1.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
2.
Danish West Indies
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The Danish West India Guinea Company annexed the uninhabited island of Saint Thomas in 1672 and St. John in 1675. In 1733, Saint Croix was purchased from the French West India Company, when the Company went bankrupt in 1755, the King of Denmark-Norway assumed direct control of the three islands. The Danish West Indies was occupied by Britain in 1801–1802 and 1807–1815, the final stage of the triangle was the exportation of cargo of sugar and rum to Denmark. The economy of the Danish West Indies was dependent on slavery, after a rebellion, slavery was officially abolished in 1848, leading to the near economic collapse of the plantations. In 1852, the sale of the increasingly unprofitable colony was first debated in the Danish parliament, Denmark tried several times to sell or exchange the Danish West Indies in the late 19th and early 20th century, to the United States and the German Empire respectively. The islands were sold for 25 million dollars to the United States. Prince Frederick organized a mission to Barbados in 1647 under Gabriel Gomez and the de Casseres brothers, but it. It was not until Erik Smits private 1652 expedition aboard the Fortuna was successful that interest in the West Indies trade grew into an interest in the creation of a new Danish colony. Smits 1653 expedition and an expedition of five ships were quite successful. In August two years later, a Danish Flotilla was destroyed by a hurricane, Smit returned from his fourth expedition in 1663 and formally proposed the settlement of St. Thomas to the king in April 1665. After only three weeks deliberation, the scheme was approved and Smit was named governor, Smit died of illness, and a second band of privateers stole the ship and used it to trade with neighboring islands. The Danish formed a Board of Trade in 1668 and secured a treaty with Britain, providing for the unmolested settlement of uninhabited islands. The Danish West India Company was organized in December and formally chartered by King Christian V the next year on March 11,1671, den forgyldte Krone was ordered to run ahead and wait but ended up returning to Denmark after the Færøe under Capt. Bang was delayed for repairs in Bergen, the Færøe completed her mission alone, establishing a settlement on St. Thomas on May 25,1672. From an original contingent of 190 –12 officials,116 company employees, another 75 died within the first year, leaving only 29 to carry on the colony. Further instructions in 1688 to establish a settlement on St. John seem not to have acted on until Governor Bredal made an official establishment on March 25,1718. The islands quickly became a base for attacking ships in the vicinity. Possession of the island was disputed with the Scottish in 1698
3.
Saint John, U.S. Virgin Islands
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Saint John is one of the Virgin Islands in the Caribbean Sea and a constituent district of the United States Virgin Islands, an unincorporated territory of the United States. At 50 km2 the smallest of the three main US Virgin Islands, Saint John is located four miles east of Saint Thomas. It is also four miles southwest of Tortola, part of the British Virgin Islands and its largest settlement is Cruz Bay with a population of 2,700. St. Johns nickname is Love City, since 1956, approximately 60% of the island is protected as Virgin Islands National Park, administered by the United States National Park Service. The economy is based on tourism, Saint John is 50.8 km² in area with a population of 4,170. As of the 2010 U. S. Census, the population of the US Virgin Islands territory was 106,405. Saint John was first settled by the Taíno Indians who migrated north from coastal areas of present-day Colombia, the Arawak inhabited the island until around the year AD1300, when they were driven off by the more aggressive and warlike Carib. Extensive archaeological work started in 1996 at Cinnamon Bay, the artifacts from this dig are being studied and are expected to yield more detailed information on pre-Columbian civilization in the US Virgin Islands. Explorer Christopher Columbus, traveling on behalf of the Spanish Crown, is credited with being the first European to see the Virgin Islands in 1493, during his second voyage to the New World. A Catholic, he named the group of islands as Once Mil Virgenes, in honor of the feast day of Saint Ursula. The Danish West India and Guinea Company represented the first Europeans to settle the island in 1718 and they are also credited with naming the island Saint John. The Danish crown took control of this and nearby colonies in 1754, including those founded on the similarly named islands of Saint Thomas. Sugar cane plantations, such as the famous Annaberg Sugar Plantation, were established in great numbers on Saint John, the establishment of sugarcane plantations created a high demand for labor. The indigenous Carib and Arawak were initially used as slave labor, the planters imported many slaves from Africa in an established slave trade dominated by Portugal in the early years, but which Britain also entered. In 1733 Saint John was the site of one of the first significant slave rebellions in the New World, enslaved Akwamu from the Gold Coast rebelled and took control of the island for six months before being defeated by a combination of better armed forces. The Danish defeated the enslaved Africans with help from French colonists of Martinique, instead of submitting to captivity and slavery, more than a dozen men and women shot and killed themselves before the French forces reached them. It is estimated that by 1775, slaves outnumbered the Danish settlers on Saint John by a ratio of 5,1, denmark finally abolished slavery in Saint John and its other islands on July 3,1848. In 1917, during the First World War, the United States purchased the U. S. Virgin Islands for $25 million from the Danish government in order to establish a naval base and it was intended to prevent expansion of the German Empire into the Western Hemisphere
4.
History of slavery
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The history of slavery spans nearly every culture, nationality, and religion from ancient times to the present day. However the social, economic, and legal positions of slaves were vastly different in different systems of slavery in different times and places, Slavery is rare among hunter-gatherer populations, as it is developed as a system of social stratification. Slavery was known in the very oldest civilizations such as Sumer in Mesopotamia which dates back as far as 3500 BC, the Byzantine–Ottoman wars and the Ottoman wars in Europe resulted in the taking of large numbers of Christian slaves. Slavery became common within much of Europe and the British Isles during the Dark Ages, the Dutch, French, Spanish, Portuguese, British, Arabs and a number of West African kingdoms played a prominent role in the Atlantic slave trade, especially after 1600. During the 1983–2005 Second Sudanese Civil War people were taken into slavery, evidence emerged in the late 1990s of systematic slavery in cacao plantations in West Africa, see the chocolate and slavery article. Evidence of slavery predates written records, and has existed in many cultures, however, slavery is rare among hunter-gatherer populations. Mass slavery requires economic surpluses and a population density to be viable. Due to these factors, the practice of slavery would have only proliferated after the invention of agriculture during the Neolithic Revolution, about 11,000 years ago. Such institutions were a mixture of debt-slavery, punishment for crime, the enslavement of prisoners of war, child abandonment, French historian Fernand Braudel noted that slavery was endemic in Africa and part of the structure of everyday life. During the 16th century, Europe began to outpace the Arab world in the export traffic, the Dutch imported slaves from Asia into their colony in South Africa. In 1807 Britain, which extensive, although mainly coastal, colonial territories on the African continent, made the international slave trade illegal. In Senegambia, between 1300 and 1900, close to one-third of the population was enslaved, in early Islamic states of the Western Sudan, including Ghana, Mali, Segou, and Songhai, about a third of the population was enslaved. In Sierra Leone in the 19th century about half of the population consisted of slaves. In the 19th century at least half the population was enslaved among the Duala of the Cameroon, the Igbo and other peoples of the lower Niger, the Kongo, among the Ashanti and Yoruba a third of the population consisted of slaves. The population of the Kanem was about a third slave and it was perhaps 40% in Bornu. Between 1750 and 1900 from one- to two-thirds of the population of the Fulani jihad states consisted of slaves. The population of the Sokoto caliphate formed by Hausas in northern Nigeria and it is estimated that up to 90% of the population of Arab-Swahili Zanzibar was enslaved. Roughly half the population of Madagascar was enslaved, the Anti-Slavery Society estimated that there were 2,000,000 slaves in the early 1930s Ethiopia, out of an estimated population of between 8 and 16 million
5.
Ghana
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Ghana, officially the Republic of Ghana, is a unitary presidential constitutional democracy, located along the Gulf of Guinea and Atlantic Ocean, in the subregion of West Africa. Spanning a land mass of 238,535 km², Ghana is bordered by the Ivory Coast in the west, Burkina Faso in the north, Togo in the east, Ghana means Warrior King in the Soninke language. The territory of present-day Ghana has been inhabited for a millennium, numerous kingdoms and empires emerged over the centuries, of which the most powerful was the Kingdom of Ashanti. Beginning in the 15th century, numerous European powers contested the area for trading rights, following over a century of native resistance, Ghanas current borders were established by the 1900s as the British Gold Coast. On 6 March 1957, it became the first sub-Saharan African nation to become independent of European colonisation, a multicultural nation, Ghana has a population of approximately 27 million, spanning a variety of ethnic, linguistic and religious groups. Five percent of the population practices traditional faiths,71. 2% adhere to Christianity and 17. 6% are Muslim and its diverse geography and ecology ranges from coastal savannahs to tropical jungles. Ghana is a country led by a president who is both head of state and head of the government. Ghanas economy is one of the strongest and most diversified in Africa, following a century of relative stability. Ghanas growing economic prosperity and democratic political system have made it a power in West Africa. It is a member of the Non-Aligned Movement, the African Union, the Economic Community of West African States, Group of 24, Ghana was already recognized as one of the great kingdoms in Bilad el-Sudan by the ninth century. Ghana was inhabited in the Middle Ages and the Age of Discovery by a number of ancient predominantly Akan kingdoms in the Southern and this included the Ashanti Empire, the Akwamu, the Bonoman, the Denkyira, and the Mankessim Kingdom. Until the 11th century, the majority of modern Ghanas territorial area was unoccupied and uninhabited by humans. Although the area of present-day Ghana in West Africa has experienced many population movements, by the early 11th century, the Akans were firmly established in the Akan state called Bonoman, for which the Brong-Ahafo Region is named. From the 13th century, Akans emerged from what is believed to have been the Bonoman area, to create several Akan states of Ghana and these states included Bonoman, Ashanti, Denkyira, Mankessim Kingdom, and Akwamu Eastern region. By the 19th century, the territory of the part of Ghana was included in the Kingdom of Ashanti. The Kingdom of Ashanti government operated first as a loose network, prior to Akan contact with Europeans, the Akan Ashanti people created an advanced economy based on principally gold and gold bar commodities then traded with the states of Africa. The earliest known kingdoms to emerge in modern Ghana were the Mole-Dagbani states, the Mole-Dagombas came on horseback from present-day Burkina Faso under a single leader, Naa Gbewaa. The death of Naa Gbewaa caused civil war among his children, some of whom broke off and founded separate states including Dagbon, Mamprugu, Mossi, Nanumba, Akan trade with European states began after contact with Portuguese in the 15th century
6.
Plantation
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A plantation is an area of land or water where one crop is specifically planted for widespread commercial sale. The crops grown include cotton, coffee, tea, cocoa, sugar cane, sisal, oil seeds, oil palms, rubber trees, protectionist policies and natural comparative advantage have sometimes contributed to determining where plantations were located. Among the earliest examples of plantations were the latifundia of the Roman Empire, Plantation agriculture grew rapidly with the increase in international trade and the development of a worldwide economy that followed the expansion of European colonial empires. Like every economic activity, it has changed over time, Industrial plantations are established to produce a high volume of wood in a short period of time. Plantations are grown by state forestry authorities and/or the paper and wood industries, christmas trees are often grown on plantations as well. In southern and southeastern Asia, teak plantations have replaced the natural forest. Industrial plantations are managed for the commercial production of forest products. Individual blocks are usually even-aged and often consist of just one or two species and these species can be exotic or indigenous. Forest genetic resources are the basis for genetic alteration, selected individuals grown in seed orchards are a good source for seeds to develop adequate planting material. Wood production on a plantation is generally higher than that of natural forests. In 2000, while plantations accounted for 5% of global forest, in the first year, the ground is prepared usually by the combination of burning, herbicide spraying, and/or cultivation and then saplings are planted by human crew or by machine. The saplings are usually obtained in bulk from industrial nurseries, which may specialize in breeding in order to produce fast growing disease-. In the first few years until the canopy closes, the saplings are looked after, after the canopy closes, with the tree crowns touching each other, the plantation is becoming dense and crowded, and tree growth is slowing due to competition. This stage is termed pole stage, when competition becomes too intense, it is time to thin out the section. There are several methods for thinning, but where topography permits, the most popular is row-thinning, many trees are removed, leaving regular clear lanes through the section so that the remaining trees have room to expand again. The removed trees are delimbed, forwarded to the forest road, loaded onto trucks, a typical pole stage plantation tree is 7–30 cm in diameter at breast height. Such trees are not suitable for timber, but are used as pulp for paper and particleboard. As the trees grow and become dense and crowded again, the process is repeated
7.
Slave rebellion
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A slave rebellion is an armed uprising by slaves. Slave rebellions have occurred in all societies that practice slavery or have practiced slavery in the past. Ancient Sparta had a type of serf called helots who were often treated harshly. According to Herodotus, helots were seven times as numerous as Spartans, in the Roman Empire, though the heterogeneous nature of the slave population worked against a strong sense of solidarity, slave revolts did occur and were severely punished. The most famous slave rebellion in Europe was led by Spartacus in Roman Italy and this war resulted in the 6000 surviving rebel slaves being crucified along the main roads leading into Rome. This was the third in a series of unrelated Servile Wars fought by slaves to the Romans, the English peasants revolt of 1381 led to calls for the reform of feudalism in England and an increase in rights for serfs. The Peasants Revolt was one of a number of revolts in late medieval Europe. Richard II agreed to reforms including fair rents and the abolition of serfdom, following the collapse of the revolt, the kings concessions were quickly revoked, but the rebellion is significant because it marked the beginning of the end of serfdom in medieval England. In Russia, the slaves were classified as kholops. A kholops master had unlimited power over his life, Slavery remained a major institution in Russia until 1723, when Peter the Great converted the household slaves into house serfs. Russian agricultural slaves were converted into serfs earlier in 1679. During the 16th and 17th centuries, runaway serfs and kholops known as Cossacks, between the end of the Pugachev rebellion and the beginning of the 19th century, there were hundreds of outbreaks across Russia. Numerous African slave rebellions and insurrections took place in North America during the 17th, 18th, there is documented evidence of more than 250 uprisings or attempted uprisings involving 10 or more slaves. Aptheker stressed how rebellions were rooted in the conditions of the southern slave system. He traversed libraries and archives throughout the South, managing to uncover roughly 250 similar instances, the Zanj Rebellion was the culmination of a series of small revolts. It took place near the city of Basra, in southern Iraq over fifteen years and it grew to involve over 500,000 slaves, who were imported from across the Muslim empire. The Servile Wars were a series of revolts against the Roman Republic during. The First and Second Servile War occurred in Sicily, the Third Servile War occurred in mainland Italy
8.
Americas
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The Americas, also collectively called America, encompass the totality of the continents of North America and South America. Together they make up most of the land in Earths western hemisphere, along with their associated islands, they cover 8% of Earths total surface area and 28. 4% of its land area. The topography is dominated by the American Cordillera, a chain of mountains that runs the length of the west coast. The flatter eastern side of the Americas is dominated by river basins, such as the Amazon, St. Lawrence River / Great Lakes basin, Mississippi. Humans first settled the Americas from Asia between 42,000 and 17,000 years ago, a second migration of Na-Dene speakers followed later from Asia. The subsequent migration of the Inuit into the neoarctic around 3500 BCE completed what is regarded as the settlement by the indigenous peoples of the Americas. The first known European settlement in the Americas was by the Norse explorer Leif Ericson, however, the colonization never became permanent and was later abandoned. The voyages of Christopher Columbus from 1492 to 1502 resulted in permanent contact with European powers, diseases introduced from Europe and Africa devastated the indigenous peoples, and the European powers colonized the Americas. Mass emigration from Europe, including numbers of indentured servants. Decolonization of the Americas began with the American Revolution in 1776, the population is over 1 billion, with over 65% of them living in one of the three most populous countries. As of the beginning of the 2010s, the most populous urban agglomerations are Mexico City, New York, Sao Paulo, Los Angeles, Buenos Aires and Rio de Janeiro, all of them megacities. The name America was first recorded in 1507 in the Cosmographiae Introductio, apparently written by Matthias Ringmann and it first applied to both North and South America by Gerardus Mercator in 1538. Amerigen means land of Amerigo and derives from Amerigo and gen, America accorded with the feminine names of Asia, Africa, and Europa. When conceived as a continent, the form is generally the continent of America in the singular. However, without a context, singular America in English commonly refers to the United States of America. In some countries of the world, America is considered a continent encompassing the North America and South America subcontinents, the first inhabitants migrated into the Americas from Asia. Habitation sites are known in Alaska and the Yukon from at least 20,000 years ago, beyond that, the specifics of the Paleo-Indian migration to and throughout the Americas, including the dates and routes traveled, are subject to ongoing research and discussion. Widespread habitation of the Americas occurred during the glacial maximum
9.
Coral Bay, U.S. Virgin Islands
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Coral Bay is a town and a sub-district on the island of St. John in the United States Virgin Islands. It is located on the side of the island. While Coral Bay does not offer any ferry service, it is eight miles away from Cruz Bay along Centerline Road and it is also a short drive from the East End region of St. John. Each year in late February, a race runs along Centerline Road from Cruz Bay, the 2011 race was won by Christopher Reis in 46,00, shattering the course record from the year before. Runners World listed the race as one of the 10 Races to Beat the Winter Blues, the Emmaus Moravian Church in Coral Bay is on the List of Registered Historic Places in the United States Virgin Islands and holds an interesting place in St Johns history. The Church stands next to the Caroline Estate plantation, the site of a 1733 slave revolt that resulted in the murder of the plantation owner and this church is said to be haunted. Official tourism page St John On-Island Times/ Travel Guide, Top Beaches, Snorkeling Info and More
10.
Martinique
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Like Guadeloupe, it is an overseas region of France, consisting of a single overseas department. One of the Windward Islands, it is north of Saint Lucia, southeast of Puerto Rico, northwest of Barbados. As with the overseas departments, Martinique is one of the eighteen regions of France. As part of France, Martinique is part of the European Union, the official language is French, and virtually the entire population also speak Antillean Creole. Martinique owes its name to Christopher Columbus, who sighted the island in 1493, the island was then called Jouanacaëra-Matinino, which came from a mythical island described by the Tainos of Hispaniola. According to historian Sydney Daney, the island was called Jouanacaëra by the Caribs, when Columbus returned to the island in 1502, he rechristened the island as Martinica. The name then evolved into Madinina, Madiana, and Matinite, finally, through the influence of the neighboring island of Dominica, it came to be known as Martinique. The island was occupied first by Arawaks, then by Caribs, the Carib people had migrated from the mainland to the islands about 1201 CE, according to carbon dating of artifacts. They were largely displaced, exterminated and assimilated by the Taino, Martinique was charted by Columbus in 1493, but Spain had little interest in the territory. On 15 September 1635, Pierre Belain dEsnambuc, French governor of the island of St. Kitts, dEsnambuc claimed Martinique for the French King Louis XIII and the French Compagnie des Îles de lAmérique, and established the first European settlement at Fort Saint-Pierre. DEsnambuc died in 1636, leaving the company and Martinique in the hands of his nephew, in 1637, his nephew Jacques Dyel du Parquet became governor of the island. In 1636, the indigenous Caribs rose against the settlers to drive them off the island in the first of many skirmishes. The French successfully repelled the natives and forced them to retreat to the part of the island. When the Carib revolted against French rule in 1658, the Governor Charles Houël du Petit Pré retaliated with war against them, many were killed, those who survived were taken captive and expelled from the island. Some Carib had fled to Dominica or St. Vincent, where the French agreed to them at peace. They were quite industrious and became quite prosperous, from September 1686 to early 1688, the French crown used Martinique as a threat and a dumping ground for mainland Huguenots who refused to reconvert to Catholicism. Over 1,000 Huguenots were transported to Martinique during this period, usually under miserable and those that survived the trip were distributed to the island planters as Engagés under the system of serf peonage that prevailed in the French Antilles at the time. Many of them were encouraged by their Catholic brethren who looked forward to the departure of the heretics, by 1688, nearly all of Martiniques French Protestant population had escaped to the British American colonies or Protestant countries back home
11.
Maroon (people)
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Maroons were Africans who had escaped from slavery in the Americas and formed independent settlements. The term can also be applied to their descendants, in all likelihood, the words Maroon and Seminole share the same origin in the Spanish word cimarrón, meaning wild or untamed. This word usually referred to runaways or castaways and is derived from the word for thicket in Old Spanish. In the New World, as early as 1512, enslaved Africans escaped from Spanish captors, Sir Francis Drake enlisted several cimarrones during his raids on the Spanish. As early as 1655, escaped Africans had formed their own communities in inland Jamaica, when runaway Blacks and Amerindians banded together and subsisted independently they were called Maroons. On the Caribbean islands, they formed bands and on some islands, Maroon communities faced great odds to survive from colonists, obtain food for subsistence living, and to reproduce and increase their numbers. As the planters took over land for crops, the Maroons began to lose ground on the small islands. Only on some of the islands were organized Maroon communities able to thrive by growing crops. Here they grew in number as more Blacks escaped from plantations, the early Maroon communities were usually displaced. By 1700, Maroons had disappeared from the smaller islands, Survival was always difficult as the Maroons had to fight off attackers as well as attempt to grow food. In Cuba, there were communities in the mountains, where African refugees who escaped the brutality of slavery. Before roads were built into the mountains of Puerto Rico, heavy brush kept many escaped maroons hidden in the hills where many also intermarried with the natives. Escaped Blacks sought refuge away from the plantations of Ponce. Remnants of these remain to this day for example in Viñales, Cuba. Maroon communities emerged in many places in the Caribbean, but none were seen as such a threat to the British as the Jamaican Maroons. A British governor signed a treaty in 1738 and 1739 promising them 2,500 acres in two locations, to bring an end to the warfare between the communities, in exchange they were to agree to capture other escaped Blacks. They were paid a bounty of two dollars for each African returned, to this day, the Jamaican Maroons are to a significant extent autonomous and separate from Jamaican society. The physical isolation used to their advantage by their ancestors has today led to their communities remaining among the most inaccessible on the island, in their largest town, Accompong, in the parish of St. Elizabeth, the Leeward Maroons still possess a vibrant community of about 600
12.
Toussaint Louverture
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François-Dominique Toussaint Louverture, also known as Toussaint LOuverture or Toussaint Bréda, was the best-known leader of the Haitian Revolution. His military and political acumen saved the gains of the first Black insurrection in November 1791 and he first fought for the Spanish against the French, then for France against Spain and Britain, and finally, for Saint-Domingue s colonial sovereignty against Napoleonic France. Though Toussaint did not sever ties with France, his actions in 1800 constituted a de facto autonomous colony, the colonys constitution proclaimed him governor for life even against Napoleon Bonapartes wishes. He died betrayed before the final and most violent stage of the armed conflict, however, his achievements set the grounds for the Black armys absolute victory and for Jean-Jacques Dessalines to declare the sovereign state of Haiti in January 1804. Toussaints prominent role in the Haitian success over colonialism and slavery had earned him the admiration of friends, Toussaint Louverture began his military career as a leader of the 1791 slave rebellion in the French colony of Saint-Domingue, he was by then a free black man and a Jacobin. Initially allied with the Spaniards of neighboring Santo Domingo, Toussaint switched allegiance to the French when they abolished slavery and he gradually established control over the whole island and used political and military tactics to gain dominance over his rivals. Throughout his years in power, he worked to improve the economy and he restored the plantation system using paid labour, negotiated trade treaties with Britain and the United States, and maintained a large and well-disciplined army. In 1801, he promulgated an autonomist constitution for the colony, in 1802 he was forced to resign by forces sent by Napoleon Bonaparte to restore French authority in the former colony. He was deported to France, where he died in 1803, the Haitian Revolution continued under his lieutenant, Jean-Jacques Dessalines, who declared independence on January 1,1804. The French had lost two-thirds of forces sent to the island in an attempt to suppress the revolution, almost nothing is known for certain about Toussaint Louvertures early life, as there are contradictory accounts and evidence about this period. The earliest records of his life are his recorded remarks and the reminiscences of his legitimate son Isaac Louverture. His mother Pauline was Gaou Guinous second wife, the couple had several children, of whom Toussaint was the eldest son. Pierre Baptiste Simon is usually considered to have been his godfather, Toussaint is thought to have been born on the plantation of Bréda at Haut de Cap in Saint-Domingue, which was owned by the Comte de Noé and later managed by Bayon de Libertat. His date of birth is uncertain, but his name suggests he was born on All Saints Day and he was probably about 50 at the start of the revolution in 1791. Various sources have given birth dates between 1739 and 1746, because of the lack of written records, Toussaint himself may not have known his exact birth date. In childhood, he earned the nickname Fatras-Bâton, suggesting he was small and weak, though he was to become known for his stamina, an alternative explanation of Toussaints origins is that he arrived at Bréda with a new overseer who took up his duties in 1772. Toussaint is believed to have been educated by his godfather Pierre Baptiste. Historians have speculated as to Toussaints intellectual background and he may also have received some education from Jesuit missionaries
13.
Sapelo Island
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Sapelo Island /ˈsæpəloʊ/ is a state-protected barrier island located in McIntosh County, Georgia. The island is accessible by aircraft or boat, with the primary ferry coming from the Sapelo Island Visitors Center in McIntosh County, Georgia. Approximately 97 percent of the island is owned by the state of Georgia and is managed by the Georgia Department of Natural Resources, the western perimeter of Sapelo is the Sapelo Island National Estuarine Research Reserve which is part of NOAAs National Estuarine Research Reserve system. The University of Georgia Marine Institute, which is focused on research, the Reynolds Mansion, a Georgia State Park, also lies on the south end of the island. Visitors to the island must be a part of a tour or guests of residents on the island. The island also has a private airport run by the state of Georgia. The community of Hog Hammock, also known as Hogg Hummock, includes homes, a store, bar, public library. There are two church congregations in Hog Hammock, St. Luke Baptist Church, founded in 1885. The latter congregation has a building known as First African Baptist Church at Raccoon Bluff. It is used for services and programs. The current population of full-time Gullah-Geechee residents in the community is estimated to be 47, the residents must bring all supplies from the mainland or purchase them in the small store on the island. The children of Hog Hammock take the ferry to the mainland and then take a bus to school, Hog Hammock is also home to the Sapelo Island Cultural and Revitalization Society, Inc. a non-profit organization whose mission is to preserve and revitalize the Hogg Hummock Community. SICARS was incorporated in 1994, has over 600 members, the organization hosts a Cultural Day festival every third Saturday in October. The entire 427 acres of the community was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1996 as Hog Hammock Historic District, in the 1990s, mainlanders began acquiring parcels of land from the Gullahs to construct vacation homes. In 2012, McIntosh County property tax appraisers notified Hog Hammock residents of huge property tax increases, one Hog Hammock property owners annual tax bill soared from $600 to $2,100. S. that a Catholic mass was celebrated. During the 17th century Sapelo Island was part of the Guale missionary province of Spanish Florida, after 1680, several missions were merged and relocated to the island under the mission Santa Catalina de Guale. Spalding brought 400 slaves to the island from West Africa and the West Indies to work the plantation, in 1820, a Winslow Lewis brick lighthouse was built on the island. Although it remained dark for over 90 years, it was restored, Spalding opposed the abolition of slavery and he died in 1851 returning from a convention to assert Georgias position on the matter
14.
Gaspar Yanga
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Gaspar Yanga—often simply Yanga or Nyanga was an African leader of a maroon colony of slaves in the highlands near Veracruz, Mexico during the early period of Spanish colonial rule. He is known for resisting a Spanish attack on the colony in 1609. Finally in 1618, Yanga achieved an agreement with the government for self-rule of the settlement, later called San Lorenzo de los Negros. Yanga, aka Nyanga, was said to be of the Bran people and he was captured and sold into slavery in Mexico, where he was called Gaspar Yanga. Before the end of the trade, New Spain had the second-highest number of African slaves after Brazil. Around 1570, Yanga led a band of slaves in escaping to the highlands near Veracruz and they built a small maroon colony, or palenque. Its isolation helped protect it for more than 30 years, led by the soldier Pedro González de Herrera, about 550 Spanish troops set out from Puebla in January, an estimated 100 were Spanish regulars and the rest conscripts and adventurers. The maroons were a force of 100 fighters having some type of firearm, and 400 more armed with stones, machetes, bows and arrows. These maroon troops were led by Francisco de la Matosa, an Angolan, upon the approach of the Spanish troops, Yanga sent terms of peace via a captured Spaniard. He asked for a treaty akin to those that had settled hostilities between Indians and Spaniards, an area of self-rule in return for tribute and promises to support the Spanish if they were attacked. In addition, Yanga said this proposed district would return any slaves who might flee to it and this last concession was necessary to soothe the worries of the many slave owners in the region. The Spaniards refused the terms and went into battle, resulting in losses for both sides. The Spaniards advanced into the settlement and burned it. But, the maroons fled into the terrain, which they knew well. The resulting stalemate lasted years, finally, the Spanish agreed to parley, Yangas terms were agreed to, with the additional provisos that only Franciscan priests would tend to the people, and that Yangas family would be granted the right of rule. In 1618 the treaty was signed, by 1630 the town of San Lorenzo de los Negros de Cerralvo was established. Located in todays Veracruz province, the town in the 21st century is known as Yanga, in 1871, five decades after Mexican independence, Yanga was designated as a national hero of Mexico and El Primer Libertador de las Americas. This was based largely on an account by historian Vicente Riva Palacio, the influential Riva Palacio was also a novelist, short story writer, military general and mayor of Mexico City
15.
Yanga, Veracruz
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Yanga Municipality is a municipality located in the southern area of the State of Veracruz, Mexico, about 80 km from the state capital of Xalapa. It was formerly known as San Lorenzo de los Negros or San Lorenzo de Cerralvo, in 1932 it was renamed after Gaspar Yanga, the cimarron leader who in 1609 resisted attack by Spanish forces trying to regain control of the area. Gaspar Yanga was a chief of the Yang-Bara tribe in the area of present-day Guinea in West Africa before being sold into slavery, after leading an escape by a band of slaves in 1570, Yanga and his group settled in the highlands. They fought off Spanish forces in 1609, and had a series of bloody skirmishers over nearly a decade, in 1618 he finally negotiated with Spanish officials to grant freedom to the fugitive slaves and independence to their village, a few kilometers from the city of Cordoba, Veracruz. It became known as San Lorenzo de los Negros or San Lorenzo de Cerralvo and they gave the town of San Lorenzo its small independence. The black inhabitants of San Lorenzo proclaimed their loyalty to the Church and the King of Spain and they also agreed to capture fugitive slaves and return them to their masters in return for a fee. They were among the free blacks of Mexico, which had the second-highest slave population of the Americas after Brazil. The municipality of Yanga is bordered to the east by Cuitláhuac, to the north-east by Atoyac and it produces principally maize, beans, sugarcane, coffee and mango. Every February, a festival is held to celebrate Virgen de Candelaria, every December is a festival in honour of the Virgin of Guadalupe. A festivity for San Lorenzo, the saint of the town, every year in mid-August, a carnival is held to celebrate Gaspar Yanga, the former slave and leader who held off the Spanish in their attack of 1609 on his maroon settlement in the highlands. Several years later, in 1618 he gained the founding of a village and freedom for his band of maroons. The 400th anniversary carnival was held in August 2009, four centuries after the Spanish had attacked the early maroon settlement and burned its dwellings. Yanga is twinned with the places, Wexford, Ireland The climate in Yanga is warm and humid, with an average temperature of 18 °C and rains mainly in the summer. Municipal Official webpage Municipal Official Information
16.
New Spain
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New Spain was a colonial territory of the Spanish Empire, in the New World north of the Isthmus of Panama. It was established following the Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire in 1521, after 1535 the colony was governed by the Viceroy of New Spain, an appointed minister of the King of Spain, who ruled as monarch over the colony. The capital of New Spain was Mexico City and it developed highly regional divisions, which reflect the impact of climate, topography, the presence or absence of dense indigenous populations, and the presence or absence of mineral resources. The areas of central and southern Mexico had dense indigenous populations with complex social, political, silver mining not only became the engine of the economy of New Spain, but vastly enriched Spain, and transformed the global economy. New Spain was the New World terminus of the Philippine trade, although New Spain was a dependency of Spain, it was a kingdom not a colony, subject to the presiding monarch on the Iberian Peninsula. Every privilege and position, economic political, or religious came from him and it was on this basis that the conquest, occupation, and government of the New World was achieved. The Viceroyalty of New Spain was established in 1535 in the Kingdom of New Spain and it was the first New World viceroyalty and one of only two in the Spanish empire until the 18th century Bourbon Reforms. The Spanish Empire comprised the territories in the north overseas Septentrion, from North America, to the west of the continent, New Spain also included the Spanish East Indies. To the east of the continent, it included the Spanish West Indies and this was not occupied by many Spanish settlers and were considered more marginal to Spanish interests than the most densely populated and lucrative areas of central Mexico. To shore up its claims in North America starting in the late 18th century, Spanish expeditions to the Pacific Northwest explored and claimed the coast of what is now British Columbia and Alaska. The indigenous societies of Mesoamerica brought under Spanish control were of unprecedented complexity, the societies could provide the conquistadors, especially Hernán Cortés, a base from which the conquerors could become autonomous, or even independent, of the Crown. As a result, the Holy Roman Emperor and King of Spain, since the time of the Catholic Monarchs, central Iberia was governed through councils appointed by the monarch with particular jurisdictions. Thus, the creation of the Council of the Indies became another, the crown had set up the Casa de Contratación in 1503 to regulate contacts between Spain and its overseas possessions. A key function was to gather information about navigation to make trips less risky and they were accompanied by maps of the area discussed, many of which were drawn by indigenous artists. The Francisco Hernández Expedition, the first scientific expedition to the New World, was sent to gather information medicinal plants, an earlier Audiencia had been established in Santo Domingo in 1526 to deal with the Caribbean settlements. That Audiencia, housed in the Casa Reales in Santo Domingo, was charged with encouraging further exploration, management by the Audiencia, which was expected to make executive decisions as a body, proved unwieldy. Therefore, in 1535, King Charles V named Don Antonio de Mendoza as the first Viceroy of New Spain. After the Spanish conquest of the Inca Empire in 1532 opened up the vast territories of South America to further conquests, the Crown established an independent Viceroyalty of Peru there in 1540
17.
Kingdom of Great Britain
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The Kingdom of Great Britain, officially Great Britain, was a sovereign state in western Europe from 1 May 1707 to 31 December 1800. It did not include Ireland, which remained a separate realm, the unitary state was governed by a single parliament and government that was based in Westminster. Also after the accession of George I to the throne of Great Britain in 1714, the early years of the unified kingdom were marked by Jacobite risings which ended in defeat for the Stuart cause at Culloden in 1746. On 1 January 1801, the kingdoms of Great Britain and Ireland were merged to form the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. In 1922, five-sixths of Ireland seceded from the United Kingdom, the name Britain descends from the Latin name for the island of Great Britain, Britannia or Brittānia, the land of the Britons via the Old French Bretaigne and Middle English Bretayne, Breteyne. The term Great Britain was first used officially in 1474, in the instrument drawing up the proposal for a marriage between Edward IV of Englands daughter Cecily and James III of Scotlands son James. The Treaty of Union and the subsequent Acts of Union state that England and Scotland were to be United into one Kingdom by the Name of Great Britain. However, both the Acts and the Treaty also refer numerous times to the United Kingdom and the longer form, other publications refer to the country as the United Kingdom after 1707 as well. The websites of the UK parliament, the Scottish Parliament, the BBC, additionally, the term United Kingdom was found in informal use during the 18th century to describe the state. The new state created in 1707 included the island of Great Britain, the kingdoms of England and Scotland, both in existence from the 9th century, were separate states until 1707. However, they had come into a union in 1603. Each of the three kingdoms maintained its own parliament and laws and this disposition changed dramatically when the Acts of Union 1707 came into force, with a single unified Crown of Great Britain and a single unified parliament. Ireland remained formally separate, with its own parliament, until the Acts of Union 1800, legislative power was vested in the Parliament of Great Britain, which replaced both the Parliament of England and the Parliament of Scotland. In practice it was a continuation of the English parliament, sitting at the location in Westminster. Newly created peers in the Peerage of Great Britain were given the right to sit in the Lords. Despite the end of a parliament for Scotland, it retained its own laws. As a result of Poynings Law of 1495, the Parliament of Ireland was subordinate to the Parliament of England, the Act was repealed by the Repeal of Act for Securing Dependence of Ireland Act 1782. The same year, the Irish constitution of 1782 produced a period of legislative freedom, the 18th century saw England, and after 1707 Great Britain, rise to become the worlds dominant colonial power, with France its main rival on the imperial stage
18.
Province of New York
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The majority of this land was soon reassigned by the Crown, leaving territory that included the valleys of the Hudson and Mohawk Rivers, and Vermont. The territory of western New York was Iroquois land, also disputed between the English colonies and New France, and that of Vermont was disputed with the Province of New Hampshire, the province resulted from the Dutch Republic surrender of Provincie Nieuw-Nederland to the Kingdom of England in 1664. Immediately after, the province was renamed for James, Duke of York, the colony was one of the Middle Colonies, and ruled at first directly from England. British claims on any part of New York ended with the Treaty of Paris of 1783, after the American Revolution, the former colony became the State of New York. This British crown colony was established upon the former Dutch colony of New Netherland, with its core being York Shire, in what today is typically known as Downstate New York. The Province of New York was divided into counties on November 1,1683, by New York Governor Thomas Dongan, Albany County. Also claimed the area, later disputed, that is now Vermont, in addition, as there was no fixed western border to the colony, Albany County technically extended to the Pacific Ocean. Most of this land, which was Indian land for most of the history, has now been ceded to other states. Cornwall County, that part of Maine between the Kennebec River and the St. Croix River from the Atlantic Ocean to the St. Lawrence River, ceded to the Province of Massachusetts Bay in 1692. Dukes County, the Elizabeth Islands, Marthas Vineyard and Nantucket Island east of Long Island, Dutchess County, now Dutchess and Putnam counties. Kings County, the current Kings County, Brooklyn, New York County, the current New York County, Manhattan. Orange County, now Orange and Rockland counties, Queens County, now Queens and Nassau counties. Richmond County, the current Richmond County, Staten Island, Suffolk County, the current Suffolk County. Ulster County, now Ulster and Sullivan counties and part of what is now Delaware, Westchester County, now Bronx and Westchester counties. On March 24,1772, Tryon County was formed out of Albany County and it was renamed Montgomery County in 1784, with a later division to Herkimer County around Little Falls. Charlotte County was formed out of Albany County and it was renamed Washington County in 1784. In 1617 officials of the Dutch West India Company in New Netherland created a settlement at present-day Albany, New Amsterdam surrendered to Colonel Richard Nicholls on August 27,1664, he renamed it New York. On September 24 Sir George Carteret accepted the capitulation of the garrison at Fort Orange, the capture was confirmed by the Treaty of Breda in July 1667
19.
Jamaica
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Jamaica is an island country situated in the Caribbean Sea, consisting of the third-largest island of the Greater Antilles. The island,10,990 square kilometres in area, lies about 145 kilometres south of Cuba, Jamaica is the fourth-largest island country in the Caribbean, by area. Inhabited by the indigenous Arawak and Taíno peoples, the island came under Spanish rule following the arrival of Christopher Columbus in 1494, Many of the indigenous people died of disease, and the Spanish imported African slaves as labourers. Named Santiago, the island remained a possession of Spain until 1655, under British colonial rule Jamaica became a leading sugar exporter, with its plantation economy highly dependent on slaves imported from Africa. The British fully emancipated all slaves in 1838, and many chose to have subsistence farms rather than to work on plantations. Beginning in the 1840s, the British imported Chinese and Indian indentured labour to work on plantations, the island achieved independence from the United Kingdom on 6 August 1962. With 2.8 million people, Jamaica is the third-most populous Anglophone country in the Americas, Kingston is the countrys capital and largest city, with a population of 937,700. Jamaicans predominately have African ancestry, with significant European, Chinese, Hakka, Indian, due to a high rate of emigration for work since the 1960s, Jamaica has a large diaspora around the world, particularly in Canada, the United Kingdom, and the United States. Jamaica is a Commonwealth realm, with Queen Elizabeth II as its monarch and her appointed representative in the country is the Governor-General of Jamaica, an office held by Sir Patrick Allen since 2009. Andrew Holness has served as the head of government and Prime Minister of Jamaica from March 2016, the indigenous people, the Taíno, called it Xaymaca in Arawakan, meaning the Land of Wood and Water or the Land of Springs. Colloquially Jamaicans refer to their island as the Rock. Slang names such as Jamrock, Jamdown, or briefly Ja, have derived from this, the Arawak and Taíno indigenous people, originating in South America, settled on the island between 4000 and 1000 BC. When Christopher Columbus arrived in 1494, there were more than 200 villages ruled by caciques, the south coast of Jamaica was the most populated, especially around the area now known as Old Harbour. The Taino still inhabited Jamaica when the English took control of the island in 1655, the Jamaican National Heritage Trust is attempting to locate and document any evidence of the Taino/Arawak. Christopher Columbus claimed Jamaica for Spain after landing there in 1494 and his probable landing point was Dry Harbour, now called Discovery Bay, although there is some debate that it might have been St. Anns Bay. St. Anns Bay was named Saint Gloria by Columbus, as the first sighting of the land, the capital was moved to Spanish Town, then called St. Jago de la Vega, around 1534. Spanish Town has the oldest cathedral of the British colonies in the Caribbean, the Spanish were forcibly evicted by the English at Ocho Rios in St. Ann. In 1655, the English, led by Sir William Penn and General Robert Venables, the English continued to import African slaves as labourers
20.
Denmark
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The term Danish Realm refers to the relationship between Denmark proper, the Faroe Islands and Greenland—three countries constituting the Kingdom of Denmark. The legal nature of the Kingdom of Denmark is fundamentally one of a sovereign state. The Faroe Islands and Greenland have been part of the Crown of Denmark since 1397 when the Kalmar Union was ratified, legal matters in The Danish Realm are subject to the Danish Constitution. Beginning in 1953, state law issues within The Danish Realm has been governed by The Unity of the Realm, a less formal name for The Unity of the Realm is the Commonwealth of the Realm. In 1978, The Unity of The Realm was for the first time referred to as rigsfællesskabet. The name caught on and since the 1990s, both The Unity of The Realm and The Danish Realm itself has increasingly been referred to as simply rigsfællesskabet in daily parlance. The Danish Constitution stipulates that the foreign and security interests for all parts of the Danish Realm are the responsibility of the Danish government, the Faroes received home rule in 1948 and Greenland did so in 1979. In 2005, the Faroes received a self-government arrangement, and in 2009 Greenland received self rule, the Danish Realms unique state of internal affairs is acted out in the principle of The Unity of the Realm. This principle is derived from Article 1 of the Danish Constitution which specifies that constitutional law applies equally to all areas of the Danish Realm, the Constitutional Act specifies that sovereignty is to continue to be exclusively with the authorities of the Realm. The language of Denmark is Danish, and the Danish state authorities are based in Denmark, the Kingdom of Denmarks parliament, with its 179 members, is located in the capital, Copenhagen. Two of the members are elected in each of Greenland and the Faroe Islands. The Government ministries are located in Copenhagen, as is the highest court, in principle, the Danish Realm constitutes a unified sovereign state, with equal status between its constituent parts. Devolution differs from federalism in that the powers of the subnational authority ultimately reside in central government. The Self-Government Arrangements devolves political competence and responsibility from the Danish political authorities to the Faroese, the Faroese and Greenlandic authorities administer the tasks taken over from the state, enact legislation in these specific fields and have the economic responsibility for solving these tasks. The Danish government provides a grant to the Faroese and the Greenlandic authorities to cover the costs of these devolved areas. The 1948 Home Rule Act of the Faroe Islands sets out the terms of Faroese home rule, the Act states. the Faroe Islands shall constitute a self-governing community within the State of Denmark. It establishes the government of the Faroe Islands and the Faroese parliament. The Faroe Islands were previously administered as a Danish county, the Home Rule Act abolished the post of Amtmand and these powers were expanded in a 2005 Act, which named the Faroese home government as an equal partner with the Danish government
21.
Stono Rebellion
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The Stono Rebellion was a slave rebellion that began on 9 September 1739, in the colony of South Carolina. It was the largest slave uprising in the British mainland colonies, the uprising was led by native Africans who were likely from the Central African Kingdom of Kongo, as some of the rebels spoke Portuguese. Their leader, Jemmy, was a literate slave, in some reports, however, he is referred to as Cato, and likely was held by the Cato, or Cater, family who lived near the Ashley River and north of the Stono River. He led 20 other enslaved Kongolese, who may have been former soldiers and they were bound for Spanish Florida. This was due to a Spanish effort to destabilize British rule, Jemmy and his group recruited nearly 60 other slaves and killed some whites before being intercepted and defeated by South Carolina militia near the Edisto River. A group of slaves escaped and traveled another 30 miles before battling a week later with the militia, most of the captured slaves were executed, the surviving few were sold to markets in the West Indies. In response to the rebellion, the South Carolina legislature passed the Negro Act of 1740, which restricted slave assembly, education and it also enacted a 10-year moratorium against importing African slaves, because they were considered more rebellious, and established penalties against slaveholders harsh treatment of slaves. It required legislative approval for each act of manumission, which slaveholders had previously been able to arrange privately and this sharply reduced the rate of manumissions in the state. Historian Ira Berlin has called this the Plantation Generation, noting that South Carolina had become a slave society, as planters had imported many slaves to satisfy the increased demand for labor, most slaves were native Africans. Many in South Carolina were from the Kingdom of Kongo, which had converted to Catholicism in the 15th century. Numerous slaves had first been held in the British West Indies, with the increase in slaves, colonists tried to regulate their relations, but there was always negotiation in this process. Slaves resisted by running away, work slowdowns, and revolts, at the time, Georgia was still an all-white colony, without slavery. South Carolina worked with Georgia to strengthen patrols on land and in areas to prevent fugitives from reaching Spanish Florida. In the Stono case, the slaves may have inspired by several factors to mount their rebellion. Stono was 150 miles from the Florida line, a malaria epidemic had recently killed many whites in Charleston, weakening the power of slaveholders. Lastly, historians have suggested the slaves organized their revolt to take place on Sunday, the Security Act of 1739 had been passed in August of that year in response to earlier runaways and minor rebellions, but it had not fully taken effect. Local officials were authorized to mount penalties against white men who didnt carry arms after 29 September, Jemmy, the leader of the revolt, was a literate slave described in an eyewitness account as Angolan. Historian John K. Thornton has noted that, because of patterns of trade, he was likely from the Kingdom of Kongo in west Central Africa
22.
Province of South Carolina
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The Province of South Carolina was originally part of the Province of Carolina in British America, which was chartered by eight Lords Proprietor in 1663. The province later became the U. S. state of South Carolina, the Carolinas were named for King Charles II of England. Derived from Latin Carolus, the colony was originally Carolana, the spelling changed to Carolina. Charles Towne was the first settlement, established in 1670, Charles II had given the land to a group of eight nobles called the Lords Proprietors, they planned for a Protestant Christian colony. Originally a single colony, the northern and southern sections grew apart over time. Dissent over governance of the led to the appointment of a deputy governor to administer the northern half of the Carolina colony in 1691. The division of the Carolina Province into North Carolina and South Carolina became complete in 1712, the Yamasee War ravaged the back-country of the colony. A rebellion broke out against the proprietors in 1719, acting on a petition of the residents of the colony, the British government appointed a royal governor for South Carolina in 1720. After nearly a decade in which the British government sought to locate and buy out the proprietors, lord Charles Montagu was Royal Governor of the Province of South Carolina from 1766 to 1773 until he escaped to Nova Scotia as with fellow United Empire Loyalists. The Court of Kings Bench and Common Pleas was founded c.1725, “Global Perspectives on the Early Economic History of South Carolina, ” South Carolina Historical Magazine,106, 130–46. The Southern Frontier, 1670-1732 Edgar, Walter, South Carolina, A History, the standard scholarly history Edgar, Walter, ed. The South Carolina Encyclopedia, ISBN 1-57003-598-9, the most comprehensive scholarly guide Feeser, white Servitude in Colonial South Carolina Tuten, James H. Lowcountry Time and Tide, The Fall of the South Carolina Rice Kingdom 178 pp. Wallace, David Duncan. South Carolina, A Short History, 1520-1948 online standard scholarly history Wright, South Carolina, A Bicentennial History online, popular survey Wood, Peter H. Black Majority, Negroes in Colonial South Carolina from 1670 Through the Stono Rebellion
23.
New York Conspiracy of 1741
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Historians disagree as to whether such a plot existed and, if there was one, its scale. During the court cases, the prosecution kept changing the grounds of accusation, ending with linking the insurrection to a Popish plot by Spaniards, in 1741 Manhattan had the second-largest slave population of any city in the Thirteen Colonies after Charleston, South Carolina. In March and April 1741, a series of 13 fires erupted in Lower Manhattan, after another fire at a warehouse, a slave was arrested after having been seen fleeing it. In the spring of 1741 fear gripped Manhattan as fires burned across all the areas of the island. The suspected culprits were New Yorks slaves, some 200 of whom were arrested and tried for conspiracy to burn the town, as in the Salem witch trials and the Court examining the Denmark Vesey plot in Charleston, a few witnesses implicated many other suspects. In the end, over 100 people were hanged, exiled, most of the convicted people were hanged or burnt – how many is uncertain. The bodies of two supposed ringleaders, Caesar, a slave, and John Hughson, a white cobbler and their corpses were left to rot in public. Seventy-two men were deported from New York, sent to Newfoundland, various islands in the West Indies, and the Madeiras. With the increase of enslaved Africans in New York during the decades of the 18th century. Fears about slavery were used by different political factions to fan other tensions, by 1741 slaves comprised one in five of New Yorks total population of 10,000, it was the second-largest slave population of any city in British North America after that of Charleston, South Carolina. Between 1687 and 1741, a plot was discovered on average every two and one half years. Some residents remembered the New York Slave Revolt of 1712, when more than 20 slaves met to destroy property, one of the slaves, called Kofi, set fire to his masters outhouse. When townspeople gathered to put it out, the slaves attacked the crowd, killing nine whites, the governor tried and executed 21 slaves. With the increase of slaves in New York, poor whites had to compete economically, some slaveholders were artisans who taught their slaves their trade. They could subcontract their work and underbid other white artisans and this created racial and economic tension between the slaves and competing white craftsmen. Some whites went out of business because of this, the winter of 1740–1741 was a miserable period for the poor in the city. An economic depression contributed to declining food and fuel supply, aggravated by low temperatures. Many people were in danger of starving and freezing to death and these conditions caused many denizens, especially the poor whites and slaves, to grow resentful of the government
24.
The Bahamas
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The Bahamas, known officially as the Commonwealth of the Bahamas, is an archipelagic state within the Lucayan Archipelago. The capital is Nassau on the island of New Providence, the designation of the Bahamas can refer either to the country or to the larger island chain that it shares with the Turks and Caicos Islands. As stated in the mandate/manifesto of the Royal Bahamas Defence Force, the Bahamas is the site of Columbus first landfall in the New World in 1492. At that time, the islands were inhabited by the Lucayan, although the Spanish never colonised the Bahamas, they shipped the native Lucayans to slavery in Hispaniola. The islands were mostly deserted from 1513 until 1648, when English colonists from Bermuda settled on the island of Eleuthera, the Bahamas became a British Crown colony in 1718, when the British clamped down on piracy. After the American War of Independence, the Crown resettled thousands of American Loyalists in the Bahamas, they brought their slaves with them, Africans constituted the majority of the population from this period. Slavery in the Bahamas was abolished in 1834, Today the descendants of slaves and free Africans make up nearly 90% of the population, issues related to the slavery years are part of society. The Bahamas became an independent Commonwealth realm in 1973, retaining Queen Elizabeth II as its monarch, in terms of gross domestic product per capita, the Bahamas is one of the richest countries in the Americas, with an economy based on tourism and finance. The name Bahamas is derived from either the Taino ba ha ma, alternatively, it may originate from Guanahani, a local name of unclear meaning. In English, the Bahamas is one of two countries whose self-standing short name begins with the word the, along with The Gambia. Taino people moved into the uninhabited southern Bahamas from Hispaniola and Cuba around the 11th century and they came to be known as the Lucayan people. An estimated 30,000 Lucayan inhabited the Bahamas at the time of Christopher Columbus arrival in 1492, Columbuss first landfall in the New World was on an island he named San Salvador. Some researchers believe this site to be present-day San Salvador Island, an alternative theory holds that Columbus landed to the southeast on Samana Cay, according to calculations made in 1986 by National Geographic writer and editor Joseph Judge, based on Columbuss log. Evidence in support of this remains inconclusive, on the landfall island, Columbus made first contact with the Lucayan and exchanged goods with them. The Spanish forced much of the Lucayan population to Hispaniola for use as forced labour, the slaves suffered from harsh conditions and most died from contracting diseases to which they had no immunity, half of the Taino died from smallpox alone. The population of the Bahamas was severely diminished, in 1648, the Eleutherian Adventurers, led by William Sayle, migrated from Bermuda. These English Puritans established the first permanent European settlement on an island which they named Eleuthera—the name derives from the Greek word for freedom and they later settled New Providence, naming it Sayles Island after one of their leaders. To survive, the settlers salvaged goods from wrecks, in 1670 King Charles II granted the islands to the Lords Proprietors of the Carolinas in North America
25.
Louisiana (New Spain)
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Louisiana was the name of an administrative district of the Viceroyalty of New Spain from 1762 to 1802 that consisted of territory west of the Mississippi River basin, plus New Orleans. Spain acquired the territory from France, who had named it La Louisiane in honor of King Louis XIV in 1682 and it is sometimes known as Spanish Louisiana. The district was retroceded to France, under the terms of the Third Treaty of San Ildefonso, in 1802, King Charles IV of Spain published a royal bill on 15 October, effecting the transfer and outlining the conditions. However, Spain agreed to continue administering the colony until French officials arrived and formalized the transfer. The ceremony was conducted at the Cabildo in New Orleans on 30 November 1803, Spain was largely a benign absentee landlord administering it from Havana, Cuba, and contracting out governing to people from many nationalities as long as they swore allegiance to Spain. During the American War of Independence, the Spanish funneled their supplies to the American revolutionists through New Orleans, in keeping with being absentee landlords, Spanish efforts to turn Louisiana into a Spanish colony were usually fruitless. For instance, while Spanish officially was the language of government. Even official business conducted at the Cabildo often lapsed into French, when Alejandro OReilly re-established Spanish rule in 1769, he issued a decree on December 7,1769, which banned the trade of Native American slaves. Although there was no movement toward abolition of the African slave trade, Spanish rule introduced a new law called coartación, which allowed slaves to buy their freedom, and that of others. A group of maroons led by Jean Saint Malo resisted re-enslavement from their base in the swamps east of New Orleans between 1780 and 1784, on May 4,1795,57 slaves and three local white men were put on trial in Point Coupee. Spanish colonial officials divided Luisiana into Upper Louisiana and Lower Louisiana at 36°35 North, in 1764, French fur trading interests founded St. Louis in what was then known as the Illinois Country. The Spanish referred to St. Louis as the city of Illinois, in 1778, several ships embarked for Louisiana with hundreds of settlers. The ships made stops in Havana and Venezuela, where half the settlers disembarked, in the end, between 2,100 and 2,736 Canarians arrived in Louisiana and settled near New Orleans. They settled in Barataria and in what is today St. Bernard Parish, however, many settlers were relocated for various reasons. Barataria suffered hurricanes in 1779 and in 1780, it was abandoned, in 1782, a splinter group of the Canarian settlers in Saint Bernard emigrated to Valenzuela. In 1779, another ship with 500 people from Málaga, arrived in Spanish Louisiana and these colonists, led by Lt. Col. Francisco Bouligny, settled in New Iberia, where they intermarried with Cajun settlers. In 1782, during the American Revolutionary War and the Anglo-Spanish War, Bernardo de Gálvez recruited men from the Canarian settlements of Louisiana and Galveston to join his forces. They participated in three military campaigns, the Baton Rouge, the Mobile, and the Pensacola, which expelled the British from the Gulf Coast
26.
History of slavery in Louisiana
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The history of slavery in the territory currently known as Louisiana did not begin after its settlement by Europeans, as Native Americans also reduced captured enemies to the status of slaves. The institution was maintained by the Spanish when the area was part of New Spain, by the French when they reacquired the colony, due to its complex history, Louisiana has a very different pattern of slavery compared to the rest of the United States. Chattel slavery was introduced by French colonists in Louisiana in 1706, thousands of indigenous people were killed, and the surviving women and children were taken as slaves. The enslavement of natives, including the Atakapa, Bayogoula, Natchez, Choctaw, Chickasaw, Taensa, while Native American peoples had sometimes made slaves of enemies captured in war, they also tended to adopt them into their tribes and incorporate them among their people. The French introduced African chattel slaves to the territory in 1710, trying to develop the new territory, the French transported more than 2,000 Africans to New Orleans between 1717–1721, on at least eight ships. The death toll for African and native slaves was high, with scurvy, although sailors also suffered from scurvy, enslaved Africans were subject to more shipboard diseases owing to overcrowding. When Alejandro OReilly re-established Spanish rule in 1768, he issued a decree on December 7,1769, which banned the trade of Native American slaves. Although there was no movement toward abolition of the African slave trade, Spanish rule introduced a new law called coartación, which allowed slaves to buy their freedom, and that of others. A group of maroons led by Jean Saint Malo resisted re-enslavement from their base in the swamps east of New Orleans between 1780 and 1784, on May 4,1795,57 slaves and three local white men were put on trial in Point Coupee. The demand for slaves increased in Louisiana and other parts of the Deep South after the invention of the cotton gin, the cotton gin allowed the processing of short-staple cotton, which thrived in the upland areas. It made possible a new commodity crop in northern Louisiana, although sugar cane continued to be predominant in southern Louisiana. The northern area of the state became another outpost for the Cotton Empire, which also encompassed neighboring states such as Arkansas, Mississippi, Alabama, Georgia, and Texas. A brisk domestic slave trade developed, many thousands of slaves were sold by slaveholders in the Upper South to buyers in the Deep South. The Mississippi River Delta area in southeast Louisiana created the alluvial soil necessary for the growing of sugar cane. Sugar was the export of Louisiana during the antebellum period. Early in 1811, while Louisiana was yet the U. S, territory of Orleans, the largest slave revolt in American history began about thirty miles outside of New Orleans, as slaves rebelled against the brutal work regimens of sugar plantations. There had been an influx of Haitian slaves, free people of color, and refugee French planters following the Haitian Revolution, in Orleans Parish, the heads were placed in the Place dArmes, todays Jackson Square. Slavery was officially abolished by the Louisiana state Constitution of 1864, in some areas, slaves left the plantations to seek Union military lines for freedom
27.
Haitian Revolution
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The Haitian Revolution, was a successful anti-slavery and anti-colonial insurrection that took place in the former French colony of Saint-Domingue that lasted from 1791 until 1804. It affected the institution of slavery throughout the Americas, self-liberated slaves destroyed slavery at home, fought to preserve their freedom, and with the collaboration of mulattoes, founded the sovereign state of Haiti. It led to the greatest slave uprising since Spartacuss unsuccessful revolt against the Roman Republic nearly 1,900 years prior, the Haitian Revolution was the only slave uprising that led to the founding of a state free from slavery and ruled by non-whites and former captives. With the increasing number of Haitian Revolutionary Studies in the last few decades, the legacy of the Revolution was that it challenged long-held beliefs about black inferiority and of the enslaved persons capacity to achieve and maintain freedom. The rebels organizational capacity and tenacity under pressure became the source of stories that shocked and frightened slave owners, while acknowledging the cross-influences, most contemporary historians distinguish the Haitian Revolution from the French Revolution. Some even separate it from the mulattoes earlier armed conflicts, which at first sought political rights for themselves and these scholars show that if the agency of the enslaved blacks becomes the focus of studies, the Revolutions opening and closing dates are certain. From this premise, the narrative began with the enslaved blacks bid for freedom through armed struggle and concluded with their victory over slaving powers, in April 1791, a massive black insurgency turned violently against the plantation system, setting a precedent of resistance to racial slavery. In cooperation with their former rivals, blacks ended the Revolution in November 1803 when they decidedly defeated the French army at the Battle of Vertières. The chief concern flutters around the question if the victorious Haitians were intrinsically revolutionary force, one thing is sure, Haiti became an independent country on January 1,1804, when the council of generals chose Jean-Jacques Dessalines to assume the office of governor-general. One of the states first significant documents was Dessaliness Liberty or Death speech, in it, the new head of state made the case for the new nations coherent objective, the permanent abolition of slavery in Haiti. An independent government was created in Haiti, but the society remained deeply affected by patterns established under French colonial rule. Many of them had used their capital to acquire wealth. Some had identified more with the French colonists than the slaves, mulatto domination of politics and economics after the revolution created another two-caste society, as most Haitians were rural subsistence farmers. Much of the Caribbean economic development was contingent to Europeans demand for sugar, Saint Domingue also had extensive coffee, cocoa, and indigo plantations, but these were smaller and less profitable than the wealthy sugar plantations. Starting in the 1730s, French engineers constructed complex irrigation systems to increase sugarcane production, by the 1740s Saint-Domingue, together with Jamaica, had become the main supplier of the worlds sugar. Sugar production depended on extensive manual labor provided by enslaved Africans in the harsh Saint-Domingue colonial plantation economy, the economic importance of St. Domingue, and several million indirectly depended upon trade from Frances richest colony to maintain their standard of living. To sustain the sugar production amid the climate of the Caribbean with malaria. In one year alone, namely 1787, the French imported about 20,000 slaves from Africa into Saint-Domingue while the British imported about 38,000 slaves to all of their Caribbean colonies
28.
French First Republic
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In the history of France, the First Republic, officially the French Republic, was founded on 21 September 1792 during the French Revolution. The First Republic lasted until the declaration of the First Empire in 1804 under Napoleon, under the Legislative Assembly, which was in power before the proclamation of the First Republic, France was engaged in war with Prussia and Austria. The foreign threat exacerbated Frances political turmoil amid the French Revolution and deepened the passion, in the violence of 10 August 1792, citizens stormed the Tuileries Palace, killing six hundred of the Kings Swiss guards and insisting on the removal of the king. A renewed fear of action prompted further violence, and in the first week of September 1792, mobs of Parisians broke into the citys prisons. This included nobles, clergymen, and political prisoners, but also numerous common criminals, such as prostitutes and petty thieves, many murdered in their cells—raped, stabbed and this became known as the September Massacres. The resulting Convention was founded with the purpose of abolishing the monarchy. The Conventions first act, on 10 August 1792, was to establish the French First Republic, the King, by then a private citizen bearing his family name of Capet, was subsequently put on trial for crimes of high treason starting in December 1792. On 16 January 1793 he was convicted, and on 21 January, throughout the winter of 1792 and spring of 1793, Paris was plagued by food riots and mass hunger. The new Convention did little to remedy the problem until late spring of 1793, despite growing discontent with the National Convention as a ruling body, in June the Convention drafted the Constitution of 1793, which was ratified by popular vote in early August. The Committees laws and policies took the revolution to unprecedented heights, after the arrest and execution of Robespierre in July 1794, the Jacobin club was closed, and the surviving Girondins were reinstated. A year later, the National Convention adopted the Constitution of the Year III and they reestablished freedom of worship, began releasing large numbers of prisoners, and most importantly, initiated elections for a new legislative body. On 3 November 1795, the Directory was established, the period known as the French Consulate began with the coup of 18 Brumaire in 1799. Members of the Directory itself planned the coup, indicating clearly the failing power of the Directory, Napoleon Bonaparte was a co-conspirator in the coup, and became head of the government as the First Consul. He would later proclaim himself Emperor of the French, ending the First French Republic and ushering in the French First Empire
29.
Saint-Domingue
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Saint-Domingue was a French colony on the Caribbean island of Hispaniola from 1659 to 1804. The French had established themselves on the portion of the islands of Hispaniola. In the Treaty of Ryswick of 1697, Spain formally recognized French control of Tortuga island, in 1791, the slaves and some free people of color of Saint-Domingue began waging a rebellion against French authority. The rebels became reconciled to French rule following the abolition of slavery in the colony in 1793, France controlled the entirety of Hispaniola from 1795 to 1802, when a renewed rebellion began. The last French troops withdrew from the portion of the island in late 1803, and the colony later declared its independence as Haiti, its indigenous name. Spain controlled the island of Hispaniola from the 1490s until the 17th century. The official name was La Española, meaning The Spanish and it was also called Santo Domingo or San Domingo, after Saint Dominic. Spain later ceded the western coast of the island to France, retaining the rest of the island, including the Guava Valley. The French called their portion of Hispaniola Saint-Domingue, the French equivalent of Santo Domingo, the Spanish colony on Hispaniola remained separate, and eventually became the Dominican Republic, the capital of which is still named Santo Domingo. By the early 17th century, the island and its neighbors, notably Tortuga. In 1606, the king of Spain ordered all inhabitants of Hispaniola to move close to Santo Domingo, rather than secure the island, however, this resulted in French, English and Dutch pirates establishing bases on the now-abandoned north and west coasts of the island. French buccaneers established a settlement on the island of Tortuga in 1625 before going to Grande Terre, at first they survived by pirating Spanish ships, eating wild cattle and hogs, and selling hides to traders of all nations. The settlement on Tortuga was officially established in 1659 under the commission of King Louis XIV, in 1665, French colonization of the islands Hispaniola and Tortuga entailed slavery-based plantation agricultural activity such as growing coffee and cattle farming. It was officially recognized by King Louis XIV, the economy of Saint-Domingue became focused on slave-based agricultural plantations. They followed the example of neighboring Caribbean colonies in coercive treatment of the slaves, more cattle, and slave agricultural holdings, coffee plantations and spice plantations were implemented, as well as fishing, cultivation of cocoa, coconuts and snuff. Saint-Domingue quickly came to overshadow the previous colony in both wealth and population, thus, the income and the taxes from slave-based sugar production became a major source of the French budget. Among the first buccaneers was Bertrand DOgeron, who played a big part in the settlement of Saint-Domingue and he encouraged the planting of tobacco, which turned a population of buccaneers and freebooters, who had not acquiesced to royal authority until 1660, into a sedentary population. But in 1670, shortly after Cap-Français had been established, the crisis of tobacco intervened, the first sugar windmill was built in 1685
30.
Virginia
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Virginia is a state located in the Mid-Atlantic region of the United States, as well as in the historic Southeast. The geography and climate of the Commonwealth are shaped by the Blue Ridge Mountains and the Chesapeake Bay, the capital of the Commonwealth is Richmond, Virginia Beach is the most populous city, and Fairfax County is the most populous political subdivision. The Commonwealths estimated population as of 2014 is over 8.3 million, the areas history begins with several indigenous groups, including the Powhatan. In 1607 the London Company established the Colony of Virginia as the first permanent New World English colony, slave labor and the land acquired from displaced Native American tribes each played a significant role in the colonys early politics and plantation economy. Although the Commonwealth was under one-party rule for nearly a century following Reconstruction, the Virginia General Assembly is the oldest continuous law-making body in the New World. The state government was ranked most effective by the Pew Center on the States in both 2005 and 2008 and it is unique in how it treats cities and counties equally, manages local roads, and prohibits its governors from serving consecutive terms. Virginias economy changed from agricultural to industrial during the 1960s and 1970s. Virginia has an area of 42,774.2 square miles, including 3,180.13 square miles of water. Virginias boundary with Maryland and Washington, D. C. extends to the mark of the south shore of the Potomac River. The southern border is defined as the 36° 30′ parallel north, the border with Tennessee was not settled until 1893, when their dispute was brought to the U. S. Supreme Court. The Chesapeake Bay separates the portion of the Commonwealth from the two-county peninsula of Virginias Eastern Shore. The bay was formed from the river valleys of the Susquehanna River. Many of Virginias rivers flow into the Chesapeake Bay, including the Potomac, Rappahannock, York, and James, the Tidewater is a coastal plain between the Atlantic coast and the fall line. It includes the Eastern Shore and major estuaries of Chesapeake Bay, the Piedmont is a series of sedimentary and igneous rock-based foothills east of the mountains which were formed in the Mesozoic era. The region, known for its clay soil, includes the Southwest Mountains around Charlottesville. The Blue Ridge Mountains are a province of the Appalachian Mountains with the highest points in the state. The Ridge and Valley region is west of the mountains and includes the Great Appalachian Valley, the region is carbonate rock based and includes Massanutten Mountain. The Cumberland Plateau and the Cumberland Mountains are in the southwest corner of Virginia, in this region, rivers flow northwest, with a dendritic drainage system, into the Ohio River basin
31.
Igbo Landing
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Igbo Landing is a historic site at Dunbar Creek on St. Simons Island, Glynn County, Georgia. It was the setting of a suicide in 1803 by captive Igbo people who had taken control of their slave ship. The events moral value as a story of resistance towards slavery has symbolic importance in African American folklore, the ships enslaved passengers included a number of Igbo people from what is now Nigeria. The Igbo were known by planters and slavers of the American South for being independent and resistant to chattel slavery. The group of 75 Igbo slaves were bought by agents of John Couper, the chained slaves were packed under the deck of a small vessel named the The Schooner York to be shipped to the island. The following sequence of events is unclear, as there are several versions concerning the revolts development and they thereby accepted the protection of their god Chukwu and death over the alternative of slavery. A 19th-century account of the event identifies the captain by the surname Patterson, according to some sources, survivors of the Igbo rebellion were taken to Cannons Point on St. Simons Island and Sapelo Island. Igbo Landing was the scene of events which in 1803 amounted to a major act of resistance by the Africans. These events have had enduring symbolic importance in African-American folklore and literary history, the mutiny by the Igbo people has been referred to as the first freedom march in the history of America. The site was included as a resource in a 2009 county survey. The site bears no official historical marker, a sewage disposal plant was built beside the historical site in the 1940s despite local opposition by African Americans. The site is still visited by historians and tourists. The event has recently incorporated into the history curriculum of coastal Georgia schools. The story of the Igbo slaves who chose death over a life of slavery is a story that has taken deep roots in African American. As is typical of oral histories, the facts have evolved over time, floyd White, an elderly African American interviewed by the Federal Writers Project in the 1930s is recorded as saying, Heard about the Igbo’s Landing. As the tale has it, the tribes people disembark from the ship, as they took this march together, the West Africans joined in song. They are reported to have sung a hymn in which the lyrics assert that the spirits will take them home. While versions of this vary in nuance, all attest to the courage in rebellion displayed by the enslaved Igbo
32.
St. Simons Island
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St. Simons is a census-designated place located on St. Simons Island in Glynn County, Georgia, United States. The community and the island are interchangeable, known simply as St. Simons Island, St. Simons is part of the Brunswick, Georgia Metropolitan Statistical Area, and according to the 2010 census, the CDP had a population of 12,743. Located on the southeast Georgia coast, midway between Savannah and Jacksonville, St. Simons Island is both a seaside resort and residential community and it is the largest of Georgias renowned Golden Isles. Visitors are drawn to the Island for its climate, beaches, variety of outdoor activities, shops and restaurants, historical sites. In addition to its base of permanent residents, the island enjoys an influx of visitors and part-time residents throughout the year. The 2010 Census notes that 26. 8% of total housing units are for “seasonal, recreational, the vast majority of commercial and residential development is located on the southern half of the island. Much of the northern half remains marsh or woodland, a large tract of land in the northeast has been converted to a nature preserve containing trails, historical ruins, and undisturbed maritime forest. The tract, Cannon’s Point Preserve, is open to the public on specified days, originally inhabited by tribes of the Creek Nation, the area of South Georgia that includes St. Simons Island was contested by the Spaniards, English and French. The primary mode of travel to the island is by automobile via F. J. Torras Causeway, malcolm McKinnon Airport serves general aviation on the island. St. Simons Island is part of a cluster of barrier islands, Sea Island forms the eastern edge of this cluster, with Little St. Simons on the north, and the marshes of Glynn plus the Intracoastal Waterway to the west. The Köppen Climate Classification System rates the climate of St. Simons Island as humid subtropical, ocean breezes tend to moderate the island climate, as compared to the nearby mainland. Daytime mean highs in winter range from 61 to 68 °F, summertime mean highs are 88 to 90 °F, with average lows 73 to 75 °F. Average rainfall is 45 inches per year, rainfall is greatest in August and September, when passing afternoon thunderstorms are typical. Accumulation of snow/ice is extremely rare, the last recorded snow on St. Simons was in 1989. The island is located in USDA Plant Hardiness Zone 9a, according to the United States Census Bureau, the CDP has a total area of 17.7 square miles,15.9 square miles of which is land and 1.7 square miles of it is water. On St. Simons Island, a diverse and complex ecology exists alongside residential and commercial development. The island shares many common to the chain of sea islands along the southeastern U. S. coast…sandy beaches on the ocean side, marshes to the west. Despite centuries of agriculture and development, a canopy of live oaks, the abundance of food provided by the marshes, estuaries and vegetation attracts a varied assortment of wildlife on land, sea and in the air
33.
Georgia (U.S. state)
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Georgia is a state in the southeastern United States. It was established in 1733, the last of the original Thirteen Colonies, named after King George II of Great Britain, Georgia was the fourth state to ratify the United States Constitution, on January 2,1788. It declared its secession from the Union on January 19,1861 and it was the last state to be restored to the Union, on July 15,1870. Georgia is the 24th largest and the 8th most populous of the 50 United States, from 2007 to 2008,14 of Georgias counties ranked among the nations 100 fastest-growing, second only to Texas. Georgia is known as the Peach State and the Empire State of the South, Atlanta is the states capital, its most populous city and has been named a global city. Georgia is bordered to the south by Florida, to the east by the Atlantic Ocean and South Carolina, to the west by Alabama, the states northern part is in the Blue Ridge Mountains, part of the Appalachian Mountains system. Georgias highest point is Brasstown Bald at 4,784 feet above sea level, Georgia is the largest state entirely east of the Mississippi River in land area. Before settlement by Europeans, Georgia was inhabited by the mound building cultures, the British colony of Georgia was founded by James Oglethorpe on February 12,1733. The colony was administered by the Trustees for the Establishment of the Colony of Georgia in America under a charter issued by King George II. The Trustees implemented a plan for the colonys settlement, known as the Oglethorpe Plan. In 1742 the colony was invaded by the Spanish during the War of Jenkins Ear, in 1752, after the government failed to renew subsidies that had helped support the colony, the Trustees turned over control to the crown. Georgia became a colony, with a governor appointed by the king. The Province of Georgia was one of the Thirteen Colonies that revolted against British rule in the American Revolution by signing the 1776 Declaration of Independence, the State of Georgias first constitution was ratified in February 1777. Georgia was the 10th state to ratify the Articles of Confederation on July 24,1778, in 1829, gold was discovered in the North Georgia mountains, which led to the Georgia Gold Rush and an established federal mint in Dahlonega, which continued its operation until 1861. The subsequent influx of white settlers put pressure on the government to land from the Cherokee Nation. In 1830, President Andrew Jackson signed the Indian Removal Act into law, sending many eastern Native American nations to reservations in present-day Oklahoma, including all of Georgias tribes. Despite the Supreme Courts ruling in Worcester v. Georgia that ruled U. S. states were not permitted to redraw the Indian boundaries, President Jackson and the state of Georgia ignored the ruling. In 1838, his successor, Martin Van Buren, dispatched troops to gather the Cherokee
34.
Chatham Manor
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It was for more than a century the center of a large, thriving plantation, and one of the few locations visited both by President George Washington and later President Abraham Lincoln. Chatham also reflected the new countrys racial tensions, in January 1805, Chathams slaves overpowered and whipped their overseer and assistants in a minor slave rebellion. An armed posse of white men quickly gathered and they killed one slave in the attack, and two more died trying to escape capture. Two other slaves were deported, likely to the Caribbean or Louisiana, five decades later, in 1857, owner Hannah Jones Coalter, died and attempted to manumit her 93 slaves after making provision both for her daughter and them. While local judges thought the executors should free the slaves per Hannahs intent, a divided Virginia Supreme Court disagreed. Thus, the executors sold Chatham with its slaves to J. Horace Lacy, although soon one slave was allowed to travel to raise money to buy freedom for herself and her small family, and succeeded. During the American Civil War, the Lacys abandoned Chatham, due to wartime use and disuse, Chatham fell into great disrepair. Saved from total destruction as the 20th Century began by Virginians who had earned fortunes in the North, Chatham was refurbished, willed to the National Park Service in 1975, the estate now serves as the headquarters for the Fredericksburg and Spotsylvania National Military Park. Wealthy lawyer and planter William Fitzhugh built the house at Chatham over three-years ending in 1771. He was a friend and colleague of George Washington, whose farm was just down the Rappahannock River from Chatham. Washingtons diaries note that he was a frequent guest at Chatham and he and Fitzhugh had served together in the House of Burgesses prior to the American Revolution, and shared a love of farming and horses. Fitzhughs daughter, Molly, would marry the first presidents step-grandson and their daughter Mary Anna, born at Ann Pages estate, would later wed the future Confederate General Robert E. Lee, who freed the Custis slaves as executor after his in-laws deaths. The 1, 280-acre plantation included an orchard, mill, fizhugh named the mansion after the British parliamentarian William Pitt, 1st Earl of Chatham, who championed many of the opinions held by American colonists prior to the Revolutionary War. Flanking the main house were dozens of supporting structures, slave quarters, down on the river were fish traps. Fitzhugh sold the Chatham plantation to Major Churchill Jones, who had served under Col. William Washington, the elderly Fitzhugh then moved to a city house in Alexandria, Virginia. Churchills brother William Jones had long owned an estate, Ellwood Manor, in Spottsyvlania County, Hannah Jones Coalter was Williams daughter by his first wife, and after her first husband died, she married three-time widower in 1825 and received the deed to Chatham as their wedding present. Meanwhile, the 78 year old William Jones then remarried, to Lucy Gordon and their 18-year marriage produced a daughter, Betty Churchill Jones, who in 1848 married her former tutor, James Horace Lacy of Mississippi, son of a Presbyterian minister. Chatham remained known for its hospitality, Thomas Jefferson, James Monroe and William Henry Harrison often visited Chatham, Hannah survived her last husband by nearly two decades, as did her disabled daughter Janet
35.
Territory of Orleans
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In 1804, all of the Louisiana Purchase south of the 33rd parallel became the Orleans Territory, and the remainder became the District of Louisiana. Congress also established the Superior Court for the Territory of Orleans whose three judges were the top territorial court, the western boundary with Spanish Texas was not fully defined until the Adams–Onís Treaty in 1819. A strip of land known as the Sabine Free State just east of the Sabine River served as a neutral ground buffer area from about 1807 until 1819, the Orleans Territory was the site of the largest slave revolt in American history, the 1811 German Coast Uprising. William C. C. Claiborne was appointed Governor of the Orleans Territory, later he became the first Governor of the state of Louisiana. There were two Territorial Secretaries, James Brown and Thomas B. Robertson, daniel Clark became the first Territorial Delegate to the U. S. Congress, in December 1806. Judge Dominic Augustin Hall was the U. S. District Judge of the Territory, judges of the Superior Court were John Bartow Prevost, Ephraim Kirby, Peter Stephen Du Ponceau, William Sprigg, George Mathews, Jr. Joshua Lewis, and Francois Xavier Martin. S. Territory which encompassed land that would become part of the Orleans Territory, Louisiana Purchase, 1803–1804 U. S. Jackson, MS. The Political Graveyard Secretaries of Orleans Territory
36.
George Boxley
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George Boxley was a white abolitionist and former slaveholder who allegedly tried to coordinate a local slave rebellion on March 6,1815, while living in Spotsylvania, Virginia. His plan was based on heaven-sent orders to free the slaves and he tried to recruit slaves from Orange, Spotsylvania, and Louisa counties to meet at his home with horses, guns, swords and clubs. He planned to attack and take over Fredericksburg and Richmond, Virginia, lucy, a local slave, informed her owner, and the plot was foiled. Six slaves involved were imprisoned or executed, with his wifes help, Boxley escaped from the Spotsylvania County Jail and, despite a reward, he was never caught. Boxley fled to Ohio and Indiana, where he was joined by his family and he built a cabin in 1830, the first in Adams Township. He helped runaway slaves, taught school, and supported abolitionism, the George Boxley Cabin has been listed on the National Register of Historic Places. George Boxley, a native of Virginia, was born in 1780 and he was a merchant storekeeper and miller who became deeply committed to abolitionism. He arrived in Indiana as a fugitive from justice and was the first settler in Adams Township, Hamilton County, accounts vary in details, but the facts are that Boxley, himself a slaveowner, opposed—or came to oppose—the institution of slavery. Boxley was accused of helping slaves to escape and of fomenting a rebellion in Spotsylvania County. Jailed, he made his escape aided by his wife Hannah, after fleeing Virginia, Boxley may have spent a brief time in Pennsylvania. Various accounts indicate that he lived in Ohio and the Missouri Territory at different times, and his family eventually joined him each time he relocated. Finally Boxley headed to Indiana, pausing first at Strawtown with the idea of continuing westward to settle along the Wabash River. Sources indicate that on his way west through the forested land, Boxley took note of what was to become his future home. It was about 1828 that Boxley arrived to stay in Adams Township, Boxley recorded the 80 acres of land on which he had built his cabin in 1830, the earliest in the township. Boxley was a man and believed strongly in education. On his land, he constructed a small log school for his own children. Boxley is credited with establishing the first school in the township and he taught his pupils from the books in his own library, educating them in history, literature, law and politics, about which he held strong views. In 1851, a school was finally established near the southeast corner of Boxley’s land
37.
Bussa's rebellion
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Bussas rebellion was the largest slave revolt in Barbadian history. The rebellion takes its name from the African-born slave, Bussa and it was followed by the large-scale rebellion in Demerara in 1823 and by an even larger rebellion in Jamaica in 1831–32. Collectively these are referred to as the late slave rebellions. Bussa was born a man in West Africa of possible Igbo descent and was captured by African slave merchants, sold to the British. Not much is known about him and there are no records of him prior to this date, since slave owners almost never bothered to keep detailed records about the lives of their slaves, virtually no biographical information about Bussa is available. Records show a slave named Bussa worked as a ranger on Bayles Plantation in the parish of Saint Philip around the time of the rebellion. This privileged position would have given Bussa more freedom of movement than the slave and would have made it easier for him to plan. The revolts arose at a time when the British Parliament was working on schemes to ameliorate the conditions of slaves in the Caribbean. Preparation for this rebellion began soon after the House of Assembly discussed and rejected the Imperial Registry Bill in November 1815, historians believe that slaves interpreted some of the parliamentary proposals as preparatory to emancipation, and took action when freedom did not take place. Among Bussas collaborators were Washington, Franklin, John and Nanny Grigg, a domestic slave. Jackey was a Creole driver who was an important figure, the planning was undertaken at a number of sugar estates, including Baileys plantation, where it began. By February 1816, Bussa was an African driver, one of the few in his position and he and his collaborators decided to start the revolt on 14 April, Easter Sunday. Bussa, King Wiltshire, Dick Bailey, and Johnny led the slaves into battle at Baileys Plantation on Tuesday,16 April and he commanded some 400 freedom fighters, both men and women, most of whom were believed to be Creole, born in the islands. His forces continued the fight until they were defeated by superior firepower of the colonial militia, the rebellion failed but its influence was significant to the future of Barbados. Bussa remains a figure in Barbados. In 1985,169 years after his rebellion, the Emancipation Statue, created by Karl Broodhagen, was unveiled in Haggatt Hall,1998, the Parliament named Bussa as one of the ten National Heroes of Barbados. A History of Barbados, From Amerindian Settlement to Caribbean Single Market, testing the Chains, Resistance to Slavery in the British West Indies, Ithaca, N. Y. Cornell University Press,1982. Rodriguez, Junius P. ed. Encyclopedia of Slave Resistance, Bussa profile, Itzcaribbean Bussas Rebellion, How and Why did the Enslaved Africans of Barbados rebel in 1816, National Archives
38.
Barbados
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Barbados is a sovereign island country in the Lesser Antilles, in the Americas. It is 34 kilometres in length and up to 23 km in width, Barbados is outside of the principal Atlantic hurricane belt. Inhabited by Kalinago people since the 13th century, and prior to that by other Amerindians, Barbados was visited by Spanish navigators in the late 15th century and it first appeared in a Spanish map in 1511. The Portuguese visited the island in 1536, but they left it unclaimed, an English ship, the Olive Blossom, arrived in Barbados in 1625, its men took possession of it in the name of King James I. In 1627, the first permanent settlers arrived from England, and it became an English, in 1966, Barbados became an independent state and Commonwealth realm with the British Monarch as hereditary head of state. It has a population of 280,121 people, predominantly of African descent, despite being classified as an Atlantic island, Barbados is considered to be a part of the Caribbean, where it is ranked as a leading tourist destination. Forty percent of the come from the UK, with the US. In 2014, Transparency Internationals Corruption Perceptions Index ranked Barbados joint second in the Americas, the name Barbados is either the Portuguese word Barbados or the Spanish equivalent los Barbados, both meaning the bearded ones. In 1519, a map produced by the Genoese mapmaker Visconte Maggiolo showed and named Barbados in its correct position, furthermore, the island of Barbuda in the Leewards is very similar in name and was once named Las Barbudas by the Spanish. It is uncertain which European nation arrived first in Barbados, one lesser known source points to earlier-revealed works predating contemporary sources indicating it could have been the Spanish. Others believe the Portuguese, en route to Brazil, were the first Europeans to come upon the island, colloquially Barbadians refer to their home island as Bim or other nicknames associated with Barbados includes Bimshire. The origin is uncertain but several theories exist, the name could have arisen due to the relatively large percentage of enslaved Igbo people from modern-day southeastern Nigeria arriving in Barbados in the 18th century. The words Bim and Bimshire are recorded in the Oxford English Dictionary, another possible source for Bim is reported to be in the Agricultural Reporter of 25 April 1868, where the Rev. N. Greenidge suggested the listing of Bimshire as a county of England. Expressly named were Wiltshire, Hampshire, Berkshire and Bimshire, lastly, in the Daily Argosy of 1652 there is a reference to Bim as a possible corruption of Byam, the name of a Royalist leader against the Parliamentarians. That source suggested the followers of Byam became known as Bims, amerindian settlement of Barbados dates to about the 4th to 7th centuries AD, by a group known as the Saladoid-Barrancoid. In the 13th century, the Kalinago arrived from South America, the Spanish and Portuguese briefly claimed Barbados from the late 16th to the 17th centuries. The Arawaks are believed to have fled to neighbouring islands, apart from possibly displacing the Caribs, the Spanish and Portuguese made little impact and left the island uninhabited. Some Arawaks migrated from British Guiana in the 19th century and continue to live in Barbados, during the Cromwellian era this included a large number of prisoners-of-war, vagrants and people who were illicitly kidnapped, who were forcibly transported to the island and sold as servants
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South Carolina
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South Carolina /ˌsaʊθ kærəˈlaɪnə/ is a state in the southeastern region of the United States. The state is bordered to the north by North Carolina, to the south and west by Georgia across the Savannah River, South Carolina became the eighth state to ratify the U. S. Constitution, doing so on May 23,1788. South Carolina became the first state to vote to secede from the Union on December 20,1860, after the American Civil War, it was readmitted into the United States on June 25,1868. South Carolina is the 40th most extensive and the 23rd most populous U. S. state and its GDP as of 2013 was $183.6 billion, with an annual growth rate of 3. 13%. The capital and largest city is Columbia with a 2013 population of 133,358, South Carolina is named in honor of King Charles I of England, under whose reign the English colony was first formed, with Carolus being Latin for Charles. There is evidence of activity in the area about 12000 years ago. Along the Savannah River were the Apalachee, Yuchi, and the Yamasee, further west were the Cherokee, and along the Catawba River, the Catawba. These tribes were village-dwellers, relying on agriculture as their food source. The Cherokee lived in wattle and daub houses made with wood and clay, about a dozen separate small tribes summered on the coast harvesting oysters and fish, and cultivating corn, peas and beans. Travelling inland as much as 50 miles mostly by canoe, they wintered on the plain, hunting deer and gathering nuts. The names of these survive in place names like Edisto Island, Kiawah Island. The Spanish were the first Europeans in the area, in 1521, founding San Miguel de Gualdape, established with 500 settlers, it was abandoned within a year by 150 survivors. In 1562 French settlers established a settlement at what is now the Charlesfort-Santa Elena archaeological site on Parris Island, three years later the Spanish built a fort on the same site, but withdrew following hostilities with the English navy. In 1629, King Charles I of England established the Province of Carolina an area covering what is now South and North Carolina, Georgia, in the 1670s, English planters from the Barbados established themselves near what is now Charleston. Settlers built rice plantations in the South Carolina Lowcountry, east of the Atlantic Seaboard fall line, settlers came from all over Europe. Plantation labor was done by African slaves who formed the majority of the population by 1720, another cash crop was the Indigo plant, a plant source of blue dye, developed by Eliza Lucas. Meanwhile, in Upstate South Carolina, west of the Fall Line, was settled by farmers and traders. Colonists overthrew the rule, seeing more direct representation
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Nat Turner's slave rebellion
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Nat Turners Rebellion was a slave rebellion that took place in Southampton County, Virginia, during August 1831. Led by Nat Turner, rebel slaves killed from 55 to 65 people, the rebellion was put down within a few days, but Turner survived in hiding for more than two months afterwards. The rebellion was suppressed at Belmont Plantation on the morning of August 23,1831. There was widespread fear in the aftermath of the rebellion, the state executed 56 slaves accused of being part of the rebellion. In the frenzy, many non-participant slaves were punished, approximately 120 slaves and free African Americans were murdered by militias and mobs in the area. Nat Turner was an African-American slave who had lived his life in Southampton County, Virginia. Turner was highly intelligent and learned how to read and write at a young age and he grew up deeply religious and was often seen fasting, praying or immersed in reading the stories of the Bible. He frequently had visions, which he interpreted as messages from God and these visions greatly influenced his life. Turner often conducted Baptist services, and preached the Bible to his fellow slaves, Turner also had an influence over white people. In the case of Ethelred T. Brantley, Turner said that he was able to convince Brantley to cease from his wickedness, by the spring of 1828, Turner was convinced that he was ordained for some great purpose in the hands of the Almighty. In 1830, Joseph Travis purchased Turner and became his master, Turner later recalled that Travis was a kind master who had placed the greatest confidence in him. Turner eagerly anticipated Gods signal to start his task of slay my enemies with their own weapons, Turner witnessed a solar eclipse on February 11,1831, and was convinced that this was the sign for which he was waiting. Following in the steps of the late Denmark Vesey of South Carolina, Turner communicated the great work laid out to do, to four in whom I had the greatest confidence – his fellow slaves Henry, Hark, Nelson and Sam. Turner had originally planned for the rebellion to begin on July 4,1831, Turner started with several trusted fellow slaves, and ultimately gathered more than 70 enslaved and free blacks, some of whom were mounted on horseback. On August 13,1831, an atmospheric disturbance made the sun appear bluish-green, Turner took this as the final signal, and began the rebellion a week later on August 22. The rebels traveled from house to house, freeing slaves and killing all the people they encountered. As muskets and firearms were to difficult to collect and would gather unwanted attention, the rebels used knives, hatchets, axes, oates states that Turner called on his group to kill all the white people. The group spared a few homes because Turner believed the white inhabitants thought no better of themselves than they did of negroes
