1.
United States Marine Corps
–
The U. S. Marine Corps is one of the four armed service branches in the U. S. Department of Defense and one of the seven uniformed services of the United States. The current Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, the military officer in the U. S. Armed Forces, is a Marine Corps general, the Marine Corps has been a component of the U. S. Department of the Navy since 30 June 1834, working closely with naval forces for training, transportation, and logistics. The USMC operates posts on land and aboard sea-going amphibious warfare ships around the world, two battalions of Continental Marines were formed on 10 November 1775 in Philadelphia as a service branch of infantry troops capable of fighting for independence both at sea and on shore. The role of the Corps has since grown and evolved, expanding to aerial warfare and earning popular titles such as, Americas third air force, and, second land army. By the mid-20th century, the U. S. Marine Corps had become a major theorist of and its ability to rapidly respond on short notice to expeditionary crises gives it a strong role in the implementation and execution of American foreign policy. As of 2016, the USMC has around 182,000 active duty members and it is the smallest of the U. S. The USMC serves as an expeditionary force-in-readiness and this last clause, while seemingly redundant given the Presidents position as Commander-in-chief, is a codification of the expeditionary responsibilities of the Marine Corps. It derives from similar language in the Congressional acts For the Better Organization of the Marine Corps of 1834, in 1951, the House of Representatives Armed Services Committee called the clause one of the most important statutory – and traditional – functions of the Marine Corps. In addition to its duties, the Marine Corps conducts Visit, Board, Search, and Seizure operations, as well as missions in direct support of the White House. The Marine Band, dubbed the Presidents Own by Thomas Jefferson, Marines from Ceremonial Companies A & B, quartered in Marine Barracks, Washington, D. C. The Executive Flight Detachment also provides transport to Cabinet members. The relationship between the Department of State and the U. S. Marine Corps is nearly as old as the corps itself, for over 200 years, Marines have served at the request of various Secretaries of State. After World War II, an alert, disciplined force was needed to protect American embassies, consulates, in 1947, a proposal was made that the Department of War furnish Marine Corps personnel for Foreign Service guard duty under the provisions of the Foreign Service Act of 1946. A formal Memorandum of Agreement was signed between the Department of State and the Secretary of the Navy on December 15,1948, during the first year of the MSG program,36 detachments were deployed worldwide. Continental Marines manned raiding parties, both at sea and ashore, the Advanced Base Doctrine of the early 20th century codified their combat duties ashore, outlining the use of Marines in the seizure of bases and other duties on land to support naval campaigns. Throughout the late 19th and 20th centuries, Marine detachments served aboard Navy cruisers, battleships, Marine detachments served in their traditional duties as a ships landing force, manning the ships weapons and providing shipboard security. Marines would develop tactics and techniques of amphibious assault on defended coastlines in time for use in World War II, during World War II, Marines continued to serve on capital ships
2.
Marine Corps Base Camp Pendleton
–
Marine Corps Base Camp Pendleton is the major West Coast base of the United States Marine Corps. The base was established in 1942 to train U. S, Marines for service in World War II. By October 1944, Camp Pendleton was declared a permanent installation and by 1946 and it was named after Major General Joseph Henry Pendleton, who had long advocated setting up a training base for the Marine Corps on the west coast. Today it is the home to myriad Operating Force units including the I Marine Expeditionary Force, in 1769, a Spanish expedition led by Captain Gaspar de Portolá explored northward from Loreto, Baja California Sur, seeking to reach Monterey Bay, something never before done overland by Europeans. On July 20 of that year, the arrived in the area now known as Camp Pendleton. The expedition went on to military outposts and Franciscan missions at San Diego. During the next 30 years,21 missions were established, the most productive one being Mission San Luis Rey, at that time, San Luis Rey Mission had control over the Santa Margarita area. After 1821, following the Mexican War of Independence from Spain, the retired soldiers were joined as rancheros by prominent businessmen, officials and military leaders. They and their children, the Californios, became the landed gentry of Alta California, in 1841, two brothers, Pio Pico and Andrés Pico, became the first private owners of Rancho Santa Margarita. More land was added to the grant, giving it the name of Rancho Santa Margarita y Las Flores. The design of the cattle brand is seen in the bases logo today. In 1863, an Englishman named John Forster paid off Picos gambling debts in return for the deed to the ranch. During his tenure as owner of the ranch, he expanded the house, which was first built in 1827. It was purchased by wealthy cattleman James Clair Flood and managed by Irishman Richard ONeill, under the guidance of ONeills son, Jerome, the ranch began to net a profit of nearly half a million dollars annually, and the house was modernized and furnished to its present form. In the early 1940s, both the Army and the Marine Corps were looking for land for a training base. It was named for Major General Joseph Henry Pendleton who had advocated the establishment of a West Coast training base. Construction began in April but the base was considered a temporary facility so it was built to standards of wood frame construction. After five months of building activity, the 9th Marine Regiment
3.
International Force for East Timor
–
INTERFET was commanded by an Australian, Major General Peter Cosgrove. Indonesia invaded East Timor in 1975 and annexed the former Portuguese colony, the annexation was recognised by few nations and was resisted by many East Timorese. Cold War security concerns were emphasised, while foreign powers also placed high importance on good relations with Indonesia and were reluctant to assist a push for independence as a result. However, following the fall of long-serving Indonesian President Suharto the new president, the explicit comparison was with the Matignon Accords involving France and New Caledonia. The letter upset Habibie, who saw it as implying Indonesia was a colonial power, news of the proposal provoked a violent reaction from pro-Indonesian militia in East Timor. The Indonesian army did not intervene to restore order, at a summit in Bali, Howard told Habibie that a United Nations peacekeeping force should oversee the process. Habibie rejected the proposal, believing it would have insulted the Indonesian military, the United Nations Mission in East Timor was established to organise and conduct a referendum on the question of independence. It was composed of police and observers rather than military personnel, the UN-sponsored referendum held on 30 August 1999 showed overwhelming approval for East Timorese independence from Indonesia. Many East Timorese were killed, with as many as 500,000 displaced, the Catholic Church in Australia urged the Australian Government to send an armed peacekeeping force to East Timor to end the violence. Protests occurred outside the Indonesia Consulate in Darwin and the Indonesian Embassy in Canberra, the United States offered crucial logistical and intelligence resources and an over-horizon deterrent presence, but did not commit forces to the operation. Finally, on 11 September, Clinton announced, Indonesia, in dire economic straits, under international pressure to allow an international peacekeeping force, Indonesian president BJ Habibie announced on 12 September that he would do so. The resolution also welcomed Australias letter to accept the leadership of a multinational force in East Timor. The lead-up to the operation remained politically and militarily tense, p-3C Orion maritime patrol aircraft were also deployed. Ultimately no serious incidents occurred and the intervention was successful, however, of the 22 nations involved in INTERFET,10 provided naval assets. The United States contributed seven ships, the cruiser Mobile Bay, the assault ships Belleau Wood, Peleliu, and Juneau, and the replenishment ships Kilauea, San Jose. France supplied four vessels, the frigates Vendémiaire and Prairial plus the landing ships Siroco, singapore contributed the amphibious landing ships Excellence, Intrepid, and Perseverance. New Zealand deployed the frigates Te Kaha and Canterbury and the replenishment ship Endeavour, the International Forces East Timor coalition began deploying to East Timor on 20 September 1999, as a non-UN force operating in accordance with UN Resolutions. The Australian Deployable Joint Force Headquarters provided overall command and control, the main Australian combat element included infantry and cavalry provided by the 3rd Brigade
4.
War on Terror
–
The War on Terror, also known as the Global War on Terrorism, is a metaphor of war referring to the international military campaign that started after the September 11th attacks on the United States. U. S. President George W. Bush first used the term War on Terror on 20 September 2001 and it was originally used with a particular focus on countries associated with Islamic terrorist organizations including al-Qaeda and like-minded organizations. In 2013, President Barack Obama announced that the United States was no longer pursuing a War on Terror, in 2017 Donald Trump assumed presidency of the United States and vowed that the fight against ISIL is his number one priority. Trump has also agreed to work together and carry joint operations with Russian President Vladimir Putin in the war on terror. The phrase War on Terror has been used to refer to the ongoing military campaign led by the U. S. The conflict has also referred to by names other than the War on Terror. Author Shane Harris asserts this was a reaction to the 1983 Beirut barracks bombing, Bush later apologized for this remark due to the negative connotations the term crusade has to people, e. g. of the Muslim faith. The word crusade was not used again, on 20 September 2001, during a televised address to a joint session of Congress, Bush stated that ur war on terror begins with al-Qaeda, but it does not end there. It will not end until every terrorist group of global reach has been found, stopped, in April 2007, the British government announced publicly that it was abandoning the use of the phrase War on Terror as they found it to be less than helpful. This was explained more recently by Lady Eliza Manningham-Buller, in her 2011 Reith lecture, the former head of MI5 said that the 9/11 attacks were a crime, not an act of war. So I never felt it helpful to refer to a war on terror. U. S. President Barack Obama has rarely used the term, in March 2009 the Defense Department officially changed the name of operations from Global War on Terror to Overseas Contingency Operation. In March 2009, the Obama administration requested that Pentagon staff members avoid the use of the term, basic objectives of the Bush administration war on terror, such as targeting al Qaeda and building international counterterrorism alliances, remain in place. Because the actions involved in the war on terrorism are diffuse, jackson cites among many examples a statement by John Ashcroft that the attacks of September 11 drew a bright line of demarcation between the civil and the savage. Administration officials also described terrorists as hateful, treacherous, barbarous, mad, twisted, perverted, without faith, parasitical, inhuman, Americans, in contrast, were described as brave, loving, generous, strong, resourceful, heroic, and respectful of human rights. The origins of al-Qaeda can be traced to the Soviet war in Afghanistan, a small number of Afghan Arab volunteers joined the fight against the Soviets, including Osama bin Laden, but there is no evidence they received any external assistance. On 7 August 1998, al-Qaeda struck the U. S. embassies in Kenya and Tanzania, killing 224 people, the plant produced much of the regions antimalarial drugs and around 50% of Sudans pharmaceutical needs. The strikes failed to kill any leaders of WIFJAJC or the Taliban, next came the 2000 millennium attack plots, which included an attempted bombing of Los Angeles International Airport
5.
Iraq War
–
The Iraq War was a protracted armed conflict that began in 2003 with the invasion of Iraq by a United States-led coalition that toppled the government of Saddam Hussein. The conflict continued for much of the decade as an insurgency emerged to oppose the occupying forces. An estimated 151,000 to 600,000 or more Iraqis were killed in the first 3–4 years of conflict and it became re-involved in 2014 at the head of a new coalition, the insurgency and many dimensions of the civil armed conflict continue. The invasion began on 20 March 2003, with the U. S. joined by the United Kingdom and several allies, launching a shock. Iraqi forces were overwhelmed as U. S. forces swept through the country. The invasion led to the collapse of the Baathist government, President Hussein was captured during Operation Red Dawn in December of that same year, the United States responded with a troop surge in 2007. The winding down of U. S. involvement in Iraq accelerated under President Barack Obama, the U. S. formally withdrew all combat troops from Iraq by December 2011. Select U. S. officials accused Saddam of harboring and supporting al-Qaeda, while others cited the desire to end a repressive dictatorship, after the invasion, no substantial evidence was found to verify the initial claims about WMDs. The rationale and misrepresentation of pre-war intelligence faced heavy criticism within the U. S. in the aftermath of the invasion, Iraq held multi-party elections in 2005. Nouri al-Maliki became Prime Minister in 2006 and remained in office until 2014, the al-Maliki government enacted policies that were widely seen as having the effect of alienating the countrys Sunni minority and worsening sectarian tensions. The Iraq War caused hundreds of thousands of civilian, and thousands of military casualties, the majority of casualties occurred as a result of the insurgency and civil conflicts between 2004 and 2007. A1990 Frontline report on The arming of Iraq said, Officially, most Western nations participated in an arms embargo against Iraq during the 1980s. Western companies, primarily in Germany and Great Britain, but also in the United States, sold Iraq the key technology for its chemical, missile, any Western governments seemed remarkably indifferent, if not enthusiastic, about those deals. N Washington, the government consistently followed a policy which allowed and perhaps encouraged the growth of Saddam Husseins arsenal. The Western arming of Iraq took place in the context of the Iran-Iraq War, prior to September 2002, the CIA was the George W. Bush administrations main provider of intelligence on Iraq. The agency was out to disprove linkage between Iraq and terrorism the Pentagon adviser told me, the U. N. had prohibited Iraq from developing or possessing such weapons after the Gulf War and required Iraq to permit inspections confirming compliance. This was confirmed by The New York Times and The Wall Street Journal, during 2002, Bush repeatedly warned of military action against Iraq unless inspections were allowed to progress unfettered. In accordance with U. N. Security Council Resolution 1441, Iraq agreed to new inspections under United Nations Monitoring, as part of its weapons inspection obligations, Iraq was required to supply a full declaration of its current weapons capabilities and manufacturing
6.
Operation Inherent Resolve
–
Since 21 August 2016, the U. S. Armys XVIII Airborne Corps has been responsible for Combined Joint Task Force – Operation Inherent Resolve. Unlike their coalition partners, and unlike previous combat operations, no name was given to the conflict against ISIS by the U. S. government. The decision to keep the conflict nameless drew considerable media criticism, the U. S. decided in October 2014 to name its military efforts against ISIS as Operation Inherent Resolve, the U. S. The medal is approved retroactively beginning 15 June, the Pentagon said, by 4 December 2014, three U. S. service members had died from accidents or non-combat injuries. On 22 October 2015, a U. S, the Kurdistan Regional Government said after the raid that none of the 15 prisoners it was intended to rescue were found. Approximately 80% of these airstrikes have been conducted by American forces, with the remaining 20% being launched by members of the coalition, such as the United Kingdom. 7,268 strikes hit targets in Iraq, while 3,602 hit targets in Syria, on 12 June 2016, it was reported that 120 Islamic State leaders, commanders, propagandists, recruiters and other high-value individuals were killed so far this year. Until March 2016, U. S. military members were ineligible for Campaign Medals, however, on 30 March 2016, U. S. Secretary of Defense Ash Carter announced the creation of a new medal, named Inherent Resolve Campaign Medal. Of the 26,374 targets hit, nearly 8,000 were against ISIS fighting positions, while approximately 6,500 hit buildings, ISIS staging areas and oil infrastructure were each hit around 1,600 times. On 15 December 2016, the UK Defense Secretary Michael Fallon said that more than 25,000 Daesh fighters have now been killed, when asked about this discrepancy, the UKs Ministry of Defense said that it stood by his estimate. Since the first U. S. airstrikes on ISIS targets in Iraq on 8 August 2014, the air strikes occurred in the period between 22 September 2014 and 23 January 2017. The deployment marks a new escalation in the U. S. war in Syria, as of Feb.28,2017, the Coalition has conducted 3,271 sorties in 2017,2,129 of which have resulted in at least one weapon released. In total, the coalition released 7,040 weapons in Iraq, United States Air Force, United States Navy & United States Marine Corps units that are participating in this operations can be found in the Military intervention against ISIL order of battle. 2nd Brigade Combat Team, 101st Airborne Division
7.
Marine expeditionary unit
–
A Marine expeditionary unit, formerly called Marine amphibious unit, is the smallest Marine air-ground task force in the United States Fleet Marine Force. Each MEU is a quick reaction force, deployed and ready for immediate response to any crisis. Troop strength is about 2,200 and usually commanded by a colonel, for further protection and strong air support, such an ESG is often deployed along with one or more carrier battle groups. This air-ground task force concept is designed to exploit the combat power inherent in air. The MEU brings all the supplies and logistical support it needs to sustain itself for quick mission accomplishment or to pave the way for any follow-up forces. Deployments on U. S. Navy amphibious assault ships allows MEUs to seabase around the globe, a typical MEU has approximately 2,200 Marines and sailors. It is equipped with, Many types of equipment are, or will soon, some examples include the Marine Personnel Carrier replacing the LAV-25, the F-35 Lightning II replacing the AV-8B Harrier, and the CH-53K Super Stallion replacing the CH-53E. The total strength is approximately 1,100 Marines and Sailors, the reconnaissance platoon provides the basic element for the Maritime Special Purpose Force. This force consists of four elements, the assault platoon, security, reconnaissance and surveillance assets, and a headquarters section. The total strength is approximately 350 Marines and Sailors, total strength is approximately 600 troops. The logistics combat element is based on the MEU combat logistics battalion and it contains all the logistics specialists and equipment necessary for the MEU to support and sustain itself for up to 15 days in an austere expeditionary environment. It consists of approximately 300 Marines and Sailors, the command element, which includes the MEU commander and his supporting staff, provides command and control over the other three elements. The overall strength is about 200 Marines and sailors, recently, MEUs have been deployed within an expeditionary strike group in the Mediterranean, the Western Pacific, and periodically, the Atlantic and Indian Oceans. An ESG is typically composed of three ships that embark the necessary troops and equipment and are escorted by a guided missile cruiser and guided missile destroyers. These cycles ensure that at least two of the seven MEUs are deployed forward at any given time and they are not, however, considered a special operations unit by the Department of Defense. The MEU then releases its major elements, retaining only its command element. This period provides the element a chance to rotate select personnel and begin planning for the addition of newly assigned MSEs. When the MSEs are received, the MEU begins six months of intense pre-deployment training, work-up period, Training during the six-month work-up period is often referred to as crawl, walk, run
8.
Amphibious warfare
–
Amphibious warfare is a type of offensive military operation that today uses naval ships to project ground and air power onto a hostile or potentially hostile shore at a designated landing beach. Through history the operations were conducted using ships boats as the method of delivering troops to shore. Amphibious warfare includes operations defined by their type, purpose, scale, all armed forces that employ troops with special training and equipment for conducting landings from naval vessels to shore agree to this definition. Since the 20th century an amphibious landing of troops on a beachhead is acknowledged as the most complex of all military maneuvers, an amphibious operation is both similar and different in many ways to both land, naval and air operations. Historically, within the scope of these phases a vital part of success was based on the military logistics, naval gunfire. Another factor is the variety and quantity of specialised vehicles and equipment used by the force that are designed for the specific needs of this type of operation. The purpose of operations is always offensive, but limited by the plan. Landings on islands less than 5,000 km2 in size are tactical, usually with the objectives of neutralising enemy defenders. Such an operation may be prepared and planned in days or weeks, a strategic landing operation requires a major commitment of forces to invade a national territory in the archipelagic, such as the Battle of Leyte, or continental, such as Operation Neptune. Such an operation may require multiple naval and air fleets to support the landings, although most amphibious operations are thought of primarily as beach landings, they can take exploit available shore infrastructure to land troops directly into an urban environment if unopposed. In this case non-specialised ships can offload troops, vehicles and cargo using organic or facility wharf-side equipment, tactical landings in the past have utilised small boats, small craft, small ships and civilian vessels converted for the mission to deliver troops to the waters edge. Preparation and planning the naval landing operation requires the assembly of vessels with sufficient capacity to lift necessary troops employing combat loading, the military intelligence services produce a briefing on the expected opponent which guides the organisation and equipping of the embarked force. First specially designed landing craft were used for the Gallipoli landings, helicopters were first used to support beach landings during Operation Musketeer. Hovercraft have been in use for naval landings by military forces since the 1960s, recorded amphibious warfare goes back to ancient times. The Sea Peoples menaced the Egyptians from the reign of Akhenaten as captured on the reliefs at Medinet Habu, the Hellenic city states routinely resorted to opposed assaults upon each others shores, which they reflected upon in their plays and other expressions of art. In 1565, the island of Malta was invaded by the Ottoman Turks during the Great Siege of Malta, forcing its defenders to retreat to the fortified cities. A strategic choke point in the Mediterranean Sea, its loss would have been so menacing for the Western European kingdoms that forces were raised in order to relieve the island. But it took four months to train, arm, and move a 5, then, Philip II, King of Spain decided to train and assign amphibious-assault skilled units to the Royal Armada
9.
Ground combat element
–
In the United States Marine Corps, the ground combat element is the land force of a Marine Air-Ground Task Force. It provides power projection and force for the MAGTF, the ground combat element, composed primarily of infantry units. The GCE also contains combat support units, including artillery, armor, combat engineer, at the division level, the GCE also contains limited organic combat service support, including a truck company, a military police/law enforcement company, and the division band. The size of the GCE varies in proportion to the size of the MAGTF, a Marine Expeditionary Force has a division. A Marine Expeditionary Brigade holds an infantry Regiment, often reinforced with equipment, the various Marine Expeditionary Units command a reinforced infantry battalion. Generally, MEF postings are permanent, while MEBs and MEUs rotate their GCE, ACE, and LCE twice annually. the art of MAGTF Operations
10.
1st Battalion, 4th Marines
–
1st Battalion, 4th Marines is an infantry battalion in the United States Marine Corps based out of Marine Corps Base Camp Pendleton, California consisting of approximately 800 Marines and sailors. They fall under the command of the 1st Marine Regiment and the 1st Marine Division, Headquarters and Service Company Company A Company B Company C Company D Weapons Company The battalion was originally activated in April 1911 as the 1st Battalion, 4th Marine Regiment. In 1924, the returned to its home base in San Diego. During 1926 to 1927 the battalion guarded American shores in a variety of outposts throughout the Western U. S, the period from February 1927 to November 1941 was the China era in the battalion and would leave an enduring mark on its history. This service in Shanghai earned the battalion the title “China Marines” and started the practice of using the Chinese dragon in different official and unofficial logos, in November 1941 the battalion along with the entire 4th Marines deployed from China to the Philippines. The outbreak of World War II found the battalion serving as part of the U. S, ordered to the strategic island of Corregidor, the battalion fiercely defended their assigned sectors against overwhelming enemy forces. In the end, General Wainwright, United States Army, ordered the battalion to surrender, after the surrender, the battalion ceased to exist. As prisoners the men would endure torture and incredible hardships, on 7 August 1942 the 1st Raider Battalion, assigned to the 1st Marine Division, landed on Tulagi in the British Solomon Islands as the opening phases of the Guadalcanal Campaign commenced. After Tulagi was captured, the Raiders were moved to Guadalcanal to defend Henderson Field, one of their most notable engagements was the Battle of Edsons Ridge, where the 1st Raiders scored a major victory over Japanese forces. For their heroic combat leadership, Colonel Merritt Edson and Major Kenneth Bailey were both awarded the Medal of Honor, the latter posthumously. On 1 February 1944 a new 1st Battalion, 4th Marines was activated by the redesignation of the 1st Marine Raider Battalion to 1st Battalion, for the remainder of World War II the battalion would fight at two of the bloodiest campaigns in the Pacific, Guam and Okinawa. Corporal Richard Bush was awarded the Medal of Honor for his gallant actions on Okinawa, of note, the 4th Marines, adopted the motto, “Hold High the Torch” during this period. This legendary phrase served as a pledge to the warriors of the old 4th Marines who were captured at Corregidor. From 1945 to 1952 the battalion would go through a series of deactivations and reactivations both overseas and in the U. S. The most notable service during this period was in China during 1946 where the battalion, belonging to the 6th Marine Division, the battalion was deactivated in November 1947 and remained so until 1952. The battalion would spend the Korean War stationed in Camp Nara, in 1955, the battalion was transferred to Kaneohe Bay, HI and would serve in the 1st Marine Brigade. In the spring of 1965 the battalion deployed to combat in South Vietnam, from 1965 to 1969 the battalion engaged in numerous conventional and counter-insurgency operations in the I Corps. Corporal Larry Maxam and Private First Class Douglas Dickey both heroically gave their lives in Vietnam and were awarded the Medal of Honor for their brave actions
11.
Aviation combat element
–
In the United States Marine Corps, the aviation combat element or air combat element is the air arm of the Marine Air-Ground Task Force. It provides rotary-wing, tiltrotor, and fixed-wing aircraft, support equipment, pilots, maintenance personnel, as well as command and control assets to the commander. The majority of usage within the MAGTF is for close air support or transport for the ground combat element or logistics combat element. The six main functions include, assault support, anti-air warfare, offensive air support, electronic warfare, control of aircraft and missiles, the aviation combat element, which contributes the air power to the MAGTF, includes all aircraft and aviation support units. The units are organized into detachments, squadrons, groups, and wings, except for low altitude air defense units, which are organized into platoons, detachments, batteries, the size of the ACE varies in proportion to the size of the MAGTF. A Marine Expeditionary Force has a Marine Aircraft Wing or MAW, a Marine Expeditionary Brigade holds a Marine Aircraft Group or MAG, reinforced with a variety of aircraft squadrons and support personnel. The various Marine Expeditionary Units command a squadron, with various types of aircraft mixed into a single unit. Generally, MEF postings are permanent, while MEBs and MEUs rotate their ACE, GCE, and LCE twice annually. 1st and 3rd Marine Aircraft Wings are unique in that they are subordinate to III MEF and I MEF, respectively, while all other equivalent units numerical designators match the MEF to which attached
12.
VMM-163
–
Marine Medium Tiltrotor Squadron 163 is a United States Marine Corps helicopter squadron consisting of MV-22 Osprey transport tiltrotors. The squadron, known as the Ridge Runners, is based at Marine Corps Air Station Miramar, California and falls under the command of Marine Aircraft Group 16 and the 3rd Marine Aircraft Wing. The Squadrons nickname, Ridge Runners, was bestowed as a result of typhoon rescue, provide assault support transport of combat troops, supplies and equipment during expeditionary, joint or combined operations. Be prepared for short-notice, worldwide deployment in support of Marine Air-Ground Task Force operations, hMR-163, the predecessor of HMM-163, was formed in December 1951. From February to October 1965, the HMM-163 Ridge Runners helicopter squadron became famous for its operations in Viet Nam, for most U. S. citizens, this was the first time they were made aware of the extent of Americas involvement in Viet Nam. In late October 1965, HMM-163 relocated to Marine Corps Air Station Futenma in Okinawa, capt Al Barbes, the Squadron Intelligence Officer and husband to a Filipina bride, offered a suggestion. On January 1,1966, HMM-163 flew by C-130 to Phu Bai, Vietnam, relieved HMM-161, painting of what were then called Genie Eyes began immediately. By March 1966, HMM-163s Genie Eyes were being called Evil Eyes by the units supported. On March 9,1966, the 95th Regiment of the North Vietnamese Armys 325th Division attacked the Special Forces camp in the A Shau Valley about 30 miles southwest of Hue in Thua Thien Province. It was strategically important for the North Vietnamese Army as a major infiltration route because it was adjacent to the Ho Chi Minh Trail. Defending the camp were 10 Green Berets and 210 South Vietnamese Civilian Irregular Defense Group, supported by Air Commando units equipped with vintage A-1 Skyraiders and AC-47 Spooky gunships. The squadron flew over 2,000 flight hours in ten days during the Battle of A Shau in which 190 survivors were rescued from enemy capture and they did this in the face of heavy enemy anti-aircraft fire. During the battle,21 of the 24 aircraft assigned to the squadron suffered major damage including the two that were shot down. In October 1966, the squadron returned to Phu Bai, Viet Nam, still with black and white Evil Eyes. The 1st MAW Commanding General relented and the Evil Eyes have remained to this day, the squadron remained in Vietnam until August 1968. This was accomplished through the use of a 4-aircraft detachment of CH-53E helicopters and they had been attached to the squadron 8 months earlier in preparation for deployment as the Air Combat Element of the 15th MEU. The squadron remained forward deployed for seven weeks operating from the base in support of Task Force 58. In 2003, the Evil Eyes deployed from August 22,2003 to March 8,2004 with the 13th Marine Expeditionary Unit, again, the squadron made history by being part of the first Expeditionary Strike Group One
13.
Logistics combat element
–
It provides equipment and personnel to keep the MAGTF running logistically. The size of the LCE varies in proportion to the size of the MAGTF, a Marine expeditionary force has a Marine logistics group or MLG. A Marine expeditionary brigade holds a combat logistics regiment or CLR, often reinforced with equipment, the various Marine expeditionary units command a reinforced combat logistics battalion. Generally, MEF postings are permanent, while MEBs and MEUs rotate their GCE, ACE, and LCE twice annually
14.
U.S. Third Fleet
–
The Third Fleet is one of the numbered fleets in the United States Navy. Major oil and trade sea lines of communication within this area are important to the economic health of the United States. The Third Fleet plans and executes operations in the Pacific Ocean. The fleet provides maritime homeland defense, regional security, and humanitarian support through integrated naval. The Third Fleet ensures realistic, relevant training to our people so they have the skills to promote peace. The Third Fleet is a power in control of ships, submarines, and aircraft stationed in California, Washington. The Third Fleets sea-going force includes five aircraft carrier groups, each consisting of a combination of cruisers, destroyers. They also have more than 30 submarines and a dozen ships to support the strike groups. Third Fleets air forces comprises more than 400 Navy aircraft, including F/A-18 Super Hornets, E-2C Hawkeyes, AV-8B Harriers, AH-1Z SuperCobras, first established in 1943, the Third Fleet conducted extensive operations against Japanese forces in the Central Pacific during World War II. Deactivated in 1945, the fleet remained inactive until 1973, when it was reactivated and assumed its current responsibilities, the Third Fleet was originally formed during World War II on 15 March 1943 under the command of Admiral William F. Halsey. Its on-shore headquarters in Pearl Harbor, Hawaii was established on 15 June 1944. The ships of the Third Fleet also formed the basis of the Fifth Fleet, formed on 26 April 1944, Spruance and Halsey alternated command of the fleet for major operations, allowing the other admiral and his staff time to plan for subsequent operations. A secondary benefit was confusing the Japanese into thinking there were actually two separate fleets as the fleet designation flipped back and forth. The British Pacific Fleet was operating as Task Force 57 of the Fifth Fleet when Halsey relieved Spruance of command in May 1945, like the rest of the Fifth Fleets ships, the British ships were resubordinated from Spruances Fifth Fleet to Halseys Third Fleet. The British Pacific Fleet then constituted Task Force 37 under the Third Fleets operational command through the end of World War II on 15 August 1945, the end of the war made this operation unnecessary. Embarked aboard Missouri, Admiral Halsey led the Third Fleet into Tokyo Bay on 29 August 1945, on 2 September 1945, the documents of surrender of the Japanese Empire ending the war were signed on Missouris deck. The Third Fleet remained in Japanese waters until late September 1945, on 7 October 1945, the Third Fleet was designated a reserve fleet and decommissioned from active status. Third Fleets new duties were to train naval forces for overseas deployment, additionally, Third Fleet could deploy in the event of a major conflict
15.
Southern California
–
Southern California, often abbreviated as SoCal, is a geographic and cultural region that generally comprises Californias 10 southernmost counties. The region is described as eight counties, based on demographics and economic ties, Imperial, Los Angeles, Orange, Riverside, San Bernardino, San Diego, Santa Barbara. The more extensive 10-county definition, which includes Kern and San Luis Obispo counties, is used and is based on historical political divisions. Southern California is an economic center for the state of California. The 8-county and 10-county definitions are not used for the greater Southern California Megaregion, the megaregions area is more expansive, extending east into Las Vegas, Nevada and south across the Mexican border into Tijuana.5 million people. With over 22 million people, Southern California contains roughly 60 percent of Californias population, located east of Southern California is the Colorado Desert and the Colorado River at the border with Arizona. The Mojave Desert is located at the border with the state of Nevada while towards the south is the Mexico–United States border, within Southern California are two major cities, Los Angeles and San Diego, as well as three of the countrys largest metropolitan areas. With a population of 3,792,621, Los Angeles is the most populous city in California and the second most populous in the United States. South of Los Angeles and with a population of 1,307,402 is San Diego, the second most populous city in the state and the eighth most populous in the nation. The counties of Los Angeles, Orange, San Diego, San Bernardino, and Riverside are the five most populous in the state, the motion picture, television, and music industry are centered in the Los Angeles area in Southern California. Hollywood, a district within Los Angeles, gives its name to the American motion picture industry, headquartered in Southern California are The Walt Disney Company, Sony Pictures, Universal, MGM, Paramount Pictures, 20th Century Fox, and Warner Brothers. Universal, Warner Brothers, and Sony also run major record companies, Southern California is also home to a large homegrown surf and skateboard culture. Companies such as Vans, Volcom, Quiksilver, No Fear, RVCA, some of the worlds biggest action sports events, including the X Games, Boost Mobile Pro, and the U. S. Open of Surfing, are all held in Southern California. Southern California is also important to the world of yachting, the annual Transpacific Yacht Race, or Transpac, from Los Angeles to Hawaii, is one of yachtings premier events. The San Diego Yacht Club held the Americas Cup, the most prestigious prize in yachting, from 1988 to 1995, Southern California is home to many sports franchises and sports networks such as Fox Sports Net. Many locals and tourists frequent the Southern California coast for its popular beaches, the desert city of Palm Springs is popular for its resort feel and nearby open spaces. Southern California is not a geographic designation and definitions of what constitutes Southern California vary. Geographically, Californias North-South midway point lies at exactly 37°958.23 latitude, around 11 miles south of San Jose, however, when the state is divided into two areas, the term Southern California usually refers to the 10 southernmost counties of the state
16.
1st Marine Expeditionary Brigade (United States)
–
1st Marine Expeditionary Brigade is a unit in the I Marine Expeditionary Force and is the middleweight global crisis response force. It is able to operate independently, as a service component, the brigade was stationed at Kaneohe Bay Marine Corps Air Station until 1992. From 1976 to 1981 while at Kaneohe, the unit was designated as the 1st Marine Brigade, ground Combat Element - Regimental Combat Team consisting of a reinforced Marine Infantry Regiment. Logistics Combat Element - Combat Logistics Regiment, consisting of from 1 to 3 Combat Logistics Battalions, Marine Air-Ground Task Force Organization of the United States Marine Corps Web
17.
Pacific Ocean
–
The Pacific Ocean is the largest and deepest of the Earths oceanic divisions. It extends from the Arctic Ocean in the north to the Southern Ocean in the south and is bounded by Asia and Australia in the west, the Mariana Trench in the western North Pacific is the deepest point in the world, reaching a depth of 10,911 metres. Both the center of the Water Hemisphere and the Western Hemisphere are in the Pacific Ocean, the oceans current name was coined by Portuguese explorer Ferdinand Magellan during the Spanish circumnavigation of the world in 1521, as he encountered favourable winds on reaching the ocean. He called it Mar Pacífico, which in both Portuguese and Spanish means peaceful sea, important human migrations occurred in the Pacific in prehistoric times. Long-distance trade developed all along the coast from Mozambique to Japan, trade, and therefore knowledge, extended to the Indonesian islands but apparently not Australia. By at least 878 when there was a significant Islamic settlement in Canton much of trade was controlled by Arabs or Muslims. In 219 BC Xu Fu sailed out into the Pacific searching for the elixir of immortality, from 1404 to 1433 Zheng He led expeditions into the Indian Ocean. The east side of the ocean was discovered by Spanish explorer Vasco Núñez de Balboa in 1513 after his expedition crossed the Isthmus of Panama and he named it Mar del Sur because the ocean was to the south of the coast of the isthmus where he first observed the Pacific. Later, Portuguese explorer Ferdinand Magellan sailed the Pacific East to West on a Castilian expedition of world circumnavigation starting in 1519, Magellan called the ocean Pacífico because, after sailing through the stormy seas off Cape Horn, the expedition found calm waters. The ocean was often called the Sea of Magellan in his honor until the eighteenth century, sailing around and east of the Moluccas, between 1525 and 1527, Portuguese expeditions discovered the Caroline Islands, the Aru Islands, and Papua New Guinea. In 1542–43 the Portuguese also reached Japan, in 1564, five Spanish ships consisting of 379 explorers crossed the ocean from Mexico led by Miguel López de Legazpi and sailed to the Philippines and Mariana Islands. The Manila galleons operated for two and a half centuries linking Manila and Acapulco, in one of the longest trade routes in history, Spanish expeditions also discovered Tuvalu, the Marquesas, the Cook Islands, the Solomon Islands, and the Admiralty Islands in the South Pacific. In the 16th and 17th century Spain considered the Pacific Ocean a Mare clausum—a sea closed to other naval powers, as the only known entrance from the Atlantic the Strait of Magellan was at times patrolled by fleets sent to prevent entrance of non-Spanish ships. On the western end of the Pacific Ocean the Dutch threatened the Spanish Philippines, Spain also sent expeditions to the Pacific Northwest reaching Vancouver Island in southern Canada, and Alaska. The French explored and settled Polynesia, and the British made three voyages with James Cook to the South Pacific and Australia, Hawaii, and the North American Pacific Northwest, one of the earliest voyages of scientific exploration was organized by Spain in the Malaspina Expedition of 1789–1794. It sailed vast areas of the Pacific, from Cape Horn to Alaska, Guam and the Philippines, New Zealand, Australia, and the South Pacific. Growing imperialism during the 19th century resulted in the occupation of much of Oceania by other European powers, and later, Japan, in Oceania, France got a leading position as imperial power after making Tahiti and New Caledonia protectorates in 1842 and 1853 respectively. After navy visits to Easter Island in 1875 and 1887, Chilean navy officer Policarpo Toro managed to negotiate an incorporation of the island into Chile with native Rapanui in 1888, by occupying Easter Island, Chile joined the imperial nations
18.
Persian Gulf
–
The Persian Gulf is a mediterranean sea in Western Asia. The body of water is an extension of the Indian Ocean through the Strait of Hormuz, the Shatt al-Arab river delta forms the northwest shoreline. The Persian Gulf was a battlefield of the 1980–1988 Iran–Iraq War and it is the namesake of the 1991 Gulf War, the largely air- and land-based conflict that followed Iraqs invasion of Kuwait. The gulf has many fishing grounds, extensive coral reefs, and abundant pearl oysters, the body of water is historically and internationally known as the Persian Gulf. Some Arab governments refer to it as the Arabian Gulf or The Gulf, the name Gulf of Iran is used by the International Hydrographic Organization. The Persian Gulf is geologically young, having been formed around 15,000 years ago. Its length is 989 kilometres, with Iran covering most of the northern coast, the Persian Gulf is about 56 km wide at its narrowest, in the Strait of Hormuz. The waters are very shallow, with a maximum depth of 90 metres. Various small islands lie within the Persian Gulf, some of which are the subject of territorial disputes between the states of the region. The International Hydrographic Organization defines the Persian Gulfs southern limit as The Northwestern limit of Gulf of Oman and this limit is defined as A line joining Ràs Limah on the coast of Arabia and Ràs al Kuh on the coast of Iran. The Persian Gulf and its areas are the worlds largest single source of crude oil. Safaniya Oil Field, the worlds largest offshore oilfield, is located in the Persian Gulf, large gas finds have also been made, with Qatar and Iran sharing a giant field across the territorial median line. Using this gas, Qatar has built up a substantial liquefied natural gas, the oil-rich countries that have a coastline on the Persian Gulf are referred to as the Persian Gulf States. In 550 BC, the Achaemenid Empire established the first ancient empire in Persis, consequently, in the Greek sources, the body of water that bordered this province came to be known as the Persian Gulf. In the travel account of Pythagoras, several chapters are related to description of his travels accompanied by the Achaemenid king Darius the Great, to Susa and Persepolis, and the area is described. This water channel separates the Iran Plateau from the Arabia Plate, has enjoyed an Iranian Identity since at least 2200 years ago. Before being given its present name, the Persian Gulf was called many different names, the classical Greek writers, like Herodotus, called it the Red Sea. In Babylonian texts, it was known as the sea above Akkad, the name of the gulf, historically and internationally known as the Persian Gulf after the land of Persia, has been disputed by some Arab countries since the 1960s
19.
Somalia
–
Somalia, officially the Federal Republic of Somalia, is a country located in the Horn of Africa. It is bordered by Ethiopia to the west, Djibouti to the northwest, the Gulf of Aden to the north, the Indian Ocean to the east, Somalia has the longest coastline on Africas mainland, and its terrain consists mainly of plateaus, plains and highlands. Climatically, hot conditions prevail year-round, with monsoon winds. Somalia has an population of around 12.3 million. Around 85% of its residents are ethnic Somalis, who have inhabited the northern part of the country. Ethnic minorities are largely concentrated in the southern regions, the official languages of Somalia are Somali and Arabic, both of which belong to the Afroasiatic family. Most people in the country are Muslim, with the majority being Sunni, in antiquity, Somalia was an important commercial centre. It is among the most probable locations of the fabled ancient Land of Punt, during the Middle Ages, several powerful Somali empires dominated the regional trade, including the Ajuran Empire, the Adal Sultanate, the Warsangali Sultanate, and the Geledi Sultanate. The toponym Somalia was coined by the Italian explorer Luigi Robecchi Bricchetti, Italian occupation lasted until 1941, yielding to British military administration. British Somaliland would remain a protectorate, while Italian Somaliland in 1949 became a United Nations Trusteeship under Italian administration, in 1960, the two regions united to form the independent Somali Republic under a civilian government. The Supreme Revolutionary Council seized power in 1969 and established the Somali Democratic Republic, led by Mohamed Siad Barre, this government later collapsed in 1991 as the Somali Civil War broke out. Various armed factions began competing for influence in the power vacuum, during this period, due to the absence of a central government, Somalia was a failed state, and residents returned to customary and religious law in most regions. A few autonomous regions, including the Somaliland and Puntland administrations emerged in the north, the early 2000s saw the creation of fledgling interim federal administrations. The Transitional National Government was established in 2000, followed by the formation of the Transitional Federal Government in 2004, in 2006, the TFG, assisted by Ethiopian troops, assumed control of most of the nations southern conflict zones from the newly formed Islamic Courts Union. The ICU subsequently splintered into more radical groups such as Al-Shabaab, by mid-2012, the insurgents had lost most of the territory that they had seized. In 2011–2012, a political process providing benchmarks for the establishment of permanent democratic institutions was launched, within this administrative framework a new provisional constitution was passed in August 2012, which reformed Somalia as a federation. Somalia has maintained an informal economy, mainly based on livestock, remittances from Somalis working abroad, Somalia has been inhabited since at least the Paleolithic. During the Stone Age, the Doian and Hargeisan cultures flourished here, the oldest evidence of burial customs in the Horn of Africa comes from cemeteries in Somalia dating back to the 4th millennium BCE
20.
Bujumbura
–
Bujumbura, formerly Usumbura, is the capital, largest city, and main port of Burundi. It ships most of the chief export, coffee, as well as cotton. It is on the shore of Lake Tanganyika, the second deepest lake in the world after Lake Baikal. The city center is a town with a large market, the national stadium, a large mosque. Museums in the city include the Burundi Museum of Life and the Burundi Geological Museum, ferries sail from Bujumbura to Kigoma in Tanzania. The city is home to the Bujumbura International Airport and the University of Burundi, Bujumbura grew from a small village after it became a military post in German East Africa in 1889. After World War I it was made the center of the Belgian League of Nations mandate of Ruanda-Urundi. The name was changed from Usumbura to Bujumbura when Burundi became independent in 1962, since independence, Bujumbura has been the scene of frequent fighting between the countrys two main ethnic groups, with Hutu militias opposing the Tutsi-dominated Burundi army. Bujumbura today stands as a city but remains to develop with its country. According to the BBC, Bujumbura residents are known for their tradition of Saturday morning runs started during Burundis long years of ethnic conflict. Because the surrounding hills were home to armed militants before 2005, Bujumbura residents would try to vent their fear and frustration and claustrophobia, by running, in March 2014, President Pierre Nkurunziza banned jogging, due to fears it was being used as a cover for subversion. That same month, twenty-one opposition supporters were sentenced to life in prison for using jogging as a way to organize a demonstration that turned violent. As of June 2014 in Bujumbura, the authorities have since restricted jogging clubs to certain areas, all sports must now take place in nine parks in Bujumbura and other designated football pitches. Bujumbura is governed by a community council and community administrator and it is further divided into 13 communes, or neighborhoods, each with its own council and boss. Bujumbura features a tropical climate with distinct wet and dry seasons. Its wet season is from October through April, while the dry season covers the five months. Despite being located close to the equator, Bujumbura is not nearly as warm as one might expect, average temperatures are constant throughout the course of the year with the high temperature at around 29 °C and the low temperature at around 19 °C. Bujumburas central market is in the City Centre, along Rwagasore Avenue, consequently, vendors moved their business to the central market, many settling outside the market due to lack of space
21.
Eritrea
–
Eritrea, officially the State of Eritrea, is a country in the Horn of Africa. With its capital at Asmara, it is bordered by Sudan in the west, Ethiopia in the south, the northeastern and eastern parts of Eritrea have an extensive coastline along the Red Sea. The nation has an area of approximately 117,600 km2. Its toponym Eritrea is based on the Greek name for the Red Sea, Eritrea is a multi-ethnic country, with nine recognized ethnic groups in its population of around six million. Most residents speak languages from the Afroasiatic family, either of the Ethiopian Semitic languages or Cushitic branches, among these communities, the Tigrinya make up about 55% of the population, with the Tigre people constituting around 30% of inhabitants. In addition, there are a number of Nilo-Saharan-speaking Nilotic ethnic minorities, most people in the territory adhere to Christianity or Islam. In medieval times much of Eritrea fell under the Medri Bahri kingdom, the creation of modern-day Eritrea is a result of the incorporation of independent, distinct kingdoms and sultanates eventually resulting in the formation of Italian Eritrea. In 1947 Eritrea became part of a federation with Ethiopia, the Federation of Ethiopia, subsequent annexation into Ethiopia led to the Eritrean War of Independence, ending with Eritrean independence following a referendum in April 1993. Hostilities between Eritrea and Ethiopia persisted, leading to the Eritrean–Ethiopian War of 1998–2000 and further skirmishes with both Djibouti and Ethiopia, Eritrea is a one-party state in which national legislative elections have been repeatedly postponed. According to Human Rights Watch, the Eritrean governments human rights record is considered among the worst in the world, the Eritrean government has dismissed these allegations as politically motivated. The compulsory military service requires lengthy, indefinite conscription periods, which some Eritreans leave the country in order to avoid, since all local media is state-owned, Eritrea was also ranked as having the least press freedom in the global Press Freedom Index. Eritrea is a member of the African Union, the United Nations, and IGAD, during the Middle Ages, the Eritrea region was known as Medri Bahri. The name Eritrea is derived from the ancient Greek name for the Red Sea and it was first formally adopted in 1890, with the formation of Italian Eritrea. The territory became the Eritrea Governorate within Italian East Africa in 1936, Eritrea was annexed by Ethiopia in 1953 and an Eritrean Liberation Front formed in 1960. Eritrea gained independence following the 1993 referendum, and the name of the new state was defined as State of Eritrea in the 1997 constitution. At Buya in Eritrea, one of the oldest hominids representing a link between Homo erectus and an archaic Homo sapiens was found by Italian scientists. Dated to over 1 million years old, it is the oldest skeletal find of its kind, during the last interglacial period, the Red Sea coast of Eritrea was occupied by early anatomically modern humans. It is believed that the area was on the out of Africa that some scholars suggest was used by early humans to colonize the rest of the Old World
22.
Ethiopia
–
Ethiopia, officially the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia, is a country located in the Horn of Africa. It shares borders with Eritrea to the north and northeast, Djibouti and Somalia to the east, Sudan and South Sudan to the west, and Kenya to the south. With nearly 100 million inhabitants, Ethiopia is the most populous landlocked country in the world and it occupies a total area of 1,100,000 square kilometres, and its capital and largest city is Addis Ababa. Some of the oldest evidence for modern humans has been found in Ethiopia. It is widely considered as the region from modern humans first set out for the Middle East. According to linguists, the first Afroasiatic-speaking populations settled in the Horn region during the ensuing Neolithic era, tracing its roots to the 2nd millennium BC, Ethiopia was a monarchy for most of its history. During the first centuries AD, the Kingdom of Aksum maintained a unified civilization in the region, subsequently, many African nations adopted the colors of Ethiopias flag following their independence. It was the first independent African member of the 20th-century League of Nations, Ethiopias ancient Geez script, also known as Ethiopic, is one of the oldest alphabets still in use in the world. The Ethiopian calendar, which is seven years and three months behind the Gregorian calendar, co-exists alongside the Borana calendar. A slight majority of the population adheres to Christianity, while around a third follows Islam, the country is the site of the Migration to Abyssinia and the oldest Muslim settlement in Africa at Negash. A substantial population of Ethiopian Jews, known as Bete Israel, resided in Ethiopia until the 1980s, Ethiopia is a multilingual nation with around 80 ethnolinguistic groups, the four largest of which are the Oromiffa, Amhara, Somali, and Tigrayans. Most people in the country speak Afroasiatic languages of the Cushitic or Semitic branches, additionally, Omotic languages are spoken by ethnic minority groups inhabiting the southern regions. Nilo-Saharan languages are spoken by the nations Nilotic ethnic minorities. Ethiopia is the place of origin for the coffee bean which originated from the place called Kefa and it is a land of natural contrasts, with its vast fertile West, jungles, and numerous rivers, and the worlds hottest settlement of Dallol in its north. The Ethiopian Highlands are Africas largest continuous mountain ranges, and Sof Omar Caves contain Africas largest cave, Ethiopia has the most UNESCO World Heritage Sites in Africa. Ethiopia is one of the members of the UN, the Group of 24, the Non-Aligned Movement, G-77. In the 1970s and 1980s, Ethiopia suffered from civil wars, the country has begun to recover recently however, and now has the largest economy in East Africa and Central Africa. According to Global Fire Power, Ethiopia has the 42nd most powerful military in the world, the origin of the word Ethiopia is uncertain
23.
Amman
–
Amman is the capital and most populous city of Jordan, and the countrys economic, political and cultural centre. Situated in north-central Jordan, Amman is the centre of the Amman Governorate. The city has a population of 4,007,526, today, Amman is considered to be among the most liberal and westernized Arab cities. It is a major tourist destination in the region, particularly among Arab, the earliest evidence of settlement in the area is a Neolithic site known as Ain Ghazal. Its successor was known as Rabbath Ammon, which was the capital of the Ammonites, then as Philadelphia and it was initially built on seven hills but now spans over 19 hills combining 27 districts, which are administered by the Greater Amman Municipality headed by its mayor Aqel Biltaji. Areas of Amman have either gained their names from the hills or valleys they lie on, such as Jabal Lweibdeh, East Amman is predominantly filled with historic sites that frequently host cultural activities, while West Amman is more modern and serves as the economic center of the city. Approximately 2 million visitors arrived in Amman in 2014, which ranked it as the 93rd most visited city in the world, Amman has a relatively fast growing economy, and it is ranked Beta− on the global city index. Moreover, it was named one of the Middle East and North Africas best cities according to economic, labor, environmental, the city is among the most popular locations in the Arab world for multinational corporations to set up their regional offices, alongside Doha and only behind Dubai. It is expected that in the next 10 years these three cities will capture the largest share of multinational corporation activity in the region. Amman derives its name from the 13th century BC when the Ammonites named it Rabbath Ammon, over time, the term Rabbath was no longer used and the city became known as Ammon. The influence of new civilizations that conquered the city changed its name to Amman. In the Hebrew Bible, it is referred to as Rabbat ʿAmmon, however, Ptolemy II Philadelphus, the Macedonian ruler of the Ptolemaic Kingdom who reigned from 283 to 246 BC, renamed the city to Philadelphia after occupying it. The name was given as an adulation to his own nickname, in the outskirts of Amman, one of the largest known ancient settlements in the Near East was discovered. The site, known as Ain Ghazal which is situated on a valley-side, dates back to 7250 BC and it was a typical average sized aceramic Neolithic village that accommodated around 3,000 inhabitants. Its houses were rectangular mud-bricked buildings that included a main square living room, the site was discovered in 1974 as construction workers were working on a road crossing the area. By 1982 when the excavations started, around 600 meters of road ran through the site, despite the damage brought by urban expansion, the remains of Ain Ghazal provided a wealth of information. These statues are human figures made with white plaster, the figures have painted clothes, hair, and in some cases ornamental tattoos. Thirty-two figures were found in two caches, fifteen of them full figures, fifteen busts, and two fragmentary heads, three of the busts were two-headed, the significance of which is not clear
24.
Lockheed Martin KC-130
–
The Lockheed Martin KC-130 is the basic designation for a family of the extended-range tanker version of the C-130 Hercules transport aircraft modified for aerial refueling. The KC-130J is the latest variant operated by the United States Marine Corps and it replaced older KC-130F, KC-130R, and KC-130T variants, while one USMC reserve unit still operates 12 KC-130T aircraft. The KC-130F made its first test flight in January 1960 as the GV-1 under the old Navy designation system, first entering service in 1962, the KC-130F was designed to undertake aerial refueling missions in support of USMC aircraft. It was developed from the Lockheed C-130 Hercules, the newest Hercules, the KC-130J, shares 55 percent of the same airframe as preceding models, but in fact is a greatly improved airplane. It is based on the Lockheed Martin C-130J Super Hercules and provides significant increases in operational capability, additionally, The KC-130J reduces cost of ownership through system reliability and reduced maintenance man-hours per flight hour. The new HC-130J combat rescue tanker and MC-130J special operations tanker are both derived from a KC-130J baseline, technological development has led to the incorporation of interior/exterior night vision lighting, night vision goggle head-up displays, global positioning system, and jam-resistant radios. Some KC-130s are also equipped with electronic and infrared countermeasures systems. The KC-130 is a multi-role, multi-mission tactical tanker/transport which provides the support required by the USMC for its aircraft. This versatile asset provides in-flight refueling to tactical aircraft and helicopters within a 500-nautical-mile operating radius, as well as rapid ground refueling when required. The KC-130J offers a 27,215 kg fuel capacity that it can allocate between its own flight requirements against aerial refueling offload capacity using its wing and external tanks while in the air. When more fuel is needed, an additional 11,064 kg of fuel can be offloaded from a specially configured internal fuselage 13,627 L aluminum fuel tank. The system also functions without the tank, so the cargo compartment can be used for cargo on the same mission. The aircraft is ready to fuel fixed-wing, tilt-rotor, or rotary-wing aircraft using the standard probe, the KC-130J also provides for rapid ground refueling of helicopters, vehicles and fuel caches. The aircraft has a unique propeller feathering feature which can slow the propellers while the turbines continue to run and energize the generator and this reduction of the propellers speed helps to eliminate prop wash behind the KC-130J. This allows ground forces to operate in relative calm while the aircraft offloads up to 2,271 L,1,823 kg per minute, the U. S. Marine Corps has chosen the KC-130J to replace its aging KC-130 legacy tanker fleet. The new KC-130J offers increased utility and much needed improvement in mission performance, as a force multiplier, the J-model tanker is capable of refueling both fixed- and rotary-wing aircraft as well as conducting rapid ground refueling. The refueling speed envelope has been widened from 100 to 270 knots indicated airspeed, offload rates per refueling pod can be up to 300 gallons per minute simultaneously. The KC-130s offload is significantly greater than previous Hercules tankers, as an example, at 1,000 nautical miles, the fuel offload is well over 45,000 pounds
25.
East Timor
–
East Timor or Timor-Leste, officially the Democratic Republic of Timor-Leste, is a sovereign state in Maritime Southeast Asia. It comprises the half of the island of Timor, the nearby islands of Atauro and Jaco, and Oecusse. The countrys size is about 15,410 km2, nine days later, it was invaded and occupied by Indonesia and was declared Indonesias 27th province the following year. The Indonesian occupation of East Timor was characterised by a highly violent decades-long conflict between separatist groups and the Indonesian military, in 1999, following the United Nations-sponsored act of self-determination, Indonesia relinquished control of the territory. East Timor became the first new state of the 21st century on 20 May 2002 and joined the United Nations. In 2011, East Timor announced its intention to gain status in the Association of Southeast Asian Nations by applying to become its eleventh member. It is one of two predominantly Christian nations in Southeast Asia, the other being the Philippines. In Indonesian, the country is called Timor Timur, thus using the Portuguese name for the island followed by the word for east, the official names under the Constitution are Democratic Republic of Timor-Leste in English, República Democrática de Timor-Leste in Portuguese and Repúblika Demokrátika Timór-Leste in Tetum. Humans first settled in East Timor 42,000 years ago, descendants of at least three waves of migration are believed still to live in East Timor. The first is described by anthropologists as people of the Veddo-Australoid type, around 3000 BC, a second migration brought Melanesians. The earlier Veddo-Australoid peoples withdrew at this time to the mountainous interior, finally, proto-Malays arrived from south China and north Indochina. Hakka traders are among those descended from this final group, Timorese origin myths tell of ancestors that sailed around the eastern end of Timor arriving on land in the south. Some stories recount Timorese ancestors journeying from the Malay Peninsula or the Minangkabau highlands of Sumatra, austronesians migrated to Timor, and are thought to be associated with the development of agriculture on the island. Thirdly, Proto-Malays arrived from south China and north Indochina, before European colonialism, Timor was included in Chinese and Indian trading networks, and in the 14th century was an exporter of aromatic sandalwood, slaves, honey, and wax. It was the abundance of sandalwood in Timor that attracted European explorers to the island in the early 16th century. During that time, European explorers reported that the island had a number of small chiefdoms or princedoms, the Portuguese established outposts in Timor and Maluku. Effective European occupation of a part of the territory began in 1769, when the city of Dili was founded. For the Portuguese, East Timor remained little more than a trading post until the late nineteenth century, with minimal investment in infrastructure, health
26.
Kuwait
–
Kuwait /kuːˈweɪt/, officially the State of Kuwait, is a country in Western Asia. Situated in the edge of Eastern Arabia at the tip of the Persian Gulf, it shares borders with Iraq. As of 2016, Kuwait has a population of 4.2 million people,1.3 million are Kuwaitis and 2.9 million are expatriates, expatriates account for 70% of the population. Oil reserves were discovered in 1938, from 1946 to 1982, the country underwent large-scale modernization. In the 1980s, Kuwait experienced a period of geopolitical instability, in 1990, Kuwait was invaded by Iraq. The Iraqi occupation came to an end in 1991 after military intervention by coalition forces, at the end of the war, there were extensive efforts to revive the economy and rebuild national infrastructure. Kuwait is a constitutional emirate with a political system. It has an income economy backed by the worlds sixth largest oil reserves. The Kuwaiti dinar is the highest valued currency in the world, according to the World Bank, the country has the fourth highest per capita income in the world. The Constitution was promulgated in 1962, making Kuwait the most democratic country in the region, Kuwait ranks highly in regional metrics of gender equality, as it has the regions highest Global Gender Gap ranking. During the Ubaid period, Kuwait was the site of interaction between the peoples of Mesopotamia and Neolithic Eastern Arabia, mainly centered in As-Subiya in northern Kuwait. The earliest evidence of habitation in Kuwait dates back 8000 B. C. where Mesolithic tools were found in Burgan. As-Subiya in northern Kuwait is the earliest evidence of urbanization in the whole Persian Gulf basin area, mesopotamians first settled in the Kuwaiti island of Failaka in 2000 B. C. Traders from the Sumerian city of Ur inhabited Failaka and ran a mercantile business, the island had many Mesopotamian-style buildings typical of those found in Iraq dating from around 2000 B. C. The Neolithic inhabitants of Kuwait were among the worlds earliest maritime traders, one of the worlds earliest reed-boats was discovered in northern Kuwait dating back to the Ubaid period. In 3rd century BC, the ancient Greeks colonized the bay of Kuwait under Alexander the Great, according to Strabo and Arrian, Alexander the Great named Failaka Ikaros because it resembled the Aegean island of that name in size and shape. Remains of Greek colonization include a large Hellenistic fort and Greek temples, in 224 AD, Kuwait became part of the Sassanid Empire. At the time of the Sassanid Empire, Kuwait was known as Meshan, Akkaz was a Partho-Sassanian site, the Sassanid religions tower of silence was discovered in northern Akkaz
27.
Operation Enduring Freedom
–
Operation Enduring Freedom comprises several subordinate operations, Operation Enduring Freedom – Afghanistan, lasted from October 2001 to 31 December 2014. Government used the term Operation Enduring Freedom – Afghanistan to officially describe the War in Afghanistan, continued operations in Afghanistan by the United States military forces, both non-combat and combat, now occur under the name Operation Freedoms Sentinel. In September 2001, U. S. President George W, the term OEF-A typically refers to the phase of the War in Afghanistan from 2001 to 2014. Other operations, such as the Georgia Train and Equip Program, are loosely or nominally connected. All the operations, however, have a focus on counterterrorism activities, Operation Enduring Freedom – Afghanistan, which was a joint U. S. U. K. and Afghan operation, was separate from the International Security Assistance Force, which was an operation of North Atlantic Treaty Organization nations including the U. S. and the U. K. The two operations ran in parallel, although it had suggested that they merge. S. and British ships. The initial military objectives of OEF-A, as articulated by President George W, of those groups included are Abu Sayyaf Group, al-Qaeda and Jemaah Islamiyah. The operation consisted of training the AFP in counter-terrorist operations as well as supporting the people with humanitarian aid in Operation Smiles. In October 2002, the Combined Task Force 150 and United States military Special Forces established themselves in Djibouti at Camp Lemonnier, the stated goals of the operation were to provide humanitarian aid and patrol the Horn of Africa to reduce the abilities of terrorist organizations in the region. The military aspect involves coalition forces searching and boarding ships entering the region for illegal cargo as well as providing training, the humanitarian aspect involves building schools, clinics and water wells to enforce the confidence of the local people. Since 2001, the expenditure by the U. S. government on Operation Enduring Freedom has exceeded $150 billion. The operation continues, with military direction mostly coming from United States Central Command, seizing upon a power vacuum after the Soviets withdrew from Afghanistan after their invasion, the Taliban assumed the role of government from 1996–2001. Their extreme interpretation of Islamic law prompted them to ban music, television, sports, and dancing, amputation was an accepted form of punishment for stealing, and public executions could often be seen at the Kabul football stadium. Womens rights groups around the world were frequently critical as the Taliban banned women from appearing in public or holding many jobs outside the home and they drew further criticism when they destroyed the Buddhas of Bamyan, historical statues nearly 1500 years old, because the Buddhas were considered idols. In 1996, Saudi dissident Osama bin Laden moved to Afghanistan upon the invitation of the Northern Alliance leader Abdur Rabb ur Rasool Sayyaf, when the Taliban came to power, bin Laden was able to forge an alliance between the Taliban and his al-Qaeda organization. It is understood that al-Qaeda-trained fighters known as the 055 Brigade were integrated with the Taliban army between 1997 and 2001 and it has been suggested that the Taliban and bin Laden had very close connections. On 20 September 2001, the U. S. stated that Osama bin Laden was behind the 11 September attacks in 2001, the US made a five-point ultimatum to the Taliban, Deliver to the U. S
28.
September 11 attacks
–
The September 11 attacks were a series of four coordinated terrorist attacks by the Islamic terrorist group al-Qaeda on the United States on the morning of Tuesday, September 11,2001. The attacks killed 2,996 people, injured over 6,000 others, two of the planes, American Airlines Flight 11 and United Airlines Flight 175, were crashed into the North and South towers, respectively, of the World Trade Center complex in New York City. A third plane, American Airlines Flight 77, was crashed into the Pentagon in Arlington County, Virginia and it was the deadliest incident for firefighters and law enforcement officers in the history of the United States, with 343 and 72 killed respectively. Suspicion for the attack fell on al-Qaeda. The United States responded to the attacks by launching the War on Terror and invading Afghanistan to depose the Taliban, many countries strengthened their anti-terrorism legislation and expanded the powers of law enforcement and intelligence agencies to prevent terrorist attacks. Although al-Qaedas leader, Osama bin Laden, initially denied any involvement, al-Qaeda and bin Laden cited U. S. support of Israel, the presence of U. S. troops in Saudi Arabia, and sanctions against Iraq as motives. Having evaded capture for almost a decade, bin Laden was located and killed by SEAL Team Six of the U. S. Navy in May 2011. S. many closings, evacuations, and cancellations followed, out of respect or fear of further attacks. Cleanup of the World Trade Center site was completed in May 2002, on November 18,2006, construction of One World Trade Center began at the World Trade Center site. The building was opened on November 3,2014. The origins of al-Qaeda can be traced to 1979 when the Soviet Union invaded Afghanistan, Osama bin Laden traveled to Afghanistan and helped organize Arab mujahideen to resist the Soviets. Under the guidance of Ayman al-Zawahiri, bin Laden became more radical, in 1996, bin Laden issued his first fatwā, calling for American soldiers to leave Saudi Arabia. Bin Laden used Islamic texts to exhort Muslims to attack Americans until the stated grievances are reversed, Muslim legal scholars have throughout Islamic history unanimously agreed that the jihad is an individual duty if the enemy destroys the Muslim countries, according to bin Laden. Bin Laden, who orchestrated the attacks, initially denied but later admitted involvement, in November 2001, U. S. forces recovered a videotape from a destroyed house in Jalalabad, Afghanistan. In the video, bin Laden is seen talking to Khaled al-Harbi, on December 27,2001, a second bin Laden video was released. In the video, he said, It has become clear that the West in general and it is the hatred of crusaders. Terrorism against America deserves to be praised because it was a response to injustice, aimed at forcing America to stop its support for Israel, the transcript refers several times to the United States specifically targeting Muslims. He said that the attacks were carried out because, we are free, and want to regain freedom for our nation. As you undermine our security we undermine yours, Bin Laden said he had personally directed his followers to attack the World Trade Center and the Pentagon
29.
2nd Battalion, 6th Marines
–
2nd Battalion, 6th Marines is an infantry battalion in the United States Marine Corps based out of Camp Lejeune, North Carolina. Also known as The Ready Battalion or 2/6 Spartans, it consists of approximately 800 Marines and Sailors and falls under the command of the 6th Marine Regiment and the 2nd Marine Division. Headquarters and Services Company Echo Company Fox Company Golf Company Weapons Company 2nd Battalion, on January 19,1918, the battalion went to League Island, Philadelphia in order to head out to France as part of the 4th Brigade, American Expeditionary Force. The battalion fought at the Battle of Belleau Wood for which they were awarded the Croix de Guerre with Palm from the French government. Beginning October 3,1918, the 6th Regiment led the offensive to take Blanc Mont Ridge, in November 1918, 2/6 also took part in the Meuse-Argonne Offensive which was the last major offensive of the war. The battalion returned to Marine Corps Base Quantico on June 19,1919 and they were deactivated shortly thereafter on August 20,1919. From May to July 1941 2/6 reassigned to the 1st Provisional Marine Brigade and deployed to occupy Reykjavík, in March 1942 the battalion returned to San Diego and was reassigned to the 2nd Marine Division. Lieutenant Colonel William A. Worton served as Battalion Commander at the time, in the fall of 1942 2/6 sailed to Wellington, New Zealand where it began advanced combat training. This was followed by movement to Guadalcanal on January 1,1943, the 2/6 also took part in the Battle of Tarawa. That was on November 21,1943, the day of the Battle of Tarawa. On June 15,1944 the battalion landed on Saipan in the Marianas Islands to take part in the Battle of Saipan, following the end of the war, 2/6 landed at Nagasaki to take part in the Occupation of Japan from September 1945 until July 1946. In August 1946 the battalion relocated to Camp Pendleton, California, as part of the post war draw down of forces, 2/6 was deactivated on October 1,1947. The exploits of the 2/6 were immortalized in the World War II classic novel, Battle Cry, although the characters were fictional, the movements of the 2/6 were historically accurate and were based on Uris own experiences in the 2/6 during World War II as a PFC. From February to June 1983, 2nd Battalion, 6th Marines became part of the Multinational Peace-Keeping Force in Lebanon and were present during the 1983 United States embassy bombing. They returned on October 23,1983 as relief for 1st Battalion, on March 3,1989, 2nd Battalion, 6th Marines was deactivated and placed into a cadre status. 2/6 was reactivated on July 23,1994 at Cuzco Wells, Guantanamo Bay, then took part in Operation Sea Signal, the security and processing of Haitian migrants. In September of that year the battalions main force returned to Guantanamo Bay to provide security for Cuban migrants. A year later in September 1995 2/6 was sent to support United Nations, for these actions the battalion received the Joint Meritorious Unit Citation
30.
Multinational Division Central-South
–
Multinational Division Central-South, created in September 2003, and supported by NATO, was a part of the Multinational Force Iraq. Headquartered in Camp Echo, it was under Polish command until October 2008, as of December 2008, Armenian, Bosnian, Danish, Latvian, Kazakh, Lithuanian, Mongolian, Spanish and Slovakian forces have been fully withdrawn. The region has a population of about 5 million spread over 65632 km², major cities in the area include Diwaniyah, Kut, Hillah, and Karbala and Najaf. On January 5,2006, Polish troops handed over control of the central Babil province to U. S. troops, the strength of the Polish forces has decreased from 2224 to 900. The Division has been switching from stabilization tasks towards training the Iraqi Army, the divisional headquarters was moved in 2004 from Camp Babilon to Camp Echo. According to mission statement the primary task of the MND CS was to oversee the transfer of the military, in Bob Woodwards book State of Denial he recounts the experience of Frank Miller, who as of March 2004 was the senior director for defense on the National Security Council. During the course of a fact finding trip to Iraq in that month he visited the leadership of the Multinational Division, Woodwards description is as follows, Miller moved on to meet with the Polish commander of the Multinational Division, made up of troops from 23 nations. They have 23 separate rules of engagement, I pick up the phone, I tell the colonel in charge of the Spanish Brigade what to do. He picks up his phone, calls Madrid, and says, Miller understood that this meant the Multinational Division had little or no fighting capability
31.
Najaf Governorate
–
Najaf Governorate is a governorate in central and southern Iraq. The capital is the city of Najaf, the other major city is Al Kufah. Both cities are holy to Shia Muslims, who form the majority of the population, prior to 1976 it was part of the Karbala Governorate. Governor, Luay al-Yassiry Deputy Governor, Abbas Alelyawi Najaf District Kufa District Al-Manathera District Al-Meshkhab District
32.
1st Infantry Division (United States)
–
The 1st Infantry Division is a combined arms division of the United States Army, and is the oldest continuously serving in the Regular Army. It has seen service since its organization in 1917 during World War I. It was officially nicknamed The Big Red One after its shoulder patch and is also nicknamed The Fighting First, however, the division has also received troop monikers of The Big Dead One and The Bloody First as puns on the respective officially-sanctioned nicknames. It is currently based at Fort Riley, Kansas, sibert, from Army units then in service on the U. S. -Mexico border and at various Army posts throughout the United States. The total authorized strength of this TO&E was 18,919 officers, George S. Frank W. Coe, who later served as Chief of Coast Artillery, was the divisions first chief of staff. The first units sailed from New York City and Hoboken, New Jersey on 14 June 1917, throughout the remainder of the year, the rest of the division followed, landing at St. Nazaire, France, and Liverpool, England. After a brief stay in rest camps, the troops in England proceeded to France, the last unit arrived in St. Nazaire 22 December. Upon arrival in France, the division, less its artillery, was assembled in the First training area, on 4 July, the 2nd Battalion, 16th Infantry, paraded through the streets of Paris to bolster the sagging French spirits. At Lafayettes tomb, Captain C. E. Stanton of the 16th Infantry Regiment stepped forward and said, Lafayette, two days later,6 July, Headquarters, First Expeditionary Division was redesignated as Headquarters, First Division. The total authorized strength of this new TO&E was 27,120 officers, on the morning of 23 October, the first American shell of the war was fired toward German lines by a First Division artillery unit. Two days later, the 2nd Battalion of the 16th Infantry suffered the first American casualties of the war, by April 1918, the Germans had pushed to within 40 miles of Paris. In reaction to this thrust, the Big Red One moved into the Picardy Sector to bolster the exhausted French First Army, to the divisions front lay the small village of Cantigny, situated on the high ground overlooking a forested countryside. The 28th Infantry Regiment attacked the town, and within 45 minutes captured it along with 250 German soldiers and it was the first American victory of the war. The 28th was thereafter named the Black Lions of Cantigny, Soissons was taken by the First Division in July 1918. The Soissons victory was costly –700 men were killed or wounded, the First Infantry helped to clear the St. Mihiel salient by fighting continuously from 11 to 13 September 1918. The last major World War I battle was fought in the Meuse-Argonne Forest, the division advanced seven kilometers and defeated, in whole or part, eight German divisions. This victory was due to the efforts of George C. Marshall, who at the time was a captain in the 1st Division and organized soldiers movements, the war was over when the Armistice was signed
33.
5th Cavalry Regiment
–
As the borders of the United States expanded westwards, the US government decided that it needed more mounted troops to protect the wagon trains and secure the frontier. Company A rode Grays, Companies B and E rode Sorrels, Companies C, D, F, and I had Bays, Companies G and H rode browns, royall, Nathan G. Evans, Fitzhugh Lee, and John Bell Hood. After receiving cavalry training at Jefferson Barracks, Missouri, the regiment, under COL Albert Sidney Johnston, began riding out to Fort Belknap, Texas. COL Johnston immediately received orders to set up Headquarters along with Companies B, C, D, G, H, arriving on 14 January 1856, the men arrived at the post and immediately began work repairing it. On 22 February 1856, Company C of the 2nd Cavalry, under the command of Captain James Oaks, engaged the Waco Indians in their first battle just west of Fort Terrett, Texas. In July 1857, LTC Robert E. Lee arrived at Fort Mason to take command of the 2nd Cavalry Regiment and that same month, LT John Bell Hood led a company of the 2nd Cavalry into the Texas frontier. Near the Devils River, the patrol spotted a band of Comanche warriors holding a flag of truce. The warriors dropped their white flag and began lighting fires to carefully placed burn piles in order to provide a smoke screen,30 more Indians, hiding within 10 paces of the Cavalry troopers, began attacking with arrows and guns. The cavalrymen charged and engaged in fighting, but were forced to withdraw under the cover of revolver fire in the face of two-to-one odds. LT Hood was wounded by and arrow through the hand in this engagement. On 15 February 1858, Major William J. Hardee was instructed to proceed from Fort Belknap with Companies A, F, H & K to Otter Creek, Texas, on 29 February, they came upon a large encampment of Comanche Indians near Wichita Village. In July 1858, the regiment assembled at Fort Belknap in anticipation of joining Johnston in Utah to subjugate rebellious Mormons. Their orders were rescinded and they formed a striking force. During this period, the regiment fought in some forty engagements against the Apaches, Bannocks, Cheyennes, Comanches, Kiowas, Utes and other tribes along with Mexican banditos. Early in 1861, the regiment went to Carlisle Barracks, where the officers, lieutenant Colonel Robert E. Lee was replaced by Lt. Col. George Henry Thomas. The regiment was rebuilt with new officers and recruits loyal to the Union and was assigned to the Army of the Potomac under the command of General George McClellan. On 21 July 1861, the regiment participated in its first battle of the American Civil War, the 5th Cavalrys most notable action came at Gaines Mills, when the regiment charged a Confederate division under command of a former comrade, General John Bell Hood. The regiment suffered casualties in the battle, but their attack saved the Union artillery from annihilation
34.
1st Cavalry Division (United States)
–
The 1st Cavalry Division is a combined arms division and is one of the most decorated combat divisions of the United States Army, as well as the other four branches of the U. S. military. It is based at Fort Hood, Texas, as of 2013, the 1st Cavalry Division is subordinate to III Corps and is commanded by Major General John C. Thomson III. The history of the 1st Cavalry Division began in 1921 after the established a permanent cavalry division table of organization. Since 1st Cavalry Division was to assemble from existing units, it was able to go active in September 1921, even though the subordinate units did not arrive completely until as late as 1922. 1st Cavalry Division was assigned to the VIII Corps Area, with its headquarters and 2d Brigade located at Fort Bliss, Texas. The 1st Cavalry Division’s assembled at Douglas, Arizona, the 1st, 7th, and 8th Cavalry Regiments had previously been assigned to the wartime 15th Cavalry Division until they were returned to the VIII Corps Area troop list on 12 May 1918. 1st Cavalry Regiment remained assigned until it was transferred to 1st Cavalry Division on 20 August 1921 and this controversy continued until 18 December 1922, when the 5th Cavalry Regiment, then on the VIII Corps Area Troop List, swapped places with the 10th Cavalry Regiment. In 1923 the 1st Cavalry Division held division maneuvers for the first time, however, financial constraints made that impossible. Only in 1927, through the generosity of a few ranchers who provided land, was the division able to conduct such exercises again. In 1928 Major General Herbert B, crosby, Chief of Cavalry, faced with personnel cuts, reorganized the cavalry regiments, which in turn reduced the size of the 1st Cavalry Division. Crosbys goal was to decrease overhead while maintaining or increasing firepower in the regiment, the cavalry brigades machine gun squadrons were inactivated, while the responsibility for training and employing machine guns fell to the regimental commanders, as in the infantry. The new structure increased the size of the troop, expanded the medical unit to a squadron. A divisional aviation section, an armored car squadron, and tank company were added, the artillery battalion was expanded to a regiment. With the arrival of the 1930s, serious work started on the testing and refining of new equipment, to facilitate this, 1st Cavalry Division traded 1st Cavalry Regiment for 12th Cavalry Regiment on 3 January 1933. Like the 1937 infantry division test, the maneuvers concentrated on the cavalry regiments around which all other units were to be organized. The latter configuration allowed the division to deploy easily in two columns, which was accepted standard cavalry tactics, one headquarters would assume responsibility for the administration and disciplinary control for these forces. The special troops remained as structured in 1928, and no observation squadron or chemical detachment found a place in the division, with the paper changes in the cavalry divisions and other minor adjustments, the strength of a wartime divisional rose to 10,680. In order to prepare for war service, 1st Cavalry Division participated in the maneuvers, Toyahvale
35.
7th Cavalry Regiment
–
The 7th Cavalry Regiment is a United States Army cavalry regiment formed in 1866. Its official nickname is Garryowen, after the Irish air Garryowen that was adopted as its march tune, following its activation, the Seventh Cavalry Regiment patrolled the Western plains for raiding Native Americans and to protect the westward movement of pioneers. From 1866 to 1881, the regiment marched a total of 181,692 miles across Kansas, Montana, the regiment was constituted on 28 July 1866 in the regular army as the 7th United States Cavalry. It was organized on 21 September 1866 at Fort Riley, Kansas as part of an expansion of the army following the demobilization of the wartime volunteer. From 1866 through 1871, the regiment was posted to Fort Riley, in the Battle of the Washita in 1868, the regiment sustained 22 losses, while inflicting more that 150 deaths on a Cheyenne encampment, mostly women and children. This attack was led by George Armstrong Custer, who led the 7th Cavalry to the most calamitous defeat of U. S. forces in the Indian Wars. Typical of post-Civil War cavalry regiments, the 7th Cavalry was organized as a regiment without a formal battalion organization. Battalions at this time were flexible tactical organizations, with companies being assigned and removed as the field commander desired or felt necessary. Throughout this period, the cavalryman was armed with the Colt Single Action Army.45 caliber revolvers and trapdoor Springfield carbines, the regiment used the McClellan saddle, and sabres were also issued but not often carried on campaign. The 7th Cavalry, like the other U. S. Army regiments of the time, had a band, which performed mounted as well as on foot, and seated for concerts. Initially established with the support of Major Alfred Gibbs, the 7ths band adopted Garryowen as their favorite tune and thus gave the Seventh their nickname among the rest of the Army. From 1871 through 1873, 7th Cavalry companies participated in constabulary duties in the deep South in support of the Reconstruction Act, in 1873, the 7th Cavalry moved its garrison post to Fort Abraham Lincoln, Dakota Territory. From here, the regiment carried out Custers 1874 Black Hills Expedition and this led to the discovery of gold in the Black Hills, starting a gold rush in 1874 that precipitated the Great Sioux War of 1876–77. In June,1876, Lieutenant Colonel George A. Custer was killed in the Battle of the Little Bighorn, on 29 December 1890, the regiment instigated the Wounded Knee Massacre in South Dakota, an event that signaled the end of the American Indian Wars. November 1866 – April 1869 Col. Andrew J. Smith May 1869 – June 1886 Col. Samuel D. Sturgis July 1886 – November 1894 Col. James W. From 1895 until 1899, the regiment served in New Mexico and Oklahoma, an enlisted trooper with the Seventh Cavalry, B Company, from May 1896 until March 1897 at Fort Grant Arizona Territory was author Edgar Rice Burroughs. The regiment served in the Philippines during the Philippine-American War from 1904 through 1907, in December 1917, 7th Cavalry was assigned to the 15th Cavalry Division, an on-paper organization designed for service in France during World War I that was never more than a simple headquarters. This was because no significant role emerged for mounted troops on the Western Front during the 19 months between the entry of the United States into the war and the Armistice of 11 November 1918, the 7th Cavalry was released from this assignment in May 1918
36.
Islamism
–
Islamism is a concept whose meaning has been debated in both public and academic contexts. It is commonly used interchangeably with the terms political Islam or Islamic fundamentalism and these movements have arguably altered the Middle East more than any trend since the modern states gained independence, redefining politics and even borders according to Robin Wright. Some authors hold the term Islamic activism to be synonymous and preferable to Islamism, Central and prominent figures of modern Islamism include Hasan al-Banna, Sayyid Qutb, Abul Ala Maududi, and Ruhollah Khomeini. Some Islamist thinkers emphasize peaceful political processes, whereas Sayyid Qutb in particular called for violence, however, Qutb, unlike modern extremists, denounced the killing of innocents. Following the Arab Spring, some Islamist currents became heavily involved in politics, while others spawned the most aggressive and ambitious Islamist militia to date. A theocratic ideology that seeks to impose any version of Islam over society by law, subsequently, clarified to be, the desire to impose any given interpretation of Islam on society. A movement so broad and flexible it reaches out to everything to everyone in Islam, making it unsustainable. and at the extremes, a violent vehicle for rejectionists and radicals. All who seek to Islamize their environment, whether in relation to their lives in society, their circumstances, or the workplace. Moderate and reformist Islamists who accept and work within the process include parties like the Tunisian Ennahda Movement. Jamaat-e-Islami of Pakistan is basically a socio-political and democratic Vanguard party but has gained political influence through military coup détats in the past. The Islamist groups like Hezbollah in Lebanon and Hamas in Palestine participate in the democratic, following the Arab Spring, Roy has described Islamism as increasingly interdependent with democracy in much of the Arab Muslim world, such that neither can now survive without the other. While Islamist political culture itself may not be democratic, Islamists need democratic elections to maintain their legitimacy, at the same time, their popularity is such that no government can call itself democratic that excludes mainstream Islamist groups. The term, which denoted the religion of Islam, first appeared in English as Islamismus in 1696. The term appears in the U. S. Supreme Court decision in In Re Ross, the term Islamism acquired its contemporary connotations in French academia in the late 1970s and early 1980s. From French, it began to migrate to the English language in the mid-1980s, a 2003 article in Middle East Quarterly states, In summation, the term Islamism enjoyed its first run, lasting from Voltaire to the First World War, as a synonym for Islam. Enlightened scholars and writers generally preferred it to Mohammedanism, eventually both terms yielded to Islam, the Arabic name of the faith, and a word free of either pejorative or comparative associations. To all intents and purposes, Islamic fundamentalism and Islamism have become synonyms in contemporary American usage, the AP Stylebook entry for Islamist now reads as follows, An advocate or supporter of a political movement that favors reordering government and society in accordance with laws prescribed by Islam. Do not use as a synonym for Islamic fighters, militants, extremists or radicals, where possible, be specific and use the name of militant affiliations, al-Qaida-linked, Hezbollah, Taliban, etc
37.
Peace Companies
–
As the Mahdi Army, the group rose to international prominence on April 18,2004, when it spearheaded the first major armed confrontation against the U. S. -led forces in Iraq from the Shia community. This concerned an uprising followed the ban of al-Sadrs newspaper and his subsequent attempted arrest. The truce broke down in August 2004 after provocative actions by the Mahdi Army, in 2008, following a crackdown by Iraqi security forces, the group was disbanded. At its height, the Mahdi Armys popularity was enough to influence local government, the police. The group was popular among Iraqi police forces, National Independent Cadres and Elites party that ran in the 2005 Iraqi election was closely linked with the army. Members of the Mahdi Army frequently carried out atrocities, particularly against Sunni civilians, the Mahdi Army were accused of operating death squads. The group was armed with light weapons, including improvised explosive devices. The group was re-mobilized in 2014 in order to fight against the Islamic State of Iraq and it participated in the recapture of Jurf Al Nasr and the Second Battle of Tikrit. In the Twelver school of Shia Islam, the Mahdī is believed to have been a figure identified with the Twelfth Imām, Muhammad al-Mahdī. It is believed that he is present on earth in occultation. The group moved in to fill the security vacuum in Sadr City, the group was involved in dispensing aid to Iraqis and provided security in the Shiite slums from looters. Gradually, the militia grew and al-Sadr formalized it in June 2003, the Mahdi Army grew into a sizable force of up to 10,000 who even operated what amounted to a shadow government in some areas. Al-Sadrs preaching is critical of the US occupation, but he did not initially join the Sunni Islamist and Baathist guerrillas in their attacks on coalition forces, Sadrs position changed dramatically, however, by the beginning of April 2004. Following the closure of the Sadr-owned newspaper al-Hawza and the arrest of one of his senior aides, the next day, violent protests occurred throughout the Shiite south that soon spilled over into a violent uprising by Mahdi Army militiamen, fully underway by April 4. The Mahdi Army forces began an offensive in Najaf, Kufa, Kut, the militants gained partial control of Karbala after fighting there. Other coalition forces came under attack in Nasiriyah, Amarah and Basra, Najaf and Kufa were quickly seized after a few firefights with Spanish troops, and Kut was seized after clashes with Ukrainian troops soon afterwards. After sporadic clashes, coalition forces temporarily suppressed most militia activity in Nasiriyah, Amarah, Mahdi rebels expelled Iraqi police from three police stations and ambushed U. S forces in Sadr City, killing seven U. S troops and wounding several more. U. S forces subsequently regained control of the stations after running firefights with the fighters
38.
Muqtada al-Sadr
–
Muqtada al-Sadr is an Iraqi Shia cleric, politician and militia leader. Muqtada al-Sadr is one of the most influential religious and popular figures in Iraq and he is of the prominent Sadr family originating from Jabal Amel in Lebanon but later settled in Najaf, his father-in-law being Mohammad Baqir al-Sadr. He is often styled with the honorific title Sayyid, but in early 2008 he was reported to be studying to be an ayatollah, which would greatly improve his religious standing. Muqtada al-Sadr is the son of a famous Iraqi Shia cleric. He is also the son-in-law of Grand Ayatollah Mohammad Baqir al-Sadr, Muqtada al-Sadr is of Iraqi and Iranian ancestry. Mohammed Sadeq al-Sadr, Muqtada al-Sadrs father, was a respected figure throughout the Shia Islamic world and he was murdered, along with two of his sons, allegedly by the government of Saddam Hussein. Muqtadas father-in-law was executed by the Iraqi authorities in 1980, Muqtada is a cousin of the disappeared Musa al-Sadr, the Iranian-Lebanese founder of the popular Amal Movement. In 1994, al-Sadr married one of Muhammad Baqir al-Sadrs daughters, Muqtada al-Sadr gained popularity in Iraq following the toppling of the Saddam government by the 2003 invasion of Iraq. Al-Sadr has on occasion stated that he wishes to create an Islamic democracy, the name refers to the Mahdi, a long-since disappeared Imam who is believed by Shia Muslims to be due to reappear when the end of time approaches. Many Iraqi supporters see in him a symbol of resistance to foreign occupation, the Mahdi army operated deaths squads that frequently killed Sunni civilians particularly during the civil war phase of the Iraq war. Shortly after the U. S. -led coalition ousted Saddam Hussein and his Baath regime and he subsequently stated that he had more legitimacy than the Coalition-appointed Iraqi Governing Council. He granted his first major Western television interview to Bob Simon of 60 Minutes, in which al-Sadr famously said Saddam was the little serpent, in May 2003, al-Sadr issued a fatwa that became known as the al-Hawasim fatwa. The fatwa alienated many members of his fathers movement, as well as mainstream Shiites. However, the fatwa strengthened his popularity among the poorest members of society and it has been claimed that the original fatwa was actually issued by al-Sadrs advisor Grand Ayatollah Kazem Husseini Haeri, and that al-Sadr was simply loyally issuing the same instruction. In late March 2004, Coalition authorities in Iraq shut down Sadrs newspaper al-Hawza on charges of inciting violence, Sadrs followers held demonstrations protesting the closure of the newspaper. On 4 April, fighting out in Najaf, Sadr City. Sadrs Mahdi Army took over several points and attacked coalition soldiers, killing dozens of foreign soldiers, during the first siege of Fallujah in late March and April 2004, Muqtadas Sadrists sent aid convoys to the besieged Sunnis there. Paul Bremer, then the US administrator in Iraq, declared on 5 April 2004, that al-Sadr was an outlaw and that day Al Sadr called for a jihad against coalition forces
39.
Najaf
–
Najaf is a city in central Iraq about 160 km south of Baghdad. Its estimated population in 2013 was 1,000,000 people and it is the capital of Najaf Governorate. It is widely considered the third holiest city of Shia Islam, the Shia world’s spiritual capital, Najaf is considered sacred by Shia Muslims. Najaf is renowned as the site of the tomb of Hazrat Alī ibn Abī Tālib, sunnis consider Ali the fourth Rashidun. The city is now a center of pilgrimage throughout the Shia Islamic world. It is estimated that only Mecca and Medina receive more Muslim pilgrims, as the burial site of Shia Islams second most important figure, the Imam Ali Mosque is considered by Shiites as the third holiest Islamic site. The Imam Ali Mosque is housed in a structure with a gold gilded dome. Nearby is the Wadi-us-Salaam cemetery, which is the largest cemetery in the world and it contains the tombs of several prophets and many of the devout from around the world aspire to be buried there, to be raised from the dead with Imām Alī on Judgement Day. Over the centuries, numerous hospices, schools, libraries and Sufi convents were built around the shrine to make the city the center of Shīʻa learning, the Najaf seminary is one of the most important teaching centres in the Islamic world. Ayatollah Khomeini lectured there from 1964 to 1978, many of the leading figures of the new Islamic movement that emerged in Iraq, Iran and Lebanon in the 1970s had studied at Najaf. This climate is considered to be BWh according to the Köppen climate classification, the average annual temperature is 23.6 °C. The rainfall here averages 97 mm, the Najaf area is located 30 km south of the ancient city of Babylon and 400 km north of the ancient Biblical city of Ur. Archaeological discoveries show the existence of a populace dating back to the times of Jesus, Najaf possesses one of the largest burial grounds in the vicinity for Christians. The centuries following have proven this to also be a city that possessed a multicultural and we have found indications of Christianity on the graves through representations of crosses and stones with Christ-like engravings. There are also relics that date back to the pre-Islamic Sassanid period, also discovered in the excavation was proof of a thriving glass industry. Pots were decorated with the cross, as well as Hebrew writings, indicating a community of religious coexistence. According to legend, the body of Ali was placed on a camel which was driven from Kufa. The camel stopped a few miles west of the city where the body was secretly buried, no tomb was raised and nobody knew of the burial place except for a few trusted people
40.
Battle of Najaf (2004)
–
The Battle of Najaf was fought between United States and Iraqi forces on one side and the Islamist Mahdi Army of Muqtada al-Sadr on the other in the Iraqi city of Najaf in August 2004. Task Force Dragon had earlier relieved the 2nd Armored Cavalry Regiment who had been extended twice in Iraq, the Marines reported over 70 enemy dead after nearly an hour of fighting. The Mahdi Army kept a steady resupply of men and weapons coming out of the Wadi-us-Salaam cemetery, CAAT Alpha faced mortars, RPGs and small arms fire with one Marine wounded until running low on ammunition. 1/4s Bravo Co. was sent in on 7-ton trucks to provide covering fire for CAAT Alpha, both sides withdrew to their respective strongholds soon afterwards. Major conflict began on 5 August, when the Mahdi Army attacked an Iraqi Police Station at 1 am and their first attack was repelled but the MA regrouped and attacked again at 3 am. Soon after, a reaction force from the MEU was dispatched at the request of the governor of An Najaf. Around 11 am the QRF came under machine gun and mortar fire from the Mahdi Army within the Wadi-us-Salaam. The cemetery has been layered over the resulting in large underground tombs, tunnels and surface monuments. The Soldiers of 1/5 Cav fought across this terrain and under it in some of the first tunnel fighting seen since Vietnam. A U. S. Marine UH-1N helicopter was shot down by fire on the second day of the fighting while conducting a close air support mission over enemy positions. Four U. S. military personnel were killed during the street battles fought between the Mahdi Army and U. S. and Iraqi forces, until the MEU withdrew temporarily on 7 August. During the fighting half a dozen U. S. Abrams tanks, fighting began in the city centre and then moved through the cemetery. After several days the fighting shifted to the environs of the Imam Ali Mosque when the Mahdi Army withdrew, United States Army Soldiers from B Co. 1-5 Cav encircled the complex after fighting through the Old City, the Mahdi Army utilized large hotels that overlook the cemetery as overwatch machine gun positions. A Bradley from 1-5 Cav shot TOW missiles at the Mahdi machine gun positions while Soldiers from Alpha, 1-5 Cav assaulted several of these hotels. After heavy hand to hand and room to room fighting the hotels were secured, there were not enough soldiers however to properly hold the hotels and they were consolidated to two adjoining ones. The fighting damaged two of the minarets of the mosque, one of the holiest of all Shiite shrines. On 23 August at least 15 explosions, many sounding like artillery shells, rocked the area, as fell in the courtyard of the gold-domed mosque
41.
Horn of Africa
–
The Horn of Africa is a peninsula in Northeast Africa. It juts hundreds of kilometers into the Arabian Sea and Indian Ocean, the area is the easternmost projection of the African continent. The Horn of Africa denotes the region containing the countries of Djibouti, Eritrea, Ethiopia and it covers approximately 2,000,000 km2 and is inhabited by roughly 115 million people. Regional studies on the Horn of Africa are carried out, among others, shell middens 125,000 years old have been found in Eritrea, indicating the diet of early humans included seafood obtained by beachcombing. According to both genetic and fossil evidence, archaic Homo sapiens evolved to modern humans solely in Africa between 200,000 and 100,000 years ago. Evidence to support the theory that recent modern humans originated in East Africa is not conclusive, today at the Bab-el-Mandeb straits, the Red Sea is about 12 miles wide, but 50,000 years ago it was much narrower and sea levels were 70 meters lower. Though the straits were never closed, there may have been islands in between which could be reached using simple rafts. It has been estimated that from a population of 2,000 to 5,000 individuals in Africa, according to linguists, the first Afro-Asiatic-speaking populations arrived in the region during the ensuing Neolithic era from the familys proposed urheimat in the Nile Valley, or the Near East. Other scholars propose that the Afro-Asiatic family developed in situ in the Horn, genetic analysis also indicates that, beginning in the pre-agricultural period, settlers from the Near East founded communities in Northeast Africa. These early settlements eventually gave rise to the Afro-Asiatic-speaking populations in the Horn, dʿmt was a kingdom located in Eritrea and northern Ethiopia, which existed during the 8th and 7th centuries BCE. With its capital at Yeha, the kingdom developed irrigation schemes, used plows, grew millet, the Kingdom of Aksum was an ancient state located in the highlands of present-day Ethiopia and Eritrea, which thrived between the 1st and 7th centuries CE. A major player in the commerce between the Roman Empire and Ancient India, Aksums rulers facilitated trade by minting their own currency. Under Ezana, the kingdom of Aksum became the first major empire to adopt Christianity, northern Somalia was an important link in the Horn, connecting the regions commerce with the rest of the ancient world. Somali sailors and merchants were the suppliers of frankincense, myrrh and spices. The Romans consequently began to refer to the region as Regio Aromatica, in the classical era, several flourishing Somali city-states such as Opone, Mosylon and Malao also competed with the Sabaeans, Parthians and Axumites for the rich Indo-Greco-Roman trade. The city of Mogadishu came to be known as the City of Islam, the Sultanate of Showa, established in 896, was one of the oldest local Muslim states. It was centered in the former Shewa province in central Ethiopia, the polity was succeeded by the Sultanate of Ifat around 1285. Ifat was governed from its capital at Zeila in northern Somalia and was the easternmost district of the former Shewa Sultanate, the Adal Sultanate was a medieval multi-ethnic Muslim state centered in the Horn region
42.
Syria
–
Syrias capital and largest city is Damascus. Religious groups include Sunnis, Christians, Alawites, Druze, Mandeans, Shiites, Salafis, Sunni Arabs make up the largest religious group in Syria. Its capital Damascus and largest city Aleppo are among the oldest continuously inhabited cities in the world, in the Islamic era, Damascus was the seat of the Umayyad Caliphate and a provincial capital of the Mamluk Sultanate in Egypt. The post-independence period was tumultuous, and a number of military coups. In 1958, Syria entered a union with Egypt called the United Arab Republic. Syria was under Emergency Law from 1963 to 2011, effectively suspending most constitutional protections for citizens, Bashar al-Assad has been president since 2000 and was preceded by his father Hafez al-Assad, who was in office from 1970 to 2000. Mainstream modern academic opinion strongly favours the argument that the Greek word is related to the cognate Ἀσσυρία, Assyria, in the past, others believed that it was derived from Siryon, the name that the Sidonians gave to Mount Hermon. However, the discovery of the inscription in 2000 seems to support the theory that the term Syria derives from Assyria. The area designated by the word has changed over time, since approximately 10,000 BC, Syria was one of centers of Neolithic culture where agriculture and cattle breeding appeared for the first time in the world. The following Neolithic period is represented by houses of Mureybet culture. At the time of the pre-pottery Neolithic, people used vessels made of stone, gyps, finds of obsidian tools from Anatolia are evidences of early trade relations. Cities of Hamoukar and Emar played an important role during the late Neolithic, archaeologists have demonstrated that civilization in Syria was one of the most ancient on earth, perhaps preceded by only those of Mesopotamia. The earliest recorded indigenous civilisation in the region was the Kingdom of Ebla near present-day Idlib, gifts from Pharaohs, found during excavations, confirm Eblas contact with Egypt. One of the earliest written texts from Syria is an agreement between Vizier Ibrium of Ebla and an ambiguous kingdom called Abarsal c.2300 BC. The Northwest Semitic language of the Amorites is the earliest attested of the Canaanite languages, Mari reemerged during this period, and saw renewed prosperity until conquered by Hammurabi of Babylon. Ugarit also arose during this time, circa 1800 BC, close to modern Latakia, Ugaritic was a Semitic language loosely related to the Canaanite languages, and developed the Ugaritic alphabet. The Ugarites kingdom survived until its destruction at the hands of the marauding Indo-European Sea Peoples in the 12th century BC, Yamhad was described in the tablets of Mari as the mightiest state in the near east and as having more vassals than Hammurabi of Babylon. Yamhad imposed its authority over Alalakh, Qatna, the Hurrians states, the army of Yamhad campaigned as far away as Dēr on the border of Elam
43.
Raqqa
–
Raqqa, also called Rakka, al-Raqqah, and ar-Raqqah, is a city in Syria located on the northeast bank of the Euphrates River, about 160 kilometres east of Aleppo. It is located 40 kilometres east of the Tabqa Dam, Syrias largest dam, the Hellenistic, Roman and Byzantine city and bishopric Callinicum was the capital of the Abbasid Caliphate between 796 and 809, under the reign of Caliph Harun al-Rashid. With a population of 220,488 based on the 2004 official census, during the Syrian Civil War, the city was captured in 2013 by the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant. ISIL went on to make the city its headquarters in Syria in 2014, as a result, the city has been hit by airstrikes from the Syrian government, Russia, the United States and several other countries. Most non-Sunni religious structures in the city have been destroyed by ISIL, the modern city traces its history to the Hellenistic period, with the foundation of the city of Nikephorion by the Seleucid king Seleucus I Nicator. His successor, Seleucus II Callinicus enlarged the city and renamed it after himself as Kallinikos, in Roman times, it was part of the province of Osrhoene, but had declined by the 4th century. Rebuilt by the Byzantine emperor Leo I in 466, it was named Leontopolis after him, the city played an important role in the Byzantine Empires relation with Sassanid Persia and the wars fought between two states. By treaty, it was recognized as one of the few official cross-border trading posts between the two empires. In 580, during war with Persia, the future emperor Maurice scored a victory over the Persians near the city. In the year 639 or 640, the city fell to the Muslim conqueror Iyad ibn Ghanm, since then it has figured in Arabic sources as al-Raqqah. At the surrender of the city, the Christian inhabitants concluded a treaty with Ibn Ghanm and this allowed them freedom of worship in their existing churches, but forbade the construction of new ones. The citys Jewish community also survived until at least the 12th century, Ibn Ghanms successor as governor of Raqqa and the Jazira, Said ibn Amir ibn Hidhyam, built the citys first mosque. This building was enlarged to monumental proportions, measuring some 73×108 metres, with a square brick minaret added later. The mosque survived until the early 20th century, being described by the German archaeologist Ernst Herzfeld in 1907, many companions of Muhammad lived in Raqqa. The city also contained a column with Alis autograph, but this was removed in the 12th century, the strategic importance of Raqqa grew during the wars at the end of the Umayyad period and the beginning of the Abbasid regime. Raqqa lay on the crossroads between Syria and Iraq and the road between Damascus, Palmyra, and the seat of the caliphate Resafa, al-Ruha. Between 771 and 772, the Abbasid caliph al-Mansur built a city about 200 metres to the west of Raqqa for a detachment of his Khorasanian Persian army. It was named al-Rāfiqah, the companion, the strength of the Abbasid imperial military is still visible in the impressive city wall of al-Rāfiqah
44.
Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant
–
ISIL gained global prominence in early 2014 when it drove Iraqi government forces out of key cities in its Western Iraq offensive, followed by its capture of Mosul and the Sinjar massacre. This group has been designated a terrorist organisation by the United Nations, ISIL is widely known for its videos of beheadings of both soldiers and civilians, including journalists and aid workers, and its destruction of cultural heritage sites. The United Nations holds ISIL responsible for human rights abuses and war crimes, ISIL originated as Jamaat al-Tawhid wal-Jihad in 1999, which pledged allegiance to al-Qaeda and participated in the Iraqi insurgency following the 2003 invasion of Iraq by Western forces. The group proclaimed itself a caliphate and began referring to itself as Islamic State or IS in June 2014. As a caliphate, it claims religious, political, and military authority over all Muslims worldwide and its adoption of the name Islamic State and its idea of a caliphate have been widely criticised, with the United Nations, various governments, and mainstream Muslim groups rejecting its statehood. As of 2015, ISIL is estimated to have a budget of more than USD$1 billion. In April 2013, having expanded into Syria, the group adopted the name ad-Dawlah al-Islāmiyah fī l-ʿIrāq wa-sh-Shām, while the use of either one or the other acronym has been the subject of debate, the distinction between the two and its relevance has been considered not so great. Of greater relevance is the name Daesh, which is an acronym of ISILs Arabic name al-Dawlah al-Islamīyah fī al-ʻIrāq wa-al-Shām. This name has been used by ISILs Arabic-speaking detractors, although – and to a certain extent because – it is considered derogatory, as it resembles the Arabic words Daes. Within areas under its control, ISIL considers use of the name Daesh punishable by flogging or cutting out the tongue, in late June 2014, the group renamed itself ad-Dawlah al-Islāmiyah, declaring itself a worldwide caliphate. The name Islamic State and the claim to be a caliphate have been widely rejected, with the UN, various governments. Frances Foreign Minister Laurent Fabius said This is a terrorist group, I do not recommend using the term Islamic State because it blurs the lines between Islam, Muslims, and Islamists. The Arabs call it Daesh and I will be calling them the Daesh cutthroats, the group is very sensitive about its name. They will cut your tongue out even if you call them ISIS – you have to say Islamic State, the Islamic State is mocked on social media websites such as Twitter and YouTube, with the use of hashtags, mock recruiting ads, fake news articles and YouTube videos. ISIL is a theocracy, proto-state and a Salafi or Wahhabi group and it follows an extremist interpretation of Islam, promotes religious violence, and regards Muslims who do not agree with its interpretations as infidels or apostates. According to some observers, ISIL emerged from the ideology of the Muslim Brotherhood and it adheres to global jihadist principles and follows the hard-line ideology of al-Qaeda and many other modern-day jihadist groups. However, other sources trace the roots to Wahhabism. For their guiding principles, the leaders of the Islamic State, are open and clear about their almost exclusive commitment to the Wahhabi movement of Sunni Islam
45.
Hurricane Katrina
–
Hurricane Katrina was the costliest natural disaster and one of the five deadliest hurricanes in the history of the United States. The storm is ranked as the third most intense United States landfalling tropical cyclone. Overall, at least 1,245 people died in the hurricane and subsequent floods, total property damage was estimated at $108 billion, roughly four times the damage wrought by Hurricane Andrew in 1992 in the United States. Early the following day, the new depression intensified into Tropical Storm Katrina, the cyclone headed generally westward toward Florida and strengthened into a hurricane only two hours before making landfall at Hallandale Beach and Aventura on August 25. After very briefly weakening to a storm, Katrina emerged into the Gulf of Mexico on August 26. The storm caused severe destruction along the Gulf coast from central Florida to Texas, much of it due to the storm surge, severe property damage occurred in coastal areas, such as Mississippi beachfront towns, over 90 percent of these were flooded. Boats and casino barges rammed buildings, pushing cars and houses inland, over fifty breaches in New Orleanss hurricane surge protection were the cause of the majority of the death and destruction during Katrina on August 29,2005. Eventually 80% of the city and large tracts of neighboring parishes became flooded, according to a modeling exercise conducted by the U. S. Army Corps of Engineers, two-thirds of the deaths in Greater New Orleans were due to levee and floodwall failure. All of the studies concluded that the USACE, the designers and builders of the levee system as mandated by the Flood Control Act of 1965, is responsible. This is mainly due to a decision to use shorter steel sheet pilings in an effort to save money, exactly ten years after Katrina, J. Many other government officials were criticized for their responses, especially New Orleans Mayor Ray Nagin, Louisiana Governor Kathleen Blanco, several agencies including the United States Coast Guard, National Hurricane Center, and National Weather Service were commended for their actions. They provided accurate hurricane weather tracking forecasts with sufficient lead time, Hurricane Katrina formed as Tropical Depression Twelve over the southeastern Bahamas on August 23,2005, as the result of an interaction of a tropical wave and the remains of Tropical Depression Ten. It strengthened into Tropical Storm Katrina on the morning of August 24, the tropical storm moved towards Florida, and became a hurricane only two hours before making landfall between Hallandale Beach and Aventura on the morning of August 25. The storm weakened over land, but it regained hurricane status about one hour after entering the Gulf of Mexico, on August 27, the storm reached Category 3 intensity on the Saffir-Simpson hurricane wind scale, becoming the third major hurricane of the season. An eyewall replacement cycle disrupted the intensification, but caused the storm to nearly double in size, the storm rapidly intensified after entering the Gulf, growing from a Category 3 hurricane to a Category 5 hurricane in just nine hours. This rapid growth was due to the movement over the unusually warm waters of the Loop Current. Katrina attained Category 5 status on the morning of August 28 and reached its peak strength at 1800 UTC that day, with sustained winds of 175 mph. However, this record was broken by Hurricane Rita
46.
John C. Stennis Space Center
–
The John C. Stennis Space Center is a NASA rocket testing facility. It is located in Hancock County, Mississippi, on the banks of the Pearl River at the Mississippi–Louisiana border, as of 2012, it is NASAs largest rocket engine test facility. There are over 30 local, state, national, international, private, also, the site required barge access as the rocket motors to be tested for Apollo were too large for overland transport. NASA announced formation of the Mississippi Test Facility on Oct.25,1961, a high-terrace area bordering the East Pearl River in Hancock County, Miss. was selected for its location. NASA entrusted the U. S. Army Corps of Engineers with the task to procure each land parcel either by directly purchasing the land or through acquisition of a perpetual easement. Remnants of the communities, including city streets and a school house. The 13,500 acres site was selected on October 25,1961 on the Mississippi Test Facility or Pearl River Site, on December 18,1961 NASA officially designated the facility as NASA Mississippi Test Operations. The test area is surrounded by a 125,000 acre acoustical buffer zone, the facilitys large concrete and metal rocket propulsion test stands were originally used to test-fire the first and second stages of the Saturn V rockets. On June 14,1974 the site was renamed National Space Technology Laboratories, with the end of the Apollo and Shuttle programs, use of the base decreased, with economic impact to the surrounding communities. Over the years other government organizations and commercial entities have moved to and left from the facility, the Rocket Propulsion Test Complex is a rocket testing complex which was built in 1965 as a component of the John C. Stennis Space Center. The Rocket Propulsion Test Complex played an important role in the development of the Saturn V rocket, the A-1, A-2 and B-1/B-2 test stands were declared a National Historic Landmark in 1985. The NASA Engineering & Science Directorate at SSC operates and maintains SSCs rocket test stands, each test stand can provide liquid Hydrogen and liquid oxygen in addition to support fluids, gaseous helium, gaseous hydrogen and gaseous nitrogen as purge or pressurizing gasses. Construction began in 1963 and was finished in 1966, the A Test Complex also includes a Test Control Center, observation bunkers, and various technical and support systems. On 23 April 1966 workmen at the A-2 test stand successfully captive-fired for 15 seconds the S-II-T, Structural and Dynamic Test Vehicle for the Saturn V second stage and this was the first test of a flight-weight S-II stage. The stage, largest and most powerful liquid oxygen-liquid hydrogen stage known and this test also marked the first operational use of the A-2 stand. The first full-duration firing of the S-II flight stage occurred 20 May 1966 when S-II-T test-fired on the A-2 test stand for 354.5 seconds, LOX cutoff sensors initiated cutoff automatically. The firing passed all major test objectives with the exception of the propellant utilization system and this was the fourth static firing of the S-II-T. The stage developed one million pounds of thrust from its five hydrogen-oxygen-powered J-2 engines, the accident occurred when the hydrogen fuel tank failed under pressure
Joint Meritorious Unit Award
Meritorious Unit Commendation
Marine Corps Expeditionary Medal
Coast Guard Meritorious Unit Commendation
National Defense Service Medal
Armed Forces Expeditionary Medal with two Bronze Stars
Southwest Asia Service Medal w/ 3 stars.
.svg){kind=small}
This article incorporates public domain material from websites or documents of the United States Marine Corps.
This article incorporates 
Fleet Marine Force, Atlantic
Fleet Marine Force, Pacific
