1.
United States Air Force
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The United States Air Force is the aerial warfare service branch of the United States Armed Forces and one of the seven American uniformed services. Initially part of the United States Army, the USAF was formed as a branch of the military on 18 September 1947 under the National Security Act of 1947. It is the most recent branch of the U. S. military to be formed, the U. S. Air Force is a military service organized within the Department of the Air Force, one of the three military departments of the Department of Defense. The Air Force is headed by the civilian Secretary of the Air Force, who reports to the Secretary of Defense, the U. S. Air Force provides air support for surface forces and aids in the recovery of troops in the field. As of 2015, the service more than 5,137 military aircraft,406 ICBMs and 63 military satellites. It has a $161 billion budget with 313,242 active duty personnel,141,197 civilian employees,69,200 Air Force Reserve personnel, and 105,500 Air National Guard personnel. According to the National Security Act of 1947, which created the USAF and it shall be organized, trained, and equipped primarily for prompt and sustained offensive and defensive air operations. The stated mission of the USAF today is to fly, fight, and win in air, space and we will provide compelling air, space, and cyber capabilities for use by the combatant commanders. We will excel as stewards of all Air Force resources in service to the American people, while providing precise and reliable Global Vigilance, Reach and it should be emphasized that the core functions, by themselves, are not doctrinal constructs. The purpose of Nuclear Deterrence Operations is to operate, maintain, in the event deterrence fails, the US should be able to appropriately respond with nuclear options. Dissuading others from acquiring or proliferating WMD, and the means to deliver them, moreover, different deterrence strategies are required to deter various adversaries, whether they are a nation state, or non-state/transnational actor. Nuclear strike is the ability of forces to rapidly and accurately strike targets which the enemy holds dear in a devastating manner. Should deterrence fail, the President may authorize a precise, tailored response to terminate the conflict at the lowest possible level, post-conflict, regeneration of a credible nuclear deterrent capability will deter further aggression. Finally, the Air Force regularly exercises and evaluates all aspects of operations to ensure high levels of performance. Nuclear surety ensures the safety, security and effectiveness of nuclear operations, the Air Force, in conjunction with other entities within the Departments of Defense or Energy, achieves a high standard of protection through a stringent nuclear surety program. The Air Force continues to pursue safe, secure and effective nuclear weapons consistent with operational requirements, adversaries, allies, and the American people must be highly confident of the Air Forces ability to secure nuclear weapons from accidents, theft, loss, and accidental or unauthorized use. This day-to-day commitment to precise and reliable nuclear operations is the cornerstone of the credibility of the NDO mission, positive nuclear command, control, communications, effective nuclear weapons security, and robust combat support are essential to the overall NDO function. OCA is the method of countering air and missile threats, since it attempts to defeat the enemy closer to its source
2.
Air Force Global Strike Command
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Air Force Global Strike Command is a Major Command of the United States Air Force, headquartered at Barksdale Air Force Base, Louisiana. AFGSC provides combat-ready forces to conduct strategic nuclear deterrence and global operations in support of combatant commanders. Air Force Global Strike Command is the direct descendant unit of the Cold War-era Strategic Air Command and it holds the lineage, history and honors of SAC. It assumed responsibility for the assets of Air Force Space Command on 1 December 2009. Its creation was outlined in the recommendations of the following the 2007 United States Air Force nuclear weapons incident. The command was activated 7 August 2009, at Barksdale Air Force Base, AFGSC consists of over 31,000 personnel assigned to nine wings, two geographically-separated squadrons and one detachment in the continental United States and deployed to locations around the globe. Changes to the AFGSC units began with the announcement of the 377th Air Base Wings realignment in December 2014 and this means that two bomb wings formerly under Air Combat Command will shift into AFGSC. The units came under the command on 1 October 2015, on October 6,2016, the 595th Command and Control Group was activated at Offutt Air Force Base, Nebraska to assume the responsibility for the Boeing E-4 NAOC mission. The command has an area of responsibility as a subordinate component command of United States Strategic Command. AFGSC is one of two USAF component commands in USSTRATCOM, the other being Air Force Space Command, the mission of The Mighty Eighth is to safeguard Americas interests through strategic deterrence and global combat power. Eighth Air Force controls long-range nuclear-capable bomber assets throughout the United States and its flexible, conventional and nuclear deterrence mission provides the capability to deploy forces and engage enemy threats from home station or forward positioned, anywhere, any time. The 8th Air Force motto is Deterrence through strength, global strike on demand, the Missouri Air National Guards 131st Bomb Wing is an associate unit of the 509th Bomb Wing at Whiteman, flying the B-2A Spirit. If federalized, it is gained by Eighth Air Force, the Air Force Reserve Commands 307th Bomb Wing is an associate unit of the 2d Bomb Wing at Barksdale AFB, flying the B-52H Stratofortress. If activated, it is gained by Eighth Air Force Offensive aircraft assets include the Northrop Grumman B-2 Spirit, Boeing B-52 Stratofortress, and Boeing B-1B Lancer. Headquarters, Twentieth Air Force – Francis E. Warren Air Force Base, designated as USSTRATCOMs Task Force 214, 20th Air Force provides on-alert, combat-ready ICBMs to the President of the United States. The ICBMs are on 24-hour/365-day alert and are ready to launch on any given day, aFGSCs Twentieth Air Force is the Air Forces lead command for and largest operator of UH-1N Huey helicopters. The UH-1N supports ICBM operations in missile fields controlled by F. E. Warren, Malmstrom, in 2015, the 582d Helicopter Group was activated to supervise the three UH-1 squadrons. Schlesinger led an investigation into the status of U. S. Air Force nuclear surety, Secretary Schlesingers recommendation was the creation of a single major command under which all Air Force nuclear assets should be placed for better accountability
3.
Whiteman Air Force Base
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Whiteman Air Force Base is a United States Air Force base located approximately 2 miles south of Knob Noster, MO,10 miles east of Warrensburg, MO, and 70 miles east-southeast of Kansas City. The host unit at Whiteman AFB is the 509th Bomb Wing, Whiteman AFB was established in 1942 as Sedalia Glider Base. Whiteman AFB is a base, with Air Force, Army. Its host unit is the U. S. Air Forces 509th Bomb Wing. S, Navy Reserves Maritime Expeditionary Security Force Unit 114. Whiteman AFB is the permanent base for the B-2 Spirit stealth bomber. Whiteman can launch combat sorties directly from Missouri to any part of the globe, the 509th Bomb Wing first flew the B-2 in combat against Serbia in March 1999. Later, Whiteman B-2s led the way for Americas military response to the terrorist attacks on New York, B-2 bombers were the first U. S. aircraft to enter Afghanistan airspace in October 2001, paving the way for other coalition aircraft to engage Taliban and Al Qaeda forces. During these operations, the aircraft flew round-trip from Missouri, logging combat missions in excess of 40 hours – the longest on record, other aircraft assigned to Whiteman include the A-10 Thunderbolt II ground-attack fighter, the T-38 Talon jet trainer, and the AH-64 Apache attack helicopter. The 131 BW is operationally-gained by the Air Force Global Strike Command, otherwise, the majority of the 131st Bomb Wing, primarily support personnel, performs military duty at Whiteman only one weekend per month for drill. In August 2013, the 131st Bomb Wing became the only Air National Guard bomb wing to be certified to conduct nuclear operations. The 442nd Fighter Wing, an Air Force Reserve Command unit controlled by the Tenth Air Force, is a tenant unit at Whiteman AFB and is gained by the Air Combat Command. The 442 FW flies the A-10 Thunderbolt II, 442nd Operations Group 303rd Fighter Squadron 442nd Maintenance Group 442nd Mission Support Group In addition, the wing boasts the 442nd Medical Squadron, as well as a wing staff. There are also two geographically separated units that report to the 442nd Fighter Wing, the 710th Medical Squadron and 610th Intelligence Operations Flight, both located at Offutt Air Force Base, Nebraska, look to the 442 FW for support in accomplishing their missions. In addition, the 476th Fighter Group stationed at Moody Air Force Base, otherwise, the 476 FG is linked to the active duty 23rd Fighter Group and 23rd Wing at Moody. The 442 FW oversees the 476 FGs administrative and mission-support needs not provided by Moodys host active duty wing. S. or host-nation security infrastructure is inadequate or non-existent. Named in honor of 2nd Lieutenant George Allison Whiteman, on 7 December 1941, Lieutenant Whiteman attempted to take off from Bellows Field during the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor. Hit by enemy fire, his P-40 Warhawk crashed and Lieutenant Whiteman became the first member of the United States armed forces to die in combat in World War II. The base had its beginnings in 1942 when U. S. Army Air Corps officials selected the site of the base to be the home of Sedalia Army Air Field
4.
Lieutenant colonel (United States)
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In the United States Army, U. S. Marine Corps, and U. S. Air Force, a lieutenant colonel is a field grade military officer rank just above the rank of major and just below the rank of colonel. It is equivalent to the rank of commander in the other uniformed services. The pay grade for the rank of lieutenant colonel is O-5, in the United States armed forces, the insignia for the rank consists of a silver oak leaf, with slight stylized differences between the Army/Air Force version and the Navy/Marine Corps version. While often written as Lt. Colonel in orders and signature blocks, as a courtesy, lieutenant colonels are addressed simply as colonel verbally, the U. S. Army uses the three letter abbreviation LTC. The United States Marine Corps and U. S. Air Force use the abbreviations LtCol and Lt Col respectively. The U. S. Government Printing Office recommends the abbreviation LTC for U. S. Army usage, LtCol for Marine Corps usage, the Associated Press Stylebook recommends the abbreviation Lt. Col. for the Army, Marine Corps, and Air Force. Slang terms for the historically used by the U. S. military include light colonel, short colonel, light bird, half colonel, bottlecap colonel. The rank of lieutenant colonel has existed in the British Army since at least the 16th century and was used in both American colonial militia and colonial regular regiments. The Continental Army continued the British and colonial use of the rank of lieutenant colonel, the lieutenant colonel was sometimes known as lieutenant to the colonel. In British practice, regiments were commanded by their lieutenant colonels. The conversion was never completely effected and some regiments remained commanded by colonels throughout the war, from 1784 until 1791, there was only one lieutenant colonel in the US Army, who acted as the armys commanding officer. In the Continental Army aides to the Commander in Chief, viz, Lieutenant General George Washington, were lieutenant colonels. Additionally, certain officers serving under the Adjutant General, Inspector General, such was the case of Joshua Lawrence Chamberlain, who commanded a Maine regiment as both a lieutenant colonel and later as a colonel. Such was the case with George A. Custer, who was a lieutenant colonel in the regular army, a lieutenant colonel may also serve as a brigade/brigade combat team, regiment/regimental combat team, Marine Aviation Group, Marine Expeditionary Unit, or battalion task force executive officer. These staff positions may include, G-1, G-2, G-3, G-4, G-5, usage of The G-n may refer to either a specific staff section or the staff officer leading a section. Lieutenant colonels may also be junior staff at a variety of higher echelons, Lieutenant colonels may also serve on general staffs and may be the heads of some wing staff departments. Senior Lieutenant colonels occasionally serve as group commanders, in US Army and Air Force ROTC detachments, the commanding officer is typically a lieutenant colonel, along with several majors, captains, and non-commissioned officers serving as assistants. However, some detachments are commanded by full colonels, the rank of lieutenant colonel is also used by many large American police departments for officers in senior administrative positions
5.
Charles J. Biddle (aviator)
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Major Charles John Biddle was an American aviator, attorney, and author. He was an ace during World War I. Postwar, he launched a career in law and wrote his memoirs, Charles John Biddle was born on 13 May 1890 at Andalusia, the Biddle family estate near Philadelphia. His father was Charles Biddle and mother was Letitia Glenn and his grandfather Charles John Biddle was a soldier in the Union Army and subsequently a member of the United States House of Representatives. Andalusia was the estate of his great-grandfather, banker Nicholas Biddle and he was an hereditary member of the Aztec Club of 1847. He graduated from Princeton University in 1911, and from Harvard Law School three years later and he was admitted to the Pennsylvania Bar, but interrupted his nascent career to serve in World War I. Biddle joined the Lafayette Flying Corps in France on 8 April 1917 and he was assigned to Escadrille 73 as a private on 28 July 1917, under the command and mentorship of Albert Deullin. He was promoted to corporal on 2 June and to sergeant on 1 December, Biddle initially fought several indecisive combats with a Spad VII, but success evaded him until 5 December 1917. Flying a SPAD XIII, he downed the Albatros two-seater of Leutnants Fritz Pauly, Biddle transferred to the American 103rd Aero Squadron on 10 January 1918 and was commissioned as a captain in the Aviation Section of the U. S. Army Signal Corps on 12 January 1918. He then and reverted to the Spad VII for his 12 April win over a Halberstadt CL. II over Corbeny and he moved on to the 13th Aero Squadron. On 1 August, he shared his first two victories with William Howard Stovall, John Seerly, and H. B and he shot down three more enemy planes afterwards. He was at one point entrusted with the only SPAD XII issued to Americans and he was promoted to the rank of major on 1 November and was given command of the 4th Pursuit Group. He returned to the United States on 19 December and was discharged from the Army on 25 January. In recognition of his service, the French awarded him both the Legion of Honor and the Croix de Guerre, and he received the American Distinguished Service Cross, after the war, Biddle wrote a book entitled The Way of the Eagle. Biddle initially practiced law in the Drexel Building with his fathers firm, following his fathers death, he joined the law firm of Drinker Biddle & Reath in 1924. He was the firms first lateral partner and brought clients that included the Philadelphia Contributionship for the Insurance of Houses from Loss by Fire, Biddle became a partner in 1925 and was a major force at the firm for decades. In the 1950s, he led the defense of Merck Sharp & Dohme in a case concerning price-fixing. At a trial in Trenton, New Jersey, he argued successfully for Mercks acquittal with Thomas E. Dewey who represented Eli Lilly, Biddle also sued the U. S. government on behalf of three widows who lost their husbands in a B-29 Superfortress crash in 1948
6.
509th Operations Group
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The 509th Operations Group is the flying component of the United States Air Force 509th Bomb Wing, assigned to Whiteman Air Force Base, Missouri. It is equipped with all 20 of the USAFs B-2 Spirit stealth bombers and its 394th CTS also uses T-38 Talon trainers. The 509 OG traces its history to the World War II 509th Composite Group, redesignated the 509th Bombardment Group, Very Heavy in 1946, the group was one of the original ten bombardment groups of Strategic Air Command. The unit was also the host organization at Roswell Army Airfield, the 509th Bombardment Group was inactivated in 1952. In 1993, the unit was reactivated as the 509 OG, the 509th OG consists of four component squadrons, 13th Bomb Squadron Originally activated as the 325th Bomb Squadron on 6 January 1998. Re-designated the 13th BS on 23 September 2005, when that unit, 393d Bomb Squadron The 393rd BS, a traditional squadron of the 509th, was activated as a B-2 squadron on 27 August 1993. 394th Combat Training Squadron A Flying Training Unit, the 394th CTS conducts all flying training connected with the B-2, 509th Operations Support Squadron A non-flying squadron, the 509th OSS controls all airfield activities at Whiteman. A second variation carried the term Classified Test Flight instead of the Twilight Zone reference, the historical roots of the 509th OG begin on 17 December 1944 when the 509th Composite Group was formed at Wendover Field, Utah under Second Air Force. The 509th was formed with one mission in mind, to drop the Atomic Bomb, the group deployed to the Western Pacific in May 1945 and was assigned to the Twentieth Air Force 313th Bombardment Wing, stationed at North Field, Tinian, in the Mariana Islands. Operations of the group, however, were controlled by Headquarters, the 509th CG made history on 6 August 1945, when the B-29 Superfortress Enola Gay, piloted by Colonel Paul W. Tibbets, Jr. dropped the first atomic bomb on Hiroshima, Japan. The B-29 Bockscar, piloted by Major Charles Sweeney visited the Japanese mainland on 9 August 1945, in November 1945, the group returned to the United States and was assigned to Roswell Army Air Base, New Mexico. For a brief period of time from January to March 1946 the 509th was assigned to the 58th Bomb Wing at Fort Worth AAF, Texas, the Group was assigned to Strategic Air Command on 21 March 1946, being one of the first eleven organizations assigned to SAC. At the time SAC was formed, the 509th Composite Group was the unit to have experience with nuclear weapons. In April 1946 many of the aircraft deployed to Kwajalein as part of Operation Crossroads. The remainder became the core of two new squadrons activated as part of the group, the 715th Bomb Squadron and the 830th Bomb Squadron, on 10 July 1946, the group was renamed the 509th Bombardment Group and the 320th TCS was disbanded. John D. Ryan was named commander, as a result of postwar reductions only the 509th was equipped for the delivery of atomic bombs. The group was redesignated as a bomb group in 1948 as part of the Strategic Air Command. Its 27 operational Silverplate B-29s were transferred in 1949 to the 97th Bomb Wing at Biggs Air Force Base, El Paso, Texas, the B-50D was the last derivative of the B-29 family and designed specifically for the atomic bombing mission
7.
Northrop Grumman B-2 Spirit
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The bomber can deploy both conventional and thermonuclear weapons, such as eighty 500 lb -class JDAM Global Positioning System-guided bombs, or sixteen 2,400 lb B83 nuclear bombs. The B-2 is the only acknowledged aircraft that can carry large air-to-surface standoff weapons in a stealth configuration, the ATB project continued during the Reagan administration, but worries about delays in its introduction led to the reinstatement of the B-1 program as well. Designed and manufactured by Northrop, later Northrop Grumman, the cost of each aircraft averaged US$737 million, total procurement costs averaged $929 million per aircraft, which includes spare parts, equipment, retrofitting, and software support. The total program cost including development, engineering and testing, averaged $2.1 billion per aircraft in 1997, because of its considerable capital and operating costs, the project was controversial in the U. S. Congress and among the Joint Chiefs of Staff. During the late 1980s and 1990s, Congress slashed plans to purchase 132 bombers to 21, in 2008, a B-2 was destroyed in a crash shortly after takeoff, though the crew ejected safely. A total of 20 B-2s remain in service with the United States Air Force, which plans to operate the B-2 until 2058. The B-2 is capable of all-altitude attack missions up to 50,000 feet, with a range of more than 6,000 nautical miles on internal fuel and over 10,000 nautical miles with one midair refueling. It entered service in 1997 as the aircraft designed to have advanced stealth technology after the Lockheed F-117 Nighthawk attack aircraft. Though designed originally as primarily a bomber, the B-2 was first used in combat, dropping conventional. It later served in Iraq, Afghanistan and Libya, by the mid-1970s, military aircraft designers had learned of a new method to avoid missiles and interceptors, known today as stealth. The concept was to build an aircraft with an airframe that deflected or absorbed radar signals so that little was reflected back to the radar unit. An aircraft having stealth characteristics would be able to fly nearly undetected and could be attacked only by weapons, although other detection measures existed, such as human observation, their relatively short detection range allowed most aircraft to fly undetected by defenses, especially at night. In 1974, DARPA requested information from U. S. aviation firms about the largest radar cross-section of an aircraft that would remain invisible to radars. Initially, Northrop and McDonnell Douglas were selected for further development, a key improvement was the introduction of computer models used to predict the radar reflections from flat surfaces where collected data drove the design of a faceted aircraft. Development of the first such designs started in 1975 with the hopeless diamond, plans were well advanced by the summer of 1975, when DARPA started the Experimental Survivability Testbed project. Northrop and Lockheed were awarded contracts in the first round of testing, Lockheed received the sole award for the second test round in April 1976 leading to the Have Blue program and eventually the F-117 stealth attack aircraft. Northrop also had a technology demonstration aircraft, the Tacit Blue in development in 1979 at Area 51. It developed stealth technology, LO, fly-by-wire, curved surfaces, composite materials, electronic intelligence, the stealth technology developed from the program was later incorporated into other operational aircraft designs, including the B-2 stealth bomber
8.
13th Aero Squadron
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The 13th Aero Squadron was a Air Service, United States Army unit that fought on the Western Front during World War I. The squadron was assigned as a Day Pursuit Squadron as part of the 2d Pursuit Group and its mission was to engage and clear enemy aircraft from the skies and provide escort to reconnaissance and bombardment squadrons over enemy territory. It also attacked enemy observation balloons, and perform close air support, after the 1918 Armistice with Germany, the squadron returned to the United States in March 1919 and demobilized. On 16 October 1936 the squadron was re-constituted, and consolidated with the United States Army Air Corps 13th Attack Squadron. Today, the current United States Air Force unit which holds its lineage and history is the 13th Bomb Squadron, assigned to the 509th Operations Group, Whiteman Air Force Base, the 13th Aero Squadron was organised at Kelly Field, Texas on 14 June 1917. Training in Ohio lasted until 1 November when it received orders for overseas duty, the squadron proceeded to the Aviation Concentration Center, Garden City, New York, where it awaited transport to Europe. At the end of November, the moved to Philadelphia, where it boarded the SS Northland. The ship arrived at Liverpool, England on 25 December where the day, they boarded a train for Winchester. After a cross-channel crossing from Southampton to Le Havre, France, at St. Maixent the squadron waited for several weeks and largely performed construction and other activities designed to improve the newly established base. At the end of January, orders were received to proceed to the 3d Air Instructional Center at Issoudun Aerodrome for advanced flight, for the next four months the squadron trained at Issodun, with detachments sent to French Air Force gunnery ranges at Meucon and Haussimont Aerodromes. Once equipped the squadron was ordered to Gengault Aerodrome, near Toul, there the 13th received its combat assignment to the 2d Pursuit Group where it joined the 22d, 49th and 139th Aero Squadrons. The 13th was charged with protection of the St. Mihiel sector, the Spads also escorted Allied observation planes deep into enemy territory where their pilots sometimes engaged enemy planes and attacked hostile balloons. While participating in the St. Mihiel Offensive, which was undertaken to eliminate the salient in the front lines around St. Mihiel that had existed since early in the war, the 13th fought with vigor. While ground forces were attacking and destroying, men, material, and morale, the 13ths pilots kept busy destroying enemy aircraft and balloons, and making the sky safe for Allied observation planes. The squadron suffered its first combat loss on 13 September when Lt. Robert Converse was shot down on an afternoon patrol. Four original squadron members were downed in a matter of minutes, Lt. Charles Drew, Lt Alton Brody, Lt. Harry B. Buck Freeman, Converse, Drew, Freeman and Brody were captured and repatriated after the Armistice. George Kull was confirmed killed in action, the first combat fatality of the 13th Aero Squadron, the Meuse-Argonne campaign was launched on 26 September 1918 to further reduce the St. Mihiel salient. The 13th Aero Squadron moved on 23 September to Belrain Aerodrome, during the Meuse Argonne Offensive, the squadron lost Lts
9.
Kelly Field Annex
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Kelly Field Annex is a United States Air Force facility located in San Antonio, Texas. The base is under the jurisdiction of the 802d Mission Support Group, Air Education, Kelly Field was one of thirty-two Air Service training camps established after the United States entry into World War I, being established on 27 March 1917. It was used as a field, primary flying school, school for adjutants, supply officers, engineers, mechanics school. As of 2006, there are some isolated USAF activities on Port San Antonio subordinate to Lackland. Several large warehouses on the grounds of Port San Antonio were cleared, cleaned and equipped with large air conditioning units to house evacuees from Hurricane Katrina. The first evacuees began to arrive on September 2,2005, Kelly Field Annex is named in honor of 2d Lieutenant George Edward Maurice Kelly. Lt. Kelly, who after a course of training at the Curtiss Aviation School, Rockwell Field, California, was ordered to Fort Sam Houston, near San Antonio. While attempting to land on 10 May 1911 in order to avoid running into a tent and thereby possibly injuring several others, died in a crash, the center was to be built for the Aviation Section of the U. S. Army Signal Corps. General Scriven described San Antonio as “the most important strategic position of the South, ” in response to the unrest resulting from the Mexican Revolution. S. ”In November 1915, when the newly created 1st Aero Squadron arrived at Fort Sam Houston after a cross-country flight from Fort Sill, Oklahoma. Problems experienced by the 1st Aero Squadron on that expedition and the war in Europe persuaded Congress to improve. It was quickly apparent that Fort Sam Houston had inadequate space for flying operations, especially with newer. Major Benjamin Foulois, with the support of the San Antonio Chamber of Commerce, bordered by the Frio City Road on the northwest, the site was also adjacent to the Southern Pacific Railroad, providing easy access by road and rail. In addition, the new site was relatively flat, and thus suitable for flying operations, initially, the site was called the South San Antonio Aviation Camp. On 5 April 1917, four took off from Fort Sam Houston, flew across San Antonio and landed on the new airfield. Tents had been erected as hangars, however a permanent presence at the airfield was not established until 7 May when 700 men arrived, a week later, the population had grown to 4,000. Construction of the facility was rapid, with the United States now at war, the ground was cleared and scores of buildings - hangars, barracks, mess halls, a street system, electrical and plumbing systems, warehouses, machine shops were all constructed during the summer. By the end of June, it was clear that Foulois original site, a committee of the San Antonio Chamber of Commerce provided the necessary land and presented the proposition to the Aviation Production Board in Washington, D. C. in June 1917. A contract was signed in July 1917, comprising all of what was Kelly Field #2, Kelly soldiers organized approximately 250,000 men into Aero Squadrons during the hectic months of 1917 and 1918
10.
Western Front (World War I)
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The Western Front or Western Theater was the main theatre of war during World War I. Following the outbreak of war in August 1914, the German Army opened the Western Front by invading Luxembourg and Belgium, the tide of the advance was dramatically turned with the Battle of the Marne. Following the Race to the Sea, both sides dug in along a line of fortified trenches, stretching from the North Sea to the Swiss frontier with France. This line remained unchanged for most of the war. Between 1915 and 1917 there were several major offensives along this front, the attacks employed massive artillery bombardments and massed infantry advances. However, a combination of entrenchments, machine gun emplacements, barbed wire, as a result, no significant advances were made. In an effort to break the deadlock, this front saw the introduction of new technology, including poison gas, aircraft. But it was only after the adoption of improved tactics that some degree of mobility was restored, the German Armys Spring Offensive of 1918 was made possible by the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk that marked the end of the conflict on the Eastern Front. In spite of the stagnant nature of this front, this theatre would prove decisive. The terms of peace were agreed upon with the signing of the Treaty of Versailles in 1919, belgiums neutrality was guaranteed by Britain under the 1839 Treaty of London, this caused Britain to join the war at the expiration of its ultimatum at 11 pm GMT on 4 August. Armies under German generals Alexander von Kluck and Karl von Bülow attacked Belgium on 4 August 1914, Luxembourg had been occupied without opposition on 2 August. The first battle in Belgium was the Siege of Liège, which lasted from 5–16 August, Liège was well fortified and surprised the German Army under von Bülow with its level of resistance. German heavy artillery was able to demolish the main forts within a few days. Following the fall of Liège, most of the Belgian field army retreated to Antwerp, leaving the garrison of Namur isolated, with the Belgian capital, Brussels, although the German army bypassed Antwerp, it remained a threat to their flank. Another siege followed at Namur, lasting from about 20–23 August, for their part, the French had five armies deployed on their borders. The pre-war French offensive plan, Plan XVII, was intended to capture Alsace-Lorraine following the outbreak of hostilities, on 7 August the VII Corps attacked Alsace with its objectives being to capture Mulhouse and Colmar. The main offensive was launched on 14 August with 1st and 2nd Armies attacking toward Sarrebourg-Morhange in Lorraine, in keeping with the Schlieffen Plan, the Germans withdrew slowly while inflicting severe losses upon the French. The French advanced the 3rd and 4th Armies toward the Saar River and attempted to capture Saarburg, attacking Briey and Neufchateau, before being driven back
11.
World War I
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World War I, also known as the First World War, the Great War, or the War to End All Wars, was a global war originating in Europe that lasted from 28 July 1914 to 11 November 1918. More than 70 million military personnel, including 60 million Europeans, were mobilised in one of the largest wars in history and it was one of the deadliest conflicts in history, and paved the way for major political changes, including revolutions in many of the nations involved. The war drew in all the worlds great powers, assembled in two opposing alliances, the Allies versus the Central Powers of Germany and Austria-Hungary. These alliances were reorganised and expanded as more nations entered the war, Italy, Japan, the trigger for the war was the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria, heir to the throne of Austria-Hungary, by Yugoslav nationalist Gavrilo Princip in Sarajevo on 28 June 1914. This set off a crisis when Austria-Hungary delivered an ultimatum to the Kingdom of Serbia. Within weeks, the powers were at war and the conflict soon spread around the world. On 25 July Russia began mobilisation and on 28 July, the Austro-Hungarians declared war on Serbia, Germany presented an ultimatum to Russia to demobilise, and when this was refused, declared war on Russia on 1 August. Germany then invaded neutral Belgium and Luxembourg before moving towards France, after the German march on Paris was halted, what became known as the Western Front settled into a battle of attrition, with a trench line that changed little until 1917. On the Eastern Front, the Russian army was successful against the Austro-Hungarians, in November 1914, the Ottoman Empire joined the Central Powers, opening fronts in the Caucasus, Mesopotamia and the Sinai. In 1915, Italy joined the Allies and Bulgaria joined the Central Powers, Romania joined the Allies in 1916, after a stunning German offensive along the Western Front in the spring of 1918, the Allies rallied and drove back the Germans in a series of successful offensives. By the end of the war or soon after, the German Empire, Russian Empire, Austro-Hungarian Empire, national borders were redrawn, with several independent nations restored or created, and Germanys colonies were parceled out among the victors. During the Paris Peace Conference of 1919, the Big Four imposed their terms in a series of treaties, the League of Nations was formed with the aim of preventing any repetition of such a conflict. This effort failed, and economic depression, renewed nationalism, weakened successor states, and feelings of humiliation eventually contributed to World War II. From the time of its start until the approach of World War II, at the time, it was also sometimes called the war to end war or the war to end all wars due to its then-unparalleled scale and devastation. In Canada, Macleans magazine in October 1914 wrote, Some wars name themselves, during the interwar period, the war was most often called the World War and the Great War in English-speaking countries. Will become the first world war in the sense of the word. These began in 1815, with the Holy Alliance between Prussia, Russia, and Austria, when Germany was united in 1871, Prussia became part of the new German nation. Soon after, in October 1873, German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck negotiated the League of the Three Emperors between the monarchs of Austria-Hungary, Russia and Germany
12.
Fighter aircraft
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A fighter aircraft is a military aircraft designed primarily for air-to-air combat against other aircraft, as opposed to bombers and attack aircraft, whose main mission is to attack ground targets. The hallmarks of a fighter are its speed, maneuverability, many fighters have secondary ground-attack capabilities, and some are designed as dual-purpose fighter-bombers, often aircraft that do not fulfill the standard definition are called fighters. This may be for political or national security reasons, for advertising purposes, a fighters main purpose is to establish air superiority over a battlefield. Since World War I, achieving and maintaining air superiority has been considered essential for victory in conventional warfare, the word fighter did not become the official English-language term for such aircraft until after World War I. In the British Royal Flying Corps and Royal Air Force these aircraft were referred to as scouts into the early 1920s, the U. S. Army called their fighters pursuit aircraft from 1916 until the late 1940s. In most languages a fighter aircraft is known as a hunter, exceptions include Russian, where a fighter is an истребитель, meaning exterminator, and Hebrew where it is matose krav. As a part of nomenclature, a letter is often assigned to various types of aircraft to indicate their use. In Russia I was used, while the French continue to use C and this has always been the case, for instance the Sopwith Camel and other fighting scouts of World War I performed a great deal of ground-attack work. Several aircraft, such as the F-111 and F-117, have received fighter designations but had no fighter capability due to political or other reasons, the F-111B variant was originally intended for a fighter role with the U. S. Navy, but it was cancelled. This blurring follows the use of fighters from their earliest days for attack or strike operations against ground targets by means of strafing or dropping small bombs, versatile multirole fighter-bombers such as the F/A-18 Hornet are a less expensive option than having a range of specialized aircraft types. An interceptor is generally an aircraft intended to target bombers and so often trades maneuverability for climb rate, fighters were developed in World War I to deny enemy aircraft and dirigibles the ability to gather information by reconnaissance. Early fighters were very small and lightly armed by later standards, and most were built with a wooden frame, covered with fabric. As control of the airspace over armies became increasingly important all of the major powers developed fighters to support their military operations, between the wars, wood was largely replaced by steel tubing, then aluminium tubing, and finally aluminium stressed skin structures began to predominate. By World War II, most fighters were all-metal monoplanes armed with batteries of guns or cannons. By the end of the war, turbojet engines were replacing piston engines as the means of propulsion, further increasing aircraft speed. Since the weight of the engine was so less than on piston engined fighters. This in turn required the development of ejection seats so the pilot could escape, in the 1950s, radar was fitted to day fighters, since pilots could no longer see far enough ahead to prepare for any opposition. Since then, radar capabilities have grown enormously and are now the method of target acquisition
13.
United States Army Air Service
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The Air Service, United States Army was the military aviation service of the United States between 1918 and 1926 and a forerunner of the United States Air Force. It was established as an independent but temporary branch of the U. S and its life was extended for another year in July 1919, during which time Congress passed the legislation necessary to make it a permanent establishment. The National Defense Act of 1920 assigned the Air Service the status of combatant arm of the line of the United States Army with a general in command. By the end of the war, the Air Service used 45 squadrons to cover 137 kilometers of front from Pont-à-Mousson to Sedan,71 pursuit pilots were credited with shooting down five or more German aircraft while in American service. Overall the Air Service destroyed 756 enemy aircraft and 76 balloons in combat,17 balloon companies also operated at the front, making 1,642 combat ascensions. 289 airplanes and 48 balloons were lost in battle, the Air Service was the first form of the air force to have an independent organizational structure and identity. Although officers concurrently held rank in various branches, after May 1918 their branch designation in official correspondence while on aviation assignment changed from ASSC to AS, after July 1,1920, its personnel became members of the Air Service branch, receiving new commissions. Airmen such as Brig. Gen. Billy Mitchell supported the concept, the Armys senior leadership from World War I, the United States Navy, and the majority of the nations political leadership favored integration of all military aviation into the Army and Navy. Aided by a wave of pacifism following the war that drastically cut military budgets, opponents of an independent air force prevailed, the Air Service was renamed the Army Air Corps in 1926 as a compromise in the continuing struggle. The declaration of war against Germany on April 6,1917, putting the United States in World War I, came too quickly to solve emerging engineering and production problems. The reorganization of the Aviation Section had been inadequate in resolving problems in training, leaving the United States totally unprepared to fight an air war in Europe, the Aviation Section consisted of 131 officers,1087 enlisted men, and approximately 280 airplanes. The Board dispatched Major Raynal C, by the time the bill passed, the term Air Service was in widespread if unofficial usage to collectively describe all aspects of Army aviation. Even so, the Aircraft Board in practice had little control over procurement contracts, nor did the Equipment Division of the Signal Corps exercise such control. Though individual areas within the industry responded well, the industry as a whole failed. Efforts to mass produce European aircraft under license largely failed because the aircraft, at the same time the Aeronautical Division of the OCSO was renamed the Air Division with continued responsibility for training and operations but with no influence on acquisition or doctrine. In the end the process in aircraft procurement was badly fragmented. Borglum had exchanged letters with President Wilson, a friend, from which he assumed an appointment to investigate had been authorized. Both the U. S. Senate and the Department of Justice began investigations into possible fraudulent dealings, Kenly brought back from France to be its head, to separate supervision of aviation from the duties of the Chief Signal Officer
14.
Fifth Air Force
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The Fifth Air Force is a numbered air force of the United States Air Force Pacific Air Forces. It is headquartered at Yokota Air Base, Japan and it is the U. S. Air Forces oldest continuously serving Numbered Air Force. The organization has provided 70 years of air power to the Pacific since its establishment in September 1941. Fifth Air Force is the Headquarters Pacific Air Forces forward element in Japan, in addition,5 AF is the air component to United States Forces Japan. First, it plans, conducts, controls, and coordinates air operations assigned by the PACAF Commander, Fifth Air Force maintains a level of readiness necessary for successful completion of directed military operations. To achieve this mission, Fifth Air Force maintains its deterrent force posture to protect both U. S. and Japanese interests, and conducts appropriate air operations should deterrence fail, Fifth Air Force is commanded by Lieutenant General Jerry P. Martinez. With its origins going back over a century to 1912, the command was established on 6 May 1941 as the Philippine Department Air Force at Nichols Field, Luzon. Fifth Air Force was a United States Army Air Forces combat air force in the Pacific Theater of World War II, engaging in combat operations primarily in the Southwest Pacific AOR. During World War II, Fifth Air Force units first engaged the Japanese during the Philippines Campaign, rearmed, it engaged the Japanese in New Guinea, the Dutch East Indies and then as part of the liberating forces in the Philippines Campaign. In the postwar era, Fifth Air Force was the primary USAF occupation force in Japan, the United States Army Philippine Department was established on 11 January 1911 in the Unincorporated Philippine Territory. Fifth Air Force traces its roots to the Philippines with the activation of the Air Office of the Philippine Department in March 1912, the First Company, 2d Aero Squadron, was activated at Fort William McKinley, Luzon, on 3 February 1916. This unit was a school, operating Martin S Hydro seaplanes. The unit operated under the Air Office until 15 October 1917, in 1917 outside Fort Stotsenburg, Luzon, construction began on a half-mile long dirt runway, hangars and other support facilities to bring the local army units into the air age. A permanent Army Air Service presence in the Philippines began in December 1919 with the activation of the 3d Aero Squadron at the facility, the unit was initially equipped with de Havilland DH-4 medium bombers. The next year it moved to the new Clark Field on 15 October 1920 where, combined with support units. Clark Field became the Army Air Corps headquarters overseas, and was the only American air base west of Hawaii, when workmen at Rockwell Field outside San Diego, California opened one of the crates, they found a motor with a remarkable history. Built in Detroit, it went to France, back to the United States, then to the Philippines, with that, the 1st Observation Group at Clark was re-designated as the 4th Observation, and later the 4th Composite Group. The 4th Composite would be the mainstay of United States air power in the Philippines until 1941, in addition to Clark Field, additional airfields at Kindley Field on Corregidor in Manila Bay, and one at Camp Nichols were constructed
15.
Asiatic-Pacific Theater
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The Asiatic-Pacific Theater, was the area of operations of U. S. forces during World War II in the Pacific War during 1941-45. From mid-1942 until the end of the war in 1945, there were two U. S. operational commands in the Pacific. The Pacific Ocean Areas, divided into the Central Pacific Area, the North Pacific Area, the South West Pacific Area, including New Guinea, Philippines, Borneo, and the Dutch East Indies, was commanded by General Douglas MacArthur, Supreme Allied Commander South West Pacific Area. During 1945, the United States added the U. S. Strategic Air Forces in the Pacific, commanded by General Carl Spaatz. Because of the roles of the United States Army and the United States Navy in conducting war in the Pacific Theater. There was no command, rather, the Asiatic-Pacific Theater was divided into the SWPA, the POA. The Official Chronology of the U. S. Navy in World War II, in the Service of the Emperor, Essays on the Imperial Japanese Army. Kafka, Roger, Pepperburg, Roy L. Warships of the World, the Campaigns of the Pacific War. A History of Us, War, Peace and all that Jazz, joint Operational Warfare, Theory and Practice. Newport, Rhode Island, United States Naval War College, the Battle for Leyte,1944, Allied and Japanese Plans, Preparations, and Execution
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World War II
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World War II, also known as the Second World War, was a global war that lasted from 1939 to 1945, although related conflicts began earlier. It involved the vast majority of the worlds countries—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing alliances, the Allies and the Axis. It was the most widespread war in history, and directly involved more than 100 million people from over 30 countries. Marked by mass deaths of civilians, including the Holocaust and the bombing of industrial and population centres. These made World War II the deadliest conflict in human history, from late 1939 to early 1941, in a series of campaigns and treaties, Germany conquered or controlled much of continental Europe, and formed the Axis alliance with Italy and Japan. Under the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact of August 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union partitioned and annexed territories of their European neighbours, Poland, Finland, Romania and the Baltic states. In December 1941, Japan attacked the United States and European colonies in the Pacific Ocean, and quickly conquered much of the Western Pacific. The Axis advance halted in 1942 when Japan lost the critical Battle of Midway, near Hawaii, in 1944, the Western Allies invaded German-occupied France, while the Soviet Union regained all of its territorial losses and invaded Germany and its allies. During 1944 and 1945 the Japanese suffered major reverses in mainland Asia in South Central China and Burma, while the Allies crippled the Japanese Navy, thus ended the war in Asia, cementing the total victory of the Allies. World War II altered the political alignment and social structure of the world, the United Nations was established to foster international co-operation and prevent future conflicts. The victorious great powers—the United States, the Soviet Union, China, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and the United States emerged as rival superpowers, setting the stage for the Cold War, which lasted for the next 46 years. Meanwhile, the influence of European great powers waned, while the decolonisation of Asia, most countries whose industries had been damaged moved towards economic recovery. Political integration, especially in Europe, emerged as an effort to end pre-war enmities, the start of the war in Europe is generally held to be 1 September 1939, beginning with the German invasion of Poland, Britain and France declared war on Germany two days later. The dates for the beginning of war in the Pacific include the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War on 7 July 1937, or even the Japanese invasion of Manchuria on 19 September 1931. Others follow the British historian A. J. P. Taylor, who held that the Sino-Japanese War and war in Europe and its colonies occurred simultaneously and this article uses the conventional dating. Other starting dates sometimes used for World War II include the Italian invasion of Abyssinia on 3 October 1935. The British historian Antony Beevor views the beginning of World War II as the Battles of Khalkhin Gol fought between Japan and the forces of Mongolia and the Soviet Union from May to September 1939, the exact date of the wars end is also not universally agreed upon. It was generally accepted at the time that the war ended with the armistice of 14 August 1945, rather than the formal surrender of Japan
17.
North American B-25 Mitchell
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The North American B-25 Mitchell is an American twin-engine, medium bomber manufactured by North American Aviation. It was named in honor of Major General William Billy Mitchell, used by many Allied air forces, the B-25 served in every theater of World War II and after the war ended many remained in service, operating across four decades. Produced in numerous variants, nearly 10,000 Mitchells rolled from NAA factories and these included a few limited models, such as the United States Marine Corps PBJ-1 patrol bomber and the United States Army Air Forces F-10 reconnaissance aircraft and AT-24 trainers. The Air Corps issued a circular in March 1938 describing the performance they required from the next bombers — a payload of 1,200 lb with a range of 1,200 mi at more than 200 mph and those performance specifications led NAA to submit their NA-40 design. However, the experience from the XB-21 contributed to the design. The single NA-40 built flew first at the end of January 1939 and it went through several modifications to correct problems. These improvements included fitting 1,600 hp Wright R-2600 Twin Cyclone radial engines, in March 1939, in March 1939, North American delivered the substantially redesigned and improved NA-40 to the United States Army Air Corps for evaluation. It was in competition with other manufacturers designs but failed to win orders, however, the French had already opted for a revised Douglas 7B. Unfortunately, the NA-40B was destroyed in a crash on 11 April 1939 while undergoing testing, although the crash was not considered due to a fault with the aircraft design, the Army ordered the DB-7 as the A-20. There was no YB-25 for prototype service tests, in September 1939, the Air Corps ordered the NA-62 into production as the B-25, along with the other new Air Corps medium bomber, the Martin B-26 Marauder off the drawing board. The NA-40 lost out to the Douglas A-20 in the competition, but NAA developed a more advanced design, the NA-40B. Early into B-25 production, NAA incorporated a significant redesign to the wing dihedral, the first nine aircraft had a constant-dihedral, meaning the wing had a consistent, upward angle from the fuselage to the wingtip. Flattening the outer wing panels by giving them a slight anhedral angle just outboard of the engine nacelles nullified the problem, less noticeable changes during this period included an increase in the size of the tail fins and a decrease in their inward tilt at their tops. NAA continued design and development in 1940 and 1941, both the B-25A and B-25B series entered AAF service. The B-25B was operational in 1942, combat requirements lead to further developments. Before the year was over, NAA was producing the B-25C, also in 1942, the manufacturer began design work on the cannon-armed B-25G series. The NA-100 of 1943 and 1944 was an interim armament development at the Kansas City complex known as the B-25D2, Similar armament upgrades by U. S-based commercial modification centers involved about half of the B-25G series. Further development led to the B-25H, B-25J, and B-25J2, the gunship design concept dates to late 1942 and NAA sent a field technical representative to the SWPA
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Cold War
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The Cold War was a state of geopolitical tension after World War II between powers in the Eastern Bloc and powers in the Western Bloc. Historians do not fully agree on the dates, but a common timeframe is the period between 1947, the year the Truman Doctrine was announced, and 1991, the year the Soviet Union collapsed. The term cold is used there was no large-scale fighting directly between the two sides, although there were major regional wars, known as proxy wars, supported by the two sides. The Cold War split the temporary alliance against Nazi Germany, leaving the Soviet Union. The USSR was a Marxist–Leninist state ruled by its Communist Party and secret police, the Party controlled the press, the military, the economy and all organizations. In opposition stood the West, dominantly democratic and capitalist with a free press, a small neutral bloc arose with the Non-Aligned Movement, it sought good relations with both sides. The two superpowers never engaged directly in full-scale armed combat, but they were armed in preparation for a possible all-out nuclear world war. The first phase of the Cold War began in the first two years after the end of the Second World War in 1945, the Berlin Blockade was the first major crisis of the Cold War. With the victory of the communist side in the Chinese Civil War and the outbreak of the Korean War, the USSR and USA competed for influence in Latin America, and the decolonizing states of Africa and Asia. Meanwhile, the Hungarian Revolution of 1956 was stopped by the Soviets, the expansion and escalation sparked more crises, such as the Suez Crisis, the Berlin Crisis of 1961, and the Cuban Missile Crisis of 1962. The USSR crushed the 1968 Prague Spring liberalization program in Czechoslovakia, détente collapsed at the end of the decade with the beginning of the Soviet–Afghan War in 1979. The early 1980s were another period of elevated tension, with the Soviet downing of Korean Air Lines Flight 007, the United States increased diplomatic, military, and economic pressures on the Soviet Union, at a time when the communist state was already suffering from economic stagnation. In the mid-1980s, the new Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev introduced the reforms of perestroika and glasnost. Pressures for national independence grew stronger in Eastern Europe, especially Poland, Gorbachev meanwhile refused to use Soviet troops to bolster the faltering Warsaw Pact regimes as had occurred in the past. The result in 1989 was a wave of revolutions that peacefully overthrew all of the communist regimes of Central, the Communist Party of the Soviet Union itself lost control and was banned following an abortive coup attempt in August 1991. This in turn led to the dissolution of the USSR in December 1991. The United States remained as the only superpower. The Cold War and its events have left a significant legacy and it is often referred to in popular culture, especially in media featuring themes of espionage and the threat of nuclear warfare
19.
Korean War
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The Korean War began when North Korea invaded South Korea. The United Nations, with the United States as the principal force, China came to the aid of North Korea, and the Soviet Union gave some assistance. Korea was ruled by Japan from 1910 until the days of World War II. In August 1945, the Soviet Union declared war on Japan, as a result of an agreement with the United States, U. S. forces subsequently moved into the south. By 1948, as a product of the Cold War between the Soviet Union and the United States, Korea was split into two regions, with separate governments, both governments claimed to be the legitimate government of all of Korea, and neither side accepted the border as permanent. The conflict escalated into open warfare when North Korean forces—supported by the Soviet Union, on that day, the United Nations Security Council recognized this North Korean act as invasion and called for an immediate ceasefire. On 27 June, the Security Council adopted S/RES/83, Complaint of aggression upon the Republic of Korea and decided the formation, twenty-one countries of the United Nations eventually contributed to the UN force, with the United States providing 88% of the UNs military personnel. After the first two months of war, South Korean forces were on the point of defeat, forced back to the Pusan Perimeter, in September 1950, an amphibious UN counter-offensive was launched at Inchon, and cut off many North Korean troops. Those who escaped envelopment and capture were rapidly forced back north all the way to the border with China at the Yalu River, at this point, in October 1950, Chinese forces crossed the Yalu and entered the war. Chinese intervention triggered a retreat of UN forces which continued until mid-1951, after these reversals of fortune, which saw Seoul change hands four times, the last two years of fighting became a war of attrition, with the front line close to the 38th parallel. The war in the air, however, was never a stalemate, North Korea was subject to a massive bombing campaign. Jet fighters confronted each other in combat for the first time in history. The fighting ended on 27 July 1953, when an armistice was signed, the agreement created the Korean Demilitarized Zone to separate North and South Korea, and allowed the return of prisoners. However, no treaty has been signed, and the two Koreas are technically still at war. Periodic clashes, many of which are deadly, continue to the present, in the U. S. the war was initially described by President Harry S. Truman as a police action as it was an undeclared military action, conducted under the auspices of the United Nations. In South Korea, the war is referred to as 625 or the 6–2–5 Upheaval. In North Korea, the war is referred to as the Fatherland Liberation War or alternatively the Chosǒn War. In China, the war is called the War to Resist U. S
20.
Vietnam War
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It was the second of the Indochina Wars and was officially fought between North Vietnam and the government of South Vietnam. The war is considered a Cold War-era proxy war. As the war continued, the actions of the Viet Cong decreased as the role. U. S. and South Vietnamese forces relied on air superiority and overwhelming firepower to conduct search and destroy operations, involving ground forces, artillery, in the course of the war, the U. S. conducted a large-scale strategic bombing campaign against North Vietnam. The North Vietnamese government and the Viet Cong were fighting to reunify Vietnam and they viewed the conflict as a colonial war and a continuation of the First Indochina War against forces from France and later on the United States. The U. S. government viewed its involvement in the war as a way to prevent a communist takeover of South Vietnam and this was part the domino theory of a wider containment policy, with the stated aim of stopping the spread of communism. Beginning in 1950, American military advisors arrived in what was then French Indochina, U. S. involvement escalated in the early 1960s, with troop levels tripling in 1961 and again in 1962. Regular U. S. combat units were deployed beginning in 1965, despite the Paris Peace Accord, which was signed by all parties in January 1973, the fighting continued. In the U. S. and the Western world, a large anti-Vietnam War movement developed as part of a larger counterculture, the war changed the dynamics between the Eastern and Western Blocs, and altered North–South relations. Direct U. S. military involvement ended on 15 August 1973, the capture of Saigon by the North Vietnamese Army in April 1975 marked the end of the war, and North and South Vietnam were reunified the following year. The war exacted a huge human cost in terms of fatalities, estimates of the number of Vietnamese soldiers and civilians killed vary from 966,000 to 3.8 million. Some 240, 000–300,000 Cambodians,20, 000–62,000 Laotians, and 58,220 U. S. service members died in the conflict. Various names have applied to the conflict. Vietnam War is the most commonly used name in English and it has also been called the Second Indochina War and the Vietnam Conflict. As there have been several conflicts in Indochina, this conflict is known by the names of its primary protagonists to distinguish it from others. In Vietnamese, the war is known as Kháng chiến chống Mỹ. It is also called Chiến tranh Việt Nam, France began its conquest of Indochina in the late 1850s, and completed pacification by 1893. The 1884 Treaty of Huế formed the basis for French colonial rule in Vietnam for the seven decades
21.
Martin B-57 Canberra
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The Martin B-57 Canberra is an American-built, twinjet tactical bomber and reconnaissance aircraft that entered service with the United States Air Force in 1953. The B-57 is a version of the British English Electric Canberra manufactured by the Glenn L. Martin Company. The B-57 Canberra holds the distinction of being the first jet bomber in U. S. service to drop bombs during combat. The B-57 Canberra was also sold to customers abroad, further combat use was seen by the Pakistani Air Force during the Second Kashmir War. At the outbreak of the Korean War in 1950, the USAF found itself in dire need of an all-weather interdiction aircraft, in response to these needs, the USAF requested the British government to provide a private demonstration of the English Electric Canberra, a newly developed jet-powered bomber. On 16 September 1950, the USAF formally issued a request for a bomber, the sought aircraft had to possess a top speed of 630 mph, ceiling of 40,000 feet. Full all-weather capability and a reconnaissance role also had to be included in the design. The American contenders included the Martin XB-51, the North American B-45 Tornado, to expedite the process, only projects based on existing aircraft were considered and, unusually, the service considered foreign aircraft. These included the Canadian Avro Canada CF-100 and the British English Electric Canberra, as part of the USAF evaluations process, all five aircraft were submitted to a series of fly-offs to determine their performance. On 21 February 1951, a British Canberra B, according to Gunston and Gilchrist, the Canberra proved to be significantly superior to any of the competing aircraft, and that its selection was beyond doubt by the end of the competition. Martin Company, under which it was proposed that Martin would receive a license to build the Canberra in the United States. According to Gunston and Gilchrist, the Americanization of the Canberra program proved effective at dismissing many of the opponents that had opposed the project. On 23 March 1951, the USAF issued a contract to Martin, requesting the manufacturing of a quantity of 250 Canberras. On 3 April 1951, English Electric and Martin both signed a licensing agreement to cover the Canberras production. The crash did lead to design changes in the face of political pressure. As such, more than 30 changes that had been requested by the Wright Air Development Center were rejected on program schedule or cost grounds, in early July 1953, the first US-built production aircraft rolled out, it conducted its maiden flight on 20 July 1953. One month later, this initial production aircraft was accepted by the USAF, in place of the curtailed B-57A, a more refined bomber variant, the B-57B, was developed. The B-57B introduced several major changes.50 cal Browning machine guns installed within the wings
22.
Air Service, United States Army
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The Air Service, United States Army was the military aviation service of the United States between 1918 and 1926 and a forerunner of the United States Air Force. It was established as an independent but temporary branch of the U. S and its life was extended for another year in July 1919, during which time Congress passed the legislation necessary to make it a permanent establishment. The National Defense Act of 1920 assigned the Air Service the status of combatant arm of the line of the United States Army with a general in command. By the end of the war, the Air Service used 45 squadrons to cover 137 kilometers of front from Pont-à-Mousson to Sedan,71 pursuit pilots were credited with shooting down five or more German aircraft while in American service. Overall the Air Service destroyed 756 enemy aircraft and 76 balloons in combat,17 balloon companies also operated at the front, making 1,642 combat ascensions. 289 airplanes and 48 balloons were lost in battle, the Air Service was the first form of the air force to have an independent organizational structure and identity. Although officers concurrently held rank in various branches, after May 1918 their branch designation in official correspondence while on aviation assignment changed from ASSC to AS, after July 1,1920, its personnel became members of the Air Service branch, receiving new commissions. Airmen such as Brig. Gen. Billy Mitchell supported the concept, the Armys senior leadership from World War I, the United States Navy, and the majority of the nations political leadership favored integration of all military aviation into the Army and Navy. Aided by a wave of pacifism following the war that drastically cut military budgets, opponents of an independent air force prevailed, the Air Service was renamed the Army Air Corps in 1926 as a compromise in the continuing struggle. The declaration of war against Germany on April 6,1917, putting the United States in World War I, came too quickly to solve emerging engineering and production problems. The reorganization of the Aviation Section had been inadequate in resolving problems in training, leaving the United States totally unprepared to fight an air war in Europe, the Aviation Section consisted of 131 officers,1087 enlisted men, and approximately 280 airplanes. The Board dispatched Major Raynal C, by the time the bill passed, the term Air Service was in widespread if unofficial usage to collectively describe all aspects of Army aviation. Even so, the Aircraft Board in practice had little control over procurement contracts, nor did the Equipment Division of the Signal Corps exercise such control. Though individual areas within the industry responded well, the industry as a whole failed. Efforts to mass produce European aircraft under license largely failed because the aircraft, at the same time the Aeronautical Division of the OCSO was renamed the Air Division with continued responsibility for training and operations but with no influence on acquisition or doctrine. In the end the process in aircraft procurement was badly fragmented. Borglum had exchanged letters with President Wilson, a friend, from which he assumed an appointment to investigate had been authorized. Both the U. S. Senate and the Department of Justice began investigations into possible fraudulent dealings, Kenly brought back from France to be its head, to separate supervision of aviation from the duties of the Chief Signal Officer
23.
SPAD S.XIII
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The SPAD S. XIII was a French biplane fighter aircraft of World War I, developed by Société Pour LAviation et ses Dérivés from the earlier highly successful SPAD S. VII. It was one of the most capable fighters of the war, the SPAD S. VII was a single-seat fighter aircraft powered by a 150 horsepower Hispano-Suiza 8A water cooled V-8 engine and armed with a single synchronised Vickers machine gun. It demonstrated excellent performance for the time, and entered service with the French Aéronautique Militaire in August 1916, First to fly was the S. XII, armed with a 37 mm cannon firing through the propeller shaft. This saw limited use, but was followed into production by the conventionally armed S. XIII. The S. XIII was of similar layout to the S. VII, i. e. a single engined biplane of wooden construction with fabric covering. It was armed with two Vickers machine guns with 400 rounds per gun, replacing the gun of the earlier aircraft. The powerplant was a geared Hispano-Suiza engine, at first a 8Ba providing 200 hp, the sum of these improvements was a notable improvement in flight and combat performance. While giving the Spad XIII outstanding performance, the engines proved to be unreliable. This significantly and severely affected serviceability, with it being stated in November 1917, even in April 1918, an official report stated that two-thirds of the 200 hp SPADs were out of use at any one time due to engine problems. By the end of the war about one half of the aircraft in US service had been converted, the SPAD S. XIII first flew on 4 April 1917, with deliveries to the French Air Service starting in the next month. The new fighter played an important part in the French plans for its force, being expected to replace the SPAD S. VII. Deliveries were much slower than expected, however, with 764 delivered by the end of March 1918 compared with a planned 2,230, the S. XIII eventually equipped virtually every French fighter squadron,74 Escadrilles using the SPAD during the First World War. Other Allied forces were quick to adopt the new fighter as well, nearly half of the 893 purchased for the United States Army Air Service were still in service in 1920. After the war, it was exported to Japan, Poland. In the United States, some SPAD XIIIs were re-engined with 180 hp Wright-Hispano engines to improve reliability, the S. XIII was flown by famous French fighter pilots such as Georges Guynemer and Rene Fonck, and also by Italian ace Francesco Baracca. Aces of the United States Army Air Service who flew the Spad XIII include Eddie Rickenbacker, argentina Argentine Air Force - Two aircraft. Belgium Groupe de Chasse 10me Escadrille de Chasse Brazil Brazilian Air Force Czechoslovakia Czech Air Force - Postwar, finland Finnish Air Force - One aircraft. Siam Royal Siamese Air Force Kingdom of Spain Spanish Air Force Turkey Turkish Air Force United Kingdom Royal Flying CorpsNo,19 Squadron RFC - One aircraft No.23 Squadron RFC - December 1917—May 1918
24.
104th Aero Squadron
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The 104th Aero Squadron was a Air Service, United States Army unit that fought on the Western Front during World War I. The current United States Air Force unit which continues its lineage and history is the 13th Bomb Squadron, assigned to the 509th Operations Group at Whiteman Air Force Base, the 104th Aero Squadron was organized on 25 August 1917. The unit was formed from all the recruits at Kelly Field, Texas. No attention was paid to the capabilities of its members at the time, the unit was instructed in close order drill and ordinary post duties. The urgency of the need for men in France led to the squadron receiving orders to report to the Aviation Concentration Center at Garden City, New York, on 28 November the squadron sailed aboard the SS Baltic and arrived at Liverpool, England, on 7 December. The next day, the squadron proceeded to Winchester where they were quartered at the Windall Rest Camp, the Air Service attached the 104th to the British Royal Flying Corps for training. At Winchester, the squadron was split into four flights, with each going to a separate English flying school for training. The headquarters flight was established at Winchester, before moving to the Central Flying School at RFC Upavon, other flights went to the Mechanics School at RFC Salisbury, RFC Andover and the motor transport school at RFC Yatesbury. On the same day the squadron boarded a train and arrived at the American Expeditionary Force St. Maixent Replacement Barracks on 22 July. After being processed and properly equipped, the squadron first moved to Amanty Airdrome on 1 August where the 104th was classified as a Corps Observation squadron. It then was moved to Epiez Aerodrome on 4 August, where the received its first aircraft. On 8 August the 104th was transferred to the Zone of Advance, by 8 September the squadron was ready for action, and it moved to Souilly Aerodrome where it participated in the St. Mihiel offensive, serving primarily as the eyes of the artillery. Pilots flew reconnaissance, directed Allied artillery fire and pinpointed troop movements, the demand for artillery fire adjustments through aerial observation was constant in spite of difficulties encountered with air-to-ground communication. It was largely due to the photographs made by aerial reconnaissance that the Allied infantry knew where it was advancing, as the war progressed the demand for observation and reconnaissance by the 104th increased. During the Meuse-Argonne offensive, the 104th operated from Foucaucourt Aerodrome, the squadron continued its previous operations and also engaged the enemy in aerial combat and attacked enemy machine-gun nests. It also dropped thousands of leaflets over German lines and thousands of newspapers to American soldiers. In the final days of the war the 104th operated from Parois Airdrome, the war ended on 11 November 1918, and by the end of that month the 104th was at Belrain Aerodrome where it remained until it could return home. Finally, on 14 January 1919, orders were received to proceed to the 1st Air Depot at Colombey-les-Belles Airdrome, the squadrons Salmson aircraft were delivered to the Air Service American Air Service Acceptance Park No.1 at Orly Aerodrome to be returned to the French
25.
Salmson 2A2
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The Salmson 2, was a French biplane reconnaissance aircraft made by Salmson. It was developed to a 1916 requirement, along with the Breguet 14, it was the main reconnaissance aircraft in use with the French army and the American Expeditionary Forces aviation units in 1918. At the end of the First World War, one-third of French reconnaissance aircraft were Salmson 2s, the companys first entry into aircraft design came with the Salmson-Moineau S. M. 1, an unusual three-seat reconnaissance biplane with twin airscrews gear-driven from a single Salmson engine in the nose of the fuselage and these aircraft, of which 155 were built, were not especially successful. The Salmson 2 developed from a requirement to replace the Sopwith 1½ Strutter, Salmson had built the 1½ Strutter under license, and the Salmson 2, while an original design, owed more to the Sopwith than to the earlier Salmson-Moineau. The aircraft was of construction with a two-bay biplane configuration. Production was ordered after trials on 29 April 1917, and deliveries were underway by October of that year, around 3,200 Salmson 2s were built in France,2,200 by Salmson and the remainder by the Latécoère, Hanriot, and Desfontaines, companies. Some of these were Salmson 2 D.2 dual control advanced training aircraft, developments of the Salmson 2 included, Salmson 4 an enlarged version fitted with light armour, designed to meet the Ab 2 ground attack role. Limited production in 1918, but cancelled at the end of the war, Salmson 5 modified Salmson 2 for A2 role, no production. Salmson 7 modified Salmson 2 for A2 role, the main change was that the pilot and gunner were seated back-to-back in a single cockpit. Production was planned on a large scale, but the end of the war resulted in cancellation of the contract. Salmson Limousine Also known as Salmson 2 Berline, after the First World War, a number of ex-military Salmson 2s were converted into civilian passenger aircraft. Kawasaki Army Otsu-1 Reconnaissance Aircraft Japanese licence-built Salmson 2A.2 reconnaissance aircraft, in addition to its service with the French army, the Salmson 2 served during the First World War with United States air units. Some 700 were purchased, and were generally successful, post-war, Salmson 2s were purchased by Czechoslovakia, and remained in service until 1924. Others were transferred to Poland, but were withdrawn by 1920, Japan undertook license production as the Army Type Otsu 1, also known as the Kawasaki-Salmson. France French Air Force United States American Expeditionary Force Belgium Belgian Air Force - One aircraft only, Czechoslovakia Czechoslovak Air Force Japan Imperial Japanese Army Peru Peruvian Air Force - One aircraft only. Poland Polish Air Force Spain Spanish Air Force - One aircraft only, stratford, Connecticut, Flying Machines Press,1997. Jon S. Guttman, James J. Davilla, Salmson aircraft of World War I
26.
Roosevelt Field (airport)
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Roosevelt Field is a former airport, located 2.3 miles east-southeast of Mineola, Long Island, New York. Originally called the Hempstead Plains Aerodrome, or sometimes Hempstead Plains field or the Garden City Aerodrome, it was a field for the Air Service. In 1919, it was renamed in honor of President Theodore Roosevelts son, Quentin, Roosevelt Field was the takeoff point for many historic flights in the early history of aviation, including Charles Lindberghs 1927 solo transatlantic flight. It was also used by other pioneering aviators, including Amelia Earhart, the Hempstead Plains Aerodrome originally encompassed 900 to 1,000 acres east of and abutting Clinton Road, south of and adjacent to Old Country Road, and west of Merrick Avenue. A bluff 15 feet in elevation divided the plain into two large fields and he reported for aeronautical duty at the Signal Corps Aviation School, Augusta, Georgia, on 2 March 1912. On September 24,1918, the Army dedicated the portion of Hazelhurst Field No.1 as Roosevelt Field. Once in civilian hands, the owners sold portions along the edge of the field. Curtiss Field, a 300-acre airport on the site of Hazelhurst Field. Roosevelt Field occupied the remainder, consisting of seven hangars and a parking ramp adjacent to Curtiss Field. Unable to gain speed, the plane cartwheeled off the end of the bluff and burst into flames. The following May, operating from a hangar at Curtiss Field, both fields were bought in 1929 by Roosevelt Field, Inc. The western field, called Unit 2, and the runway atop the bluff, called Unit 1, were connected by a broad earthen taxi ramp and the consolidated property was named Roosevelt Field. Unit 1 was sold in 1936 and became the Roosevelt Raceway, at its peak in the 1930s, it was Americas busiest civilian airfield. Roosevelt Field was used by the Navy and Army during World War II, after the war, Roosevelt Field reverted to operation as a commercial airport until it was acquired by real estate developers in 1950. The field closed on May 31,1951, currently its site is occupied by Roosevelt Field Mall and Garden City Plaza. afhra. af. mil/. UNH,1918 USGS map of Hazelhurst/Roosevelt Field and environs Abandoned & Little-Known Airfields, New York, Central Long Island
27.
Mitchel Air Force Base
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Mitchel Air Force Base also known as Mitchel Field, was a United States Air Force base located on the Hempstead Plains of Long Island, New York, United States. During the American Revolutionary War it was known as the Hempstead Plains, in the War of 1812 and in the Mexican War, it was a training center for Infantry units. During the American Civil War, it was the location of Camp Winfield Scott, in 1898, in the Spanish–American War, Mitchels site was known as Camp Black. Curtiss JN-4 Jennies became a common sight over Long Island in 1917 and 1918, hundreds of aviators were trained for war at these training fields, two of the largest in the United States. Numerous new wooden buildings and tents were erected on Roosevelt Field and Field #2 in 1918 in order to meet this rapid expansion, Mitchel Field continued to grow after World War I and between 1929 and 1932. Much of this still exists today, being used for non-military purposes. In the 1920s and 1930s, various observation, fighter, and it became a major aerodrome for both the Air Corps as well as various civilian activity. The 1920s was considered the age of air racing and on 27 November 1920. The race consisted of four laps of a 29 miles course, thirty-eight pilots entered and took off individually. The winner was Capt. Corliss Moseley, flying a Verville-Packard VCP-R racer, in October 1923, Mitchel Field was the scene of the first airplane jumping contest in the nation. During the same year, two worlds airplane speed records were established there, in 1924, the airmail service had its inception in experimental flights begun at the airfield. In September 1929, Lt. Gen. James H. Doolittle, then a Lieutenant, in 1938, Mitchel was the starting point for the first nonstop transcontinental bomber flight, made by Army B-18 Bolos. Mitchel Field also served as a base from which the first demonstration of long-range aerial reconnaissance was made, in May 1939, three B-17s, with Lt. Curtis LeMay navigating, flew 620 miles out to sea and intercepted the Italian ocean liner SS Rex. This was a example of the range, mobility. On September 21 of that year the base was struck by the Long Island Express hurricane, flooding produced water that was over knee-deep, numerous trees were toppled and the glass was smashed atop the traffic control tower. During 1943, Mitchel AAF became an area for Consolidated B-24 Liberator bombers. Mitchel Field was a source of supply in initial garrisoning and defense of North Atlantic air bases in Newfoundland, Greenland. From the airfield the planning for the air defense of Nova Scotia, Antisubmarine patrol missions along the Atlantic coast were carried out in 1942 by the United States Army Air Forces Antisubmarine Command aircraft based at Mitchel
28.
Fort Bliss
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Fort Bliss is a United States Army post in the U. S. states of New Mexico and Texas, with its headquarters located in El Paso, Texas. It is FORSCOMs largest installation, and has the Armys largest Maneuver Area ahead of the National Training Center, part of the post in El Paso County, Texas, is a census-designated place, it had a population of 8,591 at the 2010 census. Fort Bliss provides the largest contiguous tract of restricted airspace in the Continental United States, the airspace is used for missile and artillery training and testing. Fort Bliss is home to the 1st Armored Division, which returned to US soil in 2011, the division is supported by the 15th Sustainment Brigade. The installation is also home to the 32nd Army Air & Missile Defense Command, the 11th Air Defense Artillery Brigade, the 212th Fires Brigade, the headquarters for the El Paso Intelligence Center, a federal tactical operational intelligence center, is hosted at Fort Bliss. Its DoD counterpart, Joint Task Force North, is at Biggs Army Airfield, Biggs Field, a military airport located at Fort Bliss, is designated a military power projection platform. Fort Bliss National Cemetery is located on the post, in 1846, Colonel Alexander Doniphan led 1st Regiment of Missouri mounted volunteers through El Paso del Norte, with victories at the Battle of El Brazito and the Battle of the Sacramento. Then on 7 November 1848, War Department General Order no.58 ordered the establishment of a post across from El Paso del Norte. Van Horne also had command of the Post at San Elizario. With constant Indian raids, garrisons had to be moved frequently to meet the shifting threats, in September 1851, the Post Opposite El Paso and the Post at San Elizario were closed, the soldiers moved 40 miles north to Fort Fillmore. On 11 January 1854, Companies B, E, I and K of the 8th Infantry, Alexander, established Post of El Paso at Magoffinsville under orders from Secretary of War Jefferson Davis. The post became Fort Bliss on 8 March 1854, there it remained for the next 14 years, serving as a base for troops guarding the area against Apache attacks. Until 1861 most of troops were units of the 8th Infantry Brigade. Initially the Confederate Army had success in their attempts to control of New Mexico. The Confederate garrison abandoned Fort Bliss without a fight the next year when a Federal column of 2,350 men under the command of Colonel James H. Carleton advanced from California. After May 1867 Rio Grande flooding seriously damaged the Magoffinsville post, Camp Concordias location was immediately south of what is now Interstate 10, across from Concordia Cemetery in El Paso. The Rio Grande was about a mile south of the camp at that time, on 11 March 1869 the old name of Fort Bliss was resumed. The Concordia post was abandoned in January 1877, and after troops left in January, by that time, the town and its environs on the north side of the river had swelled to a population of almost 800
29.
Army Surveillance Group
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The 3d Operations Group is the operational flying component of the United States Air Force 3d Wing. It is stationed at Elmendorf Air Force Base, Alaska, and is assigned to Pacific Air Forces Eleventh Air Force, the group is a composite organization that provides air superiority and defense for Alaska flying F-22A Raptor stealth aircraft. In addition, the group supports Pacific Air Forces in the Pacific Command area of responsibility flying C-17 Globemaster III transports and E-3B sentry airborne early warning and control aircraft. The group is a successor organization of the 3d Attack Group. It is the oldest active group in the USAF, and the first created after the establishment of the U. S. Air Service, based in Texas after World War I, the group patrolled the Mexican Border from Brownsville, Texas, to Nogales, Arizona. The group pioneered dive bombing, skip-bombing, and parafrag attacks in the 1920s—the earliest forms of precision guided attack from aircraft—and put this work to use in World War II. The World War II 3d Bombardment Group moved to Australia early in 1942, on 2 November 1943, the group encountered heavy opposition from Japanese forces at Simpson Harbor, New Britain. In that attack Major Raymond H, the 3d again served in combat during the Korean War, using B-26 Invader light bombers. Captain John S. Walmsley, Jr. was posthumously awarded the Medal of Honor for his actions a night mission, notable alumni include General Hoyt S. Vandenberg, General Jimmy Doolittle, General Lewis Brereton, General Richard Ellis, General John Henebry, Major Paul I. Pappy Gunn, and General Nathan Twining, in August 1919 the Air Service organized its first seven groups and it became the 1st Surveillance Group. In a functional redesignation of Air Service groups, the unit was redesignated as the 3d Attack Group in 1921, on 1 March 1935, the Army Air Corps formed the first centralized control of its combat striking units within the United States under the General Headquarter Air Force. The 3d Attack Group moved to Barksdale Field, Louisiana, as part of the 3d Wing commanded by Col. Gerald Brant, Aircraft assigned to the 3d Attack Group were the Curtiss A-12 Shrike in 1935 and the Northrup A-17/A-17A Nomad in 1937. The commander of the 3d Attack Group, Lt. Col. Horace Meek Hickam, was killed on 5 November 1934, Hickam Field was named in his honor. Some A-12s were still at Hickam Field on 7 December 1941, the A-12 was withdrawn from service soon after. The A-17s were was fairly fast and had a fairly heavy forward-firing armament for its time, however the career of the A-17 with the Army was quite brief. After only three years of service with the Army, the A-17As were declared surplus, in 1940, the unit was redesignated as the 3d Bombardment Group, being reequipped with the Douglas B-18 Bolo and B-12 bombers and moved to Army Air Base, Savannah, Georgia. Media related to 3d Bombardment Group at Wikimedia Commons The 3d Group served in combat in the Pacific Theater of Operations from 1 April 1942 until V-J Day. It was transferred to Australia early in 1942 as part of the United States Army Forces in Australia under Gen. George H. Brett and later the Fifth Air Force under Gen. George C
30.
8th Aero Squadron
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The 8th Aero Squadron was a Air Service, United States Army unit that fought on the Western Front during World War I. IV Corps was transferred to the United States Second Army in October 1918 for an offensive drive on Metz which was cancelled due to the 1918 Armistice with Germany on 11 November. The squadron returned to the United States in June 1919 and became part of the permanent United States Army Air Service in 1921, being re-designated as the 8th Squadron. The current United States Air Force unit which holds its lineage and history is the 8th Special Operations Squadron, assigned to the 1st Special Operations Wing, Hurlburt Field, Florida. The 8th Aero Squadron was drawn from enlisted personnel of the 2d Company I Provisional aviation camp, Kelly Field, after a short period of training at Kelly Field, the squadron boarded a train and was moved to Selfridge Field, Michigan, on 5 July 1917. Together with the 9th Aero Squadron, the 8th helped to construct the new flying field, for three and one-half months, the 8th Aero Squadron was engaged in training. Flight Cadets, Aviation Mechanics, fitters and riggers learned their basic skills, at Selfridge, the flight cadets completed primary aviation flight training, including soloing on Curtiss JN-4 Jenny trainers. The squadron arrived late the day, and spent the next month being trained in the fundamentals of soldiering. On 22 November, the squadron was ordered on board the RMS Carpathia, from Liverpool, the squadron was moved by train to the American Rest Camp Winnaldon, near Winchester. There, the squadron was divided into four Flights, which were sent to several Royal Flying Corps Airdromes for additional training, the squadron was re-assembled at RFC Thetford on 1 May 1918 for final training. On 16 July, the 8th was ordered to France, the squadron crossed the English Channel on the night of the 17th, arriving at Le Havre and proceeded to the Air Service Replacement Concentration Center at St. Maixent Replacement Barracks. After a short stay, it was classified as a Corps Observation squadron and ordered to the 1st Observation Group School at Amanty Airdrome, arriving on 31 July. At Amanty, the squadron was equipped with American made Dayton-Wright DH-4 aircraft, in addition, due to the short distance from the front, two weeks of intensive training was given to the pilots and observers, flying over enemy territory. On 31 August the squadron was moved by train to Ourches Aerodrome from which it would fly combat missions, there the squadron became part of the IV Corps Observation Group and was attached as a Divisional Observation Squadron to the First Division. The squadron was engaged at once into combat duty, flying photographic, on 29 September, the entire IV Corps Group moved up to Gengault Aerodrome, which is situated about two kilometers northeast of Toul, Mourth, Et Moselle, France. The Squadron remained here less than a month. During this time work was accomplished. At the suggestion of Col. Kahn, two planes were sent out on single missions with protection, instead of one aircraft
31.
12th Aero Squadron
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The 12th Aero Squadron was a Air Service, United States Army unit that fought on the Western Front during World War I. After the 1918 Armistice with Germany, the squadron was assigned to the United States Third Army as part of the Occupation of the Rhineland in Germany. It returned to the United States in June 1919 and became part of the permanent United States Army Air Service in 1921, being redesignated as the 12th Squadron. The current United States Air Force unit which holds its lineage and history is the 12th Reconnaissance Squadron, assigned to the 69th Reconnaissance Group, Grand Forks Air Force Base and those men formed H Company and were selected for their mechanical ability and experience. On 2 June, the unit was given its official designation, after several weeks of classes on aircraft engines and parts, the squadron went to Wilbur Wright Field at Fairfield, Ohio. The squadron’s first flight is supposed to have made by a Captain Christy on 17 July 1917 in a Curtiss JN-4 Jenny. At the end of October, preparations for overseas movement were made, the squadron left Wright Field on 31 October, for the Aviation Concentration Center, Camp Mills, Garden City, New York, arriving at Field #1 on 2 November. At Garden City, the squadron remained for about a month awaiting transportation, on 5 December it boarded the SS Northland sailing from Philadelphia. After a week waiting at Halifax Nova Scotia, the crossing was made without incident. The squadron then took a train to Southampton, and made the crossing to Le Havre, France. After a few days, it was moved by a French train south to the large American base at St. Maixent Aerodrome on 1 January 1918. After two weeks at St. Maixent, where the squadron largely performed guard duty and drills, orders were received to move to Chaumont Aerodrome, where its mechanics took charge of maintenance on French Nieuports and SPAD aircraft. On 2 February, the 12th finally began its training, being moved to Amanty Airdrome in Lorraine where it joined the 1st, 91st. At Amanty, the squadron was equipped with Avion de Reconnaissance 1 trainers, classes were held in radio and machine-gun work and ground training was conducted by French officers. In addition the squadron helped in construction projects. The AR-1s were inferior, obsolete machines, called Antique Rattletraps by the pilots, at Ourches, the 12th joined the 1st Aero Squadron and began active operations over the front. It was equipped with SPAD S. XIA. 2s aircraft, in combat, the mission of the 12th Aero Squadron was general surveillance of the enemy rear areas by means of both visual and photographic reconnaissance. Due to the nature of the missions and the depths of enemy area which was penetrated, with few exceptions, the 12th’s pilots had never flown combat, but most of the observers had spent a number of weeks flying with French squadrons on active missions
32.
90th Aero Squadron
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The 90th Aero Squadron was a Air Service, United States Army unit that fought on the Western Front during World War I. The current United States Air Force unit which holds its lineage and history is the 90th Fighter Squadron, assigned to the 3d Operations Group, Joint Base Elmendorf-Richardson, Alaska. The 90th Fighter Squadron origins begin with Special Order 104, Headquarters Kelly Field, San Antonio, Texas, on 25 September 1917. The men in it were largely from two detachments, one from Vancouver Barracks, Washington, which arrived at Kelly Field on 18 August, another from Fort Leavenworth, Kansas, which arrived on 25 August. Both of these detachments had been held from the date of their arrival until 25 September under Recruit Camp Headquarters as a Provisional Squadron, the first few months of its existence were consumed by the necessary training to prepare the men for operations in France during World War I. On 30 September, the Squadron left Kelly Field for the Aviation Concentration Center, Camp Mills, Garden City, New York, Long Island, where it arrived five days later. Here they stayed for several weeks performing guard duty and fatigue work, on 26 October, orders were received to pack up equipment and to prepare for immediate overseas departure. The following day the Squadron was moved to Pier 54, New York Harbor, the crossing of the Atlantic was uneventful, and on 10 November the Orduna moved into the dock at Liverpool, England. No stop was made in Liverpool, a train was waiting and the Squadron was carried on to Southampton, and then given a march of an hour and a half to a Rest Camp. On 12 November the Squadron crossed the English Channel on the transport Prince George, arriving in Le Havre early on the 13th, on 18 November the 90th entrainined for Colombey-les-Belles Airdrome, northeast of Neufchateau and south of Toul. After a long and tiresome trip, the destination was reached during the night of 20 November, at Colombey, it was announced that It was now announced that the 90th was to do road and barracks construction work for the time being. Naturally this came as a disappointment to all. However, the experience gained in construction work would be valuable, and it was with these feelings that officers and men set to work on the first job assigned, the construction of roads through what was to become the great American Aviation Field at Colombey. This lasted the rest of the year, for the first three months of 1918 the Squadron, together with the 88th and 89th Aero Squadrons, was to start the construction of the barracks and hangars of the Colombey Field. This was a piece of work of which the squadrons took part might well be proud. The period of apprenticeship was now passed and the 90th was designated as a Service Squadron, on 15 April 1918, fifteen British Sopwith 1½ Strutter observation planes arrived from Orly Field, Paris and six pilots were assigned to the Squadron. No flying was done for the first few days after the arrival of the Sopwiths, on 19 April the Squadron moved to Amanty Airdrome, north of Neufchateau, and was designated as a Corps Observation squadron. Amanty was where the 1st Observation Group Training Center was located, here it was engaged in training flights
33.
Airco DH.4
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The Airco DH.4 was a British two-seat biplane day bomber of World War I. It was designed by Geoffrey de Havilland for Airco, and was the first British two-seat light day-bomber to have a defensive armament. It first flew in August 1916 and entered service with the Royal Flying Corps in March 1917, the majority of DH. 4s were actually built as general purpose two-seaters in the United States, for service with the American forces in France. The DH.4 was tried with several engines, of which the best was the 375 hp Rolls-Royce Eagle engine. Armament and ordnance for the aircraft consisted of one 0.303 in Vickers machine gun for the pilot, two 230 lb bombs or four 112 lb bombs could be carried. The DH.4 entered service on 6 March 1917 with No.55 Squadron in France, the DH.4 was designed by Geoffrey de Havilland as a light two-seat day bomber powered by the new Beardmore Halford Pullinger engine. The prototype first flew in August 1916, powered by a prototype BHP engine rated at 230 hp, while the DH.4 trials were promising, the BHP engine required major redesign before entering production, and the Rolls-Royce Eagle engine was selected as the DH. 4s powerplant. The first order for 50 DH. 4s, powered by 250 hp Eagle III engines was placed at the end of 1916, the aircraft was a conventional tractor two bay biplane of all-wooden construction. The crew of two were accommodated in widely spaced cockpits, separated by the fuel tank and it was armed with a single forward-firing synchronised Vickers machine gun and one or two.303 in Lewis guns fitted on a Scarff ring fired by the observer. A bomb load of 460 lb could be fitted to external racks, as production continued, DH. 4s were fitted with Eagle engines of increasing power, settling on the 375 hp Eagle VIII, which powered the majority of frontline DH. 4s by the end of 1917. None of these engines could match the Rolls-Royce Eagle, however, in American production, the new Liberty engine proved suitable as a DH.4 powerplant. The Liberty was also to power the British DH. 9A. Production was by Airco, F. W. Berwick and Co, Glendower Aircraft Company, Palladium Autocars, Vulcan Motor and Engineering, a total of 1,449 aircraft were made in the UK for the RFC and RNAS. SABCA of Belgium made a further 15 in 1926, a total of 9,500 DH-4s were ordered from American manufacturers, of which 1,885 actually reached France during the war. After the war, a number of firms, most significantly Boeing, were contracted by the U. S. Army to remanufacture surplus DH-4s to DH-4B standard. Known by Boeing as the Model 16, deliveries of 111 aircraft from this manufacturer took place between March and July 1920, with 50 of them returned for further three years later. In 1923, the Army ordered a new DH-4 variant from Boeing and these three prototypes were designated DH-4M-1 and were ordered into production alongside the generally similar DH-4M-2 developed by Atlantic Aircraft. A total of 22 of the 163 DH-4M-1s were converted by the Army into dual-control trainers, the DH.4 entered service with the RFC in January 1917, first being used by No.55 Squadron
34.
United States Army Border Air Patrol
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With the end of World War I in 1918, the Air Service, United States Army was largely demobilized. In 1916 the squadron took part in General Pershing’s Punitive Expedition into Mexico in pursuit of Mexican revolutionist Pancho Villa, difficulties along the border continued during World War I while the United States was at war in Europe. Mexican bandits often raided American ranches to secure supplies, cattle, and horses, U. S. troops stationed along the border shot raiders as they pursued them into Mexico. The biggest clash came in August 1918, when more than 800 American troops fought some 600 Mexicans near Nogales, border patrol was one of the many activities being considered for the postwar United States Army Air Service. Cabell, Commanding General of the Army Southern Department, received orders to seal off the border if Villa took Juarez. If the Villistas tired across the border, Cabell was to cross into Mexico, disperse Villa’s troops, the general ordered Air Service men and planes from Kelly Field and Ellington Field, Texas, to Fort Bliss, near El Paso, for border patrol. American troops under Brig. Gen. James B, erwin, Commander of the El Paso District of the Southern Department, were on alert when about 1,600 of Villa’s men attacked Juarez during the night of 14/15 June 1919. Stray fire from across the river killed an American soldier and a civilian, around 3,600 U. S. troops crossed into Mexico, quickly dispersed the Villistas, and returned to the American side. As a result of this incident, Air Service personnel equipped with war surplus Dayton-Wright DH-4 aircraft were ordered to Fort Bliss, Texas, on 15 June. Major Edgar G. Tobin, an ace who had flown with the 103d Aero Squadron in France, the original plan called for two Observation Squadrons of the Western Department to patrol eastward from Rockwell Field, California, to the California-Arizona line. Three Surveillance Squadrons and four Bombardment Squadrons of the Southern Department were to be distributed along the border from Arizona to the Gulf of Mexico, on 1 July 1919, three surveillance squadrons were organized into the Army Surveillance Group headquartered at Kelly Field. In September the four bombardment squadrons formed the 1st Day Bombardment Group, in addition the 1st Pursuit Group and its squadrons were moved from Selfridge Field, Michigan, to Kelly at the end of August to be available if needed. The three groups comprised the 1st Wing at Kelly, commanded by Lt. Col. Henry B. Clagett, the 1st Wing became responsible for patrol of the border in the Southern Department. Also in August, work started on a steel hangar for an airship station at Camp Owen Bierne. The Air Service soon scaled down the plan for border patrol, although minor incidents continued to occur, Pancho Villa never succeeded in rebuilding his forces. The major threat had been dispelled by the time aerial patrol began, the group’s squadrons operated in two flights, each patrolling a sector on either side of its operating base. The border patrol mission started with DH-4s and Curtiss JN-4 Jennies, most of the first planes were not properly equipped for field service
35.
Marfa Airport (original)
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Marfa Airport is a former airport, located 2 miles Northeast of Marfa, Texas. The airport was established by the Air Service, United States Army in 1919 as part of a series of military airfields along the Texas/Mexico border, assigned to the Army Surveillance Group Marfa Airfield was used to carry out observation overflights along the Mexican Border. During this period, Mexico was enduring a period of revolution and unrest, which led to border violations, the 104th Surveillance Squadron operated Dayton-Wright DH-4 reconnaissance aircraft from Marfa Field beginning in November 1919. As the unrest in Mexico died down by the middle of 1921 and it was also used by the City of Marfa as their municipal airport. However, the Marfa Municipal Airport continued to be used by the Army Air Corps on a basis until the beginning of World War II. At some point after the establishment of the much larger Marfa Army Airfield in 1942, three paved 5,000 runways were laid down, and it supported the training mission of Marfa AAF and was frequently used by Cessna AT-17 Bobcat twin engine trainers and B-25 Mitchell Medium Bombers. At the end of the war, Marfa AAF and all of its airfields were closed. The City of Marfa, however, chose to re-establish their municipal airport at the larger Marfa AAF, the land was sold and the property eventually was re-used as a Country Club. There are no remains of the military airfield and civil airport. Texas World War II Army Airfields This article incorporates public domain material from the Air Force Historical Research Agency website http, //www. afhra. af. mil/
36.
Henry Post Army Airfield
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Henry Post Army Airfield is a military use airport located at Fort Sill in Comanche County, Oklahoma, United States. This military airport is owned by United States Army, established as Post Field in 1917, it was one of thirty-two Air Service training camps established after the United States entry into World War I in April 1917. Henry Post Army Airfield was the first home of all Army Aviation Training after World War II before moving to Fort Rucker and it is a very historic airfield. There is still a balloon hangar, transported by railcars from Moffett Field in California, the balloon hangar is now the home of Fort Sill Museum Aviation Annex and is listed as a Historic Landmark. The old Harrison Aviation Clinic is next to the field, it also is listed as a Historic Landmark, Henry Post AAF has one runway designated 17/35 with a concrete surface measuring 5,001 by 200 feet. There are no permanently assigned Army aviation units, and the facilities are operated as a military airport, the primary users of the airfield are USAF training aircraft from Sheppard AFB, Wichita Falls, TX and Dyess AFB, Abilene, TX. The field was named in honor of pioneer aviator 2d Lieutenant Henry Post, Post was assigned to the 25th Infantry, and reported for aeronautical duty at the Signal Corps Aviation School, Rockwell Field, San Diego, California on 26 May 1913. On 18 December, Post set a record for Air Service aviation. On 9 February 1914, while at Rockwell Field, he was killed in an airplane crash, the first Army aviation at Fort Sill began on 26 July 1915 when eight Curtiss JN-3 airplanes of the 1st Aero Squadron arrived from Rockwell Field, California. The squadron was ordered to Fort Sill as a result of the Tampico Affair threatened war between the United States and Mexico, however, the aviation facilities at Fort Sill consisted of little more than a grass field. Using Fort Sill as a base of operations, a detachment was flown to Brownsville, Texas in August until an airfield was built for the squadron at Fort Sam Houston. As a result of the United States entry into World War I, construction of some 50 buildings began to support the school. Post Field was established as an Airfield on 10 September 1917, the field covered over 700 acres and could accommodate up to 1,000 personnel. Dozens of wooden buildings served as headquarters, maintenance, and officers quarters, although the Signal corps had been supplying Observation aircraft for the United States Army Field Artillery School since 1915. In the early days of aviation Observation balloons were considered a more reliable than Airplanes for artillery spotting. Company A 1st Balloon Squadron was assigned to the post on 24 September 1917, but was split up into the 25th, and 26th Balloon Companies. The first aircraft squadron to arrive was the 3d Aero Squadron on 29 August 1917, although the 3d was equipped with twelve Curtiss R-4 planes, they were replaced with Curtiss JN-4Ds that were shipped in wooden crates by railcar. Post Field served as a base for training for the Air Service
37.
Big Bend (Texas)
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It is sometimes loosely defined as the part of Texas south of U. S. Highway 90 and west of the Pecos River. The region includes three counties in Texas, Brewster, Jeff Davis and Presidio, the region is sparsely populated, arid, and rugged, containing the Chisos and the Davis Mountain ranges. The region has more than one million acres of lands, including Big Bend National Park. It is also the home of the McDonald Observatory, the largest towns in the region are Alpine, Presidio, Marfa, Sanderson, Terlingua, and Marathon. List of geographical regions in Texas Balmorhea State Park Trans-Pecos The Big Bend of Texas,1920, hosted by the Portal to Texas History West Texas Weekly- a local weekly newspaper. Visit Big Bend- an extensive website on the Big Bend region, little Big Bend, Common, Uncommon, and Rare Plants of Big Bend National Park Texas Tech University Press
38.
Langley Air Force Base
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Langley Air Force Base is a United States Air Force base located adjacent to Hampton and Newport News, Virginia. It was one of thirty-two Air Service training camps established after the entry of the United States into World War I in April 1917, on 1 October 2010, Langley Air Force Base was joined with Fort Eustis to become Joint Base Langley–Eustis. The base was established in accordance with congressional legislation implementing the recommendations of the 2005 Base Realignment, the Air Force mission at Langley is to sustain the ability for fast global deployment and air superiority for the United States or allied armed forces. It was used during World War I as a field, balloon station, observers’ school, photography school, experimental engineering department. It is situated on 3,152 acres of land between the cities of Hampton, NASA LaRC, and the northwest and southwest branches of the Back River, airPower over Hampton Roads is a recurring airshow held at Langley in the spring. Many demonstrations take place, including the F-22 Raptor Demonstration, Aerobatics, and parachute demos. The Wing is composed of the units worldwide, 480th ISR Group, Fort Gordon, Ga. 497th ISR Group, Joint Base Langley–Eustis, Va. 548th ISR Group, Beale Air Force Base. Langley also hosts the Global Cyberspace Integration Center field operating agency, Langley is also home to the F-22 Raptor Demo Team. This team, who travel all over the world performing different maneuvers used in air combat, is used to recruit for the United States Air Force. Performing at airshows and other events, the squadron is the only demonstration team to use the F-22 Raptor. Langley Field was named after Samuel Pierpont Langley, an aerodynamic pioneer, Langley began aerodynamic experiments in 1887 and formed a basis for practical pioneer aviation. He built and saw the first steam model airplane in 1896, both planes were believed to be capable of flight. He also built the first man-carrying gasoline airplane in 1903, which failed to fly on its first attempt and broke apart and crashed on its second. It was, after major modification eleven years later, flown successfully by Glenn Curtiss for a little over 3 seconds, traveling 150 feet through the air in 1914. Langley Field was the first Air Service base built especially for air power, is the oldest continually active air base in the world. In 1916, the National Advisory Council for Aeronautics, predecessor to NASA, established the need for a joint airfield and proving ground for Army, Navy and NACA aircraft. NACA determined that the site must be near water for over-water flying, be flat and relatively clear for expansion and the landing and take-off of aircraft, the Army appointed a board of officers who searched for a location. The officers sometimes posed as hunters and fishermen to avoid land speculation which would arise if the governments interest in purchasing land was revealed
39.
Dayton-Wright XB-1A
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The Bristol F.2 Fighter was a British two-seat biplane fighter and reconnaissance aircraft of the First World War developed by the Bristol Aeroplane Company. It is often called the Bristol Fighter, other popular names include the Brisfit or Biff. Despite being a two-seater, the F. 2B proved to be an aircraft that was able to hold its own against opposing single-seat fighters. Having overcome a disastrous start to its career, the F. 2Bs robust design ensured that it remained in service into the 1930s. As the type was phased out of service, many of the surplus aircraft entered into civilian uses. Amongst other attributes and performance requirements, there was an emphasis placed upon the aircrafts self-defence capabilities. Various submissions were made to meet the RCFs specification, the Royal Aircraft Factory responded with its R. E.8 design, on 16 June 1916, the first prototype R. E.8 was presented for final inspection and production examples commenced delivery in September 1916. While thousands of R. E. 8s were produced, according to aviation author J. M. Bruce, the Bristol F.2 Fighter came about as a result of Frank Barnwells brief experience as a front-line pilot with the Royal Flying Corps. The first proposal that was prepared by Barnwell, which was designated the Type 9 R. 2A, was an equal-span two-seat biplane that made use of the 120 hp Beardmore engine. This was considered to be underpowered, and thus a second revised design, designated as the Type 9A R. 2B, was an unequal-span biplane that was powered by the 150 hp Hispano Suiza, was proposed. On both the R. 2A and R. 2B, the crew were placed together in a mid-gap mounted fuselage. Neither the R. 2A or R. 2B were constructed as a result of the new 190 hp Rolls-Royce Falcon inline engine having become available. Barnwell deciding to design a third revision of the aircraft around the Falcon engine and this aircraft, designated as the Type 12 F. 2A, was a two-bay equal-span biplane, closely resembling the R. 2A but being slightly smaller. These features were intended to optimize the field of fire for the observer, in July 1916, work commenced on the construction of a pair of prototypes, on 28 August 1916, a initial contract was awarded for 50 production aircraft. On 9 September 1916, the first prototype performed its maiden flight, the first prototype had its lower wings attached to an open wing-anchorage frame and had end-plates at the wing roots. Other changes to the first prototype during flight testing including the elimination of the end-plates from the wing roots. The first prototype was outfitted with a Scarff ring mounting near the rear cockpit. On 25 October 1916, the F. 2B variant performed its first flight, the F. 2B was over 10 mph faster than the F. 2A and was three minutes faster at reaching 10,000 ft
40.
Boeing GA-1
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The Boeing GA-1 was an armored triplane. Designed in 1919, it was powered by a pair of modified Liberty engines driving pusher propellers and it was so well armored that its five-ton weight proved excessive. Soon after the end of World War I, the US Army sought to explore highly armored and armed specialist ground-attack aircraft and this was a pet project of General William Mitchell. The Army Air Service Engineering Division issued requests for proposals to U. S. aircraft producers on 15 October 1919. There were no designs offered, so the Engineering Division ordered one of its engineers, Isaac M. Laddon and his design, designated GAX, first flew at McCook Field on 26 May 1920. The GAX was McCook Field Project P129 and wore AAS serial number 63272, aerodynamic cleanliness was sacrificed to fields of fire for its eight machine guns. The sturdy structure was able to carry a load of ammunition along with about 2,200 lb of armor plate. The result was a machine of wire-braced wooden construction with plywood. The engines were carried in mid-wing nacelles, as designed, the armament was comprehensive. The pilot was in control of a 37 mm cannon, four fixed Lewis guns fired forward and down, a further two Lewis guns fired to the rear and downwards and a single machine gun up and over the wings. A gunners position was in the nose, the armor covered the front half of the fuselage and the engine housings. The top wing was of larger span than the lower ones, span decreased from 65 ft 6 in to 58 ft 6 in between the top and lower wings. On 7 June 1920, Boeing was awarded a contract for 20 production models designated GA-1, before the first was delivered in May 1921, the order had been reduced to ten. The production aircraft wore Boeing constructors numbers 200-209 and AAC serial numbers 64146-64155, number 64146 was evaluated at McCook as project P187. The follow-on GA-2 was flown at McCook field in December 1921 with orders to two more aircraft. The GA-1 were sent to Kelly Field, Texas, in early 1923 for service tests with the only US aerial attack formation and these tests showed the aircraft to be unacceptable. They had poor visibility and performance, particularly in rate of climb, maneuverability, the aircraft suffered from noise and vibrations caused by the 3/16-inch -thick armor. Takeoff runs were very long by the standards of the day, the GA-1s were extremely unpopular with the pilots conducting the evaluation
41.
Fort Crockett
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The area still contains several historical buildings and military fortifications. A military facility by the US Army Coastal Artillery on Galveston Island was established in the late 1890s, construction got underway just in time to be disrupted by the Great Galveston Hurricane of 1900. The United States Army Corps of Engineers spent several years rebuilding and expanding the reservation before it was re-garrisoned, in 1903, the facility was named Fort Crockett in honor of David Crockett, US Congressman from Tennessee and famous Texas hero of the Battle of the Alamo. Following extensive repairs and upgrades, the fort was garrisoned by the US Army, during the First World War, Fort Crockett served as a US Army artillery training center. Troops bound for France were trained in the use of types of artillery. During the 1920s and early 1930s, Fort Crockett housed the United States Army Air Corps 3rd Attack Group, at this time, the 3rd Attack Group was the only USAAC group devoted solely to attack aircraft. After 1934, the 3rd Attack group was relocated to Barksdale, during the Second World War, Fort Crockett was expanded with an additional large gun battery, and focus was placed on defense against German U-boats. Additionally, the served as a German POW camp. Following the war, Fort Crockett served for years as an army recreational center. In the 1950s, Fort Crockett became home for fisheries research for the US Fish, in 1958 Texas A&M Marine Lab came to occupy part of the former army barracks. In 1963, the largest of the buildings in the Fort Crockett complex was renovated to house the new Texas Maritime Academy of Texas A&M University. Due to the amount of concrete used in constructing the protective casemate for the guns and magazines. The abandoned casemates remained an unofficial tourist attraction for decades, in the early 1980s, a luxury resort was built on and behind the battery. This was originally named Fort Travis in honor of William Barret Travis, in the late 19th century, the entrance to Galveston Bay was secured by two new fortifications, one on each side of the mouth of the bay. The Fort Travis name was transferred across Bolivar Roads to a new fortification on Point Bolivar, the tip of the Bolivar Peninsula, at the end of the 19th century, Fort Crockett was established as headquarters for all three facilities. Located west of the city of Galveston, its guns could command the entire area. By the first half of the 20th century, Fort Crockett had the basic equipment believed needed to defend the Galveston area from attack from air or sea. In the mid-20th century, two Regiments of the US Army Coast Artillery were headquartered at Fort Crockett, and manned four major artillery batteries, though installed over several decades, the different guns were selected to provide both long-range and rapid-fire support
42.
Curtiss A-3
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The Curtiss Falcon was a family of military biplane aircraft built by the American aircraft manufacturer Curtiss Aeroplane and Motor Company during the 1920s. Most saw service as part of the United States Army Air Corps as observation aircraft with the designations O-1 and O-11, or as the attack aircraft designated the A-3 Falcon. U. S. Navy variants were used initially as fighter-bombers with the designation F8C Falcon, Two later generations of Curtiss dive-bombers would also be named Helldiver. The type was introduced in 1925 and saw service in the United States until 1934. Curtiss Falcons fought in the Constitutional Revolution of 1932 in Brazil, the Falcon XO-1 prototype was evaluated by the USAAC along with eleven other prototypes in 1924 and the Douglas XO-2 was declared the winner of that competition. So Curtiss re-engined the prototype with the Packard 1A-1500 for the 1925 trials, the engine failed to live up to expectations and the O-1 ordered by the Army was fitted with the 435 hp Curtiss V-1150 engine. The aircraft was a conventional biplane design with wooden wings. The landing gear was fixed and the tail included a balanced rudder with a rear skid originally, the initial A-3 Falcon order was placed in the winter of 1927 and delivery of the first plane was in October 1927. A total of 76 A-3s were received, later, six aircraft were modified as pilot trainers with dual controls and redesignated A-3A. A second batch of 78 improved A-3Bs, based on the Curtiss O-1E, was purchased beginning in 1929, reasonably successful as an observation aircraft, Falcons flew primarily in the 1st, 5th and 99th Observation Squadrons of the 9th Observation Group, Mitchel Field, New York. The U. S. Navy introduced the F8C-1 and F8C-3 Falcon as a fighter in 1927-1928. They were later redesignated OC-1 and OC-2 for Marine Corps use as an observation/bomber, the F8C-4 Helldiver variant initially saw service with the Navy, and the first production batch of 25 was transferred in 1931 to the Marine Corps. A total of 34 F8Cs redesignated as O2C-1 observation aircraft were transferred to the Naval Reserve in 1931, serving with squadrons VN-10RD9, VN-11RD9. Most of the 63 newer F8C-5/O2C-1 Helldivers also served with the Marines, the type was featured in multiple Hollywood films, Flight and Hell Divers. Curtiss Falcon aircraft fought during the Brazil Constitutionalist Revolution of 1932, in Bolivia, the aircraft type also fought in the Chaco War, bombing Paraguayan troopers. The Colombian Air Force used Falcon F-8 and O-1 in the Colombia-Peru War in 1932-3. A-3 Model 44, attack version of O-1B, armed with two 0.30 in machine guns and 200 lb of bombs,76 built for the USAAC. A-3A Six A-3s converted into trainers, a-3B Model 37H, attack version of O-1E, with six machine guns, including two mounted in wings,78 built
43.
Curtiss A-12 Shrike
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The Curtiss A-12 Shrike was the United States Army Air Corps second monoplane ground-attack aircraft, and its main attack aircraft through most of the 1930s. It was based on the A-8, but had a radial engine instead of the A-8s inline, water-cooled engine, the Model 60 was developed from advancements of the A-8 and the experimental YA-10. However, it became obsolete after a use period, mainly because of fast-improving aviation technology. The most obvious difference between the A-12 and the A-8 is the air-cooled, radial engine in the A-12, which replaced the A-8s inline and this was a response to the USAACs move toward a preference for radial engines, especially in attack aircraft. These aircraft retained the open cockpit introduced in the A-8 production batch, in an attempt to improve pilot/observer co-operation, the rear cockpit was moved forward sufficiently for its glazed covering to form a continuation of the fuselage decking behind the pilots cockpit. Nine USAAF A-12s were still in service at Hickam Field on 7 December 1941, A-12s served with the 3rd Attack Group plus the 8th and 18th Pursuit Groups. Surviving Shrikes were grounded just after Pearl Harbor was bombed in December 1941, republic of China Chinese Nationalist Air Force received 20 A-12 Shrikes in 1936, arming the 27th and the 28th Squadron of the 9th Group. When full-scale war broke out between Japan and China, they were used, the initial success including the downing of four Japanese Aichi D1A1 carrier-based dive bombers on 15 August 1937. However, after deploying in support missions in Shanxi, most did not survive
44.
Barksdale Air Force Base
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Barksdale Air Force Base occupies over 22,000 acres of land east of Bossier City and along the southern edge of Interstate Highway 20. The host unit at Barksdale is the 2d Bomb Wing, the oldest Bomb Wing in the Air Force and it is assigned to the Air Force Global Strike Commands Eighth Air Force. The 2 BW is equipped with the B-52H Stratofortress bomber, more than 15,000 active-duty, Air Force Reserve members and civilians make up Barksdales workforce. About 44 B-52 Stratofortress aircraft are assigned to the wing. Barksdale AFB was established in 1932 as Barksdale Field and is named for World War I aviator, units at Barksdale include the oldest bomb wing in the Air Force, the 2d Bomb Wing. The 2d participated in Brig Gen Billy Mitchells 1921 off-shore bombing test. F Components of the 2d Bomb Wing are and he also functions as the installation commander of Barksdale Air Force Base. The vice commander is Colonel Brandon Parker, there is an annual open house when non-DoD visitors are allowed. Visitors may also tour the museum from 9,30 am to 4 pm every day except official holidays, Barksdale Field was named in honor of 2nd Lieutenant Eugene Hoy Barksdale on 2 February 1933. He did not recover from a spin while parachuting out of the plane. He was buried with military honors in Arlington National Cemetery. The name of the airfield was changed to Barksdale Air Force Base on 13 February 1948, airships were still in use when field construction began, so Hangars One and Two were built large enough to accommodate them. Half of the B-52Fs were deployed from Barksdale, but never returned as they were replaced by B-52Gs after the Vietnam War, as early as 1924, the citizens of Shreveport became interested in hosting a military flying field. Captain Harris selected what he felt was a location for a military airfield. A delegation of citizens traveled to Washington, D. C. to personally present the advantages of the site to the War Department. Following the return of this delegation, a special Army board visited Shreveport, the site was selected 5 December 1928, as the location of the airfield. Construction of Barksdale Field began in 1931, when hangars, runways, early flying operations began on 7 November 1932, with the arrival of the 20th Pursuit Group and its three pursuit squadrons equipped with the Boeing P-12 and Boeing P-26 Peashooter. The airfield was opened and dedicated on 2 February 1933. By the mid-1930s, Barksdale Field was the headquarters and main base of the 3rd Attack Wing, equipped with the Curtiss A-12, the airfield was used by both fighter and attack pilots to hone their gunnery and bombing skills
45.
Northrop A-17
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The Northrop A-17, a development of the Northrop Gamma 2F was a two-seat, single-engine, monoplane, attack bomber built in 1935 by the Northrop Corporation for the U. S. Army Air Corps. A-17s used by air forces of the British Commonwealth designated the aircraft as the Nomad, the Northrop Gamma 2F was an attack bomber derivative of the Northrop Gamma transport aircraft, developed in parallel with the Northrop Gamma 2C, designated the YA-13 and XA-16. The Gamma 2F had a tail, cockpit canopy and wing flaps compared with the Gamma 2C. It was delivered to the United States Army Air Corps for tests on 6 October 1934, a total of 110 aircraft were ordered as the A-17 in 1935. The resulting A-17 was equipped with perforated flaps, and had fixed landing gear with partial fairings and it was fitted with an internal fuselage bomb bay that carried fragmentation bombs and well as external bomb racks. Northrop developed a new landing gear, this time completely retractable and this version was again purchased by the Army Air Corps, who placed orders for 129 aircraft. By the time these were delivered, the Northrop Corporation had been taken over by Douglas Aircraft Company, the A-17 entered service in February 1936, and proved a reliable and popular aircraft. However, in 1938, the Air Corps decided that aircraft should be multi-engined. From 14 December 1941, A-17s were used for patrols by the 59th Bombardment Squadron on the Pacific side of the Panama Canal. The last remaining A-17s, used as utility aircraft, were retired from USAAF service in 1944, argentina purchased 30 Model 8A-2s in 1937 and received them between February and March 1938. Their serial numbers were between 348 and 377 and these remained in frontline service until replaced by the I. Ae. 24 Calquin, continuing in service as trainers and reconnaissance aircraft until their last flight in 1954, Peru ordered ten Model 8A-3Ps, these being delivered from 1938 onwards. These aircraft were used in combat by Peru in the Ecuadorian-Peruvian war of July 1941, the survivors of these aircraft were supplemented by 13 Model 8A-5s from Norway, delivered via the United States in 1943. These remained in service until 1958, the Swedish government purchased a licence for production of a Mercury-powered version, building 63 B 5Bs and 31 B 5Cs, production taking place from 1938 to 1941. They were replaced in service with the Swedish Air Force by SAAB 17s from 1944, the Swedish version was used as a dive bomber and as such it featured prominently in the 1941 film Första divisionen. The Netherlands, in urgent need of modern aircraft, placed an order for 18 Model 8A-3Ns in 1939. Used in a role for which they were unsuited, the majority were destroyed by Luftwaffe attacks on 10 May 1940. Iraq purchased 15 Model 8A-4s, in 1940 and they were destroyed in the Anglo-Iraqi War in 1941
46.
Douglas B-18 Bolo
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The Douglas B-18 Bolo is an American medium bomber which served with the United States Army Air Corps and the Royal Canadian Air Force during the late 1930s and early 1940s. The Bolo was built by the Douglas Aircraft Company, based on its DC-2, by 1940, it was considered to be underpowered, to have inadequate defensive armament and to carry too small a bomb load. Many were destroyed during the attacks on Pearl Harbor and the Philippines in December 1941, in 1942, the B-18 survivors were relegated to antisubmarine, transport duty, and training. A B-18 was one of the first American aircraft to sink a German U-boat, U-654 on 22 August 1942 in the Caribbean. In 1934, the United States Army Air Corps put out a request for a bomber with double the load and range of the Martin B-10. In the evaluation at Wright Field the following year, Douglas showed its DB-1 and it competed with the Boeing Model 299 and Martin Model 146. While the Boeing design was superior, the crash of the B-17 prototype removed it from consideration. During the depths of the Great Depression, the price of the DB-1 also counted in its favor. The Douglas design was ordered into production in January 1936 as the B-18. The DB-1 design was essentially that of the DC-2, with several modifications, the wingspan was 4.5 ft greater. The fuselage was deeper, to better accommodate bombs and the six-member crew, added armament included nose, dorsal, and ventral gun turrets. Preston Tuckers firm received a contract to supply a remote controlled gun turret for the aircraft, the initial contract called for 133 B-18s, using Wright R-1820 radial engines. The last B-18 of the run, designated DB-2 by the company, had a nose turret. This design did not become standard, additional contracts in 1937 and 1938 were for the B-18A, which had the bombardiers position further forward over the nose-gunners station. The B-18A also used more powerful engines, deliveries to operational groups began in late 1937, the first being the 7th Bombardment Group at Hamilton Field, California. Production B-18s, with military equipment fitted, had a maximum speed of 217 mph, cruising speed of 167 mph. By 1940, most USAAC bomber squadrons were equipped with B-18s or B-18As, however, the deficiencies in the B-18/B-18A bomber were becoming readily apparent to almost everyone. To send crews out in such a plane against a well-armed, determined foe would have been nothing short of suicidal
47.
Martin B-12
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The Martin B-10 was the first all-metal monoplane bomber to be regularly used by the United States Army Air Corps, entering service in June 1934. It was also the first mass-produced bomber whose performance was superior to that of the Armys pursuit aircraft of the time, the B-10 served as the airframe for the B-12, B-13, B-14, A-15 and O-45 designations using Pratt & Whitney engines instead of Wright Cyclones. A total of 348 of all versions were built, biggest users were the USA, with 166, and the Netherlands, with 121. The B-10 began a revolution in bomber design and it made all existing bombers completely obsolete. In 1932, Martin received the Collier Trophy for designing the XB-10, the B-10 began as the Martin Model 123, a private venture by the Glenn L. Martin Company of Baltimore, Maryland. It had a crew of four, pilot, copilot, nose gunner, as in previous bombers, the four crew compartments were open, but it had a number of design innovations as well. These innovations included a deep belly for a bomb bay. Its 600 hp Wright SR-1820-E Cyclone engines provided sufficient power, the Model 123 first flew on 16 February 1932 and was delivered for testing to the U. S. Army on 20 March as the XB-907. After testing it was sent back to Martin for redesigning and was rebuilt as the XB-10, the XB-10 delivered to the Army had major differences from the original aircraft. Where the Model 123 had Townend rings, the XB-10 had full NACA cowlings to decrease drag and it also sported a pair of 675 hp Wright R-1820-19 engines, and an 8 feet increase in the wingspan, along with an enclosed nose turret. When the XB-10 flew during trials in June, it recorded a speed of 197 mph at 6,000 ft and this was an impressive performance for 1932. Following the success of the XB-10, a number of changes were made, including reduction to a crew, addition of canopies for all crew positions. The Army ordered 48 of these on 17 January 1933, the first 14 aircraft were designated YB-10 and delivered to Wright Field, starting in November 1933, and used in the Army Air Corps Mail Operation. The production model of the XB-10, the YB-10 was very similar to its prototype, in 1935, the Army ordered an additional 103 aircraft designated B-10B. These had only minor changes from the YB-10, in addition to conventional duties in the bomber role, some modified YB-10s and B-12As were operated for a time on large twin floats for coastal patrol. With an advanced performance, the Martin company fully expected that export orders for the B-10 would come flooding in, the Army owned the rights to the Model 139 design. Once the Armys orders had been filled in 1936, Martin received permission to export Model 139s, and delivered versions to several air forces. For example, six Model 139Ws were sold to Siam in April 1937, powered by Wright R-1820-G3 Cyclone engines,20 Model 139Ws were sold to Turkey in September 1937, powered by R-1820-G2 engines
48.
Douglas A-20A Havoc
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The Douglas A-20 Havoc was an American attack, light bomber, and intruder aircraft of World War II. It served with several Allied air forces, principally the United States Army Air Forces, the Soviet Air Forces, Soviet Naval Aviation, Soviet units received more than one in three of the DB-7s ultimately built. It was also used by the air forces of Australia, South Africa, France, and the Netherlands during the war, and by Brazil afterwards. In British Commonwealth air forces, bomber/attack variants of the DB-7 were usually known by the service name Boston, an exception to this was the Royal Australian Air Force, which referred to all variants of the DB-7 by the name Boston. The USAAF referred to night fighter variants as P-70 and it was estimated that it could carry a 1,000 lb bomb load at 250 mph. Reports of aircraft performance from the Spanish Civil War indicated that this design would be seriously underpowered, in the autumn of the same year, the United States Army Air Corps issued its own specification for an attack aircraft. The Douglas team, now headed by Heinemann, took the Model 7A design, upgraded with 1,100 hp Pratt & Whitney R-1830 Twin Wasp engines and it faced competition from the North American NA-40, Stearman X-100, and Martin 167F. The Model 7B was maneuverable and fast, but did not attract any US orders, the model did, however, attract the attention of a French Purchasing Commission visiting the United States. The French discreetly participated in the trials, so as not to attract criticism from American isolationists. The secret was revealed when the Model 7B crashed on 23 January while demonstrating single-engine performance, the French were still impressed enough to order 100 production aircraft, with the order increased to 270 when the war began. Sixteen of those had been ordered by Belgium for its Aviation Militaire, in a report to the British Aeroplane and Armament Experimental Establishment at RAF Boscombe Down, test pilots summed it up as, has no vices and is very easy to take off and land. The aeroplane represents a definite advantage in the design of flying controls, extremely pleasant to fly and manoeuvre. Ex-pilots often consider it their favorite aircraft of the war due to the ability to toss it around like a fighter, the Douglas bomber/night fighter was extremely adaptable and found a role in every combat theater of the war, and excelled as a true pilots aeroplane. When DB-7 series production ended on 20 September 1944, a total of 7,098 had been built by Douglas. Douglas redesigned its Santa Monica plant to create a production line to produce A-20 Havocs. The assembly line was over a long, but by looping back and forth. Man-hours were reduced by 50% for some operations, the French order called for substantial modifications, resulting in the DB-7 variant. It had a narrower, deeper fuselage,1,000 hp Pratt & Whitney R-1830-SC3-G radials, French-built guns, midway through the delivery phase, engines were switched to 1,100 hp Pratt & Whitney R-1830-S3C4-G
United States
United States Air Force
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This article incorporates public domain material from the Air Force Historical Research Agency website http://www.afhra.af.mil/.
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