1.
1761 in poetry
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Nationality words link to articles with information on the nations poetry or literature. In March, poet Charles Churchills Rosciad was published at his own expense, no leading London actor, with the exception of David Garrick, had escaped censure, and in the Apology Garrick was clearly threatened. The actor deflected criticism by showing every possible civility to Churchill, Churchills satire made him many enemies, and brought reprisals. In Night, an Epistle to Robert Lloyd, be answered the attacks made on him, Churchill received a considerable sum from sales of the poem, paid off all of his old creditors, and gave an allowance to his wife. This year James Macpherson announced the discovery of an epic on the subject of Fingal which Macpherson claimed was written by Ossian. Macpherson is said to have challenged Johnson, who replied that he was not to be deterred from detecting what he thought a cheat by the menaces of a ruffian, Macpherson never produced his originals, which he refused to publish on the grounds of expense. Modern scholars tend to agree with Johnsons assessment
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1763 in poetry
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Nationality words link to articles with information on the nations poetry or literature. Robert Lloyd is in Fleet Prison for debt, approximate date – Chinese Qing dynasty scholar Sun Zhu compiles Three Hundred Tang Poems, an anthology of poems from the Chinese Tang dynasty. The Scottish place-hunters were as much alarmed as the actors had been in 1761, an Epistle to William Hogarth was in answer to the caricature of Wilkes made during the trial. In the poem, Churchill attacked Hogarths vanity and envy with an invective which David Garrick quoted as shocking, Hogarth retaliated with a caricature of Churchill as a bear in torn clerical bands hugging a pot of porter and a club made of lies and North Britons. The Duellist is a virulent satire on the most active opponents of Wilkes in the House of Lords, the Ghost, was an attack on Samuel Johnson among others, calling Johnson, Pomposo, insolent and loud, Vain idol of a scribbling crowd. The Conference The Author, highly praised by Churchills contemporaries
3.
1773 in poetry
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Nationality words link to articles with information on the nations poetry or literature. May 4 – Eibhlín Dubh Ní Chonaill composes the keen Caoineadh Airt Uí Laoghaire over the body of her husband Art Ó Laoghaire. Cláudio Manuel da Costa writes his epic poem Vila Rica, relating the history of the homonymous Brazilian city, modern-day Ouro Preto, friedrich Gottlieb Klopstock publishes the last five cantos of his epic poem Der Messias in Hamburg. William Cowper, living at Olney, Buckinghamshire, experiences mental disturbances, the book was published in Aldgate, London because publishers in Boston, Massachusetts, had refused to publish the text. Wheatley and her masters son, Nathanial Wheatley, went to London, where Selina, Countess of Huntingdon and the Earl of Dartmouth helped with the publication
4.
1771 in architecture
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The year 1771 in architecture involved some significant events. Bath Assembly Rooms, designed by John Wood the Younger, completed in England, claydon House, the second English country house completed on this site in Buckinghamshire. Harewood House in West Yorkshire, England, a house designed by John Carr. Pavillon de Louveciennes in Louveciennes, Yvelines, France, designed by Claude Nicolas Ledoux, is completed, putuo Zongcheng Temple of Chengde, Hebei province, China is completed. Thatched House Lodge in the London Borough of Richmond upon Thames is remodelled as a residence by John Soane. Second phase of building the new Stockholm Palace is completed by Carl Fredrik Adelcrantz, façade of church of San Rocco, Venice, designed by Bernardino Maccarucci, completed
5.
Irish poetry
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Irish poetry includes poetry in two languages, Irish and English. The earliest surviving poems in Irish date back to the 6th century and this culminated in the work of the poets of the Irish Literary Revival in the late 19th and early 20th century. Poetry in Irish represents the oldest vernacular poetry in Europe, the earliest examples date from the 6th century, and are generally short lyrics on themes from religion or the world of nature. They were frequently written by their authors in the margins of the illuminated manuscripts that they were copying. The best known example is Pangur Bán and it was practical for poems to be short because the Irish recognized that it was necessary to use any means necessary to make the poems lasting in their oral culture. To accomplish such a feat as well as they have, they used complicated rhyme schemes that would render a poem nonsensical if any of the key words were changed from the original version, in an oral culture, Irish poetry had many uses. A poem could be used to both the poet and the subject of the poem, oftentimes kings would commission poets to create a piece about them. Such poems would be passed on to descendants so they would remember the deeds of past generations. Kings would also commission poets to write poems of advertisement, speaking of the greatness and worthiness. Oral poetry, because it was in the vernacular, was used for entertainment. Poems that were entertaining could also be informative, teaching people lessons or offering them wisdom of experience for dealing with situations they would encounter in their everyday lives. Finally, poems, especially those featured in the sagas, were thought to be an instrument of the supernatural, Another source of early Irish poetry is the poems in the tales and sagas, such as the Táin Bó Cúailnge. Unlike many other European epic cycles, the Irish sagas were written in prose, Irish bards formed a professional hereditary caste of highly trained, learned poets. As officials of the court of king or chieftain, they performed a number of official roles and they were chroniclers and satirists whose job it was to praise their employers and damn those who crossed them. It was believed that a well-aimed bardic satire, glam dicin, the Metrical Dindshenchas, or Lore of Places, is probably the major surviving monument of Irish bardic verse. It is a great onomastic anthology of naming legends of significant places in the Irish landscape, the earliest of these date from the 11th century, and were probably originally compiled on a provincial basis. As a national compilation, the Metrical Dindshenchas has come down to us in two different recensions. Knowledge of the real or putative history of local places formed an important part of the education of the elite in ancient Ireland, verse tales of Fionn and the Fianna, sometimes known as Ossianic poetry, were extremely common in Ireland and Scotland throughout this period
6.
Portuguese poetry
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It was in this region that the ancestral language of both modern Portuguese and modern Galician, known today as Galician-Portuguese, was the common language of the people. However, this produced a specific type of song, known as cantigas de amigo. In these, the subject is always a woman talking about her friend from whom she has been separated - by war or other activities - as shown in the Reconquista. They discuss the loneliness that the woman feels, but some poems also project eroticism, or confess the lovers meeting in a secret place, often through a dialogue she has with her mother or with natural elements. Epic poetry was produced, as was common in Romantic medieval regions. With the Portuguese expansion south, poetry preserved some of main characteristics - cantigas de amigo were written even by kings. But it was with the Renaissance that poets embarked on a new age of literature due to influences from Italy, Sá de Miranda introduced the sonnet, which became, until today, a very common form. But his lyrical works never abandoned traditional forms and he displays a certain antipathy to rapid changes in social structure and values. Bernardim Ribeiro made use of poetry, singing about love fatalistically. In the next generation, António Ferreira, making a wide use of forms, expresses the same antipathy related to the detriment of society. This was also the time of António Gonçalves de Bandarra, a cobbler who learned to read despite his low status. His songs can be considered the birth of sebastianism, a theme of Portuguese culture. The Portuguese expansion also gave birth to epic poetry, jerónimo Corte-Real, with his O Segundo Cerco de Diu should be mentioned, but his classic influence is not well defined. But the great poet, both of lyric and epic, is, unquestionably, Luís de Camões and he wrote what is considered the most important poem of Portuguese Literature, Os Lusíadas, singing the maritime voyage of Vasco da Gama from Lisbon to India. After this period of national pride, the years of the Philippine Dynasty saw a continuation of epic production. Poems from this era may be seen as a resistance to foreign domination, significant authors include, Luís Brandão, Rodrigues Lobo, Vasco Mouzinho de Quevedo, Sá de Meneses, Gabriel de Castro, António Macedo. Such epic cycle ended with the poem Viriato Trágico, by Brás Garcia de Mascarenhas, in the 17th century, poets had their liberty constrained by the Portuguese Inquisition. Among other factors, one could see this period as a decline on Portuguese poetry and this may well be seen as a crisis of Portuguese identity in a world to which they do not seem to have adapted
7.
English poetry
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This article focuses on poetry written in English from the United Kingdom, England, Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland. The article does not include poetry from other countries where the English language is spoken, the earliest surviving English poetry, written in Anglo-Saxon, the direct predecessor of modern English, may have been composed as early as the 7th century. This is generally taken as marking the beginning of Anglo-Saxon poetry and it is possible to identify certain key moments, however. The Dream of the Rood was written before circa AD700, by and large, however, Anglo-Saxon poetry is categorised by the manuscripts in which it survives, rather than its date of composition. While the poetry that has survived is limited in volume, it is wide in breadth, beowulf is the only heroic epic to have survived in its entirety, but fragments of others such as Waldere and the Finnesburg Fragment show that it was not unique in its time. Other genres include much religious verse, from works to biblical paraphrase, elegies such as The Wanderer, The Seafarer, and The Ruin, and numerous proverbs, riddles. With one notable exception, Anglo-Saxon poetry depends on alliterative verse for its structure, with the Norman conquest of England, beginning in 1111 the Anglo-Saxon language rapidly diminished as a written literary language. The new aristocracy spoke predominantly Norman, and this became the language of courts, parliament. While Anglo-Norman or Latin was preferred for high culture, English literature by no means died out, other transitional works were preserved as popular entertainment, including a variety of romances and lyrics. With time, the English language regained prestige, and in 1362 it replaced French and Latin in Parliament, the reputation of Chaucers successors in the 15th century has suffered in comparison with him, though Lydgate and Skelton are widely studied. A group of Scottish writers arose who were believed to be influenced by Chaucer. The rise of Scottish poetry began with the writing of The Kingis Quair by James I of Scotland, the main poets of this Scottish group were Robert Henryson, William Dunbar and Gavin Douglas. The Renaissance was slow in coming to England, with the generally accepted start date being around 1509 and it is also generally accepted that the English Renaissance extended until the Restoration in 1660. However, a number of factors had prepared the way for the introduction of the new learning long before this start date. A number of medieval poets had, as noted, shown an interest in the ideas of Aristotle. The introduction of printing by Caxton in 1474 provided the means for the more rapid dissemination of new or recently rediscovered writers and thinkers. Caxton also printed the works of Chaucer and Gower and these books helped establish the idea of a poetic tradition that was linked to its European counterparts. In addition, the writings of English humanists like Thomas More and Thomas Elyot helped bring the ideas, the establishment of the Church of England in 1535 accelerated the process of questioning the Catholic world-view that had previously dominated intellectual and artistic life
8.
William Mason (poet)
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William Mason was an English divine, poet, amateur draughtsman, author, editor and gardener He was born in Hull and educated at Hull Grammar School and St Johns College, Cambridge. He was ordained in 1754 and held a number of posts in the church, in 1747 his poem Musaeus, a Monody on the Death of Mr. Pope was published to acclaim and quickly went through several editions. Summarizing this poem, a threnody, William Lyon Phelps writes, Musaeus was a monody on the death of Pope, there is nothing remarkable about these imitations. His garden designs included one for the Viscount Harcourt and he entered the Church in 1754, and in 1762 became the precentor and canon of York Minster. He was the friend, executor, and biographer of Thomas Gray, in 1775 The Poems of Mr. Gray. To which are prefixed Memoirs of his Life and Writings by W. Mason and he was also a friend of Horace Walpole and Joshua Reynolds. Masons artwork was considered worthy of showing at the Royal Academy between 1782 and 1786, in 1785 he was William Pitt the Youngers choice to succeed William Whitehead as Poet Laureate but refused the honour. Two of his works of scenes at the York racecourse, A Country Racecourse with horses preparing to start, were reproduced as mezzotint illustrations in 1786 by Francis Jukes in collaboration with Robert Pollard. In 1797 Mason hurt his shin on a Friday while stepping out of his carriage and he was able to officiate in his church at Aston on the Sunday, but died from the injury on the following Wednesday,7 April. Memorial inscriptions for Mason may be found in the church at Aston near Rotherham where he was rector, a cenotaph was also erected by Countess Harcourt in the gardens at Nuneham Courtenay. He was the guardian of Francis Ferrand Foljambe during his minority, Poets Corner Author and Bookinfo. com Translation into French of The English Garden with five drawings. William Mason at the Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900 William Mason at the Eighteenth-Century Poetry Archive Lee, Sidney, ed. Mason, William
9.
Nuneham Courtenay
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Nuneham Courtenay is a village and civil parish about 5 miles southeast of Oxford, it occupies a pronounced section of left bank of the River Thames. The parish is bounded to the west by the River Thames, the 2011 Census recorded the parishs population as 200. The parish is on an escarpment running north-east to south-west. Its highest point is a tiny knoll 100 m above sea level. Between these points is Windmill Hill where no evidence of a windmill survives, the minimum elevation is 52m to 53m along the Thames which follows the line of the central eminent land. Most of the nature reserve Bluebell Wood is on the slopes, across Marsh Baldons straight. The parish covers about 2 km north to the same south-west of the point shown and its population was 0. 15% of the districts total of 134,257. The Oxford Green Belt Way passes through the parish, the toponym was Newenham from the 11th century on, until it was changed to Nuneham in 1764. Just southeast of Lower Farm, about 1 1⁄2 miles northwest of the present Nuneham Courtenay village, is the site of a former Romano-British pottery kiln, the kiln was about 1 1⁄2 miles west of the Roman road that linked the Roman towns at Dorchester on Thames and Alchester. It began production about 100 CE, producing a range of fine wares in the 2nd century. It then declined, and in about the middle of the 4th century it ceased production, the remains of the kiln were discovered in 1991 during excavations to lay a new water main for Thames Water. It remained in his family until the death of his great-grandson and it then passed from William de Courcys widow Gundreda via her female heirs to Baldwin de Redvers, 7th Earl of Devon. Baldwin died without an heir, so Newenham again passed to an overlord, Isabella de Fortibus. She too died without an heir, but in 1310 King Edward II granted Newenham to Hugh de Courtenay, under the terms of the sale Margaret de Bohun, 2nd Countess of Devon retained the use of Newenham Courtenay for life. Sir John died in 1417 leaving the manor to his widow Isabel, younger daughter of Sir Maurice Russell of Dyrham, Gloucestershire and Kingston Russell, Isabel then married, as her 4th husband, Stephen Hatfield. Upon Isabels death in 1437, Newenham Courtenay passed to Alice Chaucer, daughter of Thomas Chaucer, Alice was married to William de la Pole, 1st Duke of Suffolk. The manor remained in the de la Pole family until 1502, in 1514 Henry VII made his brother-in-law Charles Brandon Duke of Suffolk, and granted him the forfeited de la Pole estates. In 1528 Brandon conveyed Newenham Courtenay to Cardinal Wolsey, but the following year King Henry VIII deposed Wolsey, the manor was administered by royal stewards until 1544, when it was bought by John Pollard
10.
George Harcourt, 2nd Earl Harcourt
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George Simon Harcourt, 2nd Earl Harcourt was an English politician, patron of the arts, and gardener. Harcourt was the son of Simon Harcourt, 1st Earl Harcourt, who died in 1777 until which time George was known as Viscount Nuneham and he spent two years at Westminster School, and had art lessons from Alexander Cozens and other masters. In 1754 Harcourt travelled in Germany and Italy with George Bussy Villiers and his Grand Tour continued to 1756. Whitehead later wrote poems about both family estates, Middleton Park and Nuneham Courtenay, Harcourt was elected to parliament for St Albans in 1761, remaining a member until 1767. He was not recorded as having spoken in the House and he was a supporter of John Wilkes, a friend of Catherine Macaulay, and an opponent of the war against the American colonies, having entered the House of Lords in 1777. In 1772 Harcourt began to redesign the gardens at Nuneham Courtenay, assisted by William Mason, from 1779 Capability Brown was brought in to advise, on the park and gardens, and Paul Sandby, perhaps a contact made through Whitehead, on the interior of the house. As a patron Harcourt employed Thomas Pitt on a monument to his father, Harcourt married Elizabeth, daughter of George Venables-Vernon, 1st Baron Vernon, a cousin, in 1765
11.
Ambrosius Stub
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Ambrosius Christoffersen Stub was a Danish poet. Stub was born in Gummerup on the island of Funen, and he was baptized at Verninge on May 17,1705. The son of a tailor, he was able to attend the Latin school of Odense due to the generosity of noblemen who employed his father, from 1725, he studied theology at the University of Copenhagen. In Copenhagen he developed an interest in opera and music, nurtured by visits of touring companies from Italy. For a living, he worked as a poet and secretary for several noble families, after studying for almost 10 years, he left the university without a degree in 1734, and returned home. There he met Mette Cathrine Schousboe, a daughter, whom he married in 1735. The couple lived at Mettes inherited farm which they were not able to manage well enough, hence, its value soon declined, and the Stubs living conditions got worse and worse. Of the couples four children only two survived childhood, in 1747, Stubs wife died aged 31. Five years later, Ambrosius Stub moved to Ribe, where he kept close company to Bishop Hans Adolph Brorson, suffering from gout and an alcohol problem, he spent his last years there working as a teacher. Stub wrote his first poems as a 23-year-old student, but during his lifetime, most of his work was properly written down, printed and published after his death. Because of this there is some uncertainty about the correctness of the citations. A first edition of his works was published posthumously in 1771. Later collections were assembled from songbooks, but the attribution of some anonymous poems, Stubs literary works have a wide variety of topics, comprising philosophical and religious poetry as well as drinking songs, love poems and occasional poems. His Du deylig Rosen-Knop can be read as a commitment to virtuousness, the rose is a symbol for perishable beauty. One of Stubs more famous poems Den kiedsom Winter gik sin Gang, is found in a version in the anthology Højskolesangbogen. In this poem he describes the beginning of spring from the point of view of a sinister poet, providence, however, holds more cheerful days for him to come, if he only keeps up his patience and fortitude. Stubs late work, written in Ribe, is influenced by pietism, fear of death, Hell and the moral decline of the world become his primary topics of interest. He was also influenced by the German writer and musician, Johann Sigismund Scholze alias Sperontes and he wrote several religious hymns, like Jeg ser dit kunstværk, store Gud and Lyksalig endte da min frelser sine dage
12.
American poetry
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Unsurprisingly, most of the early colonists work relied on contemporary British models of poetic form, diction, and theme. However, in the 19th century, a distinctive American idiom began to emerge, the history of American poetry is not easy to know. The received narrative of Modernism proposes that Ezra Pound and T. S. Eliot were perhaps the most influential modernist English-language poets in the period during World War I. But this narrative leaves out African American and women poets who were published, by the 1960s, the young poets of the British Poetry Revival looked to their American contemporaries and predecessors as models for the kind of poetry they wanted to write. There are 14 such writers whom we might on that basis call American poets, early examples include a 1616 testimonial poem on the sterling warlike character of Captain John Smith and Rev. One of the first recorded poets of the British colonies was Anne Bradstreet, the poems she published during her lifetime address religious and political themes. She also wrote tender evocations of home, family life and of her love for her husband, edward Taylor wrote poems expounding Puritan virtues in a highly wrought metaphysical style that can be seen as typical of the early colonial period. This narrow focus on the Puritan ethic was, understandably, the dominant note of most of the written in the colonies during the 17th. Of course, being a Puritan minister as well as a poet, a distinctly American lyric voice of the colonial period was Phillis Wheatley, a slave whose book Poems on Various Subjects, Religious and Moral, was published in 1773. She was one of the poets of her day, at least in the colonies. The 18th century saw an emphasis on America itself as fit subject matter for its poets. The work of Rebecca Hammond Lard, although old, still apply to life in todays world. She writes about nature, not only the nature of environment, on the whole, the development of poetry in the American colonies mirrors the development of the colonies themselves. The early poetry is dominated by the need to preserve the integrity of the Puritan ideals that created the settlement in the first place, as the colonists grew in confidence, the poetry they wrote increasingly reflected their drive towards independence. This shift in subject matter was not reflected in the mode of writing which tended to be conservative and this can be seen as a product of the physical remove at which American poets operated from the center of English-language poetic developments in London. The first significant poet of the independent United States was William Cullen Bryant, whose contribution was to write rhapsodic poems on the grandeur of prairies. Formed the Fireside Poets were a group of 19th-century American poets from New England, the poets primary subjects were the domestic life, mythology, and politics of the United States, in which several of the poets were directly involved. Other notable poets to emerge in the early and middle 19th century include Ralph Waldo Emerson, Edgar Allan Poe, Henry David Thoreau, Sidney Lanier, and James Whitcomb Riley
13.
Adelle Davis
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She gained prominence in the 1960s and 1970s with widespread media attention and became the most recognized nutritionist in the country. Despite her popularity, she was criticized by her peers for many recommendations she made that were not supported by the scientific literature. Adelle Davis was born to Charles and Harriette Davis in Lizton, Indiana, USA and she studied Home Economics at Purdue University from 1923 to 1925 and received her Bachelor of Arts degree in Household Studies from the University of California at Berkeley in 1927. From 1931 through 1958, Davis was a private consulting nutritionist in Oakland and Los Angeles and she received her Master of Science degree in Biochemistry from the University of Southern California. In October 1943, Davis married George Edward Leisey, and adopted his two children, George and Barbara, though she never had children of her own and she divorced George Leisey in 1953 and married a retired accountant and lawyer named Frank Sieglinger in 1960. In 1973 Adelle Davis was diagnosed with multiple myeloma and later died of the disease in 1974 in her home at the age of seventy. Davis wrote a series of four books, starting with a cookbook in 1947 and her celebrity was demonstrated by her repeated guest appearances on The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson, as she became the most popular and influential nutritionist in the country. Senator Patrick Leahy commended her views in 1998 as well, in remarks meant to support a law protecting free speech on food safety from the threat of lawsuits. Despite her celebrity, Davis received significant and strong criticism from fellow nutritionists, although she was very popular with the public in general in the 1970s, none of her books were recommended by any significant nutritional professional society of the time. One review noted that only 30 of 170 citations in a sample taken from one chapter accurately supported the assertions in her book, additionally, the 1969 White House Conference on Food, Nutrition, and Health labelled her probably the single most harmful source of false nutritional information. Most worrying to physicians and nutritionists who reviewed her work were not only the scientific inaccuracies and her recommendation for vitamin A supplements was followed by the mother of a young girl who subsequently developed permanently stunted growth. A lawsuit filed on behalf of the child was ultimately settled out of court with Davis estate for the sum of $150,000. In 1978, the parents of a child with colic followed the advice of Davis and these parents gave the child potassium supplementation for this condition and the child subsequently died. A lawsuit by the parents against Davis estate, the publisher. Keys stated, And dieting can be dangerous, too, diet fads are for the birds, if you dont like birds. My friend Ed Rynearson -- he was in charge of the division of metabolism at the Mayo Clinic -- pointed out that were overridden with diet fads and his particular peeve was Adelle Davis. Shes dead now, and I shouldnt speak ill of the dead, but her books are just full of hogwash. She has a variety of diets, but no sense to them at all -- lots of natural things
14.
George Whitefield
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George Whitefield, also spelled George Whitfield, was an English Anglican cleric who was one of the founders of Methodism and the evangelical movement. Born in Gloucester, he matriculated at Pembroke College at the University of Oxford in 1732, there he joined the Holy Club and was introduced to the Wesley brothers, John and Charles, who he would work closely with in his later ministry. Whitefield was ordained after receiving his BA and he immediately began preaching, but he did not settle as the minister of any parish. Rather he became an itinerant preacher and evangelist, in 1740, Whitefield traveled to America, where he preached a series of revivals that came to be known as the Great Awakening. His methods were controversial and he engaged in debates and disputes with other clergymen. Whitefield received widespread recognition during his ministry, he preached at least 18,000 times to perhaps 10 million listeners in Great Britain, Whitefield could enthrall large audiences through a potent combination of drama, religious rhetoric, and imperial pride. Whitefield was born on 27 December 1714 at the Bell Inn, Southgate Street, Whitefield was the fifth son of Thomas Whitefield and Elizabeth Edwards who kept an inn at Gloucester. He was educated at the Crypt School, Gloucester, and Pembroke College, because business at the inn had become poor, Whitefield did not have the means to pay for his tuition. He was a part of the Holy Club at the University with the Wesley brothers, John, an illness, as well as Henry Scougals The Life of God in the Soul of Man, influenced him to turn to the Church. Following a religious conversion, he became passionate for preaching his new-found faith, the Bishop of Gloucester ordained him a deacon. Whitefield preached his first sermon at St Mary de Crypt Church in his town of Gloucester. He had earlier become the leader of the Holy Club at Oxford when the Wesley brothers departed for Georgia, in 1738 he went to Savannah, Georgia, in the American colonies, as parish priest. While there he decided that one of the needs of the area was an orphan house. He decided this would be his lifes work and he returned to England to raise funds, as well as to receive priests orders. While preparing for his return, he preached to large congregations, at the suggestion of friends he preached to the miners of Kingswood, outside Bristol, in the open air. Because he was returning to Georgia he invited John Wesley to take over his Bristol congregations, Whitefield accepted the Church of Englands doctrine of predestination and disagreed with the Wesley brothers views on the doctrine of the atonement, Arminianism. As a result, Whitefield did what his friends hoped he would not do—hand over the ministry to John Wesley. Whitefield formed and was the president of the first Methodist conference, the society meeting at the second Kingswood School at Kingswood, a town on the eastern edge of Bristol, was eventually also named Whitefields Tabernacle
15.
Colonial history of the United States
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The colonial history of the United States covers the history of European settlements from the start of colonization until their incorporation into the United States. In the late 16th century, England, France, Spain, small early attempts often disappeared, such as the English Lost Colony of Roanoke. Everywhere, the rate was very high among the first arrivals. Nevertheless, successful colonies were established several decades. European settlers came from a variety of social and religious groups, few aristocrats settled permanently, but a number of adventurers, soldiers, farmers, and tradesmen arrived. They built colonies with distinctive social, religious, political, non-British colonies were taken over and most of the inhabitants were assimilated, unlike in Nova Scotia, where the British expelled the French Acadian inhabitants. There were no civil wars among the 13 colonies. The colonies developed legalized systems of slavery, based largely in the Atlantic slave trade from Africa or by way of the Caribbean, Wars were recurrent between the French and the British—the French and Indian Wars especially—and involved French support for Native American attacks on the British frontiers. By 1760, France was defeated and the British seized its colonies, on the eastern seaboard of what became the United States, the four distinct British regions were, New England, the Middle Colonies, the Chesapeake Bay Colonies, and the Lower South. Some historians add a fifth region of the Frontier which was never separately organized, see timeline of Colonial America for list of historical events. Colonizers came from European kingdoms that had highly developed military, naval, governmental and these efforts were managed respectively by the Casa de Contratación and the Casa da Índia. England, France, and the Netherlands had also started colonies in both the West Indies and North America and they had the ability to build ocean-worthy ships but did not have as strong a history of colonization in foreign lands as did Portugal and Spain. However, English entrepreneurs gave their colonies a foundation of merchant-based investment that seemed to need much less government support, initially, matters concerning the colonies were dealt with primarily by the Privy Council and its committees. The Commission of Trade was set up in 1625 as the first special body convened to advise on colonial questions, mercantilism was the basic policy imposed by Britain on its colonies from the 1660s. The goal of mercantilism was to run trade surpluses, so that gold, the government took its share through duties and taxes, with the remainder going to merchants in Britain. The government spent much of its revenue on a superb Royal Navy which protected the British colonies, thus, the British Navy captured New Amsterdam in 1664. The colonies were captive markets for British industry, and the goal was to enrich the mother country, the prospect of religious persecution by authorities of the crown and the Church of England prompted a significant number of colonization efforts. People fleeing persecution by King Charles I were responsible for settling most of New England, anonymous Portuguese explorers were the first Europeans to map the future eastern seaboard of the U. S. from New York to Florida, as documented in the Cantino planisphere of 1502
16.
John Trumbull
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John Trumbull was an American artist during the period of the American Revolutionary War and was notable for his historical paintings. His Declaration of Independence was used on the reverse of the two-dollar bill, Trumbull was born in Lebanon, Connecticut, in 1756, to Jonathan Trumbull and his wife Faith Trumbull. His father served as Governor of Connecticut from 1769 to 1784, both sides of his family were descended from early Puritan settlers in the state. The young Trumbull entered the 1771 junior class at Harvard College at age fifteen, due to a childhood accident, Trumbull lost use of one eye, which may have influenced his detailed painting style. As a soldier in the American Revolutionary War, Trumbull rendered a service at Boston by sketching plans of the British works. He witnessed the Battle of Bunker Hill and he was appointed second personal aide to General George Washington, and in June 1776, deputy adjutant-general to General Horatio Gates. He resigned from the army in 1777 after a dispute over the dating of his officer commission, in 1780 he traveled to London, where he studied under Benjamin West. At Wests suggestion, Trumbull painted small pictures of the War of Independence and he painted about 250 in his lifetime. On September 23,1780, British agent Major John André was captured by Continental troops in North America, after news reached Great Britain, outrage flared and Trumbull was arrested, as having been an officer in the Continental Army of similar rank to André. He was imprisoned for seven months in Londons Tothill Fields Bridewell, after being released, Trumbull returned to the United States. In 1784, following the British recognition of the United States independence, while working in his studio, Trumbull painted Battle of Bunker Hill and Death of General Montgomery in the Attack on Quebec. Both works are now in the Yale University Art Gallery, in 1785 Trumbull went to Paris, where he made portrait sketches of French officers for the Surrender of Lord Cornwallis. With the assistance of Thomas Jefferson, serving there as the US minister, while in Paris, Trumbull is credited with having introduced Jefferson to the Italian painter Maria Cosway, they became lifelong intimate friends. Trumbulls painting became widely known due to an engraving of it by Asher Brown Durand. All now hang in rotunda of the United States Capitol, congress reportedly authorized only funds sufficient to purchase these four paintings. Trumbulls The Sortie Made by the Garrison of Gibraltar,1789, in 1831 Trumbull sold a series of 28 paintings and 60 miniature portraits to Yale University for an annuity of $1,000. This is by far the largest single collection of his works, the collection was originally housed in a neoclassical art gallery designed by Trumbull on Yales Old Campus, along with portraits by other artists. His portraits include full lengths of General Washington and George Clinton, New York also bought his full-length paintings of Alexander Hamilton and John Jay
17.
James Beattie (poet)
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James Beattie FRSE was a Scottish poet, moralist and philosopher. James Beattie was born the son of a shopkeeper and small farmer at Laurencekirk in the Mearns, in 1760, he was appointed Professor of moral philosophy there as a result of the interest of his intimate friend, Robert Arbuthnot of Haddo. In the following year he published a volume of poems, The Judgment of Paris, the two works, however, which brought him most fame were An Essay on the Nature and Immutability of Truth, and his poem of The Minstrel. The Essay, intended as an answer to David Hume, had immediate success, and led to an introduction to the King, a pension of £200. The first book of The Minstrel was published in 1771 and the second in 1774 and it contains much beautiful descriptive writing. Beattie was prominent in arguing against the institution of slavery, notably in his Essay on the Nature and Immutability of Truth, Beattie was an amateur cellist and member of the Aberdeen Musical Society. He considered questions of philosophy in his essay On Poetry and Music. His poem The Hermit was set to music by Tommaso Giordani, Beattie was co-founder of the Royal Society of Edinburgh in 1783. Beattie underwent much domestic sorrow in the death of his wife, Mary Dunn, whom he had married in 1767 and he died in Aberdeen in 1803 and is buried there in St Nicholas Churchyard. His niece, Margaret Valentine, married Rev Prof George Glennie FRSE, a biographical sketch, An Account of the Life of James Beattie, LL. D. was published in 1804 by Alexander Bower. Beattie is one of the sixteen Scottish poets and writers depicted on the Scott Monument on Princes Street in Edinburgh and he appears on the left side of the east face. On poetry and music as they affect the mind, of the origin and general nature of speech. A Short Biographical Dictionary of English Literature, london, J. M. Dent & Sons. Beattie, James, Elements of Moral Science,1790, facsimile ed.1975, Scholars Facsimiles & Reprints, ISBN 978-0-8201-1167-4. Chambers, Robert & Thomson, Thomas Napier, a biographical dictionary of eminent Scotsmen. An Essay on the Nature and Immutability of Truth, in Opposition to Sophistry and Scepticism
