus, Latin for council of elders. James Madison made the comment about the Senate, In England, at this day, if elections were open to all classes of people. An agrarian law would take place. If these observations be just, our government ought to secure the permanent interests of the country against innovation, landholders ought to have a share in the government, to support these invaluable interests, and to balance and check the other. They ought to be so constituted as to protect the minority of the opulent against the majority, the senate, therefore, ought to be this body, and to answer these purposes, the people ought to have permanency and stability. The Constitution stipulates that no constitutional amendment may be created to deprive a state of its equal suffrage in the Senate without that states consent, the District of Columbia and all other territories are not entitled to representation in either House of the Congress. The District of Columbia elects two senators, but they are officials of the D. C. city government. The United States has had 50 states since 1959, thus the Senate has had 100 senators since 1959. In 1787, Virginia had roughly ten times the population of Rhode Island, whereas today California has roughly 70 times the population of Wyoming and this means some citizens are effectively two orders of magnitude better represented in the Senate than those in other states. Seats in the House of Representatives are approximately proportionate to the population of each state, before the adoption of the Seventeenth Amendment in 1913, Senators were elected by the individual state legislatures
14.
United States House of Representatives
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The United States House of Representatives is the lower chamber of the United States Congress which, along with the Senate, composes the legislature of the United States. The composition and powers of the House are established by Article One of the United States Constitution, since its inception in 1789, all representatives are elected popularly. The total number of voting representatives is fixed by law at 435, the House is charged with the passage of federal legislation, known as bills, which, after concurrence by the Senate, are sent to the President for consideration. The presiding officer is the Speaker of the House, who is elected by the members thereof and is traditionally the leader of the controlling party. He or she and other leaders are chosen by the Democratic Caucus or the Republican Conferences. The House meets in the wing of the United States Capitol. Under the Articles of Confederation, the Congress of the Confederation was a body in which each state was equally represented. All states except Rhode Island agreed to send delegates, the issue of how to structure Congress was one of the most divisive among the founders during the Convention. The House is referred to as the house, with the Senate being the upper house. Both houses approval is necessary for the passage of legislation, the Virginia Plan drew the support of delegates from large states such as Virginia, Massachusetts, and Pennsylvania, as it called for representation based on population. The smaller states, however, favored the New Jersey Plan, the Constitution was ratified by the requisite number of states in 1788, but its implementation was set for March 4,1789. The House began work on April 1,1789, when it achieved a quorum for the first time, during the first half of the 19th century, the House was frequently in conflict with the Senate over regionally divisive issues, including slavery. The North was much more populous than the South, and therefore dominated the House of Representatives, However, the North held no such advantage in the Senate, where the equal representation of states prevailed. Regional conflict was most pronounced over the issue of slavery, One example of a provision repeatedly supported by the House but blocked by the Senate was the Wilmot Proviso, which sought to ban slavery in the land gained during the Mexican–American War. Conflict over slavery and other issues persisted until the Civil War, the war culminated in the Souths defeat and in the abolition of slavery. Because all southern senators except Andrew Johnson resigned their seats at the beginning of the war, the years of Reconstruction that followed witnessed large majorities for the Republican Party, which many Americans associated with the Unions victory in the Civil War and the ending of slavery. The Reconstruction period ended in about 1877, the ensuing era, the Democratic and the Republican Party held majorities in the House at various times. The late 19th and early 20th centuries also saw an increase in the power of the Speaker of the House
15.
Washington, D.C.
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Washington, D. C. formally the District of Columbia and commonly referred to as Washington, the District, or simply D. C. is the capital of the United States. The signing of the Residence Act on July 16,1790, Constitution provided for a federal district under the exclusive jurisdiction of the Congress and the District is therefore not a part of any state. The states of Maryland and Virginia each donated land to form the federal district, named in honor of President George Washington, the City of Washington was founded in 1791 to serve as the new national capital. In 1846, Congress returned the land ceded by Virginia, in 1871. Washington had an population of 681,170 as of July 2016. Commuters from the surrounding Maryland and Virginia suburbs raise the population to more than one million during the workweek. The Washington metropolitan area, of which the District is a part, has a population of over 6 million, the centers of all three branches of the federal government of the United States are in the District, including the Congress, President, and Supreme Court. Washington is home to national monuments and museums, which are primarily situated on or around the National Mall. The city hosts 176 foreign embassies as well as the headquarters of international organizations, trade unions, non-profit organizations, lobbying groups. A locally elected mayor and a 13‑member council have governed the District since 1973, However, the Congress maintains supreme authority over the city and may overturn local laws. D. C. residents elect a non-voting, at-large congressional delegate to the House of Representatives, the District receives three electoral votes in presidential elections as permitted by the Twenty-third Amendment to the United States Constitution, ratified in 1961. Various tribes of the Algonquian-speaking Piscataway people inhabited the lands around the Potomac River when Europeans first visited the area in the early 17th century, One group known as the Nacotchtank maintained settlements around the Anacostia River within the present-day District of Columbia. Conflicts with European colonists and neighboring tribes forced the relocation of the Piscataway people, some of whom established a new settlement in 1699 near Point of Rocks, Maryland. 43, published January 23,1788, James Madison argued that the new government would need authority over a national capital to provide for its own maintenance. Five years earlier, a band of unpaid soldiers besieged Congress while its members were meeting in Philadelphia, known as the Pennsylvania Mutiny of 1783, the event emphasized the need for the national government not to rely on any state for its own security. However, the Constitution does not specify a location for the capital, on July 9,1790, Congress passed the Residence Act, which approved the creation of a national capital on the Potomac River. The exact location was to be selected by President George Washington, formed from land donated by the states of Maryland and Virginia, the initial shape of the federal district was a square measuring 10 miles on each side, totaling 100 square miles. Two pre-existing settlements were included in the territory, the port of Georgetown, Maryland, founded in 1751, many of the stones are still standing
16.
Presidency of Ronald Reagan
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The presidency of Ronald Reagan began on January 20,1981, at noon Eastern Standard Time, when Ronald Reagan was inaugurated as President of the United States, and ended on January 20,1989. Reagan, a Republican, took office as the 40th United States president following a win over Democratic incumbent President Jimmy Carter in the 1980 presidential election. The election was an election, the Reagan Revolution, that changed the trajectory of the nation. Reagan was succeeded by his president, George H. W. Bush. Domestically, the claimed to support reducing government programs. The economic policies enacted in 1981, known as Reaganomics, were an example of supply-side economics, economic growth was strong for most of the 1980s, however, there was a recession in the beginning of his term and the national debt increased significantly. S. Troops since the end of the Vietnam War and it also controversially granted aid to paramilitary forces seeking to overthrow leftist governments, particularly in war-torn Central America and Afghanistan. In diplomacy, he forged an alliance and friendship with Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher of Great Britain. Reagan also held multiple meetings with Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev. In June 1987, when visiting West Berlin and standing at the Berlin Wall, Reagan demanded, Mr. Gorbachev tear down this wall. This dramatic moment helped Reagan claim that his approach beat Communism as the Berlin Wall fell, Soviet domination of Eastern Europe came to an end, and, by 1991, the damaging Iran–Contra affair engulfed several Reagan aides during his second term. His administration was criticized for lending support to right-wing military movements that committed human rights violations, Reagan was the first president since Dwight D. Eisenhower to serve two full terms. Reagan was an advocate of free markets and laissez-faire economics and believed that the U. S. economy was hampered by excessive regulations and social programs. His first act as president was to issue an order ending price controls on domestic oil, which had contributed to the 1973 oil crisis. Reagan focused his first months in office on two goals, tax reforms and increased military spending, during Reagans first term, the nation fell into a recession that lasted from 1981 to 1982, with unemployment remaining high, as much as 10%, during 1982 and 1983. Income inequality in the U. S. also rose substantially during Reagans presidency, despite this, the economy made a strong recovery and experienced one of the longest periods of peacetime growth in its history.7 percent. Despite Reagans stated desire to cut spending, federal spending grew during his administration, one of Reagans most controversial early moves was to fire most of the countrys air traffic controllers after they took part in a strike action. Reagan also reduced Social Security by cutting disability and survivor benefits and he also took tougher positions against some crime, and declared a renewed War on Drugs
17.
President of the United States
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The President of the United States is the head of state and head of government of the United States. The president directs the executive branch of the government and is the commander-in-chief of the United States Armed Forces. The president is considered to be one of the worlds most powerful political figures, the role includes being the commander-in-chief of the worlds most expensive military with the second largest nuclear arsenal and leading the nation with the largest economy by nominal GDP. The office of President holds significant hard and soft power both in the United States and abroad, Constitution vests the executive power of the United States in the president. The president is empowered to grant federal pardons and reprieves. The president is responsible for dictating the legislative agenda of the party to which the president is a member. The president also directs the foreign and domestic policy of the United States, since the office of President was established in 1789, its power has grown substantially, as has the power of the federal government as a whole. However, nine vice presidents have assumed the presidency without having elected to the office. The Twenty-second Amendment prohibits anyone from being elected president for a third term, in all,44 individuals have served 45 presidencies spanning 57 full four-year terms. On January 20,2017, Donald Trump was sworn in as the 45th, in 1776, the Thirteen Colonies, acting through the Second Continental Congress, declared political independence from Great Britain during the American Revolution. The new states, though independent of each other as nation states, desiring to avoid anything that remotely resembled a monarchy, Congress negotiated the Articles of Confederation to establish a weak alliance between the states. Out from under any monarchy, the states assigned some formerly royal prerogatives to Congress, only after all the states agreed to a resolution settling competing western land claims did the Articles take effect on March 1,1781, when Maryland became the final state to ratify them. In 1783, the Treaty of Paris secured independence for each of the former colonies, with peace at hand, the states each turned toward their own internal affairs. Prospects for the convention appeared bleak until James Madison and Edmund Randolph succeeded in securing George Washingtons attendance to Philadelphia as a delegate for Virginia. It was through the negotiations at Philadelphia that the presidency framed in the U. S. The first power the Constitution confers upon the president is the veto, the Presentment Clause requires any bill passed by Congress to be presented to the president before it can become law. Once the legislation has been presented, the president has three options, Sign the legislation, the bill becomes law. Veto the legislation and return it to Congress, expressing any objections, in this instance, the president neither signs nor vetoes the legislation
18.
Ronald Reagan
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Ronald Wilson Reagan was an American politician and actor who was the 40th President of the United States, from 1981 to 1989. Before his presidency, he was the 33rd Governor of California, from 1967 to 1975, after a career as a Hollywood actor and union leader. Raised in a family in small towns of northern Illinois, Reagan graduated from Eureka College in 1932. After moving to Hollywood in 1937, he became an actor, Reagan was twice elected President of the Screen Actors Guild, the labor union for actors, where he worked to root out Communist influence. In the 1950s, he moved into television and was a speaker at General Electric factories. Having been a lifelong Democrat, his views changed and he became a conservative and in 1962 switched to the Republican Party. In 1964, Reagans speech, A Time for Choosing, in support of Barry Goldwaters foundering presidential campaign, Building a network of supporters, he was elected Governor of California in 1966. Entering the presidency in 1981, Reagan implemented sweeping new political, in his first term he survived an assassination attempt, spurred the War on Drugs, and fought public sector labor. During his re-election bid, Reagan campaigned on the notion that it was Morning in America, foreign affairs dominated his second term, including ending of the Cold War, the bombing of Libya, and the Iran–Contra affair. Publicly describing the Soviet Union as an empire, and during his famous speech at the Brandenburg Gate. Jack, a salesman and storyteller, was the grandson of Irish Catholic immigrants from County Tipperary, Reagan had one older brother, John Neil Reagan, who became an advertising executive. As a boy, Reagans father nicknamed his son Dutch, due to his fat little Dutchman-like appearance and Dutchboy haircut, Reagans family briefly lived in several towns and cities in Illinois, including Monmouth, Galesburg, and Chicago. In 1919, they returned to Tampico and lived above the H. C, Pitney Variety Store until finally settling in Dixon. After his election as president, residing in the upstairs White House private quarters, for the time, Reagan was unusual in his opposition to racial discrimination, and recalled a time in Dixon when the local inn would not allow black people to stay there. Reagan brought them back to his house, where his mother invited them to stay the night and have breakfast the next morning, after the closure of the Pitney Store in late 1920 and the familys move to Dixon, the midwestern small universe had a lasting impression on Reagan. Reagan attended Dixon High School, where he developed interests in acting, sports and his first job was as a lifeguard at the Rock River in Lowell Park in 1927. Over a six-year period, Reagan reportedly performed 77 rescues as a lifeguard and he attended Eureka College, a Disciples-oriented liberal arts school, where he became a member of the Tau Kappa Epsilon fraternity, a cheerleader, and studied economics and sociology. While involved, the Miller Center of Public Affairs described him as an indifferent student and he majored in economics and sociology, and graduated with a C grade
19.
Presidency of George H. W. Bush
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The presidency of George H. W. Bush began on January 20,1989, at noon Eastern Standard Time, when George H. W. Bush was inaugurated as President of the United States, and ended on January 20,1993. Bush, a Republican, and incumbent Vice President of the United States and he was the first sitting vice president to be elected president since Martin Van Buren in 1836. Later, Bush, the 41st United States president, and his oldest son, George W. Bush, Bush was denied a second term in the 1992 presidential election, which was won by Democrat Bill Clinton. International affairs drove the Bush presidency, with a strong team of foreign policy advisers, Bush helped the country navigate the end of the Cold War and a new era of U. S. –Soviet relations. He also led a coalition of countries which successfully forced Iraq to withdraw from Kuwait in the Gulf War. From the beginning of his term, Bush faced the problem of what to do about the federal budget debt, at $2.8 trillion in 1990, the deficit had grown to three times larger than it was in 1980. Bush was dedicated to curbing the deficit, believing that America could not continue to be a leader in the world doing so. Ultimately, Bush had no choice but to compromise with Congress and he also had to address the continuing Savings and Loans industry crisis, which proved equally contentious. Respondents also identified him as the most underrated president and he entered office at a period of change in the world, the fall of the Berlin Wall and the collapse of Soviet Union came early in his presidency. He ordered military operations in Panama and the Persian Gulf, and, in his Inaugural Address, Bush said, I come before you and assume the Presidency at a moment rich with promise. We live in a peaceful, prosperous time, but we can make it better, for a new breeze is blowing, and a world refreshed by freedom seems reborn, for in mans heart, if not in fact, the day of the dictator is over. The totalitarian era is passing, its old ideas blown away like leaves from an ancient, a new breeze is blowing, and a nation refreshed by freedom stands ready to push on. There is new ground to be broken, and new action to be taken, after wrapping up the 1988 Republican nomination, Bush selected Senator Dan Quayle of Indiana as his running mate, surprising many who expected Bush to select a more experienced running mate. Quayle was often mocked for his verbal gaffes, and many Republicans urged Bush to dump Quayle from the ticket, Bush selected a mostly new Cabinet, but kept around many former Reagan officials, including Attorney General Dick Thornburgh. Bushs long-time friend James Baker, who had served as Reagans Chief of Staff, Bushs Secretary of Defense, Dick Cheney, had served as Gerald Fords Chief of Staff and would later serve as vice president under George W. Bush. Bush appointed the two justices to the Supreme Court of the United States, in 1990, Bush appointed the largely unknown appellate judge David Souter to replace liberal icon William Brennan. Souter was easily confirmed and served until 2009, but joined the bloc of the court. In 1991, Bush nominated the conservative Clarence Thomas to succeed Thurgood Marshall, Thomas won confirmation after contentious hearings in a narrow 52-48 vote, and Thomas became one of the most conservative justices of his era
20.
1980 United States Census
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Approximately 16 percent of households received a long form of the 1980 census, which contained over 100 questions. Full documentation on the 1980 census, including forms and a procedural history, is available from the Integrated Public Use Microdata Series. Microdata from the 1980 census are available through the Integrated Public Use Microdata Series. Aggregate data for small areas, together with electronic boundary files, personally identifiable information will be available in 2052. Between the 1980 census and the 1990 census, the United States population increased by approximately 22,164,837 or 9. 8%, historic US Census data 1981 U. S Census Report Contains 1980 Census results
21.
1989 in the United States
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Events from the year 1989 in the United States. January 4 – Second Gulf of Sidra incident, Two Libyan MiG-23 Floggers are engaged, January 11 President Ronald Reagan delivers his farewell address to the nation. The National Collegiate Athletic Association adopts Proposition 42, which athletic scholarships from athletes who fail to meet minimal academic standards. January 13 – Bernhard Goetz sentenced to one year in prison, January 16 – An Hispanic Miami police officer shoots and kills a speeding black motorcyclist in the Overtown section of Miami, starting three days of rioting. Miami, Florida January 17 – Stockton massacre, Patrick Edward Purdy kills five children, wounds thirty and then himself in Stockton. January 18 – The Republican National Committee elects Lee Atwater as its chairman, January 20 George H. W. Bush succeeds Ronald Reagan as the 41st President of the United States of America. January 22 – The San Francisco 49ers defeat the Cincinnati Bengals in Super Bowl XXIII, January 24 Serial killer Theodore Bundy is executed in Floridas electric chair. Joel Steinberg is convicted of manslaughter in the death of a 6-year old child he was raising. The 101st United States Congress rejects a proposed 51 percent pay raise for its members, federal judges, February 10 Ron Brown is elected chairman of the Democratic National Committee, becoming the first African American to lead a major United States political party. President Bush meets with Prime Minister of Canada Brian Mulroney in Ottawa, February 11 – Barbara Harris is the first woman consecrated as a bishop of the Episcopal Church in the United States of America. February 14 – The first of 24 Global Positioning System satellites is placed into orbit, February 23 – After protracted testimony, the U. S. Senate Armed Services Committee rejects, 11–9, President Bushs nomination of John Tower for Secretary of Defense. February 23–27 – U. S. President Bush visits Japan, China, February 26 –60 Minutes airs a report claiming that apples sprayed with Alar may cause cancer in children, leading many schools to remove apples from their cafeterias. March – The unemployment rate drops to a low of 5. 0%, March 1 The Berne Convention, an international treaty on copyrights, is ratified by the United States. Louis Wade Sullivan starts his term of office as U. S. Secretary of Health, james D. Watkins starts his term of office as U. S. Secretary of Energy. March 3 – Former National Security Advisor Robert McFarlane is fined $20,000, March 4 Time, Inc. and Warner Communications announce plans for a merger, forming Time Warner. Eastern Air Lines machinists and baggage workers walk off the job to protest pay cuts, the airline subsequently filed for bankruptcy protection five days later, on March 9. March 9 – By a vote of 53 to 47, the Senate votes to reject the nomination of John Tower as United States Secretary of Defense, President Bush subsequently nominated Dick Cheney the next day, and Cheney was confirmed and sworn in as defense secretary on March 17. March 13 – A geomagnetic storm causes the collapse of the Hydro-Québec power grid,6 million people are left without power for 9 hours
22.
1990 in the United States
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Events from the year 1990 in the United States. January 3 – United States invasion of Panama, General Manuel Noriega, January 5 – The National Gallery of Art purchases The Fall of Phaeton by Peter Paul Rubens. January 9–20 – The Space Shuttle Columbia flies STS-32, January 10 – Time Warner is formed from the merger of Time Inc. and Warner Communications Inc. January 13 – Douglas Wilder becomes the first elected African American governor as he takes office in Richmond, Mayor Marion Barry is arrested for drug possession in an FBI sting. In California, the McMartin preschool trial, the longest criminal trial in U. S. history ends with all defendants found innocent of child molesting, January 22 – Robert Tappan Morris, Jr. is convicted of releasing the Morris worm. January 24 Richard Secord is sentenced to two years probation for lying to the United States Congress about the Iran–Contra affair. In Miami, William Lozano, a Hispanic police officer is sentenced to seven years in prison for shooting a black motorcyclist in 1989, an event that had set off three days of rioting. January 25 – Avianca Flight 52 crashes into Cove Neck, Long Island, January 28 – The San Francisco 49ers defeat the Denver Broncos in Super Bowl XXIV. January 29 The trial of Joseph Hazelwood, former skipper of the Exxon Valdez, begins in Anchorage and he is accused of negligence that resulted in Americas worst oil spill to date. Cold War, The first McDonalds in Moscow, Russia opens, February 9 – The owners of Major League Baseball announce a lockout because of a salary dispute with players. February 11 – James Buster Douglas knocks out Mike Tyson to win the World Heavyweight Boxing crown, February 13 – Drexel Burnham Lambert files for bankruptcy protection, Chapter 11. February 14 – The Pale Blue Dot picture was sent back from the Voyager 1 probe after completing its primary mission, February 25 – A smoking ban takes effect on all domestic U. S. flights of less than six hours. February 27 – Exxon Valdez oil spill, Exxon and its shipping company are indicted on five criminal counts, February 28 – The Space Shuttle Atlantis begins STS-36. March 1 Steve Jackson Games is raided by the U. S, secret Service, prompting the later formation of the Electronic Frontier Foundation. The Nuclear Regulatory Commission approves a license for the long-delayed Seabrook Station Nuclear Power Plant, march – Greyhound bus drivers strike for higher pay. March 6 – An SR-71 sets a U. S. transcontinental speed record of 1 hour 8 minutes 17 seconds, march 9 – Antonia Novello is sworn in as Surgeon General of the United States, becoming the first female and Hispanic American to serve in that position. March 18 Twelve paintings, collectively worth from $100 to $300 million, are stolen from the Isabella Stewart Gardner Museum in Boston and this is the largest art theft in US history, and the paintings have not been recovered. Major League Baseball players and owners agree to a new four-year contract, march 22 – A jury in Anchorage, Alaska finds Joseph Hazelwood guilty of misdemeanor negligence for his role in the Exxon Valdez oil spill
23.
1991 in the United States
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Events from the year 1991 in the United States. The Cold War ends as the USSR dissolves by the end of the year, january 7 – United States Secretary of Defense Dick Cheney cancels the $57-billion order for the McDonnell Douglas A-12 Avenger II. January 8 – Pan American World Airways files for bankruptcy protection, january 9 – United States Secretary of State James Baker meets with Iraqi foreign minister Tariq Aziz, but fails to produce a plan for Iraq to withdraw its troops from Kuwait. January 12 – Gulf War, The Congress of the United States passes a resolution authorizing the use of force to liberate Kuwait. January 16 – U. S. serial killer Aileen Wuornos confesses to the murders of six men, january 17 – Gulf War, Operation Desert Storm begins with air strikes against Iraq. January 18 – Eastern Air Lines ceases operations after flying for two years under bankruptcy protection, january 26 – In Washington, D. C. tens of thousands of people rally against the Persian Gulf War. January 27 – Super Bowl XXV, The New York Giants defeat the Buffalo Bills 20–19 at Tampa Stadium in Tampa, january 29 – The first attempt to cure cancer by gene therapy takes place at the National Cancer Institute in Bethesda, Maryland. February – The early 1990s recession ends, february 1 – A USAir Boeing 737-300, Flight 1493 collides with a SkyWest Airlines Fairchild Metroliner, Flight 5569 at Los Angeles International Airport, killing 34. February 5 – A Michigan court bars Dr. Jack Kevorkian from assisting in suicides, february 7 – Gulf War, Ground troops cross the Saudi Arabian border and enter Kuwait, thus starting the ground phase of the war. February 13 – Gulf War, Two laser-guided bombs destroy a bunker in Baghdad. United States military intelligence claims the structure was transmitting military signals, february 22 – Gulf War, Iraq accepts a Russian-proposed cease fire agreement. The U. S. rejects the agreement, but says that retreating Iraqi forces will not be attacked if they leave Kuwait within 24 hours, february 23 – The One Meridian Plaza fire in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania kills 3 firefighters and destroys 8 floors of the building. February 25 – Gulf War, Part of an Iraqi Scud missile hits an American military barracks in Dhahran, Saudi Arabia, killing 29 and it is the single, most devastating attack on U. S. forces during that war. February 26 – Gulf War, On Baghdad radio, Iraqi leader Saddam Hussein announces the withdrawal of Iraqi troops from Kuwait, Iraqi soldiers set fire to Kuwaiti oil fields as they retreat. February 27 – Gulf War, U. S. President George H. W. Bush announces that Kuwait is liberated, february 28 – Impostor James Hogue is exposed at Princeton University. March 1 – Clayton Keith Yeutter finishes as the United States Secretary of Agriculture, March 3 An amateur video captures the beating of Rodney King by Los Angeles, California police officers. United Airlines Flight 585 crashes in Colorado Springs, Colorado, killing all 25 people on board, March 10 – Gulf War – Operation Phase Echo,540,000 American troops begin to leave the Persian Gulf. March 13 – The United States Department of Justice announces that Exxon has agreed to pay $1 billion for the clean-up of the Exxon Valdez oil spill in Alaska
24.
United States Senate Committee on Armed Services
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The Armed Services Committee was created as a result of the Legislative Reorganization Act of 1946 following U. S. victory in the Second World War. It merged the responsibilities of the Committee on Naval Affairs and the Committee on Military Affairs, Department of Defense, the Department of the Army, the Department of the Navy, and the Department of the Air Force, generally. Maintenance and operation of the Panama Canal, including administration, sanitation, national security aspects of nuclear energy. Naval petroleum reserves, except those in Alaska, pay, promotion, retirement, and other benefits and privileges of members of the Armed Forces, including overseas education of civilian and military dependents. Strategic and critical materials necessary for the common defense
25.
John Tower
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John Goodwin Tower was the first Republican United States senator from Texas since Reconstruction. He served from 1961 until his retirement on January 3,1985 and he was George H. W. Bushs nominee for Secretary of Defense in 1989 but was rejected by the Senate, 53–47. Tower was born in Houston, Texas, the son of Joe Z, Joe was a Methodist, later United Methodist, minister, and John traveled wherever his father was named by the denominational conference to pastor a church. He attended public schools in East Texas and graduated in Beaumont, Tower was active in politics as a child, at the age of thirteen, he passed out handbills for the campaign of liberal Democrat and future U. S. Senator Ralph Yarborough while Yarborough was running unsuccessfully for attorney general. Yarborough and Tower would later be paired as Texass Senate delegation and he entered Southwestern University in Georgetown that same year and met future U. S. President and political opponent Lyndon Johnson on a campus visit while Johnson was the local congressman. Tower left college in the summer of 1943 to serve in the Pacific Theater during World War II on an LCS amphibious gunboat. While at Southwestern, Tower was a member of the Iota chapter of the Kappa Sigma Fraternity, Tower worked as a radio announcer for a Country music station in Taylor, northeast of Austin, during college and for some time afterward. Tower remained in the Naval Reserve and achieved the rank of Master Chief Petty Officer, in 1949, he moved to Dallas to take graduate courses at Southern Methodist University and to work part-time as an insurance agent. He left SMU in 1951 and entered academia as an assistant professor at Midwestern University in Wichita Falls, in 1952 and 1953, he pursued graduate coursework at the London School of Economics and conducted field research on the organization of the Conservative Party of the United Kingdom. His research was presented in his thesis, The Conservative Worker in Britain and he received his Master of Arts degree from SMU in 1953. While a professor at Midwestern University, Tower met Joza Lou Bullington, a native of San Diego, California, Lou was reared in Wichita Falls and was the organist at the Towers church. She was five years his senior, taft forces in Texas in 1952. At that time, Cahoon and Tower were the only Republican legislators in the state of Texas. John and Lou Tower had three children during their years in Wichita Falls born in three years, Penny, Marian, and Jeanne. While at the London School of Economics, Tower put in an appearance at the offices of Swinging Radio England on Curzon Street, following his divorce from Lou, who remained single for the rest of her life, Tower married Lilla Burt Cummings in 1977. The couple separated in 1985 and divorced on July 2,1986, although raised as a Southern Democrat, Tower became a Republican in college about 1951. He rose quickly through the ranks of the Texas Republican Party and he was a delegate to the 1956 Republican National Convention
26.
Exxon Valdez oil spill
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It is considered to be one of the most devastating human-caused environmental disasters. The Valdez spill is the second largest in US waters, after the 2010 Deepwater Horizon oil spill, Prince William Sounds remote location, accessible only by helicopter, plane, or boat, made government and industry response efforts difficult and severely taxed existing plans for response. The region is a habitat for salmon, sea otters, seals, the oil, originally extracted at the Prudhoe Bay oil field, eventually covered 1,300 miles of coastline, and 11,000 square miles of ocean. According to official reports, the ship was carrying approximately 54 million US gallons of oil, multiple factors have been identified as contributing to the incident, Exxon Shipping Company failed to supervise the master and provide a rested and sufficient crew for Exxon Valdez. The NTSB found this was throughout the industry, prompting a safety recommendation to Exxon. The third mate failed to maneuver the vessel, possibly due to fatigue or excessive workload. This cause has only identified by Greg Palast and is not present in the official accident report. Captain Joseph Hazelwood, who was reported to have been drinking heavily that night, was not at the controls when the ship struck the reef. However, as the officer, he was in command of the ship even though he was asleep in his bunk. In light of the findings, investigative reporter Greg Palast stated in 2008. As to Captain Joe Hazelwood, he was below decks, sleeping off his bender, at the helm, the third mate never would have collided with Bligh Reef had he looked at his RAYCAS radar. But the radar was not turned on, in fact, the tankers radar was left broken and disabled for more than a year before the disaster, and Exxon management knew it. It was just too expensive to fix and operate, Exxon blamed Captain Hazelwood for the grounding of the tanker. The oil industry promised, but never installed, state-of-the-art iceberg monitoring equipment, Exxon Valdez was sailing outside the normal sea lane to avoid small icebergs thought to be in the area. The 1989 tanker crew was half the size of the 1977 crew, worked 12- to 14-hour shifts, the crew was rushing to leave Valdez with a load of oil. Coast Guard vessel inspections in Valdez were not performed, and the number of staff was reduced, lack of available equipment and personnel hampered the spill cleanup. This disaster resulted in International Maritime Organization introducing comprehensive marine pollution prevention rules through various conventions, the rules were ratified by member countries and, under International Ship Management rules, the ships are being operated with a common objective of safer ships and cleaner oceans. Hazelwood said he felt Alaskans always gave him a fair shake, chemical dispersant, a surfactant and solvent mixture, was applied to the slick
27.
United States invasion of Panama
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The United States Invasion of Panama, code named Operation Just Cause, was an invasion of Panama by the United States between mid-December 1989 and late January 1990. During the invasion, de facto Panamanian leader, general, and dictator Manuel Noriega was deposed, president-elect Guillermo Endara sworn into office, and the Panamanian Defense Force dissolved. Although the canal was destined for Panamanian administration, the bases remained. Noriega received upwards of $100,000 per year from the 1960s until the 1980s, in the mid-1980s, relations between Noriega and the United States began to deteriorate. Later negotiations involved dropping the drug-trafficking indictments, in March 1988, Noriegas forces resisted an attempted coup against the government of Panama. As relations continued to deteriorate, Noriega appeared to shift his Cold War allegiance towards the Soviet bloc, soliciting and receiving aid from Cuba, Nicaragua. American military planners began preparing plans to invade Panama. Their tally showed their candidate, Guillermo Endara, defeating Carlos Duque, candidate of a pro-Noriega coalition, Endara was beaten up by Noriega supporters the next day in his motorcade. Noriega declared the election null and maintained power by force, making him unpopular among Panamanians, Noriegas government insisted that it had won the presidential election and that irregularities had been on the part of U. S. -backed candidates from opposition parties. Bush called on Noriega to honor the will of the Panamanian people, the United States reinforced its Canal Zone garrison, and increased the tempo of training and other activities intended to put pressure on Noriega. In October 1989, Noriega foiled a coup attempt by members of the Panamanian Defense Forces. Pressure mounted on Bush as the media labeled him a wimp for failing to aid Panama, on 15 December, the Panamanian general assembly passed a resolution declaring that the actions of the United States had caused a state of war to exist between Panama and the United States. The next day, four U. S. military personnel were stopped at a roadblock around 9,00 PM outside PDF headquarters in the El Chorrillo neighborhood of Panama City, the PDF asserted later that the Americans were armed and on a reconnaissance mission. The PDF opened fire and Lieutenant Paz was fatally wounded by a round that entered the rear of the vehicle, captain Hadded, the driver of the vehicle, was also wounded in the foot. Paz was rushed to Gorgas Army Hospital but died of his wounds and he received the Purple Heart posthumously. According to U. S. military sources, a U. S. Naval officer, while in police custody, they were assaulted by the PDF. The U. S. Naval officer spent two weeks in hospital recovering from the beating, PDF soldiers sexually threatened his wife. The next day, President Bush ordered the execution of the Panama invasion plan, the military set H-Hour as 0100 on 20 December
28.
Panama
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Panama, officially called the Republic of Panama, is a country usually considered to be entirely in North America or Central America. It is bordered by Costa Rica to the west, Colombia to the southeast, the Caribbean Sea to the north, the capital and largest city is Panama City, whose metropolitan area is home to nearly half of the countrys 4.1 million people. Panama was inhabited by indigenous tribes prior to settlement by the Spanish in the 16th century. Panama broke away from Spain in 1821 and joined a union of Nueva Granada, Ecuador, when Gran Colombia dissolved in 1831, Panama and Nueva Granada remained joined, eventually becoming the Republic of Colombia. With the backing of the United States, Panama seceded from Colombia in 1903, in 1977 an agreement was signed for the total transfer of the Canal from the United States to Panama by the end of the 20th century, which culminated on 31 December 1999. Revenue from canal tolls continues to represent a significant portion of Panamas GDP, although commerce, banking, in 2015 Panama ranked 60th in the world in terms of the Human Development Index. Since 2010, Panama remains the second most competitive economy in Latin America, covering around 40 percent of its land area, Panamas jungles are home to an abundance of tropical plants and animals – some of them to be found nowhere else on the planet. There are several theories about the origin of the name Panama, some believe that the country was named after a commonly found species of tree. Others believe that the first settlers arrived in Panama in August, when butterflies abound, the best-known version is that a fishing village and its nearby beach bore the name Panamá, which meant an abundance of fish. Captain Antonio Tello de Guzmán, while exploring the Pacific side in 1515, in 1517 Don Gaspar De Espinosa, a Spanish lieutenant, decided to settle a post there. In 1519 Pedrarias Dávila decided to establish the Empires Pacific city in this site, the new settlement replaced Santa María La Antigua del Darién, which had lost its function within the Crowns global plan after the beginning of the Spanish exploitation of the riches in the Pacific. Blending all of the above together, Panamanians believe in general that the word Panama means abundance of fish and this is the official definition given in social studies textbooks approved by the Ministry of Education in Panama. However, others believe the word Panama comes from the Kuna word bannaba which means distant or far away, at the time of the arrival of the Spanish in the 16th century, the known inhabitants of Panama included the Cuevas and the Coclé tribes. These people have disappeared, as they had no immunity from European infectious diseases. The earliest discovered artifacts of indigenous peoples in Panama include Paleo-Indian projectile points, later central Panama was home to some of the first pottery-making in the Americas, for example the cultures at Monagrillo, which date back to 2500–1700 BC. These evolved into significant populations best known through their spectacular burials at the Monagrillo archaeological site, the monumental monolithic sculptures at the Barriles site are also important traces of these ancient isthmian cultures. Before Europeans arrived Panama was widely settled by Chibchan, Chocoan, the largest group were the Cueva. The size of the population of the isthmus at the time of European colonization is uncertain
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Manuel Noriega
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Manuel Antonio Noriega Moreno is a former Panamanian politician and military officer. He was military dictator of Panama from 1983 to 1989, when he was removed from power by the United States during the invasion of Panama, from the 1950s until shortly before the U. S. invasion, Noriega worked closely with the U. S. In 1988, Noriega was indicted by the United States on drug trafficking charges in Miami, during the 1989 U. S. invasion of Panama, he was removed from power, captured, detained as a prisoner of war, and flown to the United States. Noriega was tried on eight counts of trafficking, racketeering. On September 16,1992, he was sentenced to 40 years in prison, France was granted its extradition request in April 2010. He arrived in Paris on April 27,2010, and after the re-trial that is a rule in France after any in absentia sentence, he was found guilty and sentenced to seven years in jail in July 2010. A conditional release was granted on September 23,2011, for Noriega to be extradited to serve 20 years in Panama and he returned to Panama on December 11,2011. Noriega was born in Panama City and he was a career soldier who received much of his education at the Military School of Chorrillos in Lima, Peru. He was commissioned in the Panama National Guard in 1967 and promoted to lieutenant in 1968, in a power struggle that followed, including a failed coup attempt in 1969, Noriega supported Omar Torrijos. He received a promotion to lieutenant colonel and was appointed chief of intelligence by Torrijos. Noriega claims that, following Torrijos instructions, he negotiated an amnesty for about 400 defeated guerrilla fighters, enabling them to return from exile in Honduras, Torrijos died in a plane accident on July 31,1981. Colonel Roberto Díaz Herrera, an associate of Noriega, claimed that the actual cause for the accident was a bomb. He was succeeded as Commander of the Panamanian National Guard by Colonel Florencio Flores Aguilar, one year later, Flores was succeeded by Rubén Darío Paredes, and Noriega became chief of staff. The guard was renamed the Panamanian Defense Forces, Paredes resigned as commander to run for the presidency, ceding his post as commander of the forces to Noriega. Although the relationship did not become contractual until 1967, Noriega worked with the U. S, Central Intelligence Agency from the late 1950s until the 1980s. In 1988, grand juries in Tampa and Miami indicted him on U. S. federal drug charges, throughout the 1970s and the 1980s, Noriega was able to manipulate U. S. policy toward his country, while skillfully accumulating near-absolute power in Panama. Noriega was allowed to establish the hemispheres first narcokleptocracy, one of the large financial institutions that he was able to use to launder money was the Bank of Credit and Commerce International. From the mid-1970s, Daisaku Ikeda fostered a relationship with Noriega
30.
Whistleblower Protection Act
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The Whistleblower Protection Act of 1989, Pub. L. 101-12 as amended, is a United States federal law that protects federal whistleblowers who work for the government, the Office of Special Counsel investigates federal whistleblower complaints. Then-Senator Barack Obama made a vow to appoint a special counsel committed to whistleblower rights. It was not until April 2011 that President Obamas appointee Carolyn Lerner was confirmed by the Senate, today, the primary mission of OSC is to safeguard the merit system by protecting federal employees and applicants from prohibited personnel practices, especially reprisal for whistleblowing. The Merit Systems Protection Board, an agency that adjudicates whistleblower complaints. Since 2000, the board has ruled for whistleblowers just three times in 56 cases decided on their merits, according to a Government Accountability Project analysis. Obama appointed a new chairperson and vice chairperson with backgrounds as federal worker advocates, currently, this office works to protect the Merit System Principles and promote an effective Federal workforce free of Prohibited Personnel Practices. The Court of Appeals for the Federal Circuit was established under Article III of the Constitution on October 1,1982, between 1994 and 2010, the court had ruled for whistleblowers in only three of 203 cases decided on their merits, GAPs analysis found. The U. S. Supreme Court, in the case of Garcetti v, Merit Systems Protection Board uses agency lawyers in the place of administrative law judges to decide federal employees whistleblower appeals. Robert MacLean blew the whistle on the fact that the TSA, mcClean won the case in a ruling of 7–2 in the Supreme Court in January 2015. President Barack Obama issued Presidential Policy Directive 19, entitled Protecting Whistleblowers with Access to Classified Information and it prohibits retaliation against employees for reporting waste, fraud, and abuse. S. S.743 ultimately became Pub. L, Court of Appeals that has jurisdiction. There is also a bill in its early stages called the FBI Whistleblower Protection Enhancement Act and this bill was introduced by Senators Grassley and Leahy in 2015. This bill is still in the process of getting passed and has individuals cosponsoring it in March 2016. Retrieved May 3,2007 OSC Form 11 for filing a whistleblower retaliation complaint
31.
United States Statutes at Large
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Each act and resolution of Congress is called a slip law, which is classified as either public law or private law, and designated and numbered accordingly. At the end of a Congress session, slip laws are compiled into Statutes at Large and they are part of a three-part model for publication of federal statutes consisting of slip laws, session laws, and codification. Today, large portions of slip laws denominated as public laws are now drafted as amendments to the United States Code. Once enacted into law, an Act will be published in the Statutes at Large and will add to, modify, provisions of a public law that contains only enacting clauses, effective dates, and similar matters are not generally codified. Private laws also are not generally codified, some portions of the United States Code have been enacted as positive law and other portions have not been so enacted. Publication of the United States Statutes at Large began in 1845 by the firm of Little, Brown. During Little, Brown and Companys time as publisher, Richard Peters, George Minot, in 1874, Congress transferred the authority to publish the Statutes at Large to the Government Printing Office under the direction of the Secretary of State. 633, was enacted July 30,1947 and directed the Secretary of State to compile, edit, index,980, was enacted September 23,1950 and directed the Administrator of General Services to compile, edit, index, and publish the Statutes at Large. Since 1985 the Statutes at Large have been prepared and published by the Office of the Federal Register of the National Archives, sometimes very large or long Acts of Congress are published as their own volume of the Statutes at Large. For example, the Internal Revenue Code of 1954 was published as volume 68A of the Statutes at Large. Volumes 1 to 18 of the Statutes at Large made available by the Library of Congress Volumes 1 to 64 of the Statutes at Large made available by the Congressional Data Coalition via LEGISWORKS
32.
Biological Weapons Anti-Terrorism Act of 1989
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The Biological Weapons Anti-Terrorism Act of 1989 was a piece of U. S. legislation that was passed into law in 1990. It provided for the implementation of the Biological Weapons Convention as well as penalties for violation of its provisions. The law was amended in 1996 and has used to prosecute several individuals. The Biological Weapons Anti-Terrorism Act of 1989 was drafted by University of Illinois international law professor Francis A. Boyle. The law, known as it went through the U. S. Senate during the 101st U. S. Congress as S.993, was introduced to the Senate on May 16,1989, the bill was sponsored by U. S. Senator Herb Kohl and collected 15 co-sponsors on its way through the Senate, an amended version of the bill passed the Senate in November 1989. The U. S. House of Representatives version of the bill, the sponsor of BWATA in the House was Representative Robert W. Kastenmeier and the legislation picked up 52 co-sponsors as it went through the House. The House of Representatives passed BWATA on May 8,1990, BWATA was signed into law by then-U. S. President George H. W. Bush on May 22,1990, BWATA has been expanded two separate times through the implementation of new laws. The first expansion closed certain loopholes that critics complained made prosecution difficult, the Anti-Terrorism and Effective Death Penalty Act of 1996 amended the law to address these issues. BWATA was additionally expanded by the USA Patriot Act in 2001, the act broadly defined several terms related to biological warfare. Those terms were, vector, toxin, biological agent and delivery system. S, interpretation of the Biological Weapons Convention ban on biological agents was in line with the BWATA definition. The U. S. now maintains that the Article I of the BWC, according to the Federation of American Scientists, current U. S. work on non-lethal agents greatly exceeds limitations set forth in the BWC. Delivery system, any apparatus, equipment, device, or means of delivery designed to deliver or disseminate a biological agent, toxin. Vector, a living organism capable of carrying a biological agent or toxin to a host, the Biological Weapons Anti-Terrorism Act of 1989 extended the scope of bio-warfare materials regulation to include private individuals and non-state organizations. The act made it illegal to buy, sell or manufacture biological agents for use as a weapon, to that end, the law implemented the 1975 ratification of the Biological Weapons Convention. BWATA, which known as Public Law 101-298 upon its passage and signing. The act specifically exempted peaceful, often characterized as defensive, biological weapons research, BWATA, as passed, imposed no sentencing guidelines, this gave judges in the earliest prosecutions under the law wide latitude to impose sentences based on the provisions in the act
33.
Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990
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The Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 is a US labor law that prohibits unjustified discrimination based on disability. The final version of the bill was signed into law on July 26,1990 and it was later amended in 2008 and signed by President George W. Bush with changes effective as of January 1,2009. ADA disabilities include both mental and physical medical conditions, a condition does not need to be severe or permanent to be a disability. Additionally, other conditions, such as gender identity disorders, are also excluded under the definition of disability. The ADA states that an entity shall not discriminate against a qualified individual with a disability. This applies to job application procedures, hiring, advancement and discharge of employees, job training, and other terms, conditions, covered entities include employers with 15 or more employees, as well as employment agencies, labor organizations, and joint labor-management committees. Prohibited discrimination may include, among other things, firing or refusing to hire someone based on a real or perceived disability, segregation, covered entities are also required to provide reasonable accommodations to job applicants and employees with disabilities. An employee or applicant who currently engages in the use of drugs is not considered qualified when a covered entity takes adverse action based on such use. There are many ways to discriminate against people based on disabilities, anyone known to have a history of mental disorders can be considered disabled. Employers with more than 15 employees must take care to all employees fairly. Even when an employee is doing a job well, she or he is not necessarily no longer disabled. The Court determined that state employees cannot sue their employer for violating ADA rules, state employees can, however, file complaints at the Department of Justice or the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission, who can sue on their behalf. Title II prohibits disability discrimination by all entities at the local level, e. g. school district, municipal, city, or county. Public entities must comply with Title II regulations by the U. S. Department of Justice and these regulations cover access to all programs and services offered by the entity. Access includes physical access described in the ADA Standards for Accessible Design, Title II applies to public transportation provided by public entities through regulations by the U. S. Department of Transportation. It includes the National Railroad Passenger Corporation, along all other commuter authorities. This section requires the provision of services by public entities that provide fixed route services. ADA also sets minimum requirements for space layout in order to facilitate wheelchair securement on public transport, Title II also applies to all state and local public housing, housing assistance, and housing referrals
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Oil Pollution Act of 1990
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The Oil Pollution Act of 1990 was passed by the 101st United States Congress and signed by President George H. W. Bush. This statute has resulted in changes in the oil production, transportation. Laws governing oil spills in the United States began in 1851 with the Limitation of Liability Act and this statue, in an attempt to protect the shipping industry, stated that vessel owners were liable for incident-related costs up to the post-incident value of their vessel. The shortcomings of this law were revealed in 1967 with the release of over 100,000 tons of oil into the English Channel from the Torrey Canyon. Of the $8 million of cleanup-related costs, the owners of the Torrey Canyon were held liable for only $50—the value of the only remaining Torrey Canyon lifeboat. In the meantime, the Oil Pollution Act of 1924 had passed, two years following the Torrey Canyon spill, an oil platform eruption in the Santa Barbara Channel made national headlines and thrust oil pollution into the public spot light. The FWPA set specific liability limitations, for example, vessels transporting oil were liable only up to $250,000 or $150 per gross ton. These limitations rarely covered the cost of removal and cleanup, let alone damages, in the decades to follow, several other laws that dealt with oil spill liability and compensation were passed. However, this collection of federal and state laws provided only limited safeguards against the hazards of oils spills. In 1976, a bill to create a cohesive safe measure for oil pollution was introduced to Congress, neither the House of Representatives nor the Senate could agree on a single statue and the bill fell out of consideration numerous times. On March 24,1989, the Exxon Valdez hit aground in the Prince Williams Sound, soon afterward, in June 1989, three smaller spills occurred within coastal waters of the United States. This was timely evidence that oil spills were not uncommon, Parker, a longtime transportation consultant and public official, as the chairman of the commission. Under Parker, the Commission issued 52 recommendations for improvements to industry, state,50 of these recommendations were worked into the Oil Pollution Act bill that was introduced into legislation on March 16,1989 by Walter B. Jones, Sr. a Democratic Party congressman from North Carolinas 1st congressional district, March 16,1989, the Oil Pollution Act was introduced into the legislative process for enactment. June 21 of 1989, a reported and recommended that both chambers of Congress should consider the bill further. Only about 1 in 4 bills are reported out of committee, november 9,1989, the bill was passed by a vote in the House of Representatives. November 19,1989, the bill was passed by the Senate, the bill was sent back to the House of Representatives for approval of the changes added by the Senate. However, the House of Representatives did not agree to the revisions, august 2 of 1990, a conference committee was created, including members of both the House of Representatives and Senate, in order to resolve differences and propose a final bill for approval
35.
Hotel and Motel Fire Safety Act of 1990
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Hotel and Motel Fire Safety Act of 1990 was established to acknowledge the evolving apprehension of fire safety criteria for the hospitality industry. H. R.94 legislation was passed by the 101st U. S, congressional session and enacted by the 41st President of the United States George H. W. Bush on September 25,1990. The U. S. Congress issued a proclamation related to fire, §2201 et seq. is amended by the addition of the following sections. L. Hotel and Motel Fire Safety Outreach, list of Approved Hotels and Motels for Federal Travelers
36.
Native American Languages Act of 1990
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The Native American Languages Act of 1990 is the short cited title for executive order PUBLIC LAW 101-477 enacted by Congress on October 30,1990. In the United States, Native American languages came under pressure through contact with superstrate colonial languages with the arrival of the first European settlers, estimates place the number of Native languages at the time of European contact between three and six hundred. Legislation mandated English as the language of instruction enforced on reservations in the 19th century. As the foreign culture became dominant, racial overtones surfaced. Native American boarding schools were the impetus for executing the paradigm of assimilation even further, Indian children were removed from their homes and placed in distant boarding schools run by federal government officials and missionaries. Many emotional and psychological issues today found in Indian communities have their foundations within the traumatic experiences of the educated in such schools. The Dawes Allotment Act was another impetus to assimilate the Indian people into private land owners. This Act enabled outsiders to chip away Indian land, many non-Indian men married Indian women to own land and property, as did non-Indian explorers who were given land if marrying Indian women in Alta California and New Spain during early colonization. It was not until the Civil Rights Movement that there began to be traces of recognition. This started with President Johnson’s approval of the Bilingual Education Act of 1968 and this Act was primarily an outgrowth within the Civil Rights Movement and it was to assist particularly minorities speaking Spanish in English schools to help students with English. Yet, Bilingual Education was expanded with the Lau v. Nichols case, though this act was aimed towards immigrant students, Native Americans took the opportunity to apply for funding to initiate projects for their own bilingual studies addressing their own language. In the wake of the Self-Determination Era, tribes and U. S. territorial communities were coming together to re-establish their cultures, communities who were re-establishing their cultures sought support through these programs. The conference produced a resolution that found its way to Senator Daniel K. Inouye, two years later it became the Native American Languages Act which officially addresses the fundamental rights of Native American peoples. Their advocacy to change national policy was joined by American Indian language advocates, in 1988 Senator Daniel K. Inouye introduced a joint resolution, but Congress adjourned without any action. The following year Inouye introduced a version with nine sponsors. Inouye revised the bill regarding the concerns and was approved by the Senate on April 3,1990. Key members of the House refused to allow the bill out of the committee because of the use of other than English in America. Lurline McGregor, Inouyes aide and manager of the bill looked for a bill with a title that did not mention the language in it
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Individuals with Disabilities Education Act
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IDEA was previously known as the Education for All Handicapped Children Act from 1975 to 1990. In 1990, the United States Congress reauthorized EHA and changed the title to IDEA, overall, the goal of IDEA is to provide children with disabilities the same opportunity for education as those students who do not have a disability. IDEA is composed of four parts, the two being part A and part B. Each part of the law has remained largely the same since the enactment in 1975. In practice, IDEA is composed of six elements that illuminate its main points. To go along with six main elements there are also a few other important components that tie into IDEA, Confidentiality of Information, Transition Services. Throughout the years of IDEA being reauthorized these components have become key concepts when learning about IDEA, before the Education for All Handicapped Children Act was enacted in 1975, U. S. public schools accommodated only 1 out of 5 children with disabilities. At the time the EHA was enacted, more than 1 million children in the U. S. had no access to the school system. Many of these lived at state institutions where they received limited or no educational or rehabilitation services. Another 3.5 million children attended school but were “warehoused” in segregated facilities, as of 2006, more than 6 million children in the U. S. receive special education services through IDEA. Board of Education of Topeka,347 U. S.483 and this caused a great deal of unrest in the political sphere and marks a gateway moment in the Civil Rights Movement. Education was an important aspect of the Civil Rights Movement, on top of those events, the Civil Rights Movement was in full force in the United States. From schools being integrated to the Montgomery Bus Boycott, from Greensboro sit-ins to marches on Washington, President John F. Kennedy showed interest in mental retardation studies and President Lyndon Johnson used Federal funds to increase research on “at-risk” youth. Early intervention programs for children living in low situations, such as the Head Start Program. Education was soon at the forefront of political agendas. The first legislation which provided relief was the Rehabilitation Act of 1973, separate schooling may only occur when the nature or severity of the disability is such that instructional goals cannot be achieved in the regular classroom. Finally, the law contains a due process clause that guarantees an impartial hearing to resolve conflicts between the parents of disabled children to the school system. The act also required school districts provide administrative procedures so that parents of disabled children could dispute decisions made about their children’s education
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Omnibus Budget Reconciliation Act of 1990
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The Omnibus Budget Reconciliation Act of 1990 is a United States statute enacted pursuant to the budget reconciliation process to reduce the United States federal budget deficit. The Act included the Budget Enforcement Act of 1990 which established the pay-as-you-go or PAYGO process for discretionary spending, the Act was signed into law by President George H. W. Bush on November 5,1990, counter to his 1988 campaign promise not to raise taxes. This became an issue in the election of 1992. The Act increased individual income tax rates, the top statutory tax rate increased from 28% to 31%, and the individual alternative minimum tax rate increased from 21% to 24%. The capital gains rate was capped at 28%, the value of high income itemized deductions was limited, reduced by 3% times the extent to which AGI exceeds $100,000. It temporarily created the personal exemption phase out applicable to the range of income between $150,000 and $275,000. Itemized deductions were temporarily limited until 1995, the cap on taxable wages for hospital insurance was raised from $53,400 to $125,000. Social security taxes to state and local employees was extended without other pension coverage, a supplemental 0. 2% unemployment insurance surtax was imposed. The act imposed a 30% excise tax on the amount of price over $30,000 for autos, $100,000 for boats, $250,000 for airplanes, and $10,000 for furs. It extended Airport and Airway trust fund taxes, increasing them by 25%, as a result, these boards, define lists of drugs classes and drugs within those classes in which no drug on the list is felt to be any more effective or less safe than another. This decision is made by a body of independent physicians and pharmacists who are not seen as having a conflict of interest. The Act stipulates the decision must be made in conjunction with a compilation of evidence, as well as public comment, once the drug makes the list, it can also be chosen as a preferred drug. Preferred drugs are typically cheap generic drugs, the Act specified that pharmacists can substitute for a preferred drug, and must offer counseling to the patient on the substitution. The Act also allows drugs listed as preferred to be eligible for sealed non-transparent rebates to occur from the manufacturer of the drug to the state agency. These are legally sanctioned kickbacks in which the public by law does not have a right to know the amount of the rebate below the average wholesale price. In cases where no sufficient evidence exists a drug is any less safe, the drug is declared substitutable, and eligible for placement on the PDL, and for the supplemental rebate program
39.
Human Genome Project
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It remains the worlds largest collaborative biological project. After the idea was picked up in 1984 by the US government when the planning started, funding came from the US government through the National Institutes of Health as well as numerous other groups from around the world. A parallel project was conducted outside of government by the Celera Corporation, or Celera Genomics, most of the government-sponsored sequencing was performed in twenty universities and research centers in the United States, the United Kingdom, Japan, France, Germany, Canada, and China. The Human Genome Project originally aimed to map the nucleotides contained in a human haploid reference genome, the finished human genome is thus a mosaic, not representing any one individual. The Human Genome Project was a 13-year-long, publicly funded project initiated in 1990 with the objective of determining the DNA sequence of the euchromatic human genome within 15 years. In May 1985, Robert Sinsheimer organized a workshop to discuss sequencing the human genome, the following March, the Santa Fe Workshop was organized by Charles DeLisi and David Smith of the Department of Energys Office of Health and Environmental Research. At the same time Renato Dulbecco proposed whole genome sequencing in an essay in Science, James Watson followed two months later with a workshop held at the Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory. The fact that the Santa Fe workshop was motivated and supported by a Federal Agency opened a path, albeit a difficult and tortuous one, for converting the idea into public policy. In a memo to the Assistant Secretary for Energy Research, Charles DeLisi, of particular importance in Congressional approval was the advocacy of Senator Peter Domenici, whom DeLisi had befriended. Domenici chaired the Senate Committee on Energy and Natural Resources, as well as the Budget Committee, Congress added a comparable amount to the NIH budget, thereby beginning official funding by both agencies. Alvin Trivelpiece sought and obtained the approval of DeLisis proposal by Deputy Secretary William Flynn Martin and this reprogramming was followed by a line item budget of $16 million in the Reagan Administration’s 1987 budget submission to Congress. The Project was planned for 15 years, candidate technologies were already being considered for the proposed undertaking at least as early as 1985. In 1990, the two major funding agencies, DOE and NIH, developed a memorandum of understanding in order to coordinate plans, a working draft of the genome was announced in 2000 and the papers describing it were published in February 2001. A more complete draft was published in 2003, and genome finishing work continued for more than a decade, the $3-billion project was formally founded in 1990 by the US Department of Energy and the National Institutes of Health, and was expected to take 15 years. In addition to the United States, the consortium comprised geneticists in the United Kingdom, France, Australia, China. Due to widespread international cooperation and advances in the field of genomics, as well as advances in computing technology. This first available rough draft assembly of the genome was completed by the Genome Bioinformatics Group at the University of California, Santa Cruz, ongoing sequencing led to the announcement of the essentially complete genome on April 14,2003, two years earlier than planned. In May 2006, another milestone was passed on the way to completion of the project, the project was not able to sequence all the DNA found in human cells
40.
Immigration Act of 1990
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The Immigration Act of 1990 was signed into law by George H. W. Bush on November 29,1990. It was first introduced by Senator Ted Kennedy in 1989 and it was a national reform of the Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965. It increased total, overall immigration to allow 700,000 immigrants to come to the U. S. per year for the fiscal years 92–94, besides these immigrant visas there were also changes in nonimmigrant visas like the H-1B visa for highly skilled workers. There were also cutbacks in the allotment of visas available for extended relatives and it specifically benefited citizens of El Salvador. George H. W. Bush is quoted in saying I am also pleased to note that this Act facilitates immigration not just in numerical terms, the administration, therefore, saw the importance of this amendment in extending a welcoming to those previously excluded nations/individuals. Family reunification remained a priority as it had been in the Immigration, job-based immigration was divided amongst five occupational categories in the 1990 Immigration act (in the 1965 act only two existed. The act provided 140,000 visas per year for job based immigration. These categories were, EB-1 visa EB-2 visa EB-3 visa EB-4 visa EB-5 visa The EB4 visa is a vague but has to do with religious workers who wish to continue their career in the U. S. Diversity Immigrant Visa was a new, important facet of the amendment that had never been instituted in national immigration policy before, a High Admission region or country is one that has had 50,000 immigrants or more acquire a permanent residency visa. The High Admission regions are not given visas under this act in order to promote diversity, starting in fiscal year 1995, the cap of 55,000 visas were allotted as diversity visas. Today it is more around 50,000, changes have been made to the diversity visa requirements almost every other year since 1990 to assess which countries qualify. There are a number of qualifications to obtaining this visa besides being one of the qualifying zones. The selection of qualifying applicants is random, once you are approved and granted a visa, family unification does extend to these visa holders. Children and spouses are eligible for permanent residency and this policy, notably, positively effected displaced Tibetans from 1991–1994 who were given 1,000 visas per year. Today I am pleased to sign S.358, the Immigration Act of 1990—the most comprehensive reform of our immigration laws in 66 years. Immigration reform began in 1986 with an effort to close the door on illegal immigration through enactment of the 1986 Immigration Reform. Now, as we open the front door to increased legal immigration, I am also pleased to note that this Act facilitates immigration not just in numerical terms, but also in terms of basic entry rights of those beyond our borders. S.358 revises the politically related exclusion grounds for the first time since their enactment in 1952, the bill also introduced a cap of 65,000 per year to H-1B and excluded nurses, entertainers, athletes, and artists from qualifying
41.
Berne Convention
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The Berne Convention formally mandated several aspects of modern copyright law, it introduced the concept that a copyright exists the moment a work is fixed, rather than requiring registration. It also enforces a requirement that countries recognize copyrights held by the citizens of all parties to the convention. The Berne Convention requires its parties to treat the copyright of works of authors from other parties to the convention at least as well as those of its own nationals. For example, French copyright law applies to anything published or performed in France, Copyright under the Berne Convention must be automatic, it is prohibited to require formal registration. However, when the United States joined the Convention 1 March 1989, it continued to make statutory damages and attorneys fees only available for registered works. Under Article 4, it applies to cinematic works by persons who have their headquarters or habitual residence in a party country. The Convention relies on the concept of country of origin, often determining the country of origin is straightforward, when a work is published in a party country and nowhere else, this is the country of origin. However, under Article 5, when a work is published simultaneously in several party countries, for works simultaneously published in a party country and one or more non-parties, the party country is the country of origin. For unpublished works or works first published in a non-party country, in the Internet age, unrestricted publication online may be considered publication in every sufficiently internet-connected jurisdiction in the world. It is not clear what this may mean for determining country of origin, however other U. S. courts in similar situations have reached different conclusions, e. g. Håkan Moberg v. 33T LLC. The matter of determining the country of origin for digital publication remains a topic of controversy among law academics as well, countries under the older revisions of the treaty may choose to provide their own protection terms, and certain types of works may be provided shorter terms. If the author is unknown, because for example the author was deliberately anonymous or worked under a pseudonym, however, if the identity of the author becomes known, the copyright term for known authors applies. e. An author is not entitled a longer copyright abroad than at home. This is commonly known as the rule of the shorter term, not all countries have accepted this rule. As to works, protection must include every production in the literary, scientific and artistic domain, the Berne Convention authorizes countries to allow fair uses of copyrighted works in other publications or broadcasts. Implementations of this part of the treaty fall into the categories of fair use. This language may mean that Internet service providers are not liable for the communications of their users. Critics claim that the convention does not mention any other rights of consumers of works except for fair use, there is a legal debate about whether the U. S
