1.
Photography
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Typically, a lens is used to focus the light reflected or emitted from objects into a real image on the light-sensitive surface inside a camera during a timed exposure. With an electronic sensor, this produces an electrical charge at each pixel. A negative image on film is used to photographically create a positive image on a paper base, known as a print. The word photography was created from the Greek roots φωτός, genitive of φῶς, light and γραφή representation by means of lines or drawing, several people may have coined the same new term from these roots independently. Johann von Maedler, a Berlin astronomer, is credited in a 1932 German history of photography as having used it in an article published on 25 February 1839 in the German newspaper Vossische Zeitung. Both of these claims are now widely reported but apparently neither has ever been confirmed as beyond reasonable doubt. Credit has traditionally given to Sir John Herschel both for coining the word and for introducing it to the public. Photography is the result of combining several technical discoveries, later Greek mathematicians Aristotle and Euclid also independently described a pinhole camera in the 5th and 4th centuries BCE. Daniele Barbaro described a diaphragm in 1566, wilhelm Homberg described how light darkened some chemicals in 1694. The fiction book Giphantie, published in 1760, by French author Tiphaigne de la Roche, the discovery of the camera obscura that provides an image of a scene dates back to ancient China. Leonardo da Vinci mentions natural camera obscura that are formed by dark caves on the edge of a sunlit valley, a hole in the cave wall will act as a pinhole camera and project a laterally reversed, upside down image on a piece of paper. So the birth of photography was primarily concerned with inventing means to capture, renaissance painters used the camera obscura which, in fact, gives the optical rendering in color that dominates Western Art. The camera obscura literally means dark chamber in Latin and it is a box with a hole in it which allows light to go through and create an image onto the piece of paper. Around the year 1800, British inventor Thomas Wedgwood made the first known attempt to capture the image in a camera obscura by means of a light-sensitive substance and he used paper or white leather treated with silver nitrate. The shadow images eventually darkened all over, the first permanent photoetching was an image produced in 1822 by the French inventor Nicéphore Niépce, but it was destroyed in a later attempt to make prints from it. Niépce was successful again in 1825, in 1826 or 1827, he made the View from the Window at Le Gras, the earliest surviving photograph from nature. Because Niépces camera photographs required a long exposure, he sought to greatly improve his bitumen process or replace it with one that was more practical. With an eye to eventual commercial exploitation, the partners opted for total secrecy, Daguerres efforts culminated in what would later be named the daguerreotype process
2.
Kodak
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Eastman Kodak Company, commonly referred to as Kodak, is an American technology company that produces imaging products with its historic basis on photography. The company is headquartered in Rochester, New York and is incorporated in New Jersey, Kodak provides packaging, functional printing, graphic communications and professional services for businesses around the world. Its main business segments are Print Systems, Enterprise Inkjet Systems, Micro 3D Printing and Packaging, Software and Solutions and it is best known for photographic film products. Kodak was founded by George Eastman and Henry A, during most of the 20th century, Kodak held a dominant position in photographic film. The companys ubiquity was such that its Kodak moment tagline entered the lexicon to describe a personal event that was demanded to be recorded for posterity. Kodak began to struggle financially in the late 1990s, as a result of the decline in sales of photographic film, as a part of a turnaround strategy, Kodak began to focus on digital photography and digital printing, and attempted to generate revenues through aggressive patent litigation. In January 2012, Kodak filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy protection in the United States District Court for the Southern District of New York. In February 2012, Kodak announced that it would stop making digital cameras, pocket video cameras and digital picture frames, in January 2013, the Court approved financing for Kodak to emerge from bankruptcy by mid 2013. Kodak sold many of its patents for approximately $525,000,000 to a group of companies under the names Intellectual Ventures, on September 3,2013, the company emerged from bankruptcy having shed its large legacy liabilities and exited several businesses. Personalized Imaging and Document Imaging are now part of Kodak Alaris, on March 12,2014, it announced that the board of directors elected Jeffrey J. Clarke as chief executive officer and a member of its board of directors. As late as 1976, Kodak commanded 90% of film sales, Japanese competitor Fujifilm entered the U. S. market with lower-priced film and supplies, but Kodak did not believe that American consumers would ever desert its brand. Kodak passed on the opportunity to become the film of the 1984 Los Angeles Olympics, Fuji won these sponsorship rights. Fuji opened a plant in the U. S. and its aggressive marketing. Fuji went from a 10% share in the early 1990s to 17% in 1997, fujis films soon also found a competitive edge in higher-speed negative films, with a tighter grain structure. The complaint was lodged by the United States with the World Trade Organization, on January 30,1998, the WTO announced a sweeping rejection of Kodaks complaints about the film market in Japan. Although Kodak developed a camera in 1975, the first of its kind. In the 1990s, Kodak planned a journey to move to digital technology. CEO George M. C. Fisher reached out to Microsoft, Apples pioneering QuickTake consumer digital cameras, introduced in 1994, had the Apple label but were produced by Kodak
3.
126 film
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For the unrelated roll-film format produced from 1906 to 1949, see 126 film. 126 is the given to a cartridge-based film format used in still photography. It was introduced by Kodak in 1963, and is associated mainly with low-end point-and-shoot cameras, although 126 was once very popular, as of 2008 it is no longer manufactured, and few photofinishers will process it. In 1963, Kodak introduced a new film, encased in a plastic cartridge, the term 126 was intended to show that images were 26 mm square, using Kodaks common 1xx film numbering system. However the image size is actually 28×28 mm, but usually reduced to approximately 26. 5×26.5 mm by masking during printing or mounting, the 126 film format was defined in ISO3029, which has since been withdrawn. Like the 120 format, there is a backing paper. The cartridge has a captive take-up spool, but no supply spool, the positioning of the image is fixed by the cartridge. The film is 35 mm wide, but unlike 135 film, it is unperforated, except for one registration hole per image, similar to the earlier 828 film. The top edge of the cartridge above the gate has a square notch in a specific position corresponding to the speed of the film in the cartridge. Some of the cameras used this notch to determine the correct exposure, or to set the light meter. Although only film with speeds between ISO 64/19° and ISO 400/27° were ever manufactured in this format, the standard defined 20 different speeds, the film was originally available in 12 and 20 image lengths, at the time regular production stopped it was only available in 24 exposure cartridges. The film does not need to be rewound, and is simple to load and unload. The format was introduced by Kodak under the brand name Kodapak, around ten million cameras were made by Kodak and other companies. However, with a few exceptions, the format was used for fairly simple amateur cameras. Kodak officially discontinued the format on 31 December 1999, Ferrania in Italy, was the last factory producing 126 film. Their product was an ISO200 colour print film marketed under their Solaris brand, the last scheduled production run took place in April 2007, but an unscheduled production run in late 2007 surprised industry observers and raised hopes that it had not actually been discontinued. As of March 2009, Ferrania customer service states that they are producing only 135 format color film in 200 and 400 ASA. Adocolor 126, which was recently available in Europe and was sometimes imported by North American resellers, was manufactured for the German Adox company by Ferrania
4.
Disc film
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Disc film was a still-photography film format aimed at the consumer market, and introduced by Kodak in 1982. The film was in the form of a disc, and was fully housed within a plastic cartridge. Each disc held fifteen 10 ×8 mm exposures, arranged around the outside of the disc, the system was a consumer-oriented product, and most cameras were self-contained units with no expansion capability. The disc film allowed them to be compact and considerably thinner than other cameras, the cameras were very simple to load and unload, and were generally completely automated. The cassette had a dark slide to prevent stray light reaching the film when the disc was removed. As the film was rotated on a disc instead of over a spool, the flat nature of the format also led to the advantage of greater sharpness over curved spool-based cassette formats. Disc film has a very thick acetate base, comparable thickness with 4×5 sheet film, the film was intended to be printed with special 6-element lenses from Kodak, but many labs simply printed discs with standard 3-element lenses used for larger negative formats. The resulting prints often disappointed the consumer, few labs made the investment required to get the best out the small negative size. A problem with labs of the time was the nature of processing the color negative film. This was essentially a process, unlike spool-based films, whose chemical processing could be fully automated. The film was discontinued by the last manufacturer, Kodak, on December 31,1999. There were several different manufacturers of Disc film, Kodak produced films throughout the complete lifespan of the format, but 3M, Konica and Fuji also produced Disc film. While Kodak film was always eponymous, 3M and Konica made Disc film for many third parties, as with most photographic film, for such white-label products the country of manufacture provides the best indication as to the actual manufacturer. Kodaks newest ideas with sharp fine-grained negative film were tested in Disc format first. Kodak, Kodacolor HR, Kodacolor VR, Kodacolor Gold Fuji, Fujicolor HR series, 3M, HR film series and third party film. Manufactured in Italy until the 1990s, then USA, there are still a small number of labs remaining in North America and the UK able to develop unprocessed disc film. Examples are as of June 2015, Film Rescue International Rapid Photo Imaging Center Inc, International, USA Blue Moon Camera & Machine USA Dwaynes Photo USA MS Hobbies UK, Europe Citizens Photo USA Disc film is not available to purchase new due to the very complex design. No manufacturers remain, nor are any likely to recommence production
5.
Advanced Photo System
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Advanced Photo System is a now discontinued film format for still photography first produced in 1996. It was marketed by Eastman Kodak under the brand name Advantix, by FujiFilm under the name Nexia, by Agfa under the name Futura and by Konica as Centuria. The film is 24 mm wide, and has three image formats, H for High Definition C for Classic P for Panoramic The C and P formats are formed by cropping. The full image is recorded on the film, and an image recorded in one aspect ratio can be reprinted in another, the C format has an equivalent aspect ratio to a 135 film image. In the absence of a format, the machine printing an APS roll will use these indicators to determine the output format of each print. The film is on a polyethylene naphthalate base, and is housed in a single-spool 39 mm long plastic cartridge, the basic diameter is 21 mm, while it measures 30 mm at the slot where the film exits. The slot is protected by a lightproof door and it is available in 40,25 and 15 exposure lengths. The film surface has a transparent magnetic coating, and the camera uses this information exchange system for recording information about each exposure, the camera handles winding and rewinding automatically, to the extent that partially exposed films can, in certain cameras, be removed and used later. A major distinction of APS film was the ability to record other than the image. This information could be read by the printing equipment to determine the print aspect ratio, print information on the back of the photograph. Two methods for storing information on the film were employed, magnetic IX, optical IX was employed on less expensive cameras and disposable cameras, and employed a light source to expose a small section of the film, outside of the image negative area. This method was limited to determining the print aspect ratio of the finished print, magnetic IX was used in the more expensive cameras and allowed for more information exchange. Magnetic IX caused some problems for photo processors, who found their magnetic reading heads had to be cleaned frequently, unlike 135 film, processed APS film is stored in the original cartridge. For identification, every roll of APS film has a six-digit ID code on the label and this ID is usually printed on the back of every individual print. This ID was designed to be an additional convenience both for the photoprocessor and for the consumer, who can easily locate the correct cartridge if reprints are desired, to facilitate automatic processing of film, a unique DX number is assigned to the different types of film. The format was introduced in 1996 by Kodak, Fujifilm, Minolta, Nikon, Canon, APS was mainly used for point and shoot amateur cameras, although some SLR systems were also created, Canon EOS IX, Minolta Vectis, Nikon Pronea with Nikon IX lenses. Of these the Canon EOS IX and the Nikon Pronea could use the existing 35 mm SLR lenses, Nikon developed the IX series of lens that were lighter and had a smaller image circle. Although the Nikon IX series of lenses were not compatible with the Nikon 35 mm SLR, using existing lenses meant that the field of view was reduced by around 1. 6×, but had the advantage of a larger lens selection
6.
135 film
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135 is photographic film in a film format used for still photography. It is a film with a film gauge of 35 mm. Its engineering standard for the film is controlled by ISO1007, the term 135 was introduced by Kodak in 1934 as a designation for the cassette for 35 mm film, specifically for still photography. It quickly grew in popularity, surpassing 120 film by the late 1960s to become the most popular photographic film size, despite competition from formats such as 828,126,110, and APS, it remains so today. 135 camera film always comes perforated with Kodak Standard perforations, the size of the 135 film frame has been adopted by many high-end digital single-lens reflex and digital mirrorless cameras, commonly referred to as full frame. Even though the format is smaller than historical medium format and large format film, it is much larger than image sensors in most compact cameras. Individual rolls of 135 film are enclosed in single-spool, light-tight, the film is clipped or taped to a spool and exits via a slot lined with flocking. The end of the film is cut on one side to form a leader and it has the same dimensions and perforation pitch as 35 mm movie print film. Most cameras require the film to be rewound before the camera is opened, disposable cameras use the same technique so that the user does not have to rewind. Since the 1980s film cassettes have been marked with a DX encoding pattern, conforming cameras detect this, different films are sensitive to light at different degrees, this film speed is standardised by ISO.135 film has been made in several emulsion types and sensitivities. Since the introduction of digital cameras the most usual films have colour emulsions of ISO 100/21° to ISO 800/30°, films of lower sensitivity and higher sensitivity are for more specialist purposes. There are colour and monochrome films, negative and positive, monochrome film is usually panchromatic, orthochromatic has fallen out of use. Film designed to be sensitive to infrared radiation can be obtained, more exotic emulsions have been available in 135 than other roll-film sizes. The term 135 format usually refers to a 36×24 mm film format, the 36×24 mm format is common to digital image sensors, where it is typically referred to as full frame format. On 135 film, the dimension of the 36×24 mm frame runs parallel to the length of the film. The perforation size and pitch are according to the standard specification KS-1870, for each frame, the film advances 8 perforations. This is specified as 38.00 mm and this allows for 2 mm gaps between frames. Each camera model has a different location for the sprocket which advances the film, therefore, each camera model’s frame will vary in position relative to the perforations
7.
Instamatic
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For the film formats associated with the Instamatic and Pocket Instamatic camera ranges, see 126 film and 110 film respectively. The Instamatic is a series of inexpensive, easy-to-load 126 and 110 cameras made by Kodak beginning in 1963, the Instamatic was immensely successful, introducing a generation to low-cost photography and spawning numerous imitators. During its heyday, the range was so ubiquitous that the Instamatic name is frequently used to refer to any inexpensive point-and-shoot camera. The Instamatic name was used by Kodak on some Super 8-based home-cine cameras. The first Instamatics went on sale for $16 in early 1963 and they were the first cameras to use Kodaks new 126 format. A wide variety of print and slide film was sold by Kodak in the 126 format, the lead designer for the Instamatic program was Dean M. Peterson, also later known for most of the innovations in the point-and-shoot camera revolution of the 1980s. The first Instamatic to be released was the Instamatic 50, which appeared in the UK in February 1963, the first model released in the US was the basic Instamatic 100. With fixed shutter speed of 1/90th of a second, aperture and focus, it continued in the tradition of Kodaks earlier Brownie cameras and it also featured a built-in flashgun for AG-1 peanut bulbs, a feature lacking in the 50. The top-of-the-line model was the Instamatic Reflex SLR, which was made in Germany, the Instamatic was an instant success, more than 50 million Instamatic cameras were produced between 1963 and 1970. Many other manufacturers attempted to capitalize on the popularity of the Instamatic with their own 126 cameras, including Canon, Olympus, Minolta, Ricoh, Zeiss Ikon, a new series of Instamatics was introduced in 1970 to take advantage of the new Magicube flash technology. Magicubes used mechanically triggered pyrotechnic detonators for each bulb, an improvement over flashcubes in that the need for batteries was eliminated, Instamatics with Magicube sockets were denoted by an X in the model number. In 1972, Kodak introduced the Pocket Instamatic series for its new 110 format, the 110 cartridge had the same easy-load design as the 126 format but was much smaller, allowing the cameras to be very compact. The top-of-the-line model was the Pocket Instamatic 60, which featured a steel body, rangefinder. More than 25 million Pocket Instamatics were produced in three years, and the 110 format remained popular into the 1990s. In 1976, the Instamatic X line was updated for use with the new Flipflash system and these cameras were designated by the addition of the suffix F to the model number of the corresponding Magicube model. The basic X-15F was the last Instamatic sold in the United States, list of defunct consumer brands Media related to Kodak Instamatic at Wikimedia Commons
8.
Subminiature camera
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Subminiature photography is photographic technologies and techniques working with film material smaller in size than 35mm film, such as 16mm,9. 5mm, 17mm, or 17. 5mm films. It is distinct from photomicrography, photographing microscopic subjects with a camera which is not particularly small, definition of Subminiature—very much reduced in size, Oxford English Dictionary. Subminiature camera is a class of very much smaller than miniature camera. The smallest of these are referred to as ultra-miniature. Lipstick cameras and other digital cameras are not included, because they dont use film. The smaller subminiature or ultraminiature cameras, particularly Minox, are associated with spying, half-frame cameras belong to the miniature camera category, as these use 35mm film. Some half-frame cameras, such as Olympus Pen F which is approximately 611 grams massive, are heavier than classical full-frame miniature cameras. Minox, followed by Tessina, GaMi, Rollei, Yashica, Mamiya, Gemflex, all made small, precision cameras and a few were still in production in 2006 but by 2011, only the Minox TLX model was still in production. Getting film and processing for most smaller cameras is a challenge as they are no longer manufactured or supported, most require cutting your own film and home-processing. The best known subminiature formats are—in increasing size—Minox, Kodak disc,16 mm, Super 16 mm,110 film, and the Advanced Photo System with different aspect ratios on 24 mm film. While many subminiature cameras were inexpensive and poorly manufactured, Minox, Gami, Edixa, Rollei, Pentax, the first subminiature single lens reflex is the Russian Narciss camera produced in 1961-65. First making an appearance in the late 19th century, often as concealed cameras, subminiature cameras became popular soon after WWII when many consumer markets required small, friedrich Kaftanskys Mini-flex was designed in 1931, on the market in 1933. Walter Zapps Riga Minox appeared in 1938, kodaks introduction of the 110 camera in the 1970s and the Kodak disc camera in the 1980s brought the subminiature camera to the forefront of the photographic market. The many cheap, poorly made cameras that soon appeared drove Kodak out of the market, various formats of subminiature camera have come and gone over the years as newer formats have replaced older one. Some subminiature formats, such as the Minox and 110 formats, most other subminiature cameras are still usable if film can be obtained, particularly if the photographer is prepared to do the processing. 16mm perforated or unperforated bulk roll film by Agfa, Kodak, using film slitter to slit 35mm roll film into Minox format film or 16mm film. Focusing The process of focusing a camera is the same as any other camera, Unit focusing. Examples, Minox B, C, LX, TLX, Edixa 16, Minox 110, Monolta 16 Front element focusing, Rollei 16, Rollei 110
