1.
United States
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Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
2.
United States Army
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The United States Armed Forces are the federal armed forces of the United States. They consist of the Army, Marine Corps, Navy, Air Force, from the time of its inception, the military played a decisive role in the history of the United States. A sense of unity and identity was forged as a result of victory in the First Barbary War. Even so, the Founders were suspicious of a permanent military force and it played an important role in the American Civil War, where leading generals on both sides were picked from members of the United States military. Not until the outbreak of World War II did a standing army become officially established. The National Security Act of 1947, adopted following World War II and during the Cold Wars onset, the U. S. military is one of the largest militaries in terms of number of personnel. It draws its personnel from a pool of paid volunteers. As of 2016, the United States spends about $580.3 billion annually to fund its military forces, put together, the United States constitutes roughly 40 percent of the worlds military expenditures. For the period 2010–14, the Stockholm International Peace Research Institute found that the United States was the worlds largest exporter of major arms, the United States was also the worlds eighth largest importer of major weapons for the same period. The history of the U. S. military dates to 1775 and these forces demobilized in 1784 after the Treaty of Paris ended the War for Independence. All three services trace their origins to the founding of the Continental Army, the Continental Navy, the United States President is the U. S. militarys commander-in-chief. Rising tensions at various times with Britain and France and the ensuing Quasi-War and War of 1812 quickened the development of the U. S. Navy, the reserve branches formed a military strategic reserve during the Cold War, to be called into service in case of war. Time magazines Mark Thompson has suggested that with the War on Terror, Command over the armed forces is established in the United States Constitution. The sole power of command is vested in the President by Article II as Commander-in-Chief, the Constitution also allows for the creation of executive Departments headed principal officers whose opinion the President can require. This allowance in the Constitution formed the basis for creation of the Department of Defense in 1947 by the National Security Act, the Defense Department is headed by the Secretary of Defense, who is a civilian and member of the Cabinet. The Defense Secretary is second in the chain of command, just below the President. Together, the President and the Secretary of Defense comprise the National Command Authority, to coordinate military strategy with political affairs, the President has a National Security Council headed by the National Security Advisor. The collective body has only power to the President
3.
United States Army Aviation Branch
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The United States Army Aviation Branch is the administrative organization within the United States Army responsible for doctrine, manning and configuration for all aviation units. The Army would develop a new concept of using the helicopter that would show promise during the Korean War. Army Aviation traces its origins back to the American Civil War, both Union and Confederate forces used hydrogen-filled balloons to direct artillery fire, marking the beginning of U. S. military aeronautics and of aerial support of Army ground forces. The Army also used balloons during the Spanish–American War and World War I, Army Aviation began in 1909 with the Army’s acquisition of its first heavier-than-air aircraft, an airplane built to Army specifications by the Wright brothers. During World War I, the Armys aircraft strength grew from a few dozen to more than 11,000 planes, the Army Air Service was created in May 1918. After World War I, General William Mitchell and other Air Service leaders spoke out forcefully in favor of an independent air force, since they envisioned aviation as a separate striking force, capable of independent operations, they opposed its remaining an arm of the ground forces. Although Congress as well as most Army leaders rejected Mitchells argument, the Air Service did become a combat arm, equal in status to the infantry, cavalry. During the 1930s, many Army Air Corps leaders became preoccupied with strategic air operations, like Billy Mitchell before them, they advocated using air power independently of the Army ground forces to destroy enemy targets behind the lines of combat. This Air Corps emphasis on strategic operations disturbed some ground forces leaders, aerial support was particularly vital for artillery fire adjustment. The Army experimented with using small aircraft for artillery fire adjustment and other functions in maneuvers at Camp Beauregard. The tests were repeated on a scale in the Army maneuvers in Louisiana, Tennessee, Texas. The Armys Grasshoppers, as these light planes came to be called, proved to be more effective than the larger Air Corps planes used for the same purposes. It was this new World War II-era phenomenon with its few small single-engine spotter planes, organic Army Aviation, Organic Army Aviation first entered into combat in November 1942 on the coast of North Africa. After the creation of the Army Air Forces, the Army Ground Forces retained the use of aircraft for artillery forward observation. First use of the helicopter in combat is credited to the USAAF 1st Air Commando Group in Burma in 1943, the 1ACG operated six Sikorsky R-4 helicopters primarily for air rescue and medical evacuation. When the United States Air Force was established as a service in 1947. The Korean War and Vietnam War proved the capabilities of these aviation assets to perform a variety of missions not covered by the Air Force. The Korean War provided new challenges and opportunities for Army Aviation, Organic Army Aviation had acquired its first helicopters, thirteen H-13 Sioux, in 1947, shortly before the U. S. Air Force became independent of the Army
4.
Combat Aviation Brigade
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Combat aviation brigades were introduced during the transformation of the United States Army to a modular force. There were three types of combat aviation brigades, the ultimate goal is eight full spectrum CABs and four heavy CABs in active service, and respectively six and two CABs in the Army National Guard. Four brigades must be deployment-ready on a permanent basis, the Army stated that they need the CAB to be modular designed to enable task organization and optimize aviation capability for specific mission of specified duration. Full spectrum CAB will standardize the CAB design across the branch to deliver maximum aviation capability in the most timely, the Army Reserve fields one theater aviation command which oversees two brigades. S. Army Aviation Regiments 110th Aviation Brigade Reorganization plan of United States Army FM 3-04.111 Aviation Brigades Torchbearer National Security Reports, U. S
5.
101st Airborne Division
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The 101st Airborne Division is an elite modular specialized light infantry division of the United States Army trained for air assault operations. It is the most potent and tactically mobile of the U. S. Armys divisions and these particular operations are conducted by highly mobile teams and they are quite often executed behind enemy lines. Its unique battlefield mobility and high level of training have kept the Division in the vanguard of Americas land combat forces in recent conflicts, more recently, the 101st Airborne has been performing foreign internal defense and counter-terrorism operations within Iraq and Afghanistan. The 101st Airborne Division has a nearly century-long history, during the Vietnam War, the 101st Airborne Division fought in several major campaigns and battles including the Battle of Hamburger Hill in May 1969. In mid-1968 it was reorganized and redesignated as an airmobile division and these titles reflect the divisions shift from airplanes as the primary method of delivering troops into combat, to the use of helicopters. Many current members of the 101st are graduates of the U. S. Army Air Assault School, Division headquarters is at Fort Campbell, Kentucky. In recent years, the division has served in Iraq and Afghanistan, the division is one of the most highly decorated units in the United States Army and has been featured prominently in military fiction. The 101st is currently the only air assault division, capable, in a single lift, of a 4. It is supported by more than 280 helicopters and this includes three battalions of Apache attack helicopters. At times, additional air assets are assigned to the 101st Airborne during deployment, the 101st Airborne also comprises intelligence support, maintenance and operations elements, support personnel, and artillery specialists. Assisting the 101st Airborne Division is an array of support elements, equipment. The 101st is considered a versatile, very flexible. The 101st has the capability to move long distances, the 101st can put soldiers down on top of mountains, ridge lines, and behind the enemy forces and can sling-load in artillery pieces for indirect fire. It is considered a unit of choice and it has the ability to secure sites, airfields. The 101st Division headquarters was organized 2 November 1918 at Camp Shelby, Mississippi, World War I ended 9 days later, and was demobilized on 11 December 1918. In 1921, the headquarters was reconstituted in the Organized Reserves. It was at time that the Screaming Eagle became associated with the division. As part of the reorganization of the 101st as a division in the Army of the United States
6.
Distinctive unit insignia
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A distinctive unit insignia is a metallic heraldic badge or device worn by soldiers in the United States Army. The DUI design is derived from the coat of arms authorized for a unit, DUIs may also be called distinctive insignia, a crest or a unit crest by soldiers or collectors. The term crest however, in addition to being incorrect, may be misleading, the term crest properly refers to the portion of an achievement of arms which stands atop the helmet over the shield of arms. The U. S. Army Institute of Heraldry is responsible for the design, development, Distinctive ornamentation of a design desired by the organization was authorized for wear on the Mess Jacket uniform by designated organizations per General Order 132 dated December 31,1902. The distinctive ornamentation was described later as coats of arms, pins, the authority continued until omitted in the Army uniform regulation dated December 26,1911. Various organizations which carry colors or standards have generally submitted coats of arms having certain historical significance, as fast as approved these coats of arms will for the basis for regimental colors or standards which will eventually replace the present regimental colors or standards when these wear out. The use of coats of arms as collar ornaments in lieu of the insignia of corps, departments. The first unit to wear this insignia was the 51st Artillery which received approval for wear on March 18,1922 and it was designed by Master Gunner and Master Sergeant Edward C. Kuhn, the artist responsible for creating all authorized coats of arms, up until 1965, only regiments and separate battalions were authorized a coat of arms and distinctive units insignia. Now all major commands, field hospitals, corps, logistics commands and certain other units – groups, the unit commanding officer requests approval of a distinctive unit insignia. A check is made by the Institute of Heraldry to determine the availability of a current copy of the lineage, if such is not available, one is requested from the United States Army Center of Military History. The units history is reviewed to determine if the unit may inherit a previously approved distinctive unit insignia or if a new design should be made, if a new design is to be made, careful study is made of the history and battle honors of the unit. The most important decorations, honors, combat service and missions are represented in the design of the insignia, sometimes two centuries of history are condensed into symbolism for distinctive unit insignia. A proposed design is created and sent to the officer for review. Upon concurrence by the commander an official letter of approval of the distinctive unit insignia is sent to the unit. Manufacturing drawings and specifications are sent to a manufacturer which provides samples of the finished distinctive unit insignia to the Institute of Heraldry for approval. Once approved the manufacturer may produce this insignia, each manufacturer has an identifying hallmark assigned by the Institute of Heraldry which is applied to the back of the insignia. The shield shape design is used to identify color bearing organizations, other design patterns will be used for non-color bearing units
7.
Combat Service Identification Badge
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The Badge is a silver or gold-colored metal and enamel device 2 inches in height consisting of a design similar to the unit Shoulder Sleeve Insignia. The Combat Service Identification Badge is worn on the right pocket for male soldiers. Soldiers can wear the CSIB on the new blue Army Service Uniform, Class A, the CSIB cannot be worn on the Army Combat Uniform or the discontinued Army Green Uniform. U. S. soldiers will continue to wear the subdued Shoulder Sleeve Insignia-Former Wartime Service on their right sleeve of the ACU blouse to denote combat service. The Shoulder Sleeve Insignia-Former Wartime Service was also worn on the Army Green Class A Uniform, the CSIB is ranked fifth in the order of precedence for identification badges. U. S. Army webpage on the Army Service Uniform Institute of Heraldry website Army Times article, Green Class A uniforms out
8.
Air assault
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Invariably the assaulting troops are highly dependent on aerial fire support provided by the armed helicopters or fixed-wing aircraft escorting the VTOL. Air assault should not be confused with air attack, air strike, or air raid, Air assault and air mobility are related concepts. However, air assault is distinctly a combat insertion rather than transportation to an area in the vicinity of combat, Air assault operations are not merely movements of soldiers, weapons, and materiel by Army aviation units and must not be construed as such. Air assault units can vary in organization, using not only in transport but also as close air fire support, medical evacuation helicopters. Airmobile artillery is often assigned to air assault deployments, units vary in size, but are typically company- or brigade-sized units. Airmobile units are designed and trained for air insertion and vertical envelopment, air resupply, one specific type of air assault unit is the US Army air cavalry. It differs from regular air assault units only in fulfilling a traditional cavalry reconnaissance, similarly, the US 101st Airborne Division was originally classed as airborne, then airmobile and now air assault. Air mobility has been a key concept in offensive operations since the 1930s, initial approaches to air mobility focused on airborne and glider-borne troops. During World War II many assaults were done by military gliders, the World War Two era German Fallschirmjäger and Brandenburgers glider borne paras laid the foundation for modern day Air Assault operations. In 1941 the U. S. Army quickly adopted this concept of offensive operations initially utilizing wooden gliders before the development of helicopters, following the war faster aircraft led to the abandonment of the flimsy wooden gliders with the then new helicopters taking their place. Another example being the German Brandenburgers glider borne operation at Ypenburg during World War Two, in 1946, U. S. Marine General Roy S. During this time, The Commandant of the Marine Corps, Alexander Vandegrift and this board recommended that the USMC develop transport helicopters in order to allow a diffused attack on enemy shores. It also recommended that the USMC form an experimental helicopter squadron. HMX-1 was commissioned in 1947 with Sikorsky HO3S-1s, in 1948 the Marine Corps Schools came out with Amphibious Operations—Employment of Helicopters, or Phib-31, which was the first manual for helicopter airmobile operations. The Marines used the vertical envelopment instead of air mobility or air assault. HMX-1 performed its first vertical envelopment from the deck of a carrier in an exercise in 1949. American forces later used helicopters for support and transport to great effect during the Korean War showing that the helicopter could be a versatile, the first helicopter airlift and helicopter sling load mission was conducted on September 13,1951 during the Korean War. Operation Windmill I was conducted by the United States Marine Corps in support of a clearing the enemy from a series of ridges around an extinct volcano called The Punchbowl. In total seven HRS-1 Marine helicopters made 28 flights that delivered 8,550 kg of supplies and evacuated 74 seriously wounded men
9.
Fort Campbell
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Fort Campbell is a United States Army installation located astride the Kentucky-Tennessee border between Hopkinsville, Kentucky, and Clarksville, Tennessee. Fort Campbell is home to the 101st Airborne Division and the 160th Special Operations Aviation Regiment, the fort is named in honor of Union Army Brigadier General William Bowen Campbell, the last Whig Governor of Tennessee. Construction of Camp Campbell began on January 12,1942, due to its close proximity to Clarksville, Tennessee, the War Department on March 6,1942, designated Tennessee as the official address of the new camp. This caused a deal of confusion, since the Headquarters was in Tennessee. After many months of mail delivery problems, Colonel Guy W. Chipman requested that the address be changed to Camp Campbell, the War Department officially changed the address on September 23,1942. Early in the summer of 1942, the initial cadre, one officer and 19 enlisted men, arrived from Fort Knox. From that time until the end of World War II, Camp Campbell was the ground for the 12th, 14th and 20th Armored divisions, Headquarters IV Armored Corps. In the spring of 1949, the 11th Airborne Division arrived at Campbell following occupation duty in Japan, the 11th was in residence there until early 1956. By April 1950, the post had evolved from a training camp to a permanent installation and was renamed Fort Campbell. From 1950 to 1962 the post operated an Airborne Course which trained nearly 30,000 soldiers as paratroopers before its inactivation and this was the official ceremony reactivating the famed Screaming Eagles of World War II. On May 2,1966, Third Army General Order 161 directed the activation of a Basic Combat Training Center at Fort Campbell, on July 6, barely two months after its activation, Fort Campbells Army Training Center received its first 220 newly inducted soldiers. Basic Combat Training began on schedule July 11 with a complement of 1,100 trainees. The Training Center operated until April 15,1972, when it was deactivated, the 1st Brigade was sent for duty in Vietnam in July 1965. Soon thereafter, upon the escalation of hostilities in Southeast Asia, also in response to the military buildup, the 6th Infantry Division was reactivated at Fort Campbell on November 24,1966, and inactivated July 25,1968. In September 1971 the 173rd Airborne Brigade returned to Fort Campbell and conducted its official homecoming ceremonies, the 173rd was then inactivated on 14 January 1972 and its personnel and the equipment used to rebuild the 3rd Brigade, 101st Airborne Division. The 3rd Brigade remained on jump status until April 1974, when its status was terminated. On April 6,1972, the 101st Airborne Division was officially welcomed back to its station after the cessation of hostilities in Vietnam. The ceremonies were attended by Vice President Spiro T. Agnew, on 12 December 1985,246 servicemembers died with eight aircrew shortly after takeoff from Gander, Newfoundland, Canada, during a return from peacekeeping duties in Egypt
10.
Kentucky
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Kentucky, officially the Commonwealth of Kentucky, is a state located in the east south-central region of the United States. Kentucky is one of four U. S. states constituted as a commonwealth, originally a part of Virginia, in 1792 Kentucky became the 15th state to join the Union. Kentucky is the 37th most extensive and the 26th most populous of the 50 United States, Kentucky is known as the Bluegrass State, a nickname based on the bluegrass found in many of its pastures due to the fertile soil. One of the regions in Kentucky is the Bluegrass Region in central Kentucky. In 1776, the counties of Virginia beyond the Appalachian Mountains became known as Kentucky County, the precise etymology of the name is uncertain, but likely based on an Iroquoian name meaning the meadow or the prairie. Kentucky is situated in the Upland South, a significant portion of eastern Kentucky is part of Appalachia. Kentucky borders seven states, from the Midwest and the Southeast, West Virginia lies to the east, Virginia to the southeast, Tennessee to the south, Missouri to the west, Illinois and Indiana to the northwest, and Ohio to the north and northeast. Only Missouri and Tennessee, both of which border eight states, touch more, Kentuckys northern border is formed by the Ohio River and its western border by the Mississippi River. The official state borders are based on the courses of the rivers as they existed when Kentucky became a state in 1792, for instance, northbound travelers on U. S.41 from Henderson, after crossing the Ohio River, will be in Kentucky for about two miles. Ellis Park, a racetrack, is located in this small piece of Kentucky. Waterworks Road is part of the land border between Indiana and Kentucky. Kentucky has a part known as Kentucky Bend, at the far west corner of the state. It exists as an exclave surrounded completely by Missouri and Tennessee, Road access to this small part of Kentucky on the Mississippi River requires a trip through Tennessee. The epicenter of the powerful 1811–12 New Madrid earthquakes was near this area, much of the outer Bluegrass is in the Eden Shale Hills area, made up of short, steep, and very narrow hills. The Jackson Purchase and western Pennyrile are home to several bald cypress/tupelo swamps, located within the southeastern interior portion of North America, Kentucky has a climate that can best be described as a humid subtropical climate. Temperatures in Kentucky usually range from daytime summer highs of 87 °F to the low of 23 °F. The average precipitation is 46 inches a year, Kentucky experiences four distinct seasons, with substantial variations in the severity of summer and winter. The highest recorded temperature was 114 °F at Greensburg on July 28,1930 while the lowest recorded temperature was −37 °F at Shelbyville on January 19,1994, due to its location, Kentucky has a moderate humid subtropical climate, with abundant rainfall
11.
Combat Aviation Brigade, 101st Airborne Division
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The Combat Aviation Brigade, 101st Airborne Division is a combat aviation brigade of the United States Army. It was first organized in July 1968 as an aviation group and it was redesignated an aviation brigade in 1986. It has served in almost every military operation since the Vietnam War. In support of the Global War on Terror, the CAB has distinguished itself as the militarys premiere combat aviation unit during its two deployments to Iraq and five deployments to Afghanistan. The brigade has flown hundreds of thousands of hours during these tours, transporting millions of troops around the battlefield. The 101st broke its own record for longest air assault in history during the invasion of Iraq in 2003, previously, the longest air assault was conducted in 1991 during Operation Desert Storm. Less than a later, on 25 June 1969, the 160th Aviation Group was redesignated as the 101st Aviation Group. On 15 August 1986, the 101st Aviation Group was redesignated as the Aviation Brigade, the Aviation Brigade was deployed to Saudi Arabia following Iraqs invasion of Kuwait in 1990. Through the 1990s, the deployed elements to Somalia, Kuwait, Bosnia, Kosovo. On 9 October 1997, the Aviation Brigade split its nine battalions into two brigades, the 101st Aviation Brigade and the 159th Aviation Brigade, upon return from its Iraq deployment, the 101st Combat Aviation Brigade was finally restructured to its current form. The 159th Aviation Brigade underwent a transformation and was redesignated as the 159th Combat Aviation Brigade. The 101st Airborne Division was the division in the US Army to have two aviation brigades. On May 7,2015 the 159th Combat Aviation Brigade was inactivated at a ceremony at the Fort Campbell, Kentucky, Division Parade field, leaving only the 101st Combat Aviation Brigade in the division. Concurrently the 101st CAB was redesignated as the Combat Aviation Brigade, 101st Airborne Division, bringing it in line with other divisional aviation brigades and this reorganization resulted in the division having the same configuration as the 10th Mountain Division, a light infantry division. Along with the 159th Combat Aviation Brigade being inactivated, one of the most storied dustoff units in the United States Army history was inactivated as well, the divisions Eagle Dustoff. During the 1990 Gulf War Eagle Dustoff was deployed to the Saudi Arabian Theater of operations on 22 August 1990 and was the first US Army medevac unit in country. When Eagle Dustoff landed in Dhahran Saudi Arabia and was unloaded from a C-5A Galaxy, throughout Desert Shield and Desert Storm, Eagle Dustoff transported and saved the lives of US military personnel, Saudi nationals and Iraqi enemy prisoners of war. Beginning in January 2002, the brigade responded to the call to arms in support of Operation Enduring Freedom in Afghanistan following the attacks on 9/11, the 101st was the first conventional aviation asset deployed after 9/11
12.
101st Aviation Regiment (United States)
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The 101st Aviation Regiment is an aviation regiment of the U. S. Army. Symbolism The eagle in flight represents Aviation and it also alludes to the 101st Airborne Division, to which the organization is assigned. Background The distinctive unit insignia was approved for the 101st Aviation Battalion on 22 April 1965. It was redesignated for the 101st Aviation Regiment, effective 16 October 1987, Shield Azure, a pile lozengy at the point Argent, in chief a mullet of eight rays per fess wavy Gules and of the first. Crest On a wreath of the colors, Argent and Azure, symbolism Shield Teal blue and white are the colors formerly used by Aviation units. Participation by the parent unit in the actions at Whitehorse Mountain, Triangle Hill, the projection at its base represents the Kumsong Salient action. Crest The crest is symbolic of the action at Whitehorse Mountain, Triangle Hill, background The coat of arms was originally approved for the 101st Aviation Battalion on 2 March 1965. It was redesignated for the 101st Aviation Regiment, effective 16 October 1987, organic elements concurrently constituted and activated. Reorganized and redesignated 16 October 1987 as Headquarters and Headquarters Company, 3rd Battalion, 101st Aviation Regiment, the 123rd had been reactivated on 17 December 1985 from aviation assets within the 101st Divisions command groups and the 163rd Aviation Company. HHC Constituted 7 December 1950 in the Regular Army as the 4th Light Aviation Section. S, Army Aviation Regiments U. S. Army Regimental System This article incorporates public domain material from the United States Army Institute of Heraldry document 101st Aviation Regiment. This article incorporates public domain material from the United States Army Center of Military History document 101st Aviation Regiment Lineage, historical register and dictionary of the United States Army, from. Volume 1 By Francis Bernard Heitman Encyclopedia of United States Army insignia and uniforms By William K. Emerson
13.
Vietnam War
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It was the second of the Indochina Wars and was officially fought between North Vietnam and the government of South Vietnam. The war is considered a Cold War-era proxy war. As the war continued, the actions of the Viet Cong decreased as the role. U. S. and South Vietnamese forces relied on air superiority and overwhelming firepower to conduct search and destroy operations, involving ground forces, artillery, in the course of the war, the U. S. conducted a large-scale strategic bombing campaign against North Vietnam. The North Vietnamese government and the Viet Cong were fighting to reunify Vietnam and they viewed the conflict as a colonial war and a continuation of the First Indochina War against forces from France and later on the United States. The U. S. government viewed its involvement in the war as a way to prevent a communist takeover of South Vietnam and this was part the domino theory of a wider containment policy, with the stated aim of stopping the spread of communism. Beginning in 1950, American military advisors arrived in what was then French Indochina, U. S. involvement escalated in the early 1960s, with troop levels tripling in 1961 and again in 1962. Regular U. S. combat units were deployed beginning in 1965, despite the Paris Peace Accord, which was signed by all parties in January 1973, the fighting continued. In the U. S. and the Western world, a large anti-Vietnam War movement developed as part of a larger counterculture, the war changed the dynamics between the Eastern and Western Blocs, and altered North–South relations. Direct U. S. military involvement ended on 15 August 1973, the capture of Saigon by the North Vietnamese Army in April 1975 marked the end of the war, and North and South Vietnam were reunified the following year. The war exacted a huge human cost in terms of fatalities, estimates of the number of Vietnamese soldiers and civilians killed vary from 966,000 to 3.8 million. Some 240, 000–300,000 Cambodians,20, 000–62,000 Laotians, and 58,220 U. S. service members died in the conflict. Various names have applied to the conflict. Vietnam War is the most commonly used name in English and it has also been called the Second Indochina War and the Vietnam Conflict. As there have been several conflicts in Indochina, this conflict is known by the names of its primary protagonists to distinguish it from others. In Vietnamese, the war is known as Kháng chiến chống Mỹ. It is also called Chiến tranh Việt Nam, France began its conquest of Indochina in the late 1850s, and completed pacification by 1893. The 1884 Treaty of Huế formed the basis for French colonial rule in Vietnam for the seven decades
14.
Boeing CH-47 Chinook
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The Boeing CH-47 Chinook is an American twin-engine, tandem rotor heavy-lift helicopter. Its primary roles are troop movement, artillery placement and battlefield resupply and it has a wide loading ramp at the rear of the fuselage and three external ventral cargo hooks. With a top speed of 170 knots the helicopter was faster than contemporary 1960s utility helicopters and attack helicopters, the CH-47 is among the heaviest lifting Western helicopters. Its name is from the Native American Chinook people, the Chinook was designed and initially produced by Boeing Vertol in the early 1960s, it is now produced by Boeing Rotorcraft Systems. It is one of the few aircraft of that era – along with the fixed-wing Lockheed C-130 Hercules cargo aircraft – that remain in production and frontline service, with over 1,200 built to date. The helicopter has been sold to 16 nations with the U. S. Army, in late 1956, the United States Department of the Army announced plans to replace the Sikorsky CH-37 Mojave, which was powered by piston engines, with a new, gas turbine-powered helicopter. Turbine engines were also a key feature of the smaller UH-1 Huey utility helicopter. Following a design competition, in September 1958, a joint Army–Air Force source selection board recommended that the Army procure the Vertol medium transport helicopter, however, funding for full-scale development was not then available, and the Army vacillated on its design requirements. Vertol began work on a new tandem-rotor helicopter designated Vertol Model 107 or V-107 in 1957, in June 1958, the U. S. Army awarded a contract to Vertol for the aircraft under the YHC-1A designation. The YHC-1A had a capacity for 20 troops, three were tested by the Army for deriving engineering and operational data. However, the YHC-1A was considered by most of the Army users to be too heavy for the assault role, the decision was made to procure a heavier transport helicopter and at the same time upgrade the UH-1 Huey as a tactical troop transport. The YHC-1A would be improved and adopted by the Marines as the CH-46 Sea Knight in 1962, the Army then ordered the larger Model 114 under the designation HC-1B. The pre-production Boeing Vertol YCH-1B made its initial hovering flight on 21 September 1961, in 1962 the HC-1B was redesignated the CH-47A under the 1962 United States Tri-Service aircraft designation system. It was named Chinook for the Chinook people of the Pacific Northwest, the CH-47 is powered by two Lycoming T55 turboshaft engines, mounted on each side of the helicopters rear pylon and connected to the rotors by driveshafts. Initial models were fitted with engines rated at 2,200 horsepower each, the counter-rotating rotors eliminate the need for an anti-torque vertical rotor, allowing all power to be used for lift and thrust. The ability to adjust lift in either rotor makes it sensitive to changes in the center of gravity. If one engine fails, the other can drive both rotors, the sizing of the Chinook was directly related to the growth of the Huey and the Armys tacticians insistence that initial air assaults be built around the squad. The Army pushed for both the Huey and the Chinook, and this focus was responsible for the acceleration of its air mobility effort, improved and more powerful versions of the CH-47 have been developed since the helicopter entered service
15.
Sikorsky CH-54 Tarhe
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The Sikorsky CH-54 Tarhe is a twin-engine heavy-lift helicopter designed by Sikorsky Aircraft for the United States Army. It is named after Tarhe, an 18th-century chief of the Wyandot Indian tribe, the civil version is the S-64 Skycrane. Initial work on the Sikorsky sky-crane helicopters began in 1958 with the piston-engined Sikorsky S-60, the first flight of the turboshaft-powered S-64 Skycrane was on 9 May 1962. The United States Army eventually purchased 105, designating them CH-54, early pods could not carry troops and external sling-loads at the same time, later, pods that could carry both were developed but not acquired. As of 2014, it holds the record for highest altitude in flight and fastest climb to 3,6. Due to budget cuts, the Heavy Lift Helicopter program was canceled, the Soviet Union also created much larger crane helicopters with a similar skeletal design, such as the Mil Mi-10. Today, Erickson Air-Crane of Central Point, Oregon operates the largest fleet of S-64 helicopters in the world under the name Erickson S-64 Aircrane and these can be equipped with water-dropping equipment for firefighting duties worldwide. After obtaining the certificate and manufacturing rights in 1992, Erickson remains the manufacturer. CH-54A Production model powered by two 4,500 shp Pratt & Whitney T73-P-1 turboshafts,54 built, cH-54B Heavier version of the CH-54A with two 4,800 shp T-73-P-700 turboshafts and twin-wheeled main undercarriage,37 built. United States NASA United States Army A large number of surviving airframes exist in flyable condition as well as in collections worldwide. General characteristics Crew, three Payload,20,000 lb Length,88 ft 6 in Rotor diameter,72 ft 0 in Height,25 ft 5 in Disc area,4071.5 ft² Empty weight,19,800 lb Max. Taylor, John W. R. Janes All the Worlds Aircraft 1976–77
16.
Instrument flight rules
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Instrument flight rules is one of two sets of regulations governing all aspects of civil aviation aircraft operations, the other is visual flight rules. The U. S. IFR flight depends upon flying by reference to instruments in the flight deck and it is also a term used by pilots and controllers to indicate the type of flight plan an aircraft is flying, such as an IFR or VFR flight plan. To put instrument flight rules into context, an overview of visual flight rules is necessary. This is known as operating the aircraft under VFR, and is the most common mode of operation for small craft, thus, cloud ceiling and flight visibility are the most important variables for safe operations during all phases of flight. However, typical daytime VFR minimums for most airspace is 3 statute miles of visibility and a distance from clouds of 500 below,1,000 above. Flight conditions reported as equal to or greater than these VFR minimums are referred to as visual meteorological conditions, any aircraft operating under VFR must have the required equipment on board, as described in FAR Part 91.205. Visual flight rules are simpler than instrument flight rules, and require significantly less training. VFR provides a degree of freedom, allowing pilots to go where they want, when they want. Pilots are not required to file a plan, do not have to communicate with ATC. When operation of an aircraft under VFR is not safe, because the visual cues outside the aircraft are obscured by weather or darkness, instrument flight rules must be used instead. IFR permits an aircraft to operate in instrument meteorological conditions, which is any weather condition less than VMC. Use of instrument flight rules are required when flying in Class A airspace regardless of weather conditions. Class A airspace extends from 18,000 feet above sea level to flight level 600 above the contiguous 48 United States. Flight in Class A airspace requires pilots and aircraft to be instrument equipped and rated, Instrument pilots must meticulously evaluate weather, create a very detailed flight plan based around specific instrument departure, en route, and arrival procedures, and dispatch the flight. The distance by which an aircraft avoids obstacles or other aircraft is termed separation, the most important concept of IFR flying is that separation is maintained regardless of weather conditions. In controlled airspace, air traffic control separates IFR aircraft from obstacles and other aircraft using a flight clearance based on route, time, distance, speed, ATC monitors IFR flights on radar, or through aircraft position reports in areas where radar coverage is not available. Aircraft position reports are sent as voice radio transmissions, in the United States, a flight operating under IFR is required to provide position reports unless ATC advises a pilot that the plane is in radar contact. The pilot must resume position reports after ATC advises that radar contact has been lost, IFR flights in controlled airspace require an ATC clearance for each part of the flight
17.
Fort Bragg
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Fort Bragg is an installation of the United States Army and is the largest military base in the world with more than 50,000 active duty personnel. The base is located within Cumberland, Hoke, Harnett and Moore counties, Fort Bragg borders the towns of Fayetteville, Spring Lake and Southern Pines. It was also a place in the 2010 Census, during which a population of 39,457 was identified. The fort is named for Confederate general Braxton Bragg and it covers over 251 square miles. It is also home to the U. S. Army Forces Command, U. S. Army Reserve Command, Camp Bragg was established in 1918 as an artillery training ground. The Chief of Field Artillery, General William J. Camp Bragg was named to honor a native North Carolinian, Braxton Bragg, the aim was for six artillery brigades to be stationed there and $6,000,000 was spent on the land and cantonments. There was an airfield on the used by aircraft and balloons for artillery spotters. The airfield was named Pope Field on April 1,1919, in honor of First Lieutenant Harley H. Pope, the work on the camp was finished on November 1,1919. The original plan for six brigades was abandoned after World War I ended, the artillery men, their equipment and material from Camp McClellan, Alabama, were moved over to Fort Bragg and testing began on long-range weapons that were a product of the war. The six artillery brigades were reduced to two cantonments and a garrison was to be built for Army troops as well as a National Guard training center, in early 1921 two field artillery units, the 13th and 17th Field Artillery Brigades, began training at Camp Bragg. The same year, the Long Street Church and six acres of property were acquired for the reservation, the church was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1974. Due to the cutbacks, the camp was nearly closed for good when the War department issued orders to close the camp on August 7,1921. General Albert J. Bowley was commander at the camp and after much campaigning, and getting the Secretary of War to visit the camp, the Field Artillery Board was transferred to Fort Bragg on February 1,1922. Camp Bragg was renamed Fort Bragg, to becoming a permanent Army post. From 1923 to 1924 permanent structures were constructed on Fort Bragg, by 1940, during World War II, the population of Fort Bragg had reached 5,400, however, in the following year, that number ballooned to 67,000. The population reached a peak of 159,000 during the war years, following World War II, the 82nd Airborne Division was permanently stationed at Fort Bragg, the only large unit there for some time. In July 1951, the XVIII Airborne Corps was reactivated at Fort Bragg, Fort Bragg became a center for unconventional warfare, with the creation of the Psychological Warfare Center in April 1952, followed by the 10th Special Forces Group. In 1961, the 5th Special Forces Group was activated at Fort Bragg, also in 1961, the Iron Mike statue, a tribute to all Airborne soldiers, past, present and future, was dedicated
18.
12th Combat Aviation Brigade
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The 12th Combat Aviation Brigade is a Combat Aviation Brigade of the United States Army. It was first organized as the 12th Aviation Group at Fort Benning, Georgia, the unit deployed to Vietnam in August 1965 to command non-organic Army aviation units, and by November 1965, the group consisted of 11,000 personnel and 34 aviation units. Between 1965 and 1966 the group doubled in size and was used to form the 1st Aviation Brigade in March 1966, among its units in Vietnam were the 11th, 13th, 145th, 210th, 214th, 222nd, 269th and 308th Aviation Battalions. Assigned to the III Military Region in Vietnam, the 12th Group was the largest unit of its type to serve in combat and its colors, emblazoned with 18 campaign streamers, give lasting testimony to its role. The unit earned the Meritorious Unit Commendation, two Vietnamese Crosses for Gallantry with Palm, and the Vietnamese Civic Action Medal, First Class while in Vietnam. Upon its return in March 1973, the 12th Aviation Group became a subordinate command of the XVIII Airborne Corps, Fort Bragg. In April 1984, Headquarters Company, 12th Aviation Group moved to Wiesbaden Air Base, in the latter part of 1988, the Brigade re-structured again when the 5th Squadron, 6th Cavalry Regiment arrived in Europe. During the Cold War years the 12th had a 12-man pathfinder platoon assigned to the group headquarters, the authorization for the pathfinder unit was deleted around the time the group was redesignated a brigade and the pathfinders departed as their tours ended. Their beret flash and parachute wing trimming can be seen on the Institute of Heraldry website, in August 1990, the Brigade deployed to Southwest Asia for Operations Desert Shield and Desert Storm with 2–3 Aviation Regiment attached. During Desert Storm the Brigade provided a mobile and lethal maneuver force to the multi-national forces in Saudi Arabia. Initially attached to the 101st Airborne Division, the Brigade became a subordinate command of XVIII Airborne Corps in January 1991. On 15 June 1992, the 5th Squadron, 6th Cavalry Regiment was de-activated as part of the downsizing of U. S. Army Europe, the 3rd Battalion, 58th Aviation Regiment joined the Brigade on 16 June 1992. Since the end of the Cold War, the Brigade has played a role in America’s peacekeeping operations. From 1991 until 1996, 12th Brigade ensured the safety of Kurdish citizens during Operation Provide Comfort, the Brigade operated the Beirut Air Bridge from 1993 until 1998, providing a logistical lifeline to the US Embassy in Beirut from Cyprus. The Brigade also deployed soldiers to Hungary and Bosnia in 1995 to enforce the peace during Operations Joint Endeavor, in April 1999, the Brigade deployed to Tirana, Albania as part of Task Force Hawk in support of NATO Operation Allied Force. The Brigade Task Force consisted of 65 aircraft including UH-60 Black Hawks, CH-47 Chinooks, AH-64 Apaches, after returning from Task Force Hawk and Task Force Falcon, 12th Brigade prepared for re-structuring and re-stationing initiatives. USAREUR Movement Directive 5-00 directed all of the Aviation Brigade elements stationed at Wiesbaden Army Airfield to move to Giebelstadt Army Airfield, on 31 August 2000, all units from Wiesbaden closed on Giebelstadt Army Airfield. In support of the Global War on Terror, the 12th Aviation Brigade conducted full spectrum combat operations during its deployment to Operation Iraqi Freedom
19.
Gulf War
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The Iraqi Armys occupation of Kuwait that began 2 August 1990 was met with international condemnation, and brought immediate economic sanctions against Iraq by members of the UN Security Council. US President George H. W. Bush deployed US forces into Saudi Arabia, an array of nations joined the coalition, the largest military alliance since World War II. The great majority of the military forces were from the US, with Saudi Arabia, the United Kingdom. Kuwait and Saudi Arabia paid around US$32 billion of the US$60 billion cost, the war was marked by the introduction of live news broadcasts from the front lines of the battle, principally by the US network CNN. The war has also earned the nickname Video Game War after the daily broadcast of images from cameras on board US bombers during Operation Desert Storm. The initial conflict to expel Iraqi troops from Kuwait began with an aerial and naval bombardment on 17 January 1991 and this was followed by a ground assault on 24 February. This was a victory for the coalition forces, who liberated Kuwait. The coalition ceased its advance, and declared a ceasefire 100 hours after the campaign started. Aerial and ground combat was confined to Iraq, Kuwait, Iraq launched Scud missiles against coalition military targets in Saudi Arabia and against Israel. The following names have been used to describe the conflict itself, Gulf War, a problem with these terms is that the usage is ambiguous, having now been applied to at least three conflicts, see Gulf War. The use of the term Persian Gulf is also disputed, see Persian Gulf naming dispute, with no consensus of naming, various publications have attempted to refine the name. Other language terms include French, la Guerre du Golfe and German, Golfkrieg, German, Zweiter Golfkrieg, French, most of the coalition states used various names for their operations and the wars operational phases. Operation Desert Storm was the US name of the conflict from 17 January 1991. Operation Desert Sabre was the US name for the offensive against the Iraqi Army in the Kuwaiti Theater of Operations from 24–28 February 1991, in itself. Operation Desert Farewell was the given to the return of US units and equipment to the US in 1991 after Kuwaits liberation. Operation Granby was the British name for British military activities during the operations, Opération Daguet was the French name for French military activities in the conflict. Operation Friction was the name of the Canadian operations Operazione Locusta was the Italian name for the operations, in addition, various phases of each operation may have a unique operational name. The US divided the conflict into three campaigns, Defense of Saudi Arabian country for the period 2 August 1990, through 16 January 1991
20.
Sikorsky UH-60 Black Hawk
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The Sikorsky UH-60 Black Hawk is a four-bladed, twin-engine, medium-lift utility helicopter manufactured by Sikorsky Aircraft. Sikorsky submitted the S-70 design for the United States Armys Utility Tactical Transport Aircraft System competition in 1972, the Army designated the prototype as the YUH-60A and selected the Black Hawk as the winner of the program in 1976, after a fly-off competition with the Boeing Vertol YUH-61. Named after the Native American war leader Black Hawk, the UH-60A entered service with the U. S. Army in 1979 and this was followed by the fielding of electronic warfare and special operations variants of the Black Hawk. Improved UH-60L and UH-60M utility variants have also been developed, Modified versions have also been developed for the U. S. Navy, Air Force, and Coast Guard. In addition to U. S. Army use, the UH-60 family has been exported to several nations, Black Hawks have served in combat during conflicts in Grenada, Panama, Iraq, Somalia, the Balkans, Afghanistan, and other areas in the Middle East. In the late 1960s, the United States Army began forming requirements for a helicopter to replace the UH-1 Iroquois, the Army also initiated the development of a new, common turbine engine for its helicopters that would become the General Electric T700. Based on experience in Vietnam, the Army required significant performance, the Army released its UTTAS request for proposals in January 1972. The RFP also included air transport requirements, Transport aboard the C-130 limited the UTTAS cabin height and length. Four prototypes were constructed, with the first YUH-60A flying on 17 October 1974, prior to delivery of the prototypes to the US Army, a preliminary evaluation was conducted in November 1975 to ensure the aircraft could be operated safely during all testing. Three of the prototypes were delivered to the Army in March 1976, for evaluation against the rival Boeing-Vertol design, the YUH-61A, the Army selected the UH-60 for production in December 1976. Deliveries of the UH-60A to the Army began in October 1978, after entering service, the helicopter was modified for new missions and roles, including mine laying and medical evacuation. An EH-60 variant was developed to conduct electronic warfare and special operations aviation developed the MH-60 variant to support its missions, due to weight increases from the addition of mission equipment and other changes, the Army ordered the improved UH-60L in 1987. The new model incorporated all of the made to the UH-60A fleet as standard design features. The UH-60L also featured more power and lifting capability with upgraded T700-GE-701C engines and its external lift capacity increased by 1,000 lb up to 9,000 lb. The UH-60L also incorporated the automatic control system from the SH-60 for better flight control due to handling issues with the more powerful engines. Production of the L-model began in 1989, Development of the next improved variant, the UH-60M, was approved in 2001, to extend the service life of the UH-60 design into the 2020s. The UH-60M incorporates upgraded T700-GE-701D engines, improved rotor blades, and state of the art electronic instrumentation, flight controls and aircraft navigation control. After the U. S. DoD approved low-rate initial production of the new variant, manufacturing began in 2006, after an initial operational evaluation, the Army approved full-rate production and a five-year contract for 1,227 helicopters in December 2007
21.
Bell UH-1 Iroquois
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The Bell UH-1 Iroquois is a utility military helicopter powered by a single turboshaft engine, with two-blade main and tail rotors. The UH-1 was the first turbine-powered helicopter to enter production in 1960 for the United States military, the Iroquois was originally designated HU-1, hence the Huey nickname, which has remained in common use, despite the official redesignation to UH-1 in 1962. The UH-1 first saw service in operations during the Vietnam War. The Bell 204 and 205 are Iroquois versions developed for the civil market, in 1952, the U. S. Army identified a requirement for a new helicopter to serve as medical evacuation, instrument trainer, and general utility aircraft. The Army determined that current helicopters were too large, underpowered, in November 1953, revised military requirements were submitted to the Department of the Army. Twenty companies submitted designs in their bid for the contract, including Bell Helicopter with the Model 204, on 23 February 1955, the Army announced its decision, selecting Bell to build three copies of the Model 204 for evaluation with the designatation XH-40. Powered by a prototype Lycoming YT53-L-1 engine producing 700 shp, the XH-40 first flew on 20 October 1956 at Fort Worth, Texas, with Bells chief test pilot, Floyd Carlson, at the controls. Two more prototypes were built in 1957, and the Army had previously ordered six YH-40 service test aircraft, in March 1960, the Army awarded Bell a production contract for 100 aircraft, which was designated as the HU-1A and officially named Iroquois after the Native American nations. The helicopter quickly developed a nickname derived from its designation of HU-1, the reference became so popular that Bell began casting the name on the helicopters anti-torque pedals. The official U. S. Army name was almost never used in practice, after September 1962, the designation for all models was changed to UH-1 under a unified Department of Defense designation system, but the nickname remained. The Army indicated the need for improved follow-on models even as the first UH-1As were being delivered, Army testing of the UH-1B started in November 1960, with the first production aircraft delivered in March 1961. Bell commenced development of the UH-1C in 1960 in order to correct deficiencies of the armed UH-1B. Bell fitted the UH-1C with a 1,100 shp T53-L-11 engine to provide the power needed to all weapons systems in use or under development. The Army would eventually refit all UH-1B aircraft with the same engine, a new rotor system was developed for the UH-1C to allow higher air speeds and reduce the incidence of retreating blade stall during diving engagements. The improved rotor resulted in better maneuverability and a speed increase. The increased power and a larger diameter rotor required Bells engineers to design a new boom for the UH-1C. The longer tail boom incorporated a wider chord fin on the tail rotor pylon. Bell also introduced a hydraulic control system for redundancy as well as an improved inlet filter system for the dusty conditions found in southeast Asia
22.
Boeing AH-64 Apache
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The Boeing AH-64 Apache is an American four-blade, twin-turboshaft attack helicopter with a tailwheel-type landing gear arrangement and a tandem cockpit for a two-man crew. It features a nose-mounted sensor suite for target acquisition and night vision systems and it is armed with a 30 mm M230 chain gun carried between the main landing gear, under the aircrafts forward fuselage. It has four hardpoints mounted on stub-wing pylons, typically carrying a mixture of AGM-114 Hellfire missiles, the AH-64 has a large amount of systems redundancy to improve combat survivability. The Apache originally started as the Model 77 developed by Hughes Helicopters for the United States Armys Advanced Attack Helicopter program to replace the AH-1 Cobra, the prototype YAH-64 was first flown on 30 September 1975. The U. S. Army selected the YAH-64 over the Bell YAH-63 in 1976, after purchasing Hughes Helicopters in 1984, McDonnell Douglas continued AH-64 production and development. The helicopter was introduced to U. S. Army service in April 1986, the first production AH-64D Apache Longbow, an upgraded Apache variant, was delivered to the Army in March 1997. Production has been continued by Boeing Defense, Space & Security, American AH-64s have served in conflicts in Panama, the Persian Gulf, Kosovo, Afghanistan, and Iraq. Israel used the Apache in its conflicts in Lebanon and the Gaza Strip, British and Dutch Apaches have seen deployments in wars in Afghanistan. Following the cancellation of the AH-56 Cheyenne in 1972, in favor of projects like the U. S, the Army wanted an aircraft better than the AH-1 Cobra in firepower, performance and range. It would have the maneuverability for terrain following nap-of-the-earth flying, to this end, the U. S. Army issued a Request For Proposals for an Advanced Attack Helicopter on 15 November 1972. As a sign of the importance of project, in September 1973 the Army designated its five most important projects as the Big Five. Proposals were submitted by Bell, Boeing Vertol/Grumman team, Hughes, Lockheed, in July 1973, the U. S. Department of Defense selected finalists Bell and Hughes Aircrafts Toolco Aircraft Division. This began the phase 1 of the competition, each company built prototype helicopters and went through a flight test program. Hughes Model 77/YAH-64A prototype first flew on 30 September 1975, while Bells Model 409/YAH-63A prototype first flew on 1 October 1975, after evaluating the test results, the Army selected Hughes YAH-64A over Bells YAH-63A in 1976. Reasons for selecting the YAH-64A included its more damage tolerant four-blade main rotor, weapons and sensor systems were integrated and tested during this time, including the laser-guided AGM-114 Hellfire missile. In 1981, three pre-production AH-64As were handed over to the U. S. Army for Operational Test II, the Army testing was successful, but afterward it was decided to upgrade to the more powerful T700-GE-701 version of engine, rated at 1,690 shp. The AH-64 was named the Apache in late 1981, keeping with the Armys traditional use of American Indian tribal names for its helicopters, in 1983, the first production helicopter was rolled out at Hughes Helicopters facility at Mesa, Arizona. Hughes Helicopters was purchased by McDonnell Douglas for $470 million in 1984, the helicopter unit later became part of The Boeing Company with the merger of Boeing and McDonnell Douglas in August 1997
23.
Bagram Airfield
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Bagram Airfield, also known as Bagram Air Base, is the largest U. S. military base in Afghanistan. It is located next to the ancient city of Bagram,11 kilometres southeast of Charikar in the Parwan Province of Afghanistan, the airfield features a dual runway capable of handling any size military aircraft, including Lockheed Martin C-5 Galaxy and Antonov An-225. The base is occupied by Government contractors, the International Security Assistance Force. Bagram Airfield is currently maintained by the Combined Joint Task Force 1st Cavalry Division, in addition, the U. S. government regional platform for the east is at the base, staffed by civilians. The ICAO ID is OAIX and it is specifically at 34. 944N,69. 259E at 1,492 metres above sea level. One of Bagrams runways is 3,003 metres long and the other is 3,500 metres long, there are a number of large hangars, a control tower, numerous support buildings, and various housing areas. There are also more than 32 acres of space and five aircraft dispersal areas. Many support buildings and base housing built by the Soviet Armed Forces during their occupation were destroyed by years of fighting between various warring Afghan factions after the Soviets left, New barracks and office buildings are being constructed at the present time, and the base is slowly expanding. The Kabul International Airport is about 25 miles south of Bagram, also, the Parwan Detention Facility is located somewhere around the base at Bagram. It has been criticized in the past for its treatment of prisoners. The airport at Bagram was originally built in the 1950s, during the Cold War, at a time when the United States, while the United States was focusing on Afghanistan, the Soviets were busy with the Island of Cuba and Fidel Castro. The present runway,10,000 foot long, was built in 1976, the airport at Bagram was maintained by the Afghan Air Force with some support from the U. S. During the 1980s Soviet war in Afghanistan, it played a key role, serving as a base of operations for troops and supplies. Bagram was also the staging point for the invading Soviet forces at the beginning of the conflict. Aircraft based at Bagram, including the 368th Assault Aviation Regiment flying Su-25s, provided air support for Soviet. The 368th Assault Aviation Regiment was stationed at Bagram from October 1986 to November 1987, some of the Soviet land forces based at Bagram included the 108th Motor Rifle Division and the 345th Independent Guards Airborne Regiment of the 105th Guards Airborne Division. Following the withdrawal of the Soviet forces and the rise of the Western-funded and Pakistani-trained mujahideen rebels, control of the base was contested from 1999 onward between the Northern Alliance and Taliban, often with each controlling territory on opposing ends of the base. Taliban forces were consistently within artillery and mortar range of the field, press reports indicated that at times a Northern Alliance general was using the bombed-out control tower as an observation post and as a location to brief journalists, with his headquarters nearby
24.
Operation Anaconda
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Operation Anaconda took place in early March 2002. CIA Paramilitary Officers, working with their allies, attempted to destroy al-Qaeda, the operation took place in the Shahi-Kot Valley and Arma Mountains southeast of Zormat. This operation was the first large-scale battle in the United States War in Afghanistan since the Battle of Tora Bora in December 2001 and this was the first operation in the Afghanistan theater to involve a large number of U. S. conventional forces participating in direct combat activities. Between March 2 and March 16,20021,700 airlifted U. S. troops and 1,000 pro-government Afghan militia battled between 300 and 1,000 al-Qaeda and Taliban fighters to obtain control of the valley. The Taliban and al-Qaeda forces fired mortars and heavy guns from entrenched positions in the caves and ridges of the mountainous terrain at U. S. forces attempting to secure the area. Afghan Taliban commander Maulavi Saifur Rehman Mansoor later led Taliban reinforcements to join the battle. U. S. forces had estimated the strength of the rebels in the Shahi-Kot Valley at 150 to 200, the Shahi-Kot stretches 9km in length and 5km across at its widest point. It is composed of two areas, the Lower and Upper the Shahi-Kot which run roughly parallel to each other. During the Soviet–Afghan War, Mujahideen leader Malawi Nasrullah Mansoor was in charge of the valley, Mansoor fortified the valley, digging trench systems, building bunkers and firing postions into the ridgelines, many of which would be put to effect during the operation. The Lower Shahikot bordered the Pakistani tribal lands where many fighters were believed to have escaped to from Tora Bora. Others within AFO and the CIA were making the same connection, the signal intelligence also raised the possibility that high-value targets were present in the valley among which were Jalaluddin Haqqani and Saif Rahman. In late January and February plans were drawn up to assault the Shahi-Kot Valley using Afghan military forces advised and assisted by U. S. special operators, Major General Franklin L. Hagenbeck, Commander, Combined Joint Task Force Mountain, was put in command of the operation. The plan called for an attack on the valley, along with units positioned in the mountains to the east to prevent escape into Pakistan. The expectation was that fighters, as in the case of Tora Bora several months earlier, would flee in the face of an assault and it was decided to use U. S. conventional infantry. In keeping with established strategy in Afghanistan, fire support was to be provided by United States Air Force units, further air support was provided by U. S. Navy units and French Air Force Mirage 2000Ds. The amount of conventional assets allowed in Afghanistan was limited by United States Central Command, the final plan foresaw two major forces, TF Hammer and TF Anvil. TF Anvil consisted of TF Rakkasan and the 1-87 to set up blocking positions, Special operations teams from the AFO detachment led by Lieutenant Colonel Pete Blaber were to provide on-location reconnaissance in the Shahi-Kot Valley for the operation. The Afghans had successfully defeated the Soviet Army twice in this valley, the operation was composed of elements, Task Force Dagger, ODAs from the 5th SFG, B company, 2nd Battalion, 160th SOAR and Combat Tactical Air Controllers
25.
Infantry
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Infantry is the general branch of an army that engages in military combat on foot. As the troops who engage with the enemy in close-ranged combat, infantry units bear the largest brunt of warfare, Infantry can enter and maneuver in terrain that is inaccessible to military vehicles and employ crew-served infantry weapons that provide greater and more sustained firepower. In English, the 16th-century term Infantry describes soldiers who walk to the battlefield, and there engage, fight, the term arose in Sixteenth-Century Spain, which boasted one of the first professional standing armies seen in Europe since the days of Rome. It was common to appoint royal princes to military commands, and the men under them became known as Infanteria. in the Canadian Army, the role of the infantry is to close with, and destroy the enemy. In the U. S. Army, the closes with the enemy, by means of fire and maneuver, in order to destroy or capture him, or to repel his assault by fire, close combat. In the U. S. Marine Corps, the role of the infantry is to locate, close with, and destroy the enemy fire and maneuver. Beginning with the Napoleonic Wars of the early 19th century, artillery has become a dominant force on the battlefield. Since World War I, combat aircraft and armoured vehicles have become dominant. In 20th and 21st century warfare, infantry functions most effectively as part of a combined arms team including artillery, armour, Infantry relies on organized formations to be employed in battle. These have evolved over time, but remain a key element to effective infantry development and deployment, until the end of the 19th century, infantry units were for the most part employed in close formations up until contact with the enemy. This allowed commanders to control of the unit, especially while maneuvering. The development of guns and other weapons with increased firepower forced infantry units to disperse in order to make them less vulnerable to such weapons. This decentralization of command was made possible by improved communications equipment, among the various subtypes of infantry is Medium infantry. This refers to infantry which are heavily armed and armored than heavy infantry. In the early period, medium infantry were largely eliminated due to discontinued use of body armour up until the 20th century. In the United States Army, Stryker Infantry is considered Medium Infantry, since they are heavier than light infantry, Infantry doctrine is the concise expression of how infantry forces contribute to campaigns, major operations, battles, and engagements. It is a guide to action, not a set of hard, doctrine provides a very common frame of reference across the military forces, allowing the infantry to function cooperatively in what are now called combined arms operations. Doctrine helps standardise operations, facilitating readiness by establishing common ways of accomplishing infantry tasks, doctrine links theory, history, experimentation, and practice
26.
10th Mountain Division
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The 10th Mountain Division is a light infantry division in the United States Army based at Fort Drum, New York. Originally constituted as a mountain warfare unit, the division was the one of its size to receive intense specialized training for fighting in mountainous. Today, the 10th honors that legacy by retaining the Mountain designation, on 5 May 1945 the Division reached Nauders, Austria, beyond the Resia Pass, where it made contact with German forces being pushed south by the U. S. A status quo was maintained until the enemy headquarters involved had completed their surrender to the Seventh, on the 6th, 10th Mountain troops met the 44th Infantry Division of Seventh Army. Following the war, the division was inactivated, only to be reactivated and redesignated as the 10th Infantry Division in 1948. The division first acted as a division and, in 1954, was converted to a full combat division. Reactivated again in 1985, the division was designated the 10th Mountain Division to historically tie it to the World War II division, since its reactivation, the division or elements of the division have deployed numerous times. Since 2001, the division and its four combat brigades have seen over 20 deployments to both Iraq and Afghanistan in support of Operation Iraqi Freedom and Operation Enduring Freedom, respectively. The 10th Division was originally organized in 1918 as a Regular Army, however, it did not go overseas and demobilized in February 1919 at Camp Funston, Kansas. It was redesignated the Panama Canal Division after the war and shares no connection with the 10th Mountain Division activated during World War II. In November 1939, during the Soviet Unions invasion of Finland, the U. S. Army authorized the formation of the platoon sized Army Ski Patrol in November 1940. The first Patrol was formed at Camp Murray as part of the 41st Infantry Division under Lt. Ralph S. Phelps and this required an overhaul of U. S. military doctrine, as the concept of winter warfare had not been tested in the army since 1914. At first, planners envisioned ten mountain divisions, but personnel shortages revised the goal to three, eventually, the 10th Mountain Division would be the only one brought to active duty. The Italian military had lost a disastrous 25,000 men in the campaign because of their lack of preparedness to fight in the mountains, on 22 October 1941, General Marshall decided to form the first battalion of mountain warfare troops for a new mountain division. The Ski Patrol would assist in its training, on 8 December 1941, the day after the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor, the army activated its first mountain unit, the 87th Mountain Infantry Battalion at Fort Lewis, Washington, south of Tacoma. It was the first mountain warfare unit in U. S. military history, the National Ski Patrol took on the unique role of recruiting for the 87th Infantry Regiment and later the division, becoming the only civilian recruiting agency in military history. The 87th trained in harsh conditions, including Mount Rainiers 14, 411-foot peak, initial training was conducted by Olympian Rolf Monsen. A new garrison was built for the division in central Colorado at Camp Hale, the U. S. Army Mountain Warfare School was eventually established at nearby Camp Carson in late 1942, and began to oversee mountain warfare training
27.
Twilight
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Twilight is the illumination of the Earths lower atmosphere when the Sun itself is not directly visible because it is below the horizon. Twilight is produced by scattering in the upper atmosphere, illuminating the lower atmosphere so that the surface of the Earth is neither completely lit nor completely dark. The word twilight is also used to denote the periods of time when this illumination occurs, the further the Sun is below the horizon, the dimmer the twilight. When the Sun reaches 18 degrees below the horizon, the brightness is nearly zero. When the Sun again reaches 18 degrees below the horizon, nighttime becomes morning twilight, Twilight should not be confused with auroras, which can have a similar appearance in the night sky at high latitudes. By analogy with evening twilight, the word twilight is also used metaphorically, to imply that something is losing strength. For example, very old people may be said to be in the twilight of their lives, the collateral adjective for twilight is crepuscular which is sometimes applied to insects, fish, and mammals that are most active during that time. Twilight is defined according to the elevation angle θs, which is the position of the geometric center of the sun relative to the horizon. There are three established and widely accepted subcategories of twilight, civil twilight, nautical twilight, and astronomical twilight. Morning civil twilight begins when the center of the sun is 6° below the horizon. Evening civil twilight begins at sunset or when the center of the sun is 0°50′ below the horizon. In the United States military, the initialisms BMCT and EECT are used to refer to these periods, morning nautical twilight begins and evening nautical twilight ends when the geometric center of the sun reaches 12° below the horizon. Morning astronomical twilight begins and Evening astronomical twilight ends when the center of the Sun reaches 18° below the horizon. There are three established and widely accepted subcategories of twilight, civil twilight, nautical twilight, and astronomical twilight, under clear weather conditions, civil twilight approximates the limit at which solar illumination suffices for the human eye to clearly distinguish terrestrial objects. Enough sunlight renders artificial sources unnecessary for most outdoor activities, at civil dawn, the beginning of morning civil twilight, and at civil dusk, the end of evening civil twilight, sunlight clearly defines the horizon while the brightest stars and planets can appear. As observed from the Earth, sky-gazers know Venus, the brightest planet, law-makers have enshrined the concept of civil twilight. Such statutes typically use a period after sunset or before sunrise. The period may affect when pilots require a rating to fly aircraft
28.
United States Air Force
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The United States Air Force is the aerial warfare service branch of the United States Armed Forces and one of the seven American uniformed services. Initially part of the United States Army, the USAF was formed as a branch of the military on 18 September 1947 under the National Security Act of 1947. It is the most recent branch of the U. S. military to be formed, the U. S. Air Force is a military service organized within the Department of the Air Force, one of the three military departments of the Department of Defense. The Air Force is headed by the civilian Secretary of the Air Force, who reports to the Secretary of Defense, the U. S. Air Force provides air support for surface forces and aids in the recovery of troops in the field. As of 2015, the service more than 5,137 military aircraft,406 ICBMs and 63 military satellites. It has a $161 billion budget with 313,242 active duty personnel,141,197 civilian employees,69,200 Air Force Reserve personnel, and 105,500 Air National Guard personnel. According to the National Security Act of 1947, which created the USAF and it shall be organized, trained, and equipped primarily for prompt and sustained offensive and defensive air operations. The stated mission of the USAF today is to fly, fight, and win in air, space and we will provide compelling air, space, and cyber capabilities for use by the combatant commanders. We will excel as stewards of all Air Force resources in service to the American people, while providing precise and reliable Global Vigilance, Reach and it should be emphasized that the core functions, by themselves, are not doctrinal constructs. The purpose of Nuclear Deterrence Operations is to operate, maintain, in the event deterrence fails, the US should be able to appropriately respond with nuclear options. Dissuading others from acquiring or proliferating WMD, and the means to deliver them, moreover, different deterrence strategies are required to deter various adversaries, whether they are a nation state, or non-state/transnational actor. Nuclear strike is the ability of forces to rapidly and accurately strike targets which the enemy holds dear in a devastating manner. Should deterrence fail, the President may authorize a precise, tailored response to terminate the conflict at the lowest possible level, post-conflict, regeneration of a credible nuclear deterrent capability will deter further aggression. Finally, the Air Force regularly exercises and evaluates all aspects of operations to ensure high levels of performance. Nuclear surety ensures the safety, security and effectiveness of nuclear operations, the Air Force, in conjunction with other entities within the Departments of Defense or Energy, achieves a high standard of protection through a stringent nuclear surety program. The Air Force continues to pursue safe, secure and effective nuclear weapons consistent with operational requirements, adversaries, allies, and the American people must be highly confident of the Air Forces ability to secure nuclear weapons from accidents, theft, loss, and accidental or unauthorized use. This day-to-day commitment to precise and reliable nuclear operations is the cornerstone of the credibility of the NDO mission, positive nuclear command, control, communications, effective nuclear weapons security, and robust combat support are essential to the overall NDO function. OCA is the method of countering air and missile threats, since it attempts to defeat the enemy closer to its source
29.
Landing zone
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In military terminology a landing zone is an area where aircraft can land. The landing area is the area in which the landing is going to take place, the landing point is the point on which aircraft are going to land. Each aircraft has a different landing point, landing areas are most commonly marked by coloured smoke. The standard procedure is for troops already on the ground at the area to pop smoke. The aircraft pilot radio back when the smoke is spotted and what colour smoke they see, troops on the ground then respond with what colour the smoke should be. Smoke of a different colour can mean that the area has been discovered and compromised by the enemy. In turn, this resulted in use of landing zones in this conflict. LZs could be temporary, being more than a clearing in the jungle or a clearing made using special munitions, such as commando vault bombs. Other LZs were permanent or semi-permanent built with more deliberate construction, the Soviet Union and Coalition forces also used LZs extensively because of the rugged terrain and distances traveled during wars in Afghanistan. When a sizeable enemy force was located, it could be engaged, forced to move on, or if determined to be elsewhere. In April 1969, the US Armys 2/8 Cavalry reopened the LZ and began operations in its vicinity, incoming rocket and mortar rounds fired by the VC/NVA were a daily and nightly occurrence, and skirmishes near the LZ were common. Then on the night of May 6,1969, an entire NVA regiment attacked the LZ, six perimeter bunkers were overrun, one of the medium howitzers was captured, and the enemy threatened to slice through the center of the base. The Americans counterattacked with all personnel, the officers involved being killed at the head of their troops. Artillerymen, supply and signal personnel, and engineers fought and died as emergency infantry reserves, during the course of the battle, this weapon exchanged hands 3 times in hand-to-hand fighting deceded at close range with rifles and E-tools. Overhead, rocket-firing AH1G Cobra helicopters rolled in, ignoring heavy flak, air Force AC47 SPOOKY and AC119 SHADOW aircraft, supported by fighter-bombers, were employed against the numerous enemy antiaircraft weapons ringing the perimeter. Controlled and uncontrolled fires were raging everywhere, and it seemed that the LZ was ablaze throughout its entire length, waves of NVA infantry charging into the southern lines were met by defending troops who took advantage of the aviation gasoline storage area. The Americans shot holes into the drums and ignited the flowing rivers of gas to create a flaming barrier. The defending artillerymen and mortar crews fought in desperation, heightened by the loss of communications between most weapons and their fire direction centers
30.
FM broadcasting
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FM broadcasting is a method of radio broadcasting using frequency modulation technology. Invented in 1933 by American engineer Edwin Armstrong, it is used worldwide to provide high-fidelity sound over broadcast radio, FM broadcasting is capable of better sound quality than AM broadcasting, the chief competing radio broadcasting technology, so it is used for most music broadcasts. FM radio stations use the VHF frequencies, the term FM band describes the frequency band in a given country which is dedicated to FM broadcasting. Throughout the world, the FM broadcast band falls within the VHF part of the radio spectrum. Usually 87.5 to 108.0 MHz is used, or some portion thereof, with few exceptions, In the former Soviet republics, and some former Eastern Bloc countries, assigned frequencies are at intervals of 30 kHz. This band, sometimes referred to as the OIRT band, is slowly being phased out in many countries, in those countries the 87. 5–108.0 MHz band is referred to as the CCIR band. In Japan, the band 76–95 MHz is used, the frequency of an FM broadcast station is usually an exact multiple of 100 kHz. In most of South Korea, the Americas, the Philippines, in some parts of Europe, Greenland and Africa, only even multiples are used. In the UK odd or even are used, in Italy, multiples of 50 kHz are used. There are other unusual and obsolete FM broadcasting standards in countries, including 1,10,30,74,500. Random noise has a triangular spectral distribution in an FM system and this can be offset, to a limited extent, by boosting the high frequencies before transmission and reducing them by a corresponding amount in the receiver. Reducing the high frequencies in the receiver also reduces the high-frequency noise. These processes of boosting and then reducing certain frequencies are known as pre-emphasis and de-emphasis, the amount of pre-emphasis and de-emphasis used is defined by the time constant of a simple RC filter circuit. In most of the world a 50 µs time constant is used, in the Americas and South Korea,75 µs is used. This applies to both mono and stereo transmissions, for stereo, pre-emphasis is applied to the left and right channels before multiplexing. They cannot be pre-emphasized as much because it would cause excessive deviation of the FM carrier, systems more modern than FM broadcasting tend to use either programme-dependent variable pre-emphasis, e. g. dbx in the BTSC TV sound system, or none at all. Long before FM stereo transmission was considered, FM multiplexing of other types of audio level information was experimented with. Edwin Armstrong who invented FM was the first to experiment with multiplexing and these original FM multiplex subcarriers were amplitude modulated
31.
Mortar (weapon)
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A mortar is a device that fires projectiles at low velocities and short ranges. The mortar has traditionally used as a weapon to propel explosive mortar bombs in high-arcing ballistic trajectories. The weapon is typically muzzle-loading with a short, often smooth-bore barrel, Modern mortars are light and easily portable. They can be used for fire support with a variety of ammunition. Mortars have been used for hundreds of years, originally in siege warfare, many historians consider the first mortars to have been used at the 1453 siege of Constantinople by Mehmed the Conqueror. A European account of the 1456 siege of Belgrade by Giovanni da Tagliacozzo said that the Ottoman Turks used seven mortars that fired stone shots one Italian mile high. The time of flight of these was long enough that casualties could be avoided by posting observers to give warning of their trajectories. However, earlier mortars were used in Korea in a 1413 naval battle when Korean gunsmiths developed the Wangu, the earliest version of the Wangu dates back to 1407. Choe Hae-san, the son of Choe Mu-seon, is credited with inventing the first Wangu. Early mortars, such as the Pumhart von Steyr, were large and heavy. Simply made, these weapons were no more than iron bowls reminiscent of the kitchen, an early transportable mortar was invented by Baron Menno van Coehoorn. This mortar fired a shell, which had a fuse lit by the hot gases when fired. This innovation was taken up, necessitating a new form of naval ship. Mortars played a significant role in the Venetian conquest of Morea, an early use of these more mobile mortars as field weapons was by British forces in the suppression of the 1719 Jacobite rising at the Battle of Glen Shiel. High angle trajectory mortars held an advantage over standard field guns in the rough terrain of the West Highlands of Scotland. Coehorn-type mortars of approximately 180 pounds weight were used by both sides during the American Civil War and these answered as coehorns, and shells were successfully thrown from them into the trenches of the enemy. The mortar had fallen out of use by the Napoleonic era. The German Army studied the Siege of Port Arthur, where heavy artillery had been unable to destroy defensive structures like barbed wire, the solution they developed was a short-barrelled rifled muzzle-loading mortar called the Minenwerfer, and was built in three sizes
32.
Battle of Kamdesh
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The Battle of Kamdesh took place during the War in Afghanistan. It occurred on October 3,2009, when a force of 300 Taliban assaulted the American Combat Outpost Keating near the town of Kamdesh of Nuristan province in eastern Afghanistan. The attack was the bloodiest battle for US forces since the Battle of Wanat in July 2008, the attack on COP Keating resulted in 8 Americans killed and 27 wounded whilst the Taliban suffered an estimated 150 killed. As a result of the battle, COP Keating was partially overrun and nearly completely destroyed. Observation Post Fritsche was attacked simultaneously, the Coalition forces withdrew from the base shortly after the battle. The Americans declared the outpost closed and departed—so quickly that they did not carry out all of their stored ammunition, the outposts depot was promptly looted by the insurgents and bombed by American planes in an effort to destroy the lethal munitions left behind. After an investigation, four officers in the chain of command were disciplined for their failure to support the base. Eight aviators were awarded the Distinguished Flying Cross for helping defend the base, Staff Sergeant Clinton Romesha and Staff Sergeant Ty Carter were awarded the Medal of Honor for their actions during the battle. The Kamdesh believed the key to anti-coalition militia required access to supply lines and these bases were a key element of the American counterinsurgency strategy. This approach was supported by the stationing of Navy Commander Kimberly Evans, Colonel John W. Nicholson, Jr. Nicholson and officers of his command believed that much of the flow of weapons and troops from Pakistan could be stopped at Kamdesh. Gul Mohammed Khan, the government administrator for Kamdesh District, lived at the intersection of the Landay-Sin and these valley and road intersections combined with the political leadership in the area inspired the positioning of the Nuristan PRT. The Nuristan provincial reconstruction team base was recommended by Nuristani Province Governor Tamim Nuristani. On July 20,2006,2,00 a. m, the camp was constructed by 3-71 Cavalry, 10th Mountain Division in the summer of 2006 and was manned by their ABLE Troop element until June 2007. The area had not been occupied by any conventional US forces prior to 3-71 Cavalrys takeover, the camp was originally constructed to be a PRT, called PRT Kamdesh, but due to extremely high levels of fighting in the area it remained a fire base instead of a PRT. 3-71 Cavalry conducted many successful missions in the area surrounding the camp. The Kamdesh village and most of Nuristan is located in the Hindu Kush and this is a lofty mountain range characterized by steep slopes of enormous granite boulders separated by fast moving rivers in deep narrow valleys. The temperate climate of the area provides hot summers, a season in the summer. The combination of weather and rugged mountains make any kind of travel and life in general difficult. American military operations in Kamdesh were affected as soon as units began gathering for deployment in the area, operation Deep Strike began on May 5,2006
33.
Arghandab River
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Arghandab is a river in Afghanistan, about 400 km in length. It rises in the Hazarajat country north-west of Ghazni, and flows south-west falls into the Helmand 30 km below Girishk. It is doubtful whether the ancient Arachotus is to be identified with the Arghandab or with its chief confluent the Tarnak, the Tarnak, which flows south of Kandahar, is much shorter and less copious. The Tarnak is dammed for irrigation at intervals, and in the hot season almost dries up, there is a good deal of cultivation along the river, but few villages. The Kabul-Kandahar Highway passes this way, and the people live off the road to avoid the onerous duties of hospitality, in 2008 a project was initiated to rehabilitate the Dahla Dam and associated irrigation system
34.
Medical evacuation
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Examples include civilian EMS vehicles, civilian aeromedical helicopter services, and Army air ambulances. The first medical transport by air was recorded in Serbia in the autumn of 1915 during First World War, one of the ill soldiers in that first medical transport was Milan Stefanik, a Slovak pilot-volunteer, whom French aviator Louis Paulhan flew to safety. The United States Army used this technique in Burma toward the end of World War II. The first medivac under fire was done in Manila in 1945 when five pilots evacuated 75-80 soldiers one or two at a time, aeromedical Evacuation Air ambulance Casualty evacuation Medivac Shock Trauma Air Rescue Society Global Rescue, provider of medical evacuation services. Association of Air Medical Services Landing in Hell, Army Medevac Today - slideshow by Life magazine
35.
Regional Command Southwest
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It was stood up on 3 July 2010 largely from an area previously in Regional Command South. It was headquartered at Camp Leatherneck with an area of responsibility of largely Helmand, the United States Marine Corps provides the majority of the force headquarters. It consisted of Task Force Helmand of the British Armed Forces, provincial Reconstruction Team Helmand was also located in Regional Command Southwest. The command was stood down during 2014, Major General Richard P. Mills 2010-March 2011 Major General John A. Toolan March 2011-March 2012 Major General Charles M. Gurganus March 2012-2013 Major General Walter L
36.
Kandahar International Airport
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Kandahar International Airport is located 10 miles south-east of Kandahar City in Afghanistan. It serves as the second main international airport and as one of the largest military bases. The airport was designed and built by the United States in the late 1950s and it was occupied by the Soviets during the 1980s Soviet war in Afghanistan. Following their withdrawal the airport remained in control of Najibullahs government until he stepped down in 1992, thereafter, local warlords and the Taliban took control of the airport until the U. S. -led invasion in late 2001. Since 2007, the airport has been repaired and expanded and it is used for both military and civilian flights. The airport is maintained by the Resolute Support Mission and the Afghan National Security Forces, the 2nd Wing of the Afghan Air Force has a separate base within the airport ground. The Afghan National Police provides security inside the passenger terminal, the airfield itself was built between 1954 and 1962 by American consultants, for a cost of USD15 million. However, with the advent of jet aircraft, such stops were no longer necessary, and the airport saw little use. Since the airport was designed as a base, it is likely that the United States intended to use it in case there was a show-down of war between the United States and former USSR. While the United States was busy building Kandahar International Airport, the USSR was busy in the north, fighting in the Kandahar area was particularly intense. However, Kandahar airport was relatively untouched and its main building was largely intact at the end of the war. The airstrip did suffer extensive damage that was repaired by the United Nations in the mid-1990s to support humanitarian flights. Ariana Afghan Airlines also flew infrequent flights out of Kandahar to Pakistan, during Operation Enduring Freedom in late 2001, Kandahar Airport was one of the first coalition bases established in Afghanistan. The airport was captured by an air insertion coinciding with a rapid overland push from troops based at Camp Rhino, a perimeter was quickly secured around the terminal building and airstrip, and initially all troops worked and lived in and around the main terminal building itself. The first spartan ablutions were established in the middle of a rose garden out front. The accommodation area began to enlarge down along the airfield to where the current military base is located, the 159th Combat Aviation Brigade became the main U. S. Army Aviation unit at the airport while the 451st Air Expeditionary Wing became the main USAF unit. After June 2009 under Operation Herrick they were replaced by a squadron of Panavia Tornado GR4 aircraft, carrying out air support. 904 Expeditionary Air Wing, the home was RAF Lyneham, Wiltshire until the end of 2011 when the squadrons home station was changed to RAF Brize Norton
37.
Camp Shorabak
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Camp Shorabak is an Afghan Ministry of Defense airbase located northwest of the city of Lashkar Gah in Helmand Province, Afghanistan. The base has barracks for the Afghan National Army, the camp was built by the British Army and was the largest British overseas military camp built since the Second World War. The base was home to troops from a number of nations, including the United States of America. Shorabak contains the Afghan National Army camp, and also held Camp Leatherneck until 2014, in November 2006, the then British Prime Minister Tony Blair visited Camp Bastion, and, while addressing a gathering of British troops, described it as an extraordinary piece of desert. Where the fate of world security in the early 21st century is going to be decided, Camp Shorabak began life as Camp Bastion, a Tactical Landing Zone set up by two Air Traffic Controllers from the Royal Air Forces Tactical Air Traffic Control Unit. This provided a vital and strategic point in Helmand Province. The camp started out with just a few tents in 2005, four miles long by two miles wide, it had a busy airfield and a field hospital and originally had full accommodation for the 2000 men and women. The base was named by the Commanding Officer of 62 Works Group based upon the units emblem of a lone Bastion. The first camp to be built was Camp 251 which housed the construction force, the first runway capable of landing C-17s direct from the United Kingdom opened in Camp Bastion on 3 December 2007. The base had previously divided into a number of different sections. Bastions 1 and 2 were the first, with Bastion 2 containing Camp Barber, Bastion 0 was added in around 2010 and housed the contractors and Bastion 3 was used for in-theatre training. Camp Bastion included Bastion Airfield, Bastion Garrison and Camp Leatherneck, as of September 2014 it was reported that both Bastion 2 &3 have been reverted to desert. Camp Bastion airfield and heliport handled up to 600 fixed- and rotary-wing aircraft movements every day in 2011, operating combat, medical, in February 2014, snow fell in Camp Bastion for the first time since the base was established, eight years earlier. The camp was handed over to the control of the Afghan security forces on 26 October 2014, on 27 November 2014, insurgents infiltrated Camp Bastion. As of Sunday 30 November, the Afghan National Army had not fully driven out the Taliban fighters, at least five ANA soldiers were killed in the attack. Upon completion of British and US military withdrawal from Camp Bastion, in December 2015, it was announced that a small contingency of British troops would return to Camp Shorabak in an advisory role, due to the Taliban overrun of Sangin district in Helmand province. The base was home to the Afghan National Army and during Operation Herrick 7 2nd Battalion. The main user of the camp was the United Kingdom which based a number of rotary, during June 2011 a brand new air traffic control tower was opened which was built by 170 Engineer Group
38.
Rocket-propelled grenade
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A rocket-propelled grenade is a shoulder-fired, anti-tank weapon system that fires rockets equipped with an explosive warhead. These warheads are affixed to a motor and stabilized in flight with fins. Some types of RPG are reloadable, while others are single-use, RPGs, with some exceptions, are generally loaded from the muzzle. RPGs with high explosive warheads are very effective against armored vehicles such as armoured personnel carriers. However, heavily armored vehicles, such as main battle tanks, are too well armored to be penetrated by an RPG. Various warheads are also capable of causing damage to vulnerable systems. The RPG has its roots in the 20th century with the development of the explosive shaped charge. Before the adoption of the charge, anti-tank guns and tank guns relied primarily on kinetic energy to defeat armor. Armies found that they needed to give infantry the means to defeat enemy armor when no anti-tank guns were available, initial attempts to put such weapons in the hands of the infantry resulted in weapons like the Soviet RPG-40 blast effect hand grenade. What was needed was a means of delivering the shaped charge warhead from a distance, different approaches to this goal would lead to the anti-tank spigot mortar, the recoilless rifle and, from the development of practical rocketry, the rocket propelled grenade. Research occasioned by World War II produced such weapons as the American Bazooka and German Panzerfaust, the Soviet-developed RPG-7 is the most widely distributed, recognizable and used RPG in the world. In the 2000s, they were still being used widely in conflict areas such as Chechnya, Iraq, the RPG has a design that is comparable to a shaped charge explosive. A shaped charge is an explosive charge shaped to focus the effect of the explosives energy, various types are used to penetrate tank armour. A typical modern lined shaped charge can penetrate armor to a depth of seven or more times the diameter of the charge, though greater depths of 10 CD. An RPG comprises two parts, the launcher and a rocket equipped with a warhead. The most common types of warheads are high explosive and high explosive anti-tank rounds and these warheads are affixed to a rocket motor and stabilized in flight with fins. Some types of RPG are single-use disposable units, such as the RPG-22 and M72 LAW, others are reloadable, such as the Soviet RPG-7, the launcher is designed so that the rocket exits the launcher without discharging an exhaust that would be dangerous to the operator. In the case of the RPG-7, the rocket is launched by a booster charge
39.
Helmand River
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The Helmand River is the longest river in Afghanistan and the primary watershed for the endorheic Sistan Basin. The name comes from Avestan Haētumant, literally dammed, having a dam, which referred to the Helmand River, the name was borrowed into Greek and Latin as a compound with Eastern Iranian *raha, river. Helmand Province is named after the river, the Helmand River stretches for 1,150 km. It rises in the Hindu Kush mountains, about 80 km west of Kabul, passing north of the Unai Pass, in the proximities of Hazarajat, in Behsud, flows west to Daykundi. It crosses south-west through the desert of Dashti Margo, to the Seistan marshes, the river remains relatively salt-free for much of its length, unlike most rivers with no outlet to the sea. This river, managed by the Helmand and Arghandab Valley Authority is used extensively for irrigation and its waters are essential for farmers in Afghanistan, but it feeds into Lake Hamun and is also important to farmers in Irans southeastern Sistan and Baluchistan province. A number of dams have created artificial reservoirs on some of the Afghanistans rivers including the Kajakai on the Helmand River. The chief tributary of the Helmand river is the Arghandab River which also has a major dam north of Kandahar, the boundaries of the province of Helmand were once known as kingdom of Sakastan. The Helmand valley region is mentioned by name in the Avesta as the Aryan land of Haetumant, but owing to the preponderance of Hindus and Buddhists, the Helmand and Kabul regions were also known as White India in those days. The Hindu Zunbils were also located here, some Vedic scholars also believe the Helmand valley corresponds to the Sarasvati area mentioned in the Rig Veda as the homeland for the Indo-Aryan migrations into India, ca.1500 BC. Six major discoveries by Italian Archaeologist in Swat District of Khyber Pukhtunkhwa Province of Pakistan regarding the river have been discussed in the book The History of Communication, list of rivers of Afghanistan Kajaki Dam Various authors. Vogelsang, W. Early historical Arachosia in South-east Afghanistan, Meeting-place between East and West, from Wetland to Wasteland, The Destruction of the Hamoun Oasis
United States of America
United States Army
7th Squadron, 17th Cavalry Regiment ("Pale Horse")
3rd Battalion, 101st Aviation Regiment ("Eagle Attack")
563d Aviation Support Battalion ("Keep Them Fighting")
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