1.
Photography
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Typically, a lens is used to focus the light reflected or emitted from objects into a real image on the light-sensitive surface inside a camera during a timed exposure. With an electronic sensor, this produces an electrical charge at each pixel. A negative image on film is used to photographically create a positive image on a paper base, known as a print. The word photography was created from the Greek roots φωτός, genitive of φῶς, light and γραφή representation by means of lines or drawing, several people may have coined the same new term from these roots independently. Johann von Maedler, a Berlin astronomer, is credited in a 1932 German history of photography as having used it in an article published on 25 February 1839 in the German newspaper Vossische Zeitung. Both of these claims are now widely reported but apparently neither has ever been confirmed as beyond reasonable doubt. Credit has traditionally given to Sir John Herschel both for coining the word and for introducing it to the public. Photography is the result of combining several technical discoveries, later Greek mathematicians Aristotle and Euclid also independently described a pinhole camera in the 5th and 4th centuries BCE. Daniele Barbaro described a diaphragm in 1566, wilhelm Homberg described how light darkened some chemicals in 1694. The fiction book Giphantie, published in 1760, by French author Tiphaigne de la Roche, the discovery of the camera obscura that provides an image of a scene dates back to ancient China. Leonardo da Vinci mentions natural camera obscura that are formed by dark caves on the edge of a sunlit valley, a hole in the cave wall will act as a pinhole camera and project a laterally reversed, upside down image on a piece of paper. So the birth of photography was primarily concerned with inventing means to capture, renaissance painters used the camera obscura which, in fact, gives the optical rendering in color that dominates Western Art. The camera obscura literally means dark chamber in Latin and it is a box with a hole in it which allows light to go through and create an image onto the piece of paper. Around the year 1800, British inventor Thomas Wedgwood made the first known attempt to capture the image in a camera obscura by means of a light-sensitive substance and he used paper or white leather treated with silver nitrate. The shadow images eventually darkened all over, the first permanent photoetching was an image produced in 1822 by the French inventor Nicéphore Niépce, but it was destroyed in a later attempt to make prints from it. Niépce was successful again in 1825, in 1826 or 1827, he made the View from the Window at Le Gras, the earliest surviving photograph from nature. Because Niépces camera photographs required a long exposure, he sought to greatly improve his bitumen process or replace it with one that was more practical. With an eye to eventual commercial exploitation, the partners opted for total secrecy, Daguerres efforts culminated in what would later be named the daguerreotype process
2.
Kodak
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Eastman Kodak Company, commonly referred to as Kodak, is an American technology company that produces imaging products with its historic basis on photography. The company is headquartered in Rochester, New York and is incorporated in New Jersey, Kodak provides packaging, functional printing, graphic communications and professional services for businesses around the world. Its main business segments are Print Systems, Enterprise Inkjet Systems, Micro 3D Printing and Packaging, Software and Solutions and it is best known for photographic film products. Kodak was founded by George Eastman and Henry A, during most of the 20th century, Kodak held a dominant position in photographic film. The companys ubiquity was such that its Kodak moment tagline entered the lexicon to describe a personal event that was demanded to be recorded for posterity. Kodak began to struggle financially in the late 1990s, as a result of the decline in sales of photographic film, as a part of a turnaround strategy, Kodak began to focus on digital photography and digital printing, and attempted to generate revenues through aggressive patent litigation. In January 2012, Kodak filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy protection in the United States District Court for the Southern District of New York. In February 2012, Kodak announced that it would stop making digital cameras, pocket video cameras and digital picture frames, in January 2013, the Court approved financing for Kodak to emerge from bankruptcy by mid 2013. Kodak sold many of its patents for approximately $525,000,000 to a group of companies under the names Intellectual Ventures, on September 3,2013, the company emerged from bankruptcy having shed its large legacy liabilities and exited several businesses. Personalized Imaging and Document Imaging are now part of Kodak Alaris, on March 12,2014, it announced that the board of directors elected Jeffrey J. Clarke as chief executive officer and a member of its board of directors. As late as 1976, Kodak commanded 90% of film sales, Japanese competitor Fujifilm entered the U. S. market with lower-priced film and supplies, but Kodak did not believe that American consumers would ever desert its brand. Kodak passed on the opportunity to become the film of the 1984 Los Angeles Olympics, Fuji won these sponsorship rights. Fuji opened a plant in the U. S. and its aggressive marketing. Fuji went from a 10% share in the early 1990s to 17% in 1997, fujis films soon also found a competitive edge in higher-speed negative films, with a tighter grain structure. The complaint was lodged by the United States with the World Trade Organization, on January 30,1998, the WTO announced a sweeping rejection of Kodaks complaints about the film market in Japan. Although Kodak developed a camera in 1975, the first of its kind. In the 1990s, Kodak planned a journey to move to digital technology. CEO George M. C. Fisher reached out to Microsoft, Apples pioneering QuickTake consumer digital cameras, introduced in 1994, had the Apple label but were produced by Kodak
3.
Point-and-shoot camera
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A point-and-shoot camera, also called a compact camera, is a still camera designed primarily for simple operation. Most use focus free lenses or autofocus for focusing, automatic systems for setting the exposure options, point-and-shoots are by far the best selling type of separate camera, as distinct from camera phones. They are popular with people who do not consider themselves photographers but want easy-to-use cameras for snapshots of vacations, parties, reunions, point-and-shoot camera sales declined after about 2010 as smartphones overtook them in such uses. Many superzoom compact cameras have optical zoom up to 30x and weigh less than 300 grams, much less than bridge cameras and DSLRs. Most of these cameras use small 1/2.3 sensors. They prioritize intelligent Auto, but some high end P&S cameras have PSAM mode dial, Raw image format, point-and-shoot cameras are distinguished from single-lens reflex cameras in several respects, point-and-shoot film cameras, and many digital ones, use a viewfinder. The image that the photographer sees is not the image that passes through the primary lens of the camera. Rather, the image in the passes through a separate lens. With this mechanism, pictures cannot be previewed on the LCD screens of most digital SLRs, digital cameras eliminate one advantage of the SLR design, as the cameras display image comes through the lens, not a separate viewfinder. Many smaller digital point-and-shoots of the 2010s omit the optical viewfinder, point-and-shoot cameras generally dont have such add-on devices, hence there is no such need. The lowest-end point-and-shoot film cameras are similar to cameras. These cameras have focus-free lenses, with fixed apertures and they may or may not have a light meter. Most have a wheel or lever for advancing the film and cocking the shutter, because of the fixed apertures, models with flash have no way of controlling the exposure from the flash. Therefore, flash pictures have to be taken within a range of distance from the subject. Advanced models use automatic focus and have variable apertures and they use electric motors to advance and rewind the film. They are much more versatile than the low-end models and they are also likely to have zoom lenses, more advanced auto-focus systems, exposure systems with manual controls, larger apertures and sharper lenses. They may have special lamps or pre-flash systems designed to reduce red eye in flash pictures of people, unit total sales of all types of point-and-shoot cameras declined by 17 percent year on year, but increased by 16 percent for cameras having optical zoom greater than 10x. Most film-based point-and-shoots made after the late 1980s use 35mm film, in the 1980s, 35mm was seen as a professional format due to the relative difficulty of loading and rewinding the film versus cartridge based formats such as 110 or disc film
4.
Instamatic
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For the film formats associated with the Instamatic and Pocket Instamatic camera ranges, see 126 film and 110 film respectively. The Instamatic is a series of inexpensive, easy-to-load 126 and 110 cameras made by Kodak beginning in 1963, the Instamatic was immensely successful, introducing a generation to low-cost photography and spawning numerous imitators. During its heyday, the range was so ubiquitous that the Instamatic name is frequently used to refer to any inexpensive point-and-shoot camera. The Instamatic name was used by Kodak on some Super 8-based home-cine cameras. The first Instamatics went on sale for $16 in early 1963 and they were the first cameras to use Kodaks new 126 format. A wide variety of print and slide film was sold by Kodak in the 126 format, the lead designer for the Instamatic program was Dean M. Peterson, also later known for most of the innovations in the point-and-shoot camera revolution of the 1980s. The first Instamatic to be released was the Instamatic 50, which appeared in the UK in February 1963, the first model released in the US was the basic Instamatic 100. With fixed shutter speed of 1/90th of a second, aperture and focus, it continued in the tradition of Kodaks earlier Brownie cameras and it also featured a built-in flashgun for AG-1 peanut bulbs, a feature lacking in the 50. The top-of-the-line model was the Instamatic Reflex SLR, which was made in Germany, the Instamatic was an instant success, more than 50 million Instamatic cameras were produced between 1963 and 1970. Many other manufacturers attempted to capitalize on the popularity of the Instamatic with their own 126 cameras, including Canon, Olympus, Minolta, Ricoh, Zeiss Ikon, a new series of Instamatics was introduced in 1970 to take advantage of the new Magicube flash technology. Magicubes used mechanically triggered pyrotechnic detonators for each bulb, an improvement over flashcubes in that the need for batteries was eliminated, Instamatics with Magicube sockets were denoted by an X in the model number. In 1972, Kodak introduced the Pocket Instamatic series for its new 110 format, the 110 cartridge had the same easy-load design as the 126 format but was much smaller, allowing the cameras to be very compact. The top-of-the-line model was the Pocket Instamatic 60, which featured a steel body, rangefinder. More than 25 million Pocket Instamatics were produced in three years, and the 110 format remained popular into the 1990s. In 1976, the Instamatic X line was updated for use with the new Flipflash system and these cameras were designated by the addition of the suffix F to the model number of the corresponding Magicube model. The basic X-15F was the last Instamatic sold in the United States, list of defunct consumer brands Media related to Kodak Instamatic at Wikimedia Commons
5.
Holburne Museum
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The Holburne Museum is located in Sydney Pleasure Gardens, Bath, Somerset, England. The citys first public art gallery, the Grade I listed building, is home to fine, artists in the collection include Gainsborough, Guardi, Stubbs, Ramsay and Zoffany. The museum also provides a programme of exhibitions, music performances, creative workshops, family events, talks. There is a bookshop and a café that opens out onto Sydney Gardens, the museum reopened in May 2011 after restoration and an extension designed by Eric Parry Architects, supported by the Heritage Lottery Fund. The heart of the present day Collection was formed by Sir Thomas William Holburne, as a second son, Thomas William first pursued a naval career. He ultimately inherited the Baronetcy in 1820 following the death of his elder brother Francis at the Battle of Bayonne in 1814. In 1882 Sir Williams collection of over 4,000 objects, pictures and books was bequeathed to the people of Bath by his sister, after the museum was opened the collection has continued to expand with over 2,500 further objects being acquired. Similarly, the scope of the ceramics collection has been widened, with earlier pieces bequeathed by the collectors J Murray Elgar in 1955. Significant acquisitions have increased the Museums collection of British eighteenth and early nineteenth-century paintings. In 1955 the Museum received ten pictures from the bequest of Ernest E Cook and these included works by Gainsborough, Stubbs and Turner. Mid-eighteenth century portraits of the Sargent family by Allan Ramsay came with the bequest of Sir Orme Sargent in 1962, with few exceptions, acquisitions were required to keep with the character of the original Holburne collection to ensure its continued coherence. The museum also owns portraits by artists such as David Fisher. Since 1916 the Museum has been housed in the former Sydney Hotel at the end of Great Pulteney Street. The original design for the Hotel, prepared by Thomas Baldwin in 1794, was a building which would serve the pleasure gardens, known as Sydney Gardens. The gardens remain the only remaining eighteenth-century pleasure gardens in the country, after Baldwin was bankrupted his design for the hotel was not implemented. Instead a three-storey building was designed by Charles Harcourt Masters, the foundation stone was laid in 1796 and the building was ready by 1799. Visitors entered the gardens through the Hotel, projecting from the rear of the building at first floor level was a conservatory and a semi-circular Orchestra with a wide covered loggia below. Two semi-circular rows of supper boxes projected from the sides of the building, the gardens were used daily for promenades and public breakfasts
6.
Bath, Somerset
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Bath is a city in the ceremonial county of Somerset, England, known for its Roman-built baths. In 2011, the population was 88,859, Bath is in the valley of the River Avon,97 miles west of London and 11 miles south-east of Bristol. The city became a World Heritage Site in 1987, the city became a spa with the Latin name Aquæ Sulis c. AD60 when the Romans built baths and a temple in the valley of the River Avon, Bath Abbey was founded in the 7th century and became a religious centre, the building was rebuilt in the 12th and 16th centuries. In the 17th century, claims were made for the properties of water from the springs. Many of the streets and squares were laid out by John Wood, the Elder, and in the 18th century the city became fashionable, Jane Austen lived in Bath in the early 19th century. Further building was undertaken in the 19th century and following the Bath Blitz in World War II, the city has software, publishing and service-oriented industries. Theatres, museums, and other cultural and sporting venues have helped make it a centre for tourism with more than one million staying visitors and 3.8 million day visitors to the city each year. There are several museums including the Museum of Bath Architecture, Victoria Art Gallery, Museum of East Asian Art, the city has two universities, the University of Bath and Bath Spa University, with Bath College providing further education. Sporting clubs include Bath Rugby and Bath City F. C. while TeamBath is the name for all of the University of Bath sports teams. Bath became part of the county of Avon in 1974, and, the hills in the locality such as Bathampton Down saw human activity from the Mesolithic period. Several Bronze Age round barrows were opened by John Skinner in the 18th century, solsbury Hill overlooking the current city was an Iron Age hill fort, and the adjacent Bathampton Camp may also have been one. A long barrow site believed to be from the Beaker people was flattened to make way for RAF Charmy Down, messages to her scratched onto metal, known as curse tablets, have been recovered from the sacred spring by archaeologists. The tablets were written in Latin, and cursed people whom the writers felt had wronged them, for example, if a citizen had his clothes stolen at the baths, he might write a curse, naming the suspects, on a tablet to be read by the goddess. A temple was constructed in AD 60–70, and a complex was built up over the next 300 years. Engineers drove oak piles into the mud to provide a stable foundation, in the 2nd century, the spring was enclosed within a wooden barrel-vaulted structure that housed the caldarium, tepidarium, and frigidarium. The town was given defensive walls, probably in the 3rd century. After the failure of Roman authority in the first decade of the 5th century, in March 2012 a hoard of 30,000 silver Roman coins, one of the largest discovered in Britain, was unearthed in an archaeological dig
7.
International Organization for Standardization
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The International Organization for Standardization is an international standard-setting body composed of representatives from various national standards organizations. Founded on 23 February 1947, the organization promotes worldwide proprietary and it is headquartered in Geneva, Switzerland, and as of March 2017 works in 162 countries. It was one of the first organizations granted general consultative status with the United Nations Economic, ISO, the International Organization for Standardization, is an independent, non-governmental organization, the members of which are the standards organizations of the 162 member countries. It is the worlds largest developer of international standards and facilitates world trade by providing common standards between nations. Nearly twenty thousand standards have been set covering everything from manufactured products and technology to food safety, use of the standards aids in the creation of products and services that are safe, reliable and of good quality. The standards help businesses increase productivity while minimizing errors and waste, by enabling products from different markets to be directly compared, they facilitate companies in entering new markets and assist in the development of global trade on a fair basis. The standards also serve to safeguard consumers and the end-users of products and services, the three official languages of the ISO are English, French, and Russian. The name of the organization in French is Organisation internationale de normalisation, according to the ISO, as its name in different languages would have different abbreviations, the organization adopted ISO as its abbreviated name in reference to the Greek word isos. However, during the meetings of the new organization, this Greek word was not invoked. Both the name ISO and the logo are registered trademarks, the organization today known as ISO began in 1926 as the International Federation of the National Standardizing Associations. ISO is an organization whose members are recognized authorities on standards. Members meet annually at a General Assembly to discuss ISOs strategic objectives, the organization is coordinated by a Central Secretariat based in Geneva. A Council with a membership of 20 member bodies provides guidance and governance. The Technical Management Board is responsible for over 250 technical committees, ISO has formed joint committees with the International Electrotechnical Commission to develop standards and terminology in the areas of electrical and electronic related technologies. Information technology ISO/IEC Joint Technical Committee 1 was created in 1987 to evelop, maintain, ISO has three membership categories, Member bodies are national bodies considered the most representative standards body in each country. These are the members of ISO that have voting rights. Correspondent members are countries that do not have their own standards organization and these members are informed about ISOs work, but do not participate in standards promulgation. Subscriber members are countries with small economies and they pay reduced membership fees, but can follow the development of standards
8.
120 film
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120 is a popular film format for still photography introduced by Kodak for their Brownie No.2 in 1901. It was originally intended for photography but was later superseded in this role by 135 film. 120 film and its relative,220 film, survive to this day as the only medium format films that are readily available to both professionals and amateur enthusiasts. The 120 film format is a film which is nominally 60 mm wide. The film is held in an open spool originally made of wood with metal flanges, later with all-metal, the length of film is typically 30 inches up to 32–33 inches, attached to a piece of backing paper longer and slightly wider than the film. The backing paper protects the film while it is wound on the spool, frame number markings for three standard image formats are printed on the backing paper. The 220 format was introduced in 1965 and is the width as 120 film. Unlike 120 film, however, there is no backing paper behind the film itself, just a leader and this results in a longer film on the same spool, but there are no printed frame numbers. Moreover, it cannot be used in unmodified old cameras that have a red window as frame indicator. Also, since the film alone is thinner than a film with a backing paper, a special pressure plate may be required to achieve optimal focus if the film is registered against its back side. Some cameras capable of using both 120 and 220 film will have a two position adjustment of the plate while others will require different film backs e. g. the Pentax 645 or Kowa Six). The specifications for 120 and 220 film are defined in the ISO732 standard, earlier editions of ISO732 also provided international standards for the 127 and 620 film formats. 120 film allows several frame sizes, the 6×9 frame has the same aspect ratio as the standard 36×24 mm frame of 135 film. The 6×7 frame enlarges almost exactly to 8×10 inch paper, for which reason its proponents call it ideal format, 6×4.5 is the smallest and least expensive roll-film frame size, equipment to take photos in this size is also the lightest. The wide 6×12, 6×17, and 6×24 cm frames are produced by special-purpose, most of these cameras use lenses intended for large format cameras for simplicity of construction. Cameras using 120 film will combine the numbers of the frame size in the name e. g. Pentax 6×7, Fuji 617. The number 6 in general, and the six are also commonly used in naming cameras e. g. Kiev 60. The 105 format was introduced by Kodak in 1898 for their first folding camera and was the original 6×9 cm format roll film, the 117 format was introduced by Kodak in 1900 for their first Brownie camera, the No.1 Brownie, 6×6 cm format
9.
135 film
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135 is photographic film in a film format used for still photography. It is a film with a film gauge of 35 mm. Its engineering standard for the film is controlled by ISO1007, the term 135 was introduced by Kodak in 1934 as a designation for the cassette for 35 mm film, specifically for still photography. It quickly grew in popularity, surpassing 120 film by the late 1960s to become the most popular photographic film size, despite competition from formats such as 828,126,110, and APS, it remains so today. 135 camera film always comes perforated with Kodak Standard perforations, the size of the 135 film frame has been adopted by many high-end digital single-lens reflex and digital mirrorless cameras, commonly referred to as full frame. Even though the format is smaller than historical medium format and large format film, it is much larger than image sensors in most compact cameras. Individual rolls of 135 film are enclosed in single-spool, light-tight, the film is clipped or taped to a spool and exits via a slot lined with flocking. The end of the film is cut on one side to form a leader and it has the same dimensions and perforation pitch as 35 mm movie print film. Most cameras require the film to be rewound before the camera is opened, disposable cameras use the same technique so that the user does not have to rewind. Since the 1980s film cassettes have been marked with a DX encoding pattern, conforming cameras detect this, different films are sensitive to light at different degrees, this film speed is standardised by ISO.135 film has been made in several emulsion types and sensitivities. Since the introduction of digital cameras the most usual films have colour emulsions of ISO 100/21° to ISO 800/30°, films of lower sensitivity and higher sensitivity are for more specialist purposes. There are colour and monochrome films, negative and positive, monochrome film is usually panchromatic, orthochromatic has fallen out of use. Film designed to be sensitive to infrared radiation can be obtained, more exotic emulsions have been available in 135 than other roll-film sizes. The term 135 format usually refers to a 36×24 mm film format, the 36×24 mm format is common to digital image sensors, where it is typically referred to as full frame format. On 135 film, the dimension of the 36×24 mm frame runs parallel to the length of the film. The perforation size and pitch are according to the standard specification KS-1870, for each frame, the film advances 8 perforations. This is specified as 38.00 mm and this allows for 2 mm gaps between frames. Each camera model has a different location for the sprocket which advances the film, therefore, each camera model’s frame will vary in position relative to the perforations
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