1.
Freedom (yacht)
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Freedom is a 12-metre class racing yacht and winner of the 1980 Americas Cup, defeating the challenging yacht Australia. Freedom was designed with an rather than a wood hull by Olin Stephens and Bill Langan. She was skippered in the Cup by Dennis Conner, today Freedom is available for charter out of Newport, Rhode Island from Americas Cup Charters, along with fellow Americas Cup winners Intrepid and Weatherly
2.
Olympic sailing classes
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The Olympic sailing classes have been used in the sport of Sailing/Yachting during the Olympic Summer Games since 1896. Since then,46 different classes have been used, over a period of more than 112 years, in a sport that uses complex technical equipment, classes will be discontinued for use at the Olympics. Reasons for discontinuation of a class varied from economical, logistical and technological to emotional, some of the discontinued classes remain very strong International - or National classes. Others filled a niche in an area like sailing schools or local club racing. The “Former Olympic Sailing Classes”, together with their crews form an important and significant part of the history of sailing in general and these tables give an overview of the classes and when they were used for Olympic sailing
3.
International rule (sailing)
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The International rule, also known as the Metre rule, was created for the measuring and rating of yachts to allow different designs of yacht to race together under a handicap system. The word ton and hence tonnage originates from the word tun which is a measure of volume equivalent to the size of a barrel which could contain 252 gallons of wine. In the UK, merchant sailing vessels were historically measured using Builders Old Measurement to measure tonnage and taxed according. This system of measuring or rating merchant sailing ships has a long, well established history, so tonnage, each yacht fell within a Class based upon its measured tonnage. In the early 19th century four ranges of tonnage and hence four Classes were defined, based on experience gained from the results of numerous races each Class was allocated a distance allowance that the Class had to give away to the next lower Class. This was equivalent to a Class 1 having to more distance than a Class 4 yacht during a race. In 1834 handicapping by distance was changed to handicapping by time, as yacht racing in particular became more and more popular designers started to look for and found loopholes in the measurement rules to enable a design to get a better rating. Whilst this encouraged designers it discouraged owners from participating in handicap racing because designs were being outdated almost before the yacht was launched. In order to restore the equilibrium, work began on new formulas, the adoption of the British Thames Measurement by the Yacht Club of France in 1870 may mark the beginning of international rating rules. In 1893, the Germano-Scandinavian Union was formed and it developed its Union Rule. Starting in 1902, under the leadership of the New York Yacht Club, by the early 20th Century yacht racing had spread across Europe but each country had its own different rating rules but they all typically used similar principles. The leading yacht racing countries came together and laid down a system that calculated the rating of yachts, measurement rules, construction regulations and this was largely driven by the United Kingdom. The then Secretary of the YRA, Brooke Heckstall-Smith had been in discussion with Scandinavians German and French yacht clubs, a committee met again in October 1906 in Berlin to elaborate on the application of the Rule. Delegates from this went on to form the International Yacht Racing Union. The USA sent observers to the meetings but did not initially adopt the first International rule, the International rule eventually became the backbone of yacht racing. The Rule created a formula that took into account most problematic areas that had caused dissent among the racing nations. It does not restrict size—many individual classes were created and it allowed designers a degree of latitude—yet controlled unsafe extremes. It laid down rules and governed the use of materials—yet understood that the Rule must develop
4.
Sloop
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A sloop is a sailing boat with a single mast and a fore-and-aft rig. A sloop has only one head-sail, if a vessel has two or more head-sails, the cutter is used, and its mast may be set further aft than on a sloop. The most common rig of modern sailboats is the Bermuda-rigged sloop, typically, a modern sloop carries a mainsail on a boom aft of the mast, with a single loose-footed head-sail forward of the mast. Sloops are either masthead-rigged or fractional-rigged, on a masthead-rigged sloop, the forestay attaches at the top of the mast. The mainsail may be smaller than the headsail, which is called a genoa jib. On a fractional-rigged sloop, the forestay attaches to the mast at a point below the top, typically 3/4 of the way to top, or perhaps 7/8 or some other fraction. The mast of a fractional-rigged sloop may be placed forward, compared to a masthead-rigged sloop. After the cat rig, which has only a mainsail, the rig is one of the simpler sailing rig configurations. A sloop typically has two sails, a mainsail and a headsail, while the cutter has a mainsail and two or more headsails, next in complexity are the ketch, the yawl and the schooner, each of which has two masts and a minimum of three sails. A sloop has a system of mast rigging — a forestay. By having only two sails, the sails of a sloop are larger than those of an equivalent cutter. Until the advent of lightweight sailcloth and modern sail-handling systems, the sails of a sloop could be a handful. So, until the 1950s, sailboats over 10 metres Length Over All would typically use a rig or a two-mast rig. After the advent of modern winches and light sailcloth, the became the dominant sailing rig type for all. No rig type is perfect for all conditions, sloops, with their paucity of spars and control lines tend to impart less aerodynamic drag. Compared to other rigs, sloops tend to very well when sailing close hauled to windward. Cutters, ketches and yawls are often preferred to sloops when venturing far offshore, because it is easier to reef small sails as the wind increases, while still keeping the boat balanced. To maximize the amount of sail carried, the classic sloop may use a bowsprit, for downwind sailing, the typical foresail may be replaced by larger curved sails known as spinnakers or gennakers
5.
Sailing at the 1920 Summer Olympics
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Sailing/Yachting is an Olympic sport starting from the Games of the 1st Olympiad. With the exception of 1904 and possible 1916 sailing was always a part of the Olympic program, for each class three races were scheduled from 7 July 1920 to 10 July 1920 off the coast of Ostend at the North Sea. Ostend offers a fair condition for sailing on the North Sea, however, there are tidal conditions the current is reasonable predictable. Local knowledge does not have too much influence of the races, the wind conditions are also good for sailing. However, in the case of the 1920 Summer Olympic regattas the prevailing breeze did not show, most races had to be sailed under light air conditions. An unprecedented and unique Olympic situation happened with the races in the 12 Dinghy, when in the second race one of the marks was taken hostage by the tidal current and went drifting the race had to be nullified. As a result, the first Olympic event held in the Netherlands was not in 1928, as venue of this final the Buiten IJ in Amsterdam was chosen. A maximum of 2 boats per country per class was allowed, Source, Source, The Olympic Sailing event of 1920 was without any doubt the most strangest in history so far. With a program of no less than 16 classes and an entry list that consists of 7 out of 14 classes with just competitor, after World War I the International Sailing Authority had obvious no clue in what direction sailing had developed since 1912. The Nordic countries had developed the Skerry Cruiser classes and the International rule classes had adopted in 1919 a new edition of the rule which was not yet implemented in the countries. Therefore, the entries were open for the old, as well the new rule, besides that, an advice from 1908 was followed by putting two one design classes on the program. By doing this the 1920 Olympics acted as a test laboratory from which the IYRU could draw conclusion for the development of the sport. These lessons learned, not too many different classes and moving towards one design classes, Source, As a result of the First World War, AUT, GER, HUN and TUR were not invited. The agony athletes develop after finishing fourth at the Olympics must have started at the Olympic Sailing event of 1920. The Belgium 6 Metre team of Louis Depiere, Raymond Bauwens and Willy Valcke finished 4th, in the Sailing regattas, Norway took 7 gold medals. This boost put them in the regions of the medal table. They still profit from this boost, during the Sailing regattas at the 1920 Summer Olympics among others the following persons were competing in the various classes, Digital Library Collection
6.
America's Cup
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The Americas Cup, affectionately known as the Auld Mug, is a trophy awarded to the winner of the Americas Cup match races between two sailing yachts. The timing of each match is determined by an agreement between the defender and the challenger, the Americas Cup is the oldest international sporting trophy. The ewer was originally awarded in 1851 by the Royal Yacht Squadron for a race around the Isle of Wight in England, any yacht club that meets the requirements specified in the deed of gift has the right to challenge the yacht club that holds the cup. If the challenging club wins the match, it gains stewardship of the cup, the history and prestige associated with the Americas Cup attracts not only the worlds top sailors and yacht designers but also the involvement of wealthy entrepreneurs and sponsors. It is a test not only of sailing skill and boat and sail design, from the first defense of the cup in 1870 through the twentieth defense in 1967, there was always only one challenger. Since 1983, Louis Vuitton has sponsored the Louis Vuitton Cup as a prize for the winner of the challenger selection series, early matches for the cup were raced between yachts 65–90 ft on the waterline owned by wealthy sportsmen. This culminated with the J-Class regattas of the 1930s, after a long legal battle, the 2010 Americas Cup was raced in 90 ft lwl multihull yachts in a best of three deed of gift match in Valencia, Spain. The victorious Golden Gate Yacht Club then elected to race the 34th Americas Cup in AC72 foiling, Golden Gate Yacht Club successfully defended the cup. The 35th Americas Cup match was announced to be sailed in 50 ft foiling catamarans, the history of the Americas Cup has included legal battles and disputes over rule changes including most recently over the rule changes for the 2017 Americas Cup. It was originally known as the R. Y. S, £100 Cup, standing for a cup of a hundred GB Pounds or sovereigns in value. The cup was subsequently mistakenly engraved as the 100 Guinea Cup by the America syndicate, today, the trophy is officially known as the Americas Cup after the 1851 winning yacht, and is affectionately called the Auld Mug by the sailing community. It is inscribed with names of the yachts that competed for it, the syndicate contracted with pilot boat designer George Steers for a 101 ft schooner, which was christened America and launched on 3 May 1851. On 22 August 1851, America raced against 15 yachts of the Royal Yacht Squadron in the Clubs annual 53-nautical-mile regatta around the Isle of Wight, America won, finishing 8 minutes ahead of the closest rival. Apocryphally, Queen Victoria, who was watching at the line, was reported to have asked who was second. No challenge to race for the Cup was issued until British railway tycoon James Lloyd Ashburys topsail schooner Cambria beat the Yankee schooner Sappho in the Solent in 1868. This success encouraged the Royal Thames Yacht Club in believing that the cup could be back home. Ashbury entered Cambria in the NYYC Queens Cup race in New York City on 8 August against a fleet of seventeen schooners, the Cambria only placed eighth, behind the aging America in fourth place and Franklin Osgoods Magic in the fleets lead. Trying again, Ashbury offered a match race challenge for October 1871
7.
Sail
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A sail derives power from the wind to provide motive power for sailing craft, including sailing ships, sailboats, windsurfers, ice boats, and sail-powered land vehicles. Sails mobilize lift and drag properties as air passes along the surface, in most cases sails are supported directly by a mast rigidly attached to the sailing craft or on a wire stay attached to the mast, however some craft employ a flexible mount for a mast. Sails also employ spars and battens to help determine their shape, as a result, sails come in a variety of shapes that include both triangular and quadrilateral configurations, usually with curved edges that promote three-dimensional curvature of the sail. Kites also power certain sailing craft, but do not employ a mast to support the airfoil and are beyond the scope of this article, sailing craft employ two types of rig, the square rig and the fore-and-aft rig. The square rig carries the primary driving sails are carried on horizontal spars and these spars are called yards and their tips, beyond the last stay, are called the yardarms. A ship mainly so rigged is called a square-rigger, the square rig is aerodynamically most efficient when running. A fore-and-aft rig consists of sails that are set along the line of the rather than perpendicular to it. Vessels so rigged are described as fore-and-aft rigged, archaeological studies of the Cucuteni-Trypillian culture ceramics show use of sailing boats from the sixth millennium onwards. Excavations of the Ubaid period in Mesopotamia provides direct evidence of sailing boats, Sails from ancient Egypt are depicted around 3200 BCE, where reed boats sailed upstream against the River Niles current. Ancient Sumerians used square rigged sailing boats at about the same time, the proto-Austronesian words for sail, lay, and other rigging parts date to about 3000 BCE when this group began their Pacific expansion. Greeks and Phoenicians began trading by ship by around 1,200 BCE, northern Europeans were resistant to adopting the fore-and-aft rig, despite having seen its use in the course of trade and during the Crusades. The lateen sail proved to have better performance for smaller vessels. Aerodynamic forces on sails depend on speed and direction and the speed. The direction that the craft is traveling with respect to the wind is called the point of sail. The speed of the craft at a point of sail contributes to the apparent wind —the wind speed. Depending on the alignment of the sail with the apparent wind, for apparent wind angles aligned with the entry point of the sail, the sail acts as an airfoil and lift is the predominant component of propulsion. For apparent wind angles behind the sail, lift diminishes and drag increases as the predominant component of propulsion, because of limitations on speed through the water, displacement sailboats generally derive power from sails generating lift on points of sail that include close-hauled through broad reach. Downwind sailing with a spinnaker Each rig is configured in a sail plan, a sail plan is a set of drawings, usually prepared by a naval architect which shows the various combinations of sail proposed for a sailing ship
8.
Waterline
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The waterline is the line where the hull of a ship meets the surface of the water. Temperature affects the level, because warm water provides less buoyancy, being less dense than water, as does salinity. For vessels with displacement hulls, the speed is determined by, among other things. In a sailing boat, the length can change significantly as the boat heels. The waterline can also refer to any line on a hull that is parallel to the waters surface when the ship is afloat in a normal position. Hence, all waterlines are one class of ships used to denote the shape of a hull in naval architecture plans. In aircraft design, the term refers to the vertical location of items on the aircraft. This is the Z axis of an XYZ coordinate system, the two axes being the fuselage station and buttock line. The purpose of a line is to ensure that a ship has sufficient freeboard. All commercial ships, other than in exceptional circumstances, have a load line symbol painted amidships on each side of the ship and this symbol is also permanently marked, so that if the paint wears off it remains visible. The load line makes it easy for anyone to determine if a ship has been overloaded, the exact location of the load line is calculated and verified by a classification society and that society issues the relevant certificates. This marking was invented in 1876 by Samuel Plimsoll, roman sea regulations also contained similar regulations. In the Middle Ages the Venetian Republic, the city of Genoa, in the case of Venice this was a cross marked on the side of the ship, and of Genoa three horizontal lines. The first 19th century loading recommendations were introduced by Lloyds Register of British and Foreign Shipping in 1835, Lloyds recommended freeboards as a function of the depth of the hold. These recommendations, used extensively until 1880, became known as Lloyds Rule, in the 1860s, after increased loss of ships due to overloading, a British MP, Samuel Plimsoll, took up the load line cause. In 1906, laws were passed requiring foreign ships visiting British ports to be marked with a load line and it was not until 1930 that there was international agreement for universal application of load line regulations. In 1966 the International Convention on Load Lines was concluded in London which re-examined and amended the 1930 rules, the 1966 convention has since seen amendments in 1971,1975,1979,1983,1995 and 2003, none of which have entered into force. The original Plimsoll mark was a circle with a line through it to show the maximum draft of a ship
9.
Keel
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On boats and ships, keel can refer to either of two parts, a structural element that sometimes resembles a fin and protrudes below a boat along the central line, or a hydrodynamic element. As the laying down of the keel is the step in the construction of a ship, in British. Only the ships launching is considered significant in its creation. The word can also be used as a synecdoche to refer to a complete boat, a structural keel is the bottom-most structural member around which the hull of a ship is built. The keel runs along the centerline of the ship, from the bow to the stern. The keel is often the first part of a hull to be constructed. The most common type of keel is the plate keel. A form of keel found on smaller vessels is the bar keel, which may be fitted in trawlers, tugs, and smaller ferries. Where grounding is possible, this type of keel is suitable with its massive scantlings, if a double bottom is fitted, the keel is almost inevitably of the flat plate type, bar keels often being associated with open floors, where the plate keel may also be fitted. Duct keels are provided in the bottom of some vessels and these run from the forward engine room bulkhead to the collision bulkhead and are utilized to carry the double bottom piping. The piping is then accessible when cargo is loaded, the keel surface on the bottom of the hull gives the ship greater directional control and stability. In non-sailing hulls, the helps the hull to move forward. In traditional boat building, this is provided by the structural keel, in modern construction, the bar keel or flat-plate keel performs the same function. There are many types of fixed keels, including full keels, long keels, fin keels, winged keels, bulb keels, the rudimentary purpose of the keel is to convert the sideways motion of the wind when it is abeam into forward motion. A secondary purpose of the keel is to provide ballast, keels are different from centreboards and other types of foils in that keels are made of heavy materials to provide ballast to stabilize the boat. Keels may be fixed, or non-movable, or they may retract to allow sailing in shallower waters, retracting keels may pivot or slide upwards to retract, and are usually retracted with a winch due to the weight of the ballast. Since the keel provides far more stability when lowered than when retracted, types of non-fixed keels include swing keels and canting keels. Canting keels can be found on racing yachts, such as competing in the Volvo Ocean Race
10.
Rudder
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A rudder is a primary control surface used to steer a ship, boat, submarine, hovercraft, aircraft, or other conveyance that moves through a fluid medium. On an aircraft the rudder is used primarily to counter adverse yaw, a rudder operates by redirecting the fluid past the hull or fuselage, thus imparting a turning or yawing motion to the craft. In basic form, a rudder is a plane or sheet of material attached with hinges to the crafts stern, tail. Often rudders are shaped so as to minimize hydrodynamic or aerodynamic drag, on simple watercraft, a tiller—essentially, a stick or pole acting as a lever arm—may be attached to the top of the rudder to allow it to be turned by a helmsman. In larger vessels, cables, pushrods, or hydraulics may be used to link rudders to steering wheels, in typical aircraft, the rudder is operated by pedals via mechanical linkages or hydraulics. Generally, a rudder is part of the apparatus of a boat or ship that is fastened outside the hull, that is denoting all different types of oars, paddles. More specifically, the gear of ancient vessels can be classified into side-rudders and stern-mounted rudders. A third term, steering oar, can denote both types, in a Mediterranean context, side-rudders are more specifically called quarter-rudders as the later term designates more exactly the place where the rudder was mounted. Stern-mounted rudders are uniformly suspended at the back of the ship in a central position. S, a steering oar was used at this time because the rudder had not yet been invented. With a single sail, a frequent movement of the oar was required to steer a straight course. The steering oar or steering board is an oar or board to control the direction of a ship or other watercraft prior to the invention of the rudder. It is normally attached to the side in larger vessels, though in smaller ones it is rarely, if ever. Rowing oars set aside for steering appeared on large Egyptian vessels long before the time of Menes, in the Old Kingdom as much as five steering oars are found on each side of passenger boats. The tiller, at first a small pin run through the stock of the steering oar, both the tiller and the introduction of an upright steering post abaft reduced the usual number of necessary steering oars to one each side. In Iran, oars mounted on the side of ships for steering are documented from the 3rd millennium BCE in artwork, wooden models, the strength of the steering oar lay in its combination of effectiveness, adaptability and simpleness. Roman quarter steering oar mounting systems survived mostly intact through the medieval period, by the first half of the 1st century AD, steering gear mounted on the stern were also quite common in Roman river and harbour craft as proved from reliefs and archaeological finds. A tomb plaque of Hadrianic age shows a harbour tug boat in Ostia with a long stern-mounted oar for better leverage, interestingly, the boat already featured a spritsail, adding to the mobility of the harbour vessel. Further attested Roman uses of stern-mounted steering oars includes barges under tow, transport ships for wine casks, also, the well-known Zwammerdam find, a large river barge at the mouth of the Rhine, featured a large steering gear mounted on the stern
11.
Waterline length
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The waterline length is the length of a ship or boat at the point where it sits in the water. It excludes the length of the boat, such as features that are out of the water. Most boats rise outwards at the bow and stern, so a boat may be quite a bit longer than its waterline length. In a ship with raked stems, naturally the waterline length changes as the draft of the ship changes. Length at the waterline is often abbreviated as lwl, w/l and this measure is essential in determining a lot of properties of a vessel, such as how much water it displaces, where the bow and stern waves are, hull speed, amount of bottom-paint needed, etc. In sailing boats, longer waterline length will usually enable a greater speed, because it allows greater sail area. Higher beam and draft causes higher resistance against the water and this maximum speed, also known as theoretical hull speed, can be calculated using the formula x 1.34. Length overall Length between perpendiculars Hayler, William B, keever, John M. American Merchant Seamans Manual. Turpin, Edward A. McEwen, William A
12.
Beam (nautical)
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The beam of a ship is its width at the widest point as measured at the ships nominal waterline. The beam is a bearing projected at right-angles from the fore and aft line, Beam may also be used to define the maximum width of a ships hull, or maximum width plus superstructure overhangs. Typical length-to-beam ratios for small sailboats are from 2,1 to 5,1, large ships have widely varying beam ratios, some as large as 20,1. Rowing shells designed for racing may have length to beam ratios as high as 30,1. The beam of many vessels can be calculated using the following formula. Some examples, For a standard 27 ft yacht, the root of 27 is 3,3 squared is 9 plus 1 =10. The beam of many 27 ft monohulls is 10 ft, for a Volvo Open 70 yacht,70.5 to the power of 2/3 =17 plus 1 =18. The beam is often around 18 ft, for a 741 ft long ship, the cube root is 9, and 9 squared is 81, plus 1. The beam will usually be around 82 ft, e. g. Seawaymax, as catamarans have more than one hull, there is a different beam calculation for this kind of vessel. BOC stands for Beam On Centerline and this term in typically used in conjunction with LOA. The ratio of LOA/BOC is used to estimate the stability of multihull vessels, the lower the ratio the greater the boats stability. The BOC for vessels is measured as follows, For a catamaran, carlin – similar to a beam, except running in a fore and aft direction. Keever, John M. American Merchant Seamans Manual, turpin, Edward A. McEwen, William A
13.
Freeboard (nautical)
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In sailing and boating, a vessels freeboard is the distance from the waterline to the upper deck level, measured at the lowest point of sheer where water can enter the boat or ship. In commercial vessels, the latter criterion measured relative to the load line. In yachts, a low freeboard is often found on racing boats, for drag/weight reduction, a higher freeboard will give more room in the cabin, but will increase weight and drag, compromising speed. A higher freeboard also helps weather waves and reduce the likelihood of being washed over by water waves on the weather deck. A low-freeboard boat is susceptible to taking in water in rough seas, freighter ships and warships use high freeboard designs to increase internal volume which also allows them to satisfy IMO damage stability regulations due to increased reserved buoyancy. Keever, John M. American Merchant Seamans Manual, turpin, Edward A. McEwen, William A
14.
Intrepid (yacht)
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Intrepid is a 12-metre class yacht which won the Americas Cup in 1967 and again in 1970. Intrepid was designed by Olin Stephens, and was built of double-planked mahogany on white oak frames and she featured important innovations both above and below the waterline. The rudder was separated from the keel and a tab was added. This new general type, with relatively minor refinements, was used on every subsequent Cup boat until the 12-metre Australia IIs winged keel of 1983. Above decks, Intrepid featured a low boom, made possible by locating the winches below decks. The low boom caused an effect, which allows a smaller amount of air to circulate around the boom. The success of Intrepid was also the cause of some completely new technical features such as separate keel, in 1967 Intrepid was skippered by Emil Bus Mosbacher, and defeated Australian challenger Dame Pattie. Redesigned in 1970 by Britton Chance, Jr. and skippered by Bill Ficker that year, she defeated another Australian challenger, Intrepid remained competitive even against aluminum 12-metre yachts. Redesigned again, this time by her original designer Olin Stephens, Intrepid was back again for a time in 1974. Ted Hood sold Courageous to Ted Turner who went on to win the 1977 Americas Cup with her, Intrepid underwent a two-year structural restoration, the bustle area was reframed, the bottom replanked for several feet up from the keel, and the deck and deck beams were replaced. Today Intrepid is available for out of Newport, Rhode Island along with fellow Americas Cup winner Freedom. Archived from the original on February 20,2010, design Firm, Sparkman & Stephens Current owners and charters
15.
World War II
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World War II, also known as the Second World War, was a global war that lasted from 1939 to 1945, although related conflicts began earlier. It involved the vast majority of the worlds countries—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing alliances, the Allies and the Axis. It was the most widespread war in history, and directly involved more than 100 million people from over 30 countries. Marked by mass deaths of civilians, including the Holocaust and the bombing of industrial and population centres. These made World War II the deadliest conflict in human history, from late 1939 to early 1941, in a series of campaigns and treaties, Germany conquered or controlled much of continental Europe, and formed the Axis alliance with Italy and Japan. Under the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact of August 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union partitioned and annexed territories of their European neighbours, Poland, Finland, Romania and the Baltic states. In December 1941, Japan attacked the United States and European colonies in the Pacific Ocean, and quickly conquered much of the Western Pacific. The Axis advance halted in 1942 when Japan lost the critical Battle of Midway, near Hawaii, in 1944, the Western Allies invaded German-occupied France, while the Soviet Union regained all of its territorial losses and invaded Germany and its allies. During 1944 and 1945 the Japanese suffered major reverses in mainland Asia in South Central China and Burma, while the Allies crippled the Japanese Navy, thus ended the war in Asia, cementing the total victory of the Allies. World War II altered the political alignment and social structure of the world, the United Nations was established to foster international co-operation and prevent future conflicts. The victorious great powers—the United States, the Soviet Union, China, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and the United States emerged as rival superpowers, setting the stage for the Cold War, which lasted for the next 46 years. Meanwhile, the influence of European great powers waned, while the decolonisation of Asia, most countries whose industries had been damaged moved towards economic recovery. Political integration, especially in Europe, emerged as an effort to end pre-war enmities, the start of the war in Europe is generally held to be 1 September 1939, beginning with the German invasion of Poland, Britain and France declared war on Germany two days later. The dates for the beginning of war in the Pacific include the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War on 7 July 1937, or even the Japanese invasion of Manchuria on 19 September 1931. Others follow the British historian A. J. P. Taylor, who held that the Sino-Japanese War and war in Europe and its colonies occurred simultaneously and this article uses the conventional dating. Other starting dates sometimes used for World War II include the Italian invasion of Abyssinia on 3 October 1935. The British historian Antony Beevor views the beginning of World War II as the Battles of Khalkhin Gol fought between Japan and the forces of Mongolia and the Soviet Union from May to September 1939, the exact date of the wars end is also not universally agreed upon. It was generally accepted at the time that the war ended with the armistice of 14 August 1945, rather than the formal surrender of Japan
16.
J-class yacht
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The J-Class is one of several classes deriving from the Universal Rule for racing boats. The rule was established in 1903 and rates double-masted racers and single-masted racers, from 1914 to 1937, the rule was used to determine eligibility for the Americas Cup. This is, essentially, a factor to allow some boats designed and built prior to the adoption of the Universal Rule. The numerator contains a yachts speed-giving elements, length and sail area, also the result will be dimensionally correct, R will be a linear unit of length. J-Class boats will have a rating of between 65 and 76 feet and this is not the overall length of the boat but a limiting factor for the variables in the equation. Designers are free to any of the variables such as length or displacement. A table of well-known J-Class yachts follows, note the difference in the variables like displacement, sail area, etc. - applying the Universal Rule to these variables will result in a rating R between 65 and 76 feet. Prior to the adoption of the Universal Rule, the Seawanhaka Rule was used to govern the design of boats for inter club racing. Because the Seawanhaka Rule used only two variables, Load Waterline Length and Sail Area, racing boats at the time were becoming more and more extreme. Larger and larger sails atop shorter and wider boats leading either to unwieldy, as different boats were designed and built, the notion of classes was derived to maintain groupings of competitive class. Following Sir Thomas Liptons near success in the 1920 Americas Cup, he challenged again for the last time at age 79, in 1929. The challenge drew all the novelties developed in the decade on small boats to be ported onto large boats. The yachts that remain in existence are all British, and probably log more nautical miles today than ever did. This would not have been possible if Charles Ernest Nicholson did not obtain unlimited budgets to achieve the quality of build for these yachts, Yacht designer Clinton Hoadley Crane noted in his memoirs that Americas Cup racing has never led to good sportsmanship. The attitude of the New York Yacht Club has been more that of a man in the position at war who has been ordered to hold his position at all costs – at all costs. In 1930, Thomas Lipton spent $1,000,000 for his Shamrock V challenge when America was facing a stock market crash, but the NYYC still built four cup defenders. The rivalry lead both countries to put on a display of technological innovations using the maximum load waterline length authorised by the rule for Endeavour II. Most J-Class yachts were scrapped prior or during World War II because steel, in the post-war era, J-Class racing was deemed far too expensive, so no challenge for the Americas Cup was placed until 1958 with the smaller third International Rule 12mR class
17.
Royal Yacht Squadron
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The Royal Yacht Squadron is one of the most prestigious yacht clubs in the world. Its clubhouse is Cowes Castle on the Isle of Wight in the United Kingdom, the clubs patron is Queen Elizabeth II and the clubs admiral is Prince Philip who is also a former club commodore. Membership was restricted to those who owned a vessel not under 10 tons, today this is interpreted as a gentleman actively interested in yachting. The Earl of Yarborough, later first commodore of the club, in 1820, when the Prince Regent became George IV, it was renamed the Royal Yacht Club. The club started organising racing as a feature of the annual regatta. In 1833, William IV renamed the club, The Royal Yacht Squadron and its association with the Royal Navy began early and Nelsons captain at Trafalgar, Admiral Sir Thomas Hardy, headed the list of naval members. The spirit of invention led to yachts of such celerity in sailing, in 1829, the Admiralty issued a warrant to wear what is now the navys White Ensign. The burgee is differenced with a St Georges Cross and crown on a white background, in 1851, one of the forred hands, on board the yacht America concerning the first sailing of the Americas Cup,1851 wrote The Royal Yacht Club—In a fix. Come listen to my ditty, and a song to you Ill sing, another naval connection is that the Antarctic explorer Robert Falcon Scott was a member of the Royal Yacht Squadron. Recently, Royal Yacht Squadron allowed full membership to women, which had been restricted since its foundation, in 1851, the clubs commodore, visiting the Great Exhibition, issued a challenge for the squadrons £100 Cup for a race around the island. The New York City–based America, representing the New York Yacht Club, triumphed in this race, giving its name to one of the oldest and best-known trophies, the victory was witnessed by Queen Victoria and the Prince of Wales, later commodore of the club and Edward VII. The site is used as the start of the Round the Island Race which occurs annually. During the American Civil War Deerhound RYS witnessed the fight between USS Kearsarge and the Confederate cruiser CSS Alabama, gazelle RYS rescued the Empress Eugenie at the end of the Franco-Prussian War and the squadron yachts supplied British soldiers in the Crimean War. The German Kaiser brought the 1887 Americas Cup challenger Thistle, to Cowes in 1892 which encouraged the Prince of Wales to build Britannia, the Pavilion, designed by Sir Thomas Croft, was opened in 2000. This elegant creation provides on shore facilities for yachtsmen and their families while allowing the castle to retain its country house ambiance. The Pavilion also enabled the squadron to cross burgees with the New York Yacht Club in celebration of the 150th anniversary of the schooner America’s famous victory of 1851, list of Royal Yacht Squadron members Dear, Ian. The Royal Yacht Squadron Complete list of members with theirs yachts from the foundation of the club, the Royal Yacht Squadron and The History of the Royal Cups. Original Members of The Yacht Club
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Alexander Robertson & Sons
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Alexander Robertson started repairing boats in a small workshop at Sandbank, Argyll in 1876, and went on to become one of the foremost wooden boat-builders on Scotlands River Clyde. The golden years of Robertsons yard were in the early 1900s when they started building some of the first IYRU 12mR & 15mR racing yachts, Robertsons was well known for the quality of its workmanship and was chosen to build the first 15-metre yacht designed by William Fife III. During World War II the yard was devoted to Admiralty work, after the war the yard built the successful one-class Loch Longs and two 12-metre challengers for the Americas Cup, Sceptre and Sovereign. Due to difficult conditions the Robertson family sold the yard in 1965. During its 104-year history, Robertsons Yard built 500 boats, many of which are still sailing today, Alexander Robertson, the son of a crofter/fisherman from Tarskavaig on the Isle of Skye, was born in Inverkip on 29 August 1851. Following the catastrophic potato blight on Skye in 1846, Alexanders father left Tarskavaig to seek a better life fishing on the River Clyde, after his parents moved to Sandbank in 1859 to run the village Post Office, he served his apprenticeship as a boatbuilder in Dunoon and Govan. In 1876, at the age of 25, he teamed up with Daniel Kerr to build boats at his workshop in Sandbank. The partnership was dissolved in 1878, and Robertson went on to larger premises in order to expand the business. He initially designed many of the yachts and launches himself, Robertson remained chairman of the company until 1935, two years before his death. Robertson not only provided a significant source of employment in Sandbank and he also took a very keen interest in yacht racing in the Holy Loch, even in his later years. By the age of 16, Robertson had started work as an apprentice with the Dunoon boatbuilder, after his initial training, further experience was acquired at Alexander Stephen and Sons Ltd of Linthouse, one of the main Govan yards. In 1876 Robertson, at the age of 25, teamed up with Daniel Kerr to form Robertson & Kerr and this workshop was located in the grounds of his parents Post Office near the old primary school. On 17 October 1878 the Robertson & Kerr partnership was dissolved when Daniel Kerr accepted a job with the Clyde Lighthouse Trust, Robertson continued working at the small workshop for several years, for the most part repairing boats. As business was booming he began looking for premises and found an old distillery site with around 2 acres of land, ample supplies of fresh water. The land was purchased in 1879 and the first shed constructed in 1880, by 1887 the first phase of development of the site had been completed, and Alexander Robertson had the largest number of yachts under his charge of any yard in Scotland. A proper boat numbering system was introduced at the new site in 1889. Boat No 1 was a 25 ft cutter designed by Alexander Robertson for John Dobbie of Dunoon, Boat No 3 was the Fairlie, a 19 ft cutter designed by William Fife III for A. Currie of Sandbank in 1890. This was the start of a relationship with the famous Fife yard at Fairlie
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Sceptre (yacht)
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Sceptre was the unsuccessful challenger of the 1958 Americas Cup for the Royal Yacht Squadron. Designed by David Boyd and built by Alexander Robertson and Sons, Sceptre was owned by a syndicate headed by Hugh Goodson, plus Richard Dickson, William H. Northam, William G. Walkley, and Noel Foley. Sceptre lost 4-0 to defender Columbia of the New York Yacht Club and she is now owned and sailed in British waters by the Sceptre Preservation Society. Alexander Robertson and Sons, history of the yard
20.
Alfred Mylne
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Alfred Mylne was a Scottish yacht designer, born in Glasgow. He founded A Mylne & Co. in 1896, alfred Mylne was apprenticed to the Scottish shipbuilders Napier, Shanks and Bell, and went on to work as a draftsman and apprentice to George Lennox Watson. Watson was the designer of the Royal Yacht HMY Britannia, the racing cutter first owned by Edward, Mylne set up his own office in 1896. In 1906, Mylne was involved in establishing the International Metre Rule, Mylne designed a number of race-winning boats, including the 19-metre class cutter Octavia in 1911. Four 15-metre class yachts and the early 12-metre class Cyra are listed as built to his designs, boat designer Uffa Fox was a close friend of Mylne, and the latter appears regularly in the books Fox wrote before the Second World War. When Sir William Burton had his 12-metre class yacht, Marina, designed, though designed as a light-weather 12, Marina proved herself an able and seaworthy vessel, and came through that gale without damage to herself or her crew. This was the only Olympic event ever to be held in Scotland, during the First World War, the Bute Slip Dock Co produced hulls and components for Felixstowe F.3 and Felixstowe F.5 flying boats, as well as other Naval work. This introduced the company to new methods of construction and experience with new materials that were adopted for use in Mylnes post war yacht designs. The 41 ft Bermudan Cutter Medea, see above photo, was designed by A Mylne in 1903 and built by Alexander Robertson, the yacht was subsequently bought by A Mylne in 1930, modified extensively, and stayed in the Mylne family for over 30 years. Alfred Mylne II succeeded his uncle as the partner in the business in 1945. He was joined by Ian Nicolson as a partner in 1959, a. Mylne & Co continues to trade as an independent yacht design company Mylne Yacht Design, and is managed within the portfolio of Marine Design International Ltd. History of A. Mylne & Co. A. Mylne & Co
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Gaff rig
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Gaff rig is a sailing rig in which the sail is four-cornered, fore-and-aft rigged, controlled at its peak and, usually, its entire head by a spar called the gaff. Because of the size and shape of the sail, a gaff rig will have running backstays rather than permanent backstays, the gaff enables a fore and aft sail to be four sided, rather than triangular. A gaff rig typically carries 25 percent more sail than an equivalent bermudian rig for a hull design. A sail hoisted from a gaff is called a gaff-rigged sail, gaff rig remains the most popular fore-aft rig for schooner and barquentine mainsails and other course sails, and spanker sails on a square rigged vessel are always gaff rigged. The gaff is hoisted by two halyards, The throat halyard hoists the throat of the sail at the end of the gaff and bears the main weight of the sail. The peak halyard lifts aft end of the gaff and bears the leech tension. Small craft attach the peak halyard to the gaff with a span with eyes at both ends looped around the gaff and held in place with small wooden chocks, larger craft have more than one span. Peak halyards pull upwards, approaching the gaff at right angles, additionally, a gaff vang may be fitted. It is an attached to the end of the gaff which prevents the gaff from sagging downwind. Gaff vangs are difficult to rig on the aft-most sail, so are only found on schooners or ketches. A triangular fore-and-aft sail called a jib-headed topsail may be carried between the gaff and the mast. Gunter-rigged boats are similar, smaller vessels on which a spar popularly but incorrectly called the gaff is raised until it is vertical, parallel to the mast. Topsails are never carried on gunter rigs, the Spritsail is another rig with a four-sided fore-aft sail. Unlike the gaff rig where the head hangs from a spar along its edge, the forward end of the sprit is attached to the mast but bisects the face of the sail, with the after end of the sprit attaching to the peak and/or the clew of the sail. For a given sail area a gaff rig has a shorter mast than a bermudian rig, because of its low aspect ratio, the gaff rig is less prone to stalling if oversheeted than something taller and narrower. Whilst reaching, the CE being set back, will encourage a small craft to bear up into the wind. The boat builder can compensate for this at design stage, e. g. by shifting the keel slightly aft, the gaff-cutter is in fact a very popular sailplan for small craft. The helmsman can reduce weather helm significantly, simply by sheeting out the mainsail, sheeting out may appear to create an inefficient belly in the sail, but it is often a pragmatic alternative to having a heavy helm
22.
Bermuda rig
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A Bermuda rig, Bermudian rig, or Marconi rig is a configuration of mast and rigging for a type of sailboat and is the typical configuration for most modern sailboats. Originally developed for smaller Bermudian vessels, and ultimately adapted to the larger, ocean-going Bermuda sloop, the Bermuda rigging has largely replaced the older gaff rigged fore-and-aft sails, except notably on schooners. The traditional design as developed in Bermuda features very tall, raked masts, a long bowsprit, in some configurations such as the Bermuda Fitted Dinghy vast areas of sail are achieved with this rig. Elsewhere, however, the design has omitted the bowsprit, and has become less extreme. A Bermuda rigged sloop with exactly one jib is known as a Bermuda sloop, a Bermuda sloop may also be a more specific type of vessel such as a small sailing ships traditional in Bermuda which may or may not be Bermuda rigged. The foot of a Bermuda sail may be attached to the boom along its length and this modern variation of a Bermuda mainsail is known as a loose-footed main. In some early Bermudian vessels, the mainsails were attached only to the mast and deck and this is the case on two of the three masts of the newly built Spirit of Bermuda, a replica of an 1830s British Royal Navy sloop-of-war. Additional sails were often mounted on traditional Bermudian craft, when running down wind, which included a spinnaker, with a spinnaker boom. The main controls on a Bermuda sail are, The halyard used to raise the head, the outhaul used to tension the foot by hauling the clew towards the end of the boom. The sheet used to haul the boom down and towards the center of the boat, the vang or kicking strap which runs between a point partway along the boom and the base of the mast, and is used to haul the boom down when on a run. The Bermuda rig developed from leg-of-mutton sails in Bermuda during the course of the 17th and 18th cnturies, the design was very useful on the gusty Bermudian waters for the boats that were the mainstay of transport around the archipelago into the 20th century. As Bermuda turned to an economy, after the dissolution of the Somers Isles Company in 1684, the rig was adapted to larger, ocean-going ships. The development of the rig is thought to have begun with fore-and-aft rigged boats built by a Dutch-born Bermudian in the 17th Century, the Dutch were influenced by Moorish lateen rigs introduced during Spains rule of their country. The Dutch eventually modified the design by omitting the masts, with the arms of the lateens being stepped in thwarts. By this process, the yards became raked masts, lateen sails mounted this way were known as leg-of-mutton sails in English. The Dutch called a vessel rigged in this manner a bezaanjacht, a bezaan jacht is visible in a painting of King Charles II arriving in Rotterdam in 1660. After sailing on such a vessel, Charles was so impressed that his successor, the Prince of Orange presented him with a copy of his own. The rig had been introduced to Bermuda some decades before this, Ships with somewhat similar rigs were in fact recorded in Holland during the 17th century
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Polyethylene terephthalate
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It may also be referred to by the brand name Dacron, in Britain, Terylene, or, in Russia and the former Soviet Union, Lavsan. The majority of the worlds PET production is for synthetic fibers, in the context of textile applications, PET is referred to by its common name, polyester, whereas the acronym PET is generally used in relation to packaging. Polyester makes up about 18% of world production and is the fourth-most-produced polymer, polyethylene, polypropylene and polyvinyl chloride are first, second and third. PET consists of polymerized units of the monomer ethylene terephthalate, with repeating units, PET is commonly recycled, and has the number 1 as its recycling symbol. Depending on its processing and thermal history, polyethylene terephthalate may exist both as an amorphous and as a semi-crystalline polymer, the semicrystalline material might appear transparent or opaque and white depending on its crystal structure and particle size. Polymerization is through a reaction of the monomers with water as the byproduct. Because PET is an excellent water and moisture barrier material, plastic bottles made from PET are widely used for soft drinks, for certain specialty bottles, such as those designated for beer containment, PET sandwiches an additional polyvinyl alcohol layer to further reduce its oxygen permeability. Biaxially oriented PET film can be aluminized by evaporating a thin film of metal onto it to reduce its permeability and these properties are useful in many applications, including flexible food packaging and thermal insulation. Because of its mechanical strength, PET film is often used in tape applications. Non-oriented PET sheet can be thermoformed to make packaging trays and blister packs, if crystallizable PET is used, the trays can be used for frozen dinners, since they withstand both freezing and oven baking temperatures. As opposed to amorphous PET, which is transparent, crystallizable PET or CPET tends to be black in colour, when filled with glass particles or fibres, it becomes significantly stiffer and more durable. PET is also used as a substrate in thin film solar cells, Terylene is also spliced into bell rope tops to help prevent wear on the ropes as they pass through the ceiling. PET was patented in 1941 by John Rex Whinfield, James Tennant Dickson and their employer the Calico Printers Association of Manchester, DuPont de Nemours in Delaware, USA, first used the trademark Mylar in June 1951 and received registration of it in 1952. It is still the name used for polyester film. The current owner of the trademark is DuPont Teijin Films US, in the Soviet Union, PET was first manufactured in the laboratories of the Institute of High-Molecular Compounds of the USSR Academy of Sciences in 1949, and its name Lavsan is an acronym thereof. The PET bottle was patented in 1973 by Nathaniel Wyeth, PET in its natural state is a colorless, semi-crystalline resin. Based on how it is processed, PET can be semi-rigid to rigid and it makes a good gas and fair moisture barrier, as well as a good barrier to alcohol and solvents. PET becomes white when exposed to chloroform and also certain other chemicals such as toluene, about 60% crystallization is the upper limit for commercial products, with the exception of polyester fibers
24.
Australia II
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Australia II is an Australian 12-metre-class Americas Cup challenge racing yacht that was launched in 1982 and won the 1983 Americas Cup for the Royal Perth Yacht Club. Skippered by John Bertrand, she was the first successful Cup challenger, Australia II was designed by Ben Lexcen, built by Steve Ward, owned by Alan Bond and helmed by John Bertrand. The boat was very quick in stays. The winged keel was a major advance, and its legality was questioned by the New York Yacht Club. During the summer of 1983, as selection trials took place for the Cup defence that autumn, the controversy was decided in Australia IIs favour. Australia II sported a number of innovative features that contributed to her success, including radical vertical sail designs, all kevlar running rigging. In 2009, Dutch naval architect Peter van Oossanen claimed that the keel was actually designed by him and his group of Dutch designers. If true, this would have reason to disqualify Australia II. The controversy arose due to Cup Rules allowing designers to use model basins for testing that are not located in the challenging country. Model testing was performed in the Netherlands and Peter van Oossanen and another Dutch engineer, Joop Sloof, performed measurements, the suggestion that the vessel was not designed by Australians has been refuted by both John Bertrand and project manager John Longley. In 1983 Lexcen commented on the controversy, I have in mind to admit it all to the New York Yacht Club that I really owe the secret of the design to a Greek guy who helped me out and was invaluable, hes been dead for 2000 years. Australia II dominated the 1983 Louis Vuitton Cup before defeating Azzurra in the finals and Victory 83 in the final to win the trophy. Australia II, bearing sail number KA6, represented the Royal Perth Yacht Club of Australia in its September 1983 challenge for the Americas Cup. The defender, the New York Yacht Club, had held the cup since 1851, dominating challengers, Australia II, skippered by John Bertrand, faced Dennis Conner sailing the 12-metre Liberty in the ocean off Newport, Rhode Island. Australia II came from behind to prevail 4 races to 3, the victory on 26 September 1983 was a landmark event for the nation of Australia, not to mention the Royal Perth Yacht Club. The achievement was underscored when Australia II was awarded the ABC Wide World of Sports Athlete of the Year for 1983, the reserves were Rob Brown, Jim Hardy, Scott McAllister. Beashel was an Olympic medal winning sailor who competed at six Olympic games, richardson was an Olympic oarsman who had stroked the Australian mens VIII at the Moscow 1980 Olympics. The Boxing Kangaroo was the mascot of the Australia II effort
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Skeg
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A skeg, is a sternward extension of the keel of boats and ships which have a rudder mounted on the centre line. The term also applies to the lowest point on a motor or the outdrive of an inboard/outboard. In more recent years, the name has been used for a fin on a surfboard which improves directional stability, the term is also often used for the fin on water skis in the U. S. and for the tail bumpers of aircraft in the US Navy. The word originates in the Scandinavian word for beard, in Old Norse, in Icelandic the word remains skegg, in modern Norwegian Bokmål and Nynorsk, it appears as skjegg, in Swedish, it is skägg and in Danish, skæg. The Norwegian pronunciation of the letter combination skj is as in the English sh, the word is related to the English shaggy. It also appears in the English place name Skegness - beard point, from the way in which a series of tombolos forms, here, the English pronunciation reflects a probable Danish origin, which pronounces the sk letter combination as an English speaker would expect. Where a vessels rudder is mounted on the centre-line, it is usual to hang it on gudgeons and pintles, the latter being upright pins and the former, rings to fit round them. This naturally leaves a gap between the sternpost and the rudder, into which stray items like kelp and rope can catch, causing drag. In ships such as Mary Rose, the skeg is a small feature. This somewhat beard-like sternward extension of the keel is the basic skeg, subsequently, the lowest pintle was commonly mounted below the rudder on a metal extension of the keel. This helped further stabilize and protect the rudder and the name skeg was transferred to it and it used to be relatively small until screw propellers were introduced, when it had to reach below the screw and became a proportionately larger feature protecting both screw and rudder from damage. On wooden vessels, the skeg may be protected from damage by the addition of a bug shoe. In more modern installations, with more than one screw, a fitting supports each propeller shaft just ahead of its screw. This is usually called a shaft bracket but the part of it extends below the shaft bearing to protect the lower part of the propeller is also a skeg. Similarly, the projection of the drive casing, below the rotational axis of the propeller of an outboard motor is another form of the skeg. Where a yacht is designed with a fin keel, it will normally and this link shows the profile of such a boat. This type of skeg is pictured at the bottom of the linked page. In surfing, windsurfing, and kitesurfing, skegs, usually known as fins, are attached toward the tail of the board to improve directional stability, fins allow the rider to control the boards direction by varying their side-to-side weight distribution
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Great Britain at the 1908 Summer Olympics
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The United Kingdom was the host nation of the 1908 Summer Olympics in London. The British Olympic Association was the National Olympic Committee responsible for organizing the United Kingdoms representation, at the time British athletes competed under the team name United Kingdom. The British team comprised 676 competitors, a number of Irish athletes boycotted the games in protest at British refusals to grant Irish Home Rule. During the opening ceremony, American athletes did not dip their flag to the British royalty in support of the Irish boycott and it was the fourth appearance of the country, which has not missed any of the Summer Olympic Games. The country finished in the Olympic table in first place for the first, British women were the only ones to compete in the womens event. Great Britain had 41 archers present,25 women and 16 men, the British did not do as well in the Continental style, dominated by the French team, with the only Briton taking 12th place. Robert Backhouse, however, shot a score in a demonstration that would have placed him second had he been in actual competition. The British team was the second most successful team in athletics, with 7 first-place finishes, they gathered less than half the championships that the American team did at 16, but still nearly doubled all other teams combined. Great Britain dominated the competitions, taking 14 of the 15 medals including all 5 gold medals. Great Britain won 5 of a possible 7 gold medals in the competitions, losing only the mens tandem to France. His bottom placing in that playoff gave France a sweep of the medals, the British were less successful in sabre, with no fencers making it to the final in the individual competition and the team being eliminated in the first round. England national amateur football team represented Great Britain in the football competition, Great Britain sent four teams, one from each of the Home Nations. Scotland and England defeated Germany and France, respectively, in the first round before facing each other in the semifinals and their victories assured them medals, while Ireland and Wales had been guaranteed medals by receiving byes in the first round. England won in the semifinal against Scotland, while Ireland defeated Wales in the other semifinal, the two losing teams received bronze medals, while England took the gold by winning the final against Ireland, who received silver. In the jeu de paume competition, British players took the silver, Great Britain lost the only lacrosse match played in 1908 to Canada, earning the silver medal. Great Britain was the nation to compete in polo in 1908. The host nation was the one to compete in rackets in 1908. Great Britain lost the only rugby union played in 1908 to Australasia
Lionheart (GBR)
Clipper (CAN)
Victory '83 (ITA)
Australia III (AUS)
Kiwi Magic (NZL)
South Australia (SUI)
United States