1.
United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland
–
The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland was established as a sovereign state on 1 January 1801 by the Acts of Union 1800, which merged the kingdoms of Great Britain and Ireland. The growing desire for an Irish Republic led to the Irish War of Independence, Northern Ireland remained part of the United Kingdom, and the state was consequently renamed the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland. Britain financed the European coalition that defeated France in 1815 in the Napoleonic Wars, the British Empire thereby became the foremost world power for the next century. The Crimean War with Russia and the Boer wars were relatively small operations in a largely peaceful century, rapid industrialisation that began in the decades prior to the states formation continued up until the mid-19th century. A devastating famine, exacerbated by government inaction in the century, led to demographic collapse in much of Ireland. It was an era of economic modernization and growth of industry, trade and finance. Outward migration was heavy to the colonies and to the United States. Britain also built up a large British Empire in Africa and Asia, India, by far the most important possession, saw a short-lived revolt in 1857. In foreign policy Britain favoured free trade, which enabled its financiers and merchants to operate successfully in many otherwise independent countries, as in South America. Britain formed no permanent military alliances until the early 20th century, when it began to cooperate with Japan, France and Russia, and moved closer to the United States. A brief period of limited independence for Ireland came to an end following the Irish Rebellion of 1798, the British governments fear of an independent Ireland siding against them with the French resulted in the decision to unite the two countries. This was brought about by legislation in the parliaments of both kingdoms and came into effect on 1 January 1801, however, King George III was bitterly opposed to any such Emancipation and succeeded in defeating his governments attempts to introduce it. When the Treaty of Amiens ended the war, Britain agreed to return most of the territories it had seized, in May 1803, war was declared again. In 1806, Napoleon issued the series of Berlin Decrees, which brought into effect the Continental System and this policy aimed to eliminate the threat from the British by closing French-controlled territory to foreign trade. Frances population and agricultural capacity far outstripped that of the British Isles, Napoleon expected that cutting Britain off from the European mainland would end its economic hegemony. The Spanish uprising in 1808 at last permitted Britain to gain a foothold on the Continent, after Napoleons surrender and exile to the island of Elba, peace appeared to have returned. The Allies united and the armies of Wellington and Blucher defeated Napoleon once, simultaneous with the Napoleonic Wars, trade disputes, arming hostile Indians and British impressment of American sailors led to the War of 1812 with the United States. The war was little noticed in Britain, which could devote few resources to the conflict until the fall of Napoleon in 1814, American frigates inflicted a series of defeats on the Royal Navy, which was short on manpower due to the conflict in Europe
2.
1818
–
As of the start of 1818, the Gregorian calendar was 12 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923. January 1 Battle of Koregaon, Troops of the British East India Company score a victory over the Maratha Empire. January 3 – Venus occults Jupiter and it is the last occultation of one planet by another before November 22,2065. January 11 – Percy Bysshe Shelleys Ozymandias is published pseudonymously in London, february 5 – Upon his death, King Charles XIII of Sweden is succeeded on both thrones by his adoptive son Charles XIV/III John, starting the Royal House of Bernadotte. February 12 – Chile proclaims its independence from Spain, march 11 – Mary Shelleys Frankenstein is published anonymously in London. March 15 – First Seminole War, General Andrew Jackson and his American army invade Florida, march 22 – Easter Day in Western Christianity falls on its earliest possible date. In Western Christianity, it not occur on this date again until 2285. April – John Ross sets sail in search of the Northwest Passage, april 1 – First Seminole War, Battle of Miccosukee, Florida, General Andrew Jackson defeats chief Kinhagee. April 5 – Battle of Maipú in the Chilean War of Independence, april 14–August 9 – United States Survey of the Coast operations suspended. May 11 Charles XIV of Sweden–Norway is crowned king of Sweden, the Old Vic theatre founded in London. The Westmorland Gazette is first published at Kendal in the Lake District of England, in July, August 1 – Separate Topographical Bureau of the United States Department of War established. September – Sir Stamford Raffles sets out to visit Lord Hastings, september 7 – Carl III of Sweden–Norway is crowned king of Norway, in Trondheim. September 23 – Border markers are installed for the European territory of Moresnet. October 5 – Claudine Thévenet founds the Roman Catholic order Religieuses de Jésus-Marie in Lyon, November 11 – Anglo-Chinese College is founded by Robert Morrison in Malacca. November 16 – The Saint Louis Academy, which later becomes Saint Louis University, is founded by Reverend Louis William Valentine Dubourg, december 3 – Illinois is admitted as the 21st U. S. state. December 13 – Cyril VI of Constantinople quits his place as an Ecumenical Pariarch, the Afghans defeat a Persian invasion at the Battle of Kafir Qala. The first edition of the Farmers Almanac is published in the United States, First Serbian dictionary, made by Vuk Karadžić. Besses o th Barn brass band is formed in Whitefield, near Manchester, congressman August 31 – Arthur St
3.
Monarchy of the United Kingdom
–
The monarchy of the United Kingdom, commonly referred to as the British monarchy, is the constitutional monarchy of the United Kingdom, its dependencies and its overseas territories. The monarchs title is King or Queen, the current monarch and head of state, Queen Elizabeth II, ascended the throne on the death of her father, King George VI, on 6 February 1952. The monarch and his or her immediate family undertake various official, ceremonial, diplomatic, as the monarchy is constitutional, the monarch is limited to non-partisan functions such as bestowing honours and appointing the Prime Minister. The monarch is, by tradition, commander-in-chief of the British Armed Forces, from 1603, when the Scottish monarch King James VI inherited the English throne as James I, both the English and Scottish kingdoms were ruled by a single sovereign. From 1649 to 1660, the tradition of monarchy was broken by the republican Commonwealth of England, the Act of Settlement 1701 excluded Roman Catholics, or those who married Catholics, from succession to the English throne. In 1707, the kingdoms of England and Scotland were merged to create the Kingdom of Great Britain, and in 1801, the British monarch became nominal head of the vast British Empire, which covered a quarter of the worlds surface at its greatest extent in 1921. After the Second World War, the vast majority of British colonies and territories became independent, George VI and his successor, Elizabeth II, adopted the title Head of the Commonwealth as a symbol of the free association of its independent member states. The United Kingdom and fifteen other Commonwealth monarchies that share the person as their monarch are called Commonwealth realms. In the uncodified Constitution of the United Kingdom, the Monarch is the Head of State, oaths of allegiance are made to the Queen and her lawful successors. God Save the Queen is the British national anthem, and the monarch appears on postage stamps, coins, the Monarch takes little direct part in Government. Executive power is exercised by Her Majestys Government, which comprises Ministers, primarily the Prime Minister and the Cabinet and they have the direction of the Armed Forces of the Crown, the Civil Service and other Crown Servants such as the Diplomatic and Secret Services. Judicial power is vested in the Judiciary, who by constitution, the Church of England, of which the Monarch is the head, has its own legislative, judicial and executive structures. Powers independent of government are legally granted to public bodies by statute or Statutory Instrument such as an Order in Council. The Sovereigns role as a monarch is largely limited to non-partisan functions. This role has been recognised since the 19th century, the constitutional writer Walter Bagehot identified the monarchy in 1867 as the dignified part rather than the efficient part of government. Whenever necessary, the Monarch is responsible for appointing a new Prime Minister, the Prime Minister takes office by attending the Monarch in private audience, and after kissing hands that appointment is immediately effective without any other formality or instrument. Since 1945, there have only been two hung parliaments, the first followed the February 1974 general election when Harold Wilson was appointed Prime Minister after Edward Heath resigned following his failure to form a coalition. Although Wilsons Labour Party did not have a majority, they were the largest party, the second followed the May 2010 general election, in which the Conservatives and Liberal Democrats agreed to form the first coalition government since World War II
4.
George III of the United Kingdom
–
He was concurrently Duke and prince-elector of Brunswick-Lüneburg in the Holy Roman Empire until his promotion to King of Hanover on 12 October 1814. He was the third British monarch of the House of Hanover, early in his reign, Great Britain defeated France in the Seven Years War, becoming the dominant European power in North America and India. However, many of Britains American colonies were soon lost in the American War of Independence, further wars against revolutionary and Napoleonic France from 1793 concluded in the defeat of Napoleon at the Battle of Waterloo in 1815. In the later part of his life, George III had recurrent, although it has since been suggested that he had the blood disease porphyria, the cause of his illness remains unknown. After a final relapse in 1810, a regency was established, on George IIIs death, the Prince Regent succeeded his father as George IV. Historical analysis of George IIIs life has gone through a kaleidoscope of changing views that have depended heavily on the prejudices of his biographers and the sources available to them. Until it was reassessed in the half of the 20th century, his reputation in the United States was one of a tyrant. George was born in London at Norfolk House and he was the grandson of King George II, and the eldest son of Frederick, Prince of Wales, and Augusta of Saxe-Gotha. As Prince George was born two months prematurely and he was unlikely to survive, he was baptised the same day by Thomas Secker. One month later, he was baptised at Norfolk House. His godparents were the King of Sweden, his uncle the Duke of Saxe-Gotha, George grew into a healthy but reserved and shy child. The family moved to Leicester Square, where George and his younger brother Prince Edward, Duke of York, Family letters show that he could read and write in both English and German, as well as comment on political events of the time, by the age of eight. He was the first British monarch to study science systematically and his religious education was wholly Anglican. At age 10 George took part in a production of Joseph Addisons play Cato and said in the new prologue, What. It may with truth be said, A boy in England born, historian Romney Sedgwick argued that these lines appear to be the source of the only historical phrase with which he is associated. Georges grandfather, King George II, disliked the Prince of Wales, however, in 1751 the Prince of Wales died unexpectedly from a lung injury, and George became heir apparent to the throne. He inherited one of his fathers titles and became the Duke of Edinburgh, now more interested in his grandson, three weeks later the King created George Prince of Wales. Georges mother, now the Dowager Princess of Wales, preferred to keep George at home where she could imbue him with her moral values
5.
George IV of the United Kingdom
–
George IV was King of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland and of Hanover following the death of his father, George III, on 29 January 1820, until his own death ten years later. From 1811 until his accession, he served as Prince Regent during his fathers mental illness. George IV led an extravagant lifestyle that contributed to the fashions of the Regency era and he was a patron of new forms of leisure, style and taste. He commissioned John Nash to build the Royal Pavilion in Brighton and remodel Buckingham Palace and he even forbade Caroline to attend his coronation and asked the government to introduce the unpopular Pains and Penalties Bill in a desperate, unsuccessful attempt to divorce her. For most of Georges regency and reign, Lord Liverpool controlled the government as Prime Minister and his ministers found his behaviour selfish, unreliable and irresponsible. At all times he was much under the influence of favourites, taxpayers were angry at his wasteful spending at a time when Britons were fighting in the Napoleonic Wars. He did not provide leadership in time of crisis, nor act as a role model for his people. Liverpools government presided over Britains ultimate victory, negotiated the peace settlement, after Liverpools retirement, George was forced to accept Catholic emancipation despite opposing it. His only child, Princess Charlotte, died before him in 1817 and so he was succeeded by his younger brother, George was born at St Jamess Palace, London, on 12 August 1762, the first child of King George III of the United Kingdom and Queen Charlotte. As the eldest son of a British sovereign, he automatically became Duke of Cornwall and Duke of Rothesay at birth, he was created Prince of Wales, on 18 September of the same year, he was baptised by Thomas Secker, Archbishop of Canterbury. His godparents were the Duke of Mecklenburg-Strelitz, the Duke of Cumberland, George was a talented student, and quickly learned to speak French, German and Italian, in addition to his native English. He was a witty conversationalist, drunk or sober, and showed good, the Prince of Wales turned 21 in 1783, and obtained a grant of £60,000 from Parliament and an annual income of £50,000 from his father. It was far too little for his needs – the stables alone cost £31,000 a year and he then established his residence in Carlton House, where he lived a profligate life. Animosity developed between the prince and his father, who desired more frugal behaviour on the part of the heir apparent, the King, a political conservative, was also alienated by the princes adherence to Charles James Fox and other radically inclined politicians. Soon after he reached the age of 21, the prince became infatuated with Maria Fitzherbert and she was a commoner, six years his elder, twice widowed, and a Roman Catholic. Despite her complete unsuitability, the prince was determined to marry her, nevertheless, the couple went through a marriage ceremony on 15 December 1785 at her house in Park Street, Mayfair. Legally the union was void, as the Kings consent was not granted, however, Fitzherbert believed that she was the princes canonical and true wife, holding the law of the Church to be superior to the law of the State. For political reasons, the union remained secret and Fitzherbert promised not to reveal it, the prince was plunged into debt by his exorbitant lifestyle
6.
Prime Minister of the United Kingdom
–
The Prime Minister of the United Kingdom is the head of Her Majestys Government in the United Kingdom. The prime minister and Cabinet are collectively accountable for their policies and actions to the Monarch, to Parliament, to their political party, the office is one of the Great Offices of State. The current prime minister, Theresa May, leader of the Conservative Party, was appointed by the Queen on 13 July 2016. The position of Prime Minister was not created, it evolved slowly and erratically over three hundred years due to acts of Parliament, political developments, and accidents of history. The office is therefore best understood from a historical perspective, the origins of the position are found in constitutional changes that occurred during the Revolutionary Settlement and the resulting shift of political power from the Sovereign to Parliament. The political position of Prime Minister was enhanced by the development of political parties, the introduction of mass communication. By the start of the 20th century the modern premiership had emerged, prior to 1902, the prime minister sometimes came from the House of Lords, provided that his government could form a majority in the Commons. However as the power of the aristocracy waned during the 19th century the convention developed that the Prime Minister should always sit in the lower house. As leader of the House of Commons, the Prime Ministers authority was further enhanced by the Parliament Act of 1911 which marginalised the influence of the House of Lords in the law-making process. The Prime Minister is ex officio also First Lord of the Treasury, certain privileges, such as residency of 10 Downing Street, are accorded to Prime Ministers by virtue of their position as First Lord of the Treasury. As the Head of Her Majestys Government the modern Prime Minister leads the Cabinet, in addition the Prime Minister leads a major political party and generally commands a majority in the House of Commons. As such the incumbent wields both legislative and executive powers, under the British system there is a unity of powers rather than separation. In the House of Commons, the Prime Minister guides the process with the goal of enacting the legislative agenda of their political party. The Prime Minister also acts as the face and voice of Her Majestys Government. The British system of government is based on an uncodified constitution, in 1928, Prime Minister H. H. Asquith described this characteristic of the British constitution in his memoirs, In this country we live. Our constitutional practices do not derive their validity and sanction from any Bill which has received the assent of the King, Lords. They rest on usage, custom, convention, often of slow growth in their early stages, not always uniform, the relationships between the Prime Minister and the Sovereign, Parliament and Cabinet are defined largely by these unwritten conventions of the constitution. Many of the Prime Ministers executive and legislative powers are actually royal prerogatives which are still vested in the Sovereign
7.
Robert Jenkinson, 2nd Earl of Liverpool
–
Robert Banks Jenkinson, 2nd Earl of Liverpool, KG, PC, FRS was an English politician and both the youngest and longest-serving Prime Minister since 1806. As Prime Minister, Liverpool called for repressive measures at domestic level to maintain order after the riots of 1819 and he dealt smoothly with the Prince Regent when King George III was incapacitated. He also steered the country through the period of radicalism and unrest that followed the Napoleonic Wars and he favoured commercial and manufacturing interests as well as the landed interest. He sought a compromise of the issue of Catholic emancipation. The revival of the economy strengthened his political position, by the 1820s he was the leader of a reform faction of Liberal Tories who lowered the tariff, abolished the death penalty for many offences, and reformed the criminal law. By the time of his death in office, however, the Tory Party was ripping itself apart. Jenkinson was baptised on 29 June 1770 at St. Margarets, Westminster, the son of George IIIs close adviser Charles Jenkinson, later the first Earl of Liverpool, and his first wife, Amelia Watts. Jenkinsons 19-year-old mother, who was the daughter of a senior East India Company official William Watts, Jenkinson was educated at Charterhouse School and Christ Church, Oxford. In the summer of 1789, Jenkinson spent four months in Paris to perfect his French and he returned to Oxford for three months to complete his terms of residence and in May 1790 was created master of arts. This tour took in the Netherlands and Italy, whereby he was old enough to take his seat in Parliament. It is not clear exactly when he entered the Commons, but as his twenty-first birthday was not reached until almost the end of the 1791 session, with the help of his fathers influence and his political talent, he rose relatively fast in the Tory government. In February 1792, he gave the reply to Samuel Whitbreads critical motion on the governments Russian policy and he delivered several other speeches during the session, including one against the abolition of the slave trade, which reflected his fathers strong opposition to William Wilberforces campaign. He served as a member of the Board of Control for India from 1793 to 1796, in the defence movement that followed the outbreak of hostilities with France, Jenkinson, was one of the first of the ministers of the government to enlist in the militia. In 1794 he became a Colonel in the Cinque Ports Fencibles, in 1796 his regiment was sent to Scotland and he was quartered for a time in Dumfries. It was reported that His lordship was blamed for remaining at Haddington and he was appointed a Colonel of militia in 1810. His parliamentary attendance also suffered from his reaction when his father opposed his projected marriage with Lady Louisa Hervey. After Pitt and the King had intervened on his behalf, the wedding took place at Wimbledon on 25 March 1795. In May 1796, when his father was created Earl of Liverpool, he took the title of Lord Hawkesbury
8.
Tories (British political party)
–
The first Tories emerged in 1678 in England, when they opposed the Whig-supported Exclusion Bill which set out to disinherit the heir presumptive James, Duke of York. This party ceased to exist as a political entity in the early 1760s. A few decades later, a new Tory party would rise to establish a hold on government between 1783 and 1830, with William Pitt the Younger followed by Robert Jenkinson, 2nd Earl of Liverpool. When the Whigs subsequently regained control, the Representation of the People Act 1832 removed the rotten boroughs, in the following general election, the Tory ranks were reduced to 180 MPs. Under the leadership of Robert Peel, the Tamworth Manifesto was issued, however, Peel lost many of his supporters by repealing the Corn Laws, causing the party to break apart. One faction, led by the Earl of Derby and Benjamin Disraeli, survived to become the modern Conservative Party and this action resulted from this parliament not allowing him to levy taxes without yielding to its terms. In the beginning of the Long Parliament, the Kings supporters were few in number, the increasing radicalism of the Parliamentary majority, however, estranged many reformers even in the Parliament itself and drove them to make common cause with the King. By the end of the 1640s, the radical Parliamentary programme had become clear, reduction of the King to a powerless figurehead, and replacement of Anglican episcopacy with a form of Presbyterianism. This prospective form of settlement was prevented by a coup détat which shifted power from Parliament itself to the Parliamentary New Model Army, the Army had King Charles I executed and for the next eleven years the British kingdoms operated under military dictatorship. Charles II also restored episcopacy in the Church of England and these acts did not reflect the Kings personal views and demonstrated the existence of a Royalist ideology beyond mere subservience to the Court. These interests would soon coalesce as the Whigs, as a political term, Tory entered English politics during the Exclusion Bill crisis of 1678–81. The Whigs were those who supported the exclusion of James, the Duke of York from the succession to thrones of Scotland and England & Ireland, and the Tories were those who opposed the Exclusion Bill. The Whigs tried to link the Lord Lieutenant of Ireland, the Duke of Ormonde, with the foremost Irish Tory, Redmond OHanlon, in a supposed plot to murder Titus Oates. The Whig Bishop of Meath, Henry Jones, offered OHanlon a pardon and a bribe if he would testify to Parliament that Ormonde was plotting a French invasion. In December 1680, the government seized these letters and the plan collapsed. they call me names, Jesuit, Papish, Tory. I hear further since that this is the distinction they make instead of Cavalier and Roundhead, now they are called Torys, the rebellion of Monmouth, the candidate of the radical Whigs to succeed Charles II, was easily crushed and Monmouth himself executed. In the long run, however, Tory principles were to be severely compromised, James II, however, during his reign fought for a broadly tolerant religious settlement under which his co-religionists could prosper—a position anathema to conservative Anglicans. James attempts to use the church to promote policies that undermined the churchs own unique status in the state
9.
Parliament of the United Kingdom
–
It alone possesses legislative supremacy and thereby ultimate power over all other political bodies in the UK and its territories. Its head is the Sovereign of the United Kingdom and its seat is the Palace of Westminster in the City of Westminster, one of the boroughs of the British capital, the parliament is bicameral, consisting of an upper house and a lower house. The Sovereign forms the third component of the legislature, prior to the opening of the Supreme Court in October 2009, the House of Lords also performed a judicial role through the Law Lords. The House of Commons is an elected chamber with elections held at least every five years. The two Houses meet in separate chambers in the Palace of Westminster in London, most cabinet ministers are from the Commons, whilst junior ministers can be from either House. The Parliament of Great Britain was formed in 1707 following the ratification of the Treaty of Union by Acts of Union passed by the Parliament of England and the Parliament of Scotland. The UK parliament and its institutions have set the pattern for many throughout the world. However, John Bright – who coined the epithet – used it with reference to a rather than a parliament. In theory, the UKs supreme legislative power is vested in the Crown-in-Parliament. However, the Crown normally acts on the advice of the Prime Minister, the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland was created in 1801, by the merger of the Kingdoms of Great Britain and Ireland under the Acts of Union. The principle of responsibility to the lower House did not develop until the 19th century—the House of Lords was superior to the House of Commons both in theory and in practice. Members of the House of Commons were elected in an electoral system. Thus, the borough of Old Sarum, with seven voters, many small constituencies, known as pocket or rotten boroughs, were controlled by members of the House of Lords, who could ensure the election of their relatives or supporters. During the reforms of the 19th century, beginning with the Reform Act 1832, No longer dependent on the Lords for their seats, MPs grew more assertive. The supremacy of the British House of Commons was established in the early 20th century, in 1909, the Commons passed the so-called Peoples Budget, which made numerous changes to the taxation system which were detrimental to wealthy landowners. The House of Lords, which consisted mostly of powerful landowners, on the basis of the Budgets popularity and the Lords consequent unpopularity, the Liberal Party narrowly won two general elections in 1910. Using the result as a mandate, the Liberal Prime Minister, Herbert Henry Asquith, introduced the Parliament Bill, in the face of such a threat, the House of Lords narrowly passed the bill. However, regardless of the Parliament Acts of 1911 and 1949, the Government of Ireland Act 1920 created the parliaments of Northern Ireland and Southern Ireland and reduced the representation of both parts at Westminster
10.
Indore
–
Indore /ɪnˈdɔər/, is the largest and most populous city of the Indian state of Madhya Pradesh. It serves as the headquarters of both Indore District and Indore Division, Indore was described by the Economic Times as the commercial capital of the state. It is also considered as a hub of the state. With a census-estimated 2011 population of 1,994,397 and 2,170,295, the city is distributed over a land area of just 530 square kilometers making Indore the most densely populated major city in the central province. It comes under Tier 2 cities in India, Indore traces its roots to its 16th century founding as a trading hub between the Deccan and Delhi. The city and its surroundings came under Hindu Maratha Empire on 18 May 1724 after Maratha Peshwa Baji Rao I assumed the control of Malwa. During the days of the British Raj, Indore State was a 19 Gun Salute princely state ruled by the Maratha Holkar dynasty, Indore served as the capital of the Madhya Bharat from 1950 until 1956. Indores financial district, anchored by central Indore, functions as the capital of the Madhya Pradesh and is home to the Madhya Pradesh Stock Exchange. It has also qualified the first round of Smart Cities Mission and has selected as one of the first twenty cities to be developed as Smart Cities. By 1720, the headquarters of the local pargana were transferred from Kampel to Indore, on 18 May 1724, the Nizam accepted the rights of the Maratha Peshwa Baji Rao I to collect chauth from the area. In 1733, the Peshwa assumed the control of Malwa. Nandlal Chaudhary accepted the suzerainty of the Marathas, on 29 July 1732, Bajirao Peshwa-I granted Holkar State by merging 28 and half parganas to Malhar Rao Holkar, the founder ruler of Holkar dynasty. His daughter-in-law Ahilyabai Holkar moved the capital to Maheshwar in 1767. In 1818, the Holkars were defeated by the British during the Third Anglo-Maratha War, a residency with British resident was established at Indore, but Holkars continued to rule Indore State as a princely state mainly due to efforts of their Dewan Tatya Jog. During that time, Indore was established the headquarters of British Central Agency, Ujjain was originally the commercial centre of Malwa. But the British administrators such as John Malcolm decided to promote Indore as an alternative to Ujjain, because the merchants of Ujjain had supported anti-British elements. In 1906 electric supply was started in the city, fire brigade was established in 1909 and in 1918, first master-plan of city was made by noted architect and town planner, Patrick Geddes. During the period of Maharaja Tukoji Rao Holkar II efforts were made for the planned development, with the introduction of Railways in 1875, the business in Indore flourished till the reign of Maharaja Shivaji Rao Holkar, Maharaja Tukoji Rao Holkar III and Maharaja Yeshwant Rao Holkar
11.
Rajput
–
Rajput is a member of the patrilineal clans of the Indian subcontinent. They rose to prominence from the late 6th century AD and had a significant role in regions of central. The Rajput population and the former Rajput states are found spread across India where they are spread in north, west, in Pakistan they are found on the eastern parts of the country. These areas include Rajasthan, Gujarat, Uttar Pradesh, Himachal Pradesh, Haryana, Jammu, Punjab, Uttarakhand, Madhya Pradesh, Bihar, the origin of the Rajputs is the subject of debate. Writers such as M. S. Naravane and V. P, one theory espouses that with the collapse of the Gupta empire from the late 6th century, the invading Hephthalites were probably integrated within Indian society. At the same time, some tribes were ranked as Rajput, examples of which are the Bhatis, Bundelas, Chandelas. Actually vary greatly in status, from princely lineages, such as the Guhilot and Kachwaha, aydogdy Kurbanov says that the assimilation was specifically between the Hephthalites, Gurjars, and people from northwestern India, forming the Rajput community. Pradeep Barua also believes that Rajputs have foreign origins, he says their practice of asserting Kshatriya status was followed by other Indian groups thereby establishing themselves as Rajputs. Thereafter, in the late 12th century Muhammad of Ghor attempted to invade Gujarat but was defeated by the Chaulukya dynasty of Rajputs. The Rajput kingdoms were disparate, loyalty to a clan was more important than allegiance to the wider Rajput social grouping, meaning that one clan would fight another. This and the jostling for position that took place when a clan leader died meant that Rajput politics were fluid. Even after the Muslim conquest of the regions in Punjab and the Ganges River valley, the Rajputs maintained their independence in Rajasthan and the forests of central India. Later, Sultan Alauddin Khilji of the Delhi Sultanate took the two Rajput forts of Chittor and Ranthambhor in eastern Rajasthan in the 14th century but could not hold them for long. In the 15th century, the Muslim sultans of Malwa Sultanate, accordingly, Rana Sanga came to be the most distinguished indigenous contender for supremacy but was defeated by the Mughal invader Babur at Battle of Khanwa in 1527. From as early as the 16th century, Purbiya Rajput soldiers from the regions of Bihar and Awadh, were recruited as mercenaries for Rajputs in the west. After the mid-16th century, many Rajput rulers formed close relationships with the Mughal emperors and it was due to the support of the Rajputs that Akbar was able to lay the foundations of the Mughal empire in India. Some Rajput nobles gave away their daughters in marriage to Mughal emperors, for example, Akbar accomplished 40 marriages for him, his sons and grandsons, out of which 17 were Rajput-Mughal alliances. Akbars successors as Mogul emperors, his son Jahangir and grandson Shah Jahan had Rajput mothers, the ruling Sisodia Rajput family of Mewar made it a point of honour not to engage in matrimonial relationships with mughals and thus claimed to stand apart from those Rajput clans who did so
12.
Queen's Bench
–
The Queens Bench is the superior court in a number of jurisdictions within some of the Commonwealth realms. The original Kings Bench, founded in 1215 in England, was one of the ancient courts of the land and is now a division of the High Court of Justice of England and Wales. The Court of Queens Bench is the court in several Canadian provinces, including, Alberta, Manitoba, New Brunswick. There was formerly a Court of Kings Bench created in the British colony of Quebec in 1764 and it was then abolished and re-established in 1777, following the Quebec Act. Following the separation of Upper and Lower Canada in 1791, the court was replaced by several courts of Kings bench of each region of the two new provinces. In 1849, the districts in were reunited once again, in England and Wales, the Court of Kings Bench was the name of two courts. Each was a court of common law, with civil and criminal jurisdiction. The English Court of Queens Bench was abolished in 1875 by the Supreme Court of Judicature Act 1873, the Courts jurisdiction passed in each case to a new High Court of Justice and specifically to the Queens Bench Division of that court. The Irish Court of Queens Bench was abolished by the Supreme Court of Judicature Act 1877, the Queens Bench jurisdiction is now vested in the Queens Bench Division of the High Court in Northern Ireland. There is a Queens Bench Division as a division of the High Court of England and Wales, in England and Wales, the Queens Bench Division is part of the High Court of Justice. It was created by the Supreme Court of Judicature Act 1873, in 1880 the former Common Pleas and Exchequer Divisions were merged into the Queens Bench Division. Since 1882 the High Court has sat in the Royal Courts of Justice in the Strand, in Northern Ireland the Queens Bench Division is part of the High Court of Justice in Northern Ireland, first created by Section 40 of the Government of Ireland Act 1920. The Division has similar jurisdiction to its counterpart in England and Wales and it sits in the Royal Courts of Justice, Belfast. Other sub-divisions include the Commercial Court, the Admiralty Court and the Administrative Court, the abbreviation QB in legal citation is used in the Law Reports to denote cases heard in the Queens Bench Division. There are masters in the Queens Bench Division, unlike the masters in the Chancery Division, the Queens Bench masters have original jurisdiction and they hear applications in chambers, act as taxing masters and occasionally as referees to conduct inquiries, take accounts, and assess damages. The Court of Queens Bench grew out of the Kings Court, or Curia Regis, at an unknown point, another court, independent of the Kings personal presence, grew out of the Curia Regis, and consisted of a number of royal judges who would hear cases themselves. In practice pleas of the Crown were heard only in the Kings Bench, the Lord Chief Justice of the Kings Bench was also styled Lord Chief Justice of England, being the highest permanent judge of the Crown. The Kings Bench became a court sitting in Westminster Hall
13.
Ashford v Thornton
–
Ashford v Thornton 106 ER149 is an English law case in the Court of Kings Bench that upheld the right of the defendant, on a private appeal from an acquittal for murder, to trial by battle. In 1817, Abraham Thornton was charged with the murder of Mary Ashford, Thornton had met Ashford at a dance, and had walked with her from the event. The next morning, Ashford was found drowned in a pit, although public opinion was heavily against Thornton, the jury quickly acquitted him, and also found him not guilty of rape. Marys brother, William Ashford, launched an appeal, and Thornton was rearrested, Thornton claimed the right to trial by battle, a medieval usage that had never been repealed by Parliament. Ashford argued that the evidence against Thornton was overwhelming, and that he was ineligible to wage battle. The court decided that the evidence against Thornton was not overwhelming, Ashford declined the offer of battle and Thornton was freed from custody. Appeals such as Ashfords were abolished by statute in 1819, Thornton emigrated to the United States, where he died around 1860. Trial by battle was a procedure which had brought to Britain by the Normans. It was authorized in appeals of murder, that is, retrials by private prosecution following an acquittal for murder, such an appeal, and such an offer of battle could also take place following an acquittal for treason or another felony. Appeals of murder were uncommon, had to be brought within a year and a day of the death, in 1815, three years before Ashford v Thornton, an appeal of murder was brought in Dublin in OReilly v Clancy, and the defendant demanded the wager of battle. Chief Judge William Downes, faced with this case, asked, is that what you require of us. No combat took place in Ireland, the case was settled as Clancy agreed to guilty and was transported for life. It is uncertain when the last actual trial by battle in Britain took place, while some references speak of such a trial being held in 1631, records indicate that King Charles I intervened to prevent the battle. A1638 case is clear, the King again stepped in. No record survives of the outcome of the case, but no contemporary account speaks of the trial by battle actually taking place, the last certain judicial battle in Britain was in Scotland in 1597, when Adam Bruntfield accused James Carmichael of murder, and killed him in battle. The last in England occurred in 1446, a servant accused his master of treason, the master drank much wine before the battle and was slain by the servant. The wager of battle was not always available to the defendant in an appeal of murder. Similarly, if the plaintiff was a woman, above 60 years of age, a minor, lame or blind, he or she could decline the challenge, and the case would be determined by a jury
14.
Murder
–
A murder is the unlawful killing of another human without justification or valid excuse, especially the unlawful killing of another human being with malice aforethought. This state of mind may, depending upon the jurisdiction, distinguish murder from other forms of unlawful homicide, manslaughter is a killing committed in the absence of malice, brought about by reasonable provocation, or diminished capacity. Involuntary manslaughter, where it is recognized, is a killing that lacks all but the most attenuated guilty intent, in most countries, a person convicted of murder generally faces a long-term prison sentence, possibly a life sentence where permitted. In many common law jurisdictions, a convicted of murder will receive a mandatory life sentence. In jurisdictions where capital punishment exists, the penalty may be imposed for such an act, however. The modern English word murder descends from the Proto-Indo-European mrtró which meant to die, the Middle English mordre is a noun from Anglo-Saxon morðor and Old French murdre. Middle English mordre is a verb from Anglo-Saxon myrdrian and the Middle English noun, the elements of common law murder are, Unlawful killing through criminal act or omission of a human by another human with malice aforethought. Killing – At common law life ended with cardiopulmonary arrest – the total, with advances in medical technology courts have adopted irreversible cessation of all brain function as marking the end of life. Сriminal act or omission – Killing can be committed by an act or an omission. of a human – This element presents the issue of life begins. At common law, a fetus was not a human being, life began when the fetus passed through the vagina and took its first breath. By another human – In early common law, suicide was considered murder, the requirement that the person killed be someone other than the perpetrator excluded suicide from the definition of murder. With malice aforethought – Originally malice aforethought carried its everyday meaning – a deliberate, Murder necessarily required that an appreciable time pass between the formation and execution of the intent to kill. The courts broadened the scope of murder by eliminating the requirement of actual premeditation and deliberation as well as true malice, all that was required for malice aforethought to exist is that the perpetrator act with one of the four states of mind that constitutes malice. The four states of mind recognized as constituting malice are, Under state of mind, intent to kill, thus, if the defendant intentionally uses a deadly weapon or instrument against the victim, such use authorizes a permissive inference of intent to kill. In other words, intent follows the bullet, examples of deadly weapons and instruments include but are not limited to guns, knives, deadly toxins or chemicals or gases and even vehicles when intentionally used to harm one or more victims. In Australian jurisdictions, the risk must amount to a foreseen probability of death. Under state of mind, the doctrine, the felony committed must be an inherently dangerous felony, such as burglary, arson, rape. Importantly, the underlying felony cannot be a lesser included offense such as assault, as with most legal terms, the precise definition of murder varies between jurisdictions and is usually codified in some form of legislation
15.
Trial by combat
–
In essence, it was a judicially sanctioned duel. It remained in use throughout the European Middle Ages, gradually disappearing in the course of the 16th century, unlike trial by ordeal in general, which is known to many cultures worldwide, the trial by combat is known primarily from the customs of the Germanic peoples. It was in use among the ancient Burgundians, Ripuarian Franks, Alamans, Lombards and it was unknown in Anglo-Saxon law, Roman law nor in Irish Brehon Law and it does not figure into the traditions of Middle Eastern antiquity such as the code of Hammurabi or the Torah. The practice is regulated in various Germanic legal codes, being rooted in Germanic tribal law, the various regional laws of the Frankish Empire prescribed different particulars, such as equipment and rules of combat. The Lex Alamannorum prescribes a trial by combat in the event of two families disputing the boundary between their lands. A handful of earth taken from the piece of land is put between the contestants and they are required to touch it with their swords, each swearing that their claim is lawful. The losing party besides forfeiting their claim to the land is required to pay a fine, capitularies governing its use appear from the year 803 onwards. Louis the Pious prescribed combat between witnesses of each side rather than between the accuser and the accused and briefly allowed for the Ordeal of the Cross in cases involving clerics, in medieval Scandinavia, the practice survived throughout the Viking Age in the form of the Holmgang. Otto the Great in 967 expressly sanctioned the practice of Germanic tribal law if it did not figure in the more imperial Roman law. The celebrated case of Gero, Count of Alsleben, is a good example, for the following three centuries, there was latent tension between the traditional regional laws and Roman law. The Sachsenspiegel of 1230 recognizes the judicial duel as an important function to establish guilt or innocence in cases of insult, injury or theft. The combatants are armed with sword and shield and may wear linen and leather clothing, the accuser is to await the accused at the designated place of combat. If the accused does not appear after being summoned three times, the accuser may execute two cuts and two stabs against the wind, and his matter will be treated as if he had won the fight, the Kleines Kaiserrecht, anonymous legal code of c. 1300, prohibits judicial duels altogether, stating that the emperor had come to decision on seeing that too many innocent men were convicted by the practice just for being physically weak. Nevertheless, judicial duels continued to be throughout the 14th and 15th centuries. Trial by combat plays a significant role in the German schools of fencing in the 15th century. The last certain trial by battle in England occurred in 1446, a servant accused his master of treason, in Scotland and Ireland, the practice was continued into the sixteenth century. The wager of battle was not always available to the defendant in an appeal of murder
16.
The Old Vic
–
The Old Vic is a theatre located just south-east of Waterloo station in London on the corner of The Cut and Waterloo Road. Established in 1818 as the Royal Coburg Theatre, and renamed in 1833 the Royal Victoria Theatre, in 1871 it was rebuilt and reopened as the Royal Victoria Palace. It was taken over by Emma Cons in 1880 and formally named the Royal Victoria Hall, in 1898, a niece of Cons, Lilian Baylis assumed management and began a series of Shakespeare productions in 1914. The building was damaged in 1940 during air raids and it became a Grade II* listed building in 1951 after it reopened. It was also the name of a company that was based at the theatre and formed the core of the National Theatre of Great Britain on its formation in 1963. The National Theatre remained at the Old Vic until new premises were constructed on the South Bank, the Old Vic then became the home of Prospect Theatre Company, at that time a highly successful touring company which staged such acclaimed productions as Derek Jacobis Hamlet. However, with the withdrawal of funding for the company by the Arts Council of Great Britain in 1980 for breaching its touring obligations, the theatre underwent complete refurbishment in 1985. In 2003, Kevin Spacey was appointed as new director of the Old Vic Theatre Company which received considerable media attention. In 2015, Matthew Warchus succeeded Spacey as artistic director, the theatre was a minor theatre and was thus technically forbidden to show serious drama. Nevertheless, when the theatre passed to George Bolwell Davidge in 1824 he succeeded in bringing legendary actor Edmund Kean south of the river to play six Shakespeare plays in six nights. More popular staples in the repertoire were sensational and violent melodramas demonstrating the evils of drink, churned out by the house dramatist, confirmed teetotaller Douglas Jerrold. On 1 July 1833, the theatre was renamed the Royal Victoria Theatre, under the protection and patronage of Victoria, Duchess of Kent, mother to Princess Victoria, the 14-year-old heir presumptive. The duchess and the princess visited only once, on 28 November of that year, the single visit scarcely justified the Old Vic its later billing as Queen Victorias Own Theayter. By 1835, the theatre was advertising itself simply as the Victoria Theatre, in 1841, David Osbaldiston took over as lessee, succeeded on his death in 1850 by his lover and the theatres leading lady, Eliza Vincent, until her death in 1856. Under their management, the theatre remained devoted to melodrama, in 1867, Joseph Arnold Cave took over as lessee. In 1871 he transferred the lease to Romaine Delatorre, who raised funds for the theatre to be rebuilt in the style of the Alhambra Music Hall, jethro Thomas Robinson was engaged as the architect. In September 1871 the old theatre closed, and the new building opened as the Royal Victoria Palace in December of the same year, by 1873, however, Cave had left and Delatorres venture failed. The penny lectures given in the led to the foundation of Morley College, an adult education college
17.
South London
–
South London is the southern part of London, England. The River Thames divides Greater London into two parts, the southern part includes the historic central areas of Southwark, Lambeth and Bankside and also maritime Greenwich. The area has only a section of the London Underground network. This area is made up of the London boroughs of Bexley, Bromley, Croydon, Greenwich, Kingston, Lambeth, Lewisham, Merton, Richmond, Southwark, Sutton and this definition is used by the Boundary Commission for England. For the purposes of the London Plan, there was a South London sub-region in operation from 2004 to 2008 consisting of Bromley, Croydon, Kingston, Merton, Richmond, in 2001 this area had a population of 1,329,000. This definition is used by such as Connexions. In 2011 a new South London region was created consisting of Bromley, Croydon, Kingston, Merton, Sutton, Richmond now lies within the West London region, and Lambeth and Southwark are part of the Central London region. Three Met Office weather stations collect climate data south of the river, Kew, Hampton and Kenley Airfield. Long term climate observations dating back to 1763 are available for Greenwich, often snow can be seen to lie on the North Downs near Croydon when central London is snow free. The record high temperature at Greenwich is 37.5 °C recorded during August 2003, the highest temperature recorded across South London was 38.1 °C on the same occasion at Kew Gardens. Although the Met Office accepts a higher reading from Brogdale in Kent, many have questioned the accuracy of this, North London v South London - The debate. North London v South London - The debate
18.
John Thomas Serres
–
John Thomas Serres was an English maritime painter who enjoyed significant success, including exhibiting extensively at the Royal Academy, and was for a time Maritime Painter to King George III. John Thomas Serres was born in London in December 1759 to Dominic Serres, a prominent painter and he also became Master of Drawing at the Royal Naval College in Chelsea and in 1793 was made Marine Painter to the King after his fathers death. However his wifes activities again ruined him and he died in December 1825 in a London debtors prison. His daughter Lavinia Ryves spent most of her continuing to unsuccessfully press her mothers claim on the estate of King George III. This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Serres. Great British watercolors, from the Paul Mellon collection at the Yale p.32 ff
19.
Royal forest
–
A royal forest is an area of land with different definitions in England, Wales, and Scotland. There are also differing and contextual interpretations in Continental Europe derived from the Carolingian and Merovingian legal systems, in Anglo-Saxon England, though the kings were great huntsmen they never set aside areas declared to be outside the law of the land. Historians find no evidence of the Anglo-Saxon monarchs creating forests, however, under the Norman kings, by royal prerogative forest law was widely applied. The law was designed to protect the venison and the vert, the animals of the chase – notably red and fallow deer, the roe deer, and the wild boar –. Forests were designed as hunting areas reserved for the monarch or the aristocracy, the extent and intensity of hardship and of depopulation have been exaggerated, H. R. Loyn observed. During the Middle Ages, the practice of reserving areas of land for the use of the aristocracy was common throughout Europe. Royal forests usually included large areas of heath, grassland and wetland – anywhere that supported deer and other game, in addition, when an area was initially designated forest, any villages, towns and fields that lay within it were also subject to forest law. The areas that became Royal forests were already relatively wild and sparsely populated, prosperous, well-farmed areas were not generally chosen to be afforested, if they were, they tended to lose the status fairly rapidly. In the South West, forests extended across the Upper Jurassic Clay Vale, in the Midlands, the clay plain surrounding the River Severn was heavily wooded. Clay soils in Oxfordshire, Buckinghamshire, Huntingdonshire and Northamptonshire formed another belt of woodlands, in Hampshire, Berkshire and Surrey, woodlands were established on sandy, gravelly acid soils. Upland moors too were chosen, such as Dartmoor and Exmoor in the South West, the North Yorkshire moors, a sandstone plateau, had a number of Royal forests. William the Conqueror, a lover of hunting, established the system of forest law. This operated outside the law, and served to protect game animals. In the year of his death,1087, a poem, The Rime of King William, inserted in the Peterborough Chronicle, offences in forest law were divided into two categories, trespass against the vert and the venison. The five animals of the forest protected by law were given by Manwood as the hart and hind, boar, hare and wolf. Protection was also said to be extended to the beasts of chase, the buck and doe, fox, marten, and roe deer, and the beasts and fowls of warren, the hare, coney, pheasant, and partridge. The rights of chase and of warren were granted to local nobility for a fee. Disafforested lands on the edge of the forest were known as purlieus, agriculture was permitted here, the kings rapidly discovered that abridging their rights in the royal forests could provide a useful source of income
20.
Exmoor
–
Exmoor is loosely defined as an area of hilly open moorland in west Somerset and north Devon in South West England. It is named after the River Exe, the source of which is situated in the centre of the area, two miles north-west of Simonsbath. Exmoor is more defined as the area of the former ancient royal hunting forest, also called Exmoor. The moor has given its name to a National Park, which includes the Brendon Hills, the East Lyn Valley, the total area of the Exmoor National Park is 692.8 km2, of which 71% is in Somerset and 29% in Devon. The upland area is underlain by sedimentary rocks dating from the Devonian, where these reach the coast cliffs are formed which are cut with ravines and waterfalls. It was recognised as a heritage coast in 1991, the highest point on Exmoor is Dunkery Beacon, at 519 metres it is also the highest point in Somerset. The terrain supports lowland heath communities, Ancient woodland and blanket mire which provide a habitat for some scarce flora, there have also been reports of The Beast of Exmoor, a cryptozoological cat roaming Exmoor. Several areas have been designated as Nature Conservation Review and Geological Conservation Review sites, there is evidence of human occupation from the Mesolithic. This developed for agriculture and extraction of mineral ores into the bronze, the remains of standing stones, cairns and bridges can still be identified. The royal forest was granted a charter in the 13th century, in the Middle Ages sheep farming was common with a system of agistment licensing the grazing of livestock as the Inclosure Acts divided up the land. The area is now used for a range of recreational purposes, Exmoor has been designated as a national character area by Natural England, the public body responsible for Englands natural environment. Neighbouring natural regions include The Culm to the southwest, the Devon Redlands to the south, Exmoor was designated a National Park in 1954, under the 1949 National Parks and Access to the Countryside Act. The Exmoor National Park is primarily an area with a dispersed population living mainly in small villages. The largest settlements are Porlock, Dulverton, Lynton, and Lynmouth, Lynton and Lynmouth are combined into one parish and are connected by the Lynton and Lynmouth Cliff Railway. Exmoor was once a Royal forest and hunting ground, covering 18,810 acres, several areas within the Exmoor National Park have been declared Sites of Special Scientific Interest due to their flora and fauna. This title earns the site some protection from development, damage. In 1993 an environmentally sensitive area was established within Exmoor, Exmoor is an upland area formed almost exclusively from sedimentary rocks dating from the Devonian and early Carboniferous periods. The name of the period and system, Devonian, comes from Devon
21.
Sir Thomas Dyke Acland, 11th Baronet
–
Acland was the eldest son of Sir Thomas Dyke Acland, 10th Baronet, and his wife Lydia Elizabeth Hoare, daughter of Henry Hoare, a partner in the banking firm of C. Sir Henry Wentworth Acland was his younger brother and he was educated at Harrow and Christ Church, Oxford, where he was friends with William Ewart Gladstone and Lord Elgin among others. He was a major in the Royal 1st Devonshire Yeomanry Cavalry, in 1839 he was made a Fellow of the Royal Society. In 1837, Acland entered Parliament for Somerset West as a Tory, during the tensions within the Tory party in the 1840s over the Corn Laws, Acland supported Sir Robert Peels free trade policy. He did not stand for Parliament in the 1847 general election and was to out of the House of Commons for nearly twenty years. Acland showed a strong interest in and commitment to educational reform and he initially promoted the maintenance and defence of church schools and the establishment of diocesan theological colleges. However, he became a supporter of educational projects of a more Liberal character. He was also involved in issues and was a Trustee of the Royal Agricultural Society. Acland was influential on recruiting Augustus Voelcker as consultant agricultural chemist to the Royal Bath, Acland was also Honorary Colonel 3rd Volunteer Bn Devonshire Regiment and a J. P. for Devon and Somerset. He contested Birmingham as a moderate Liberal in 1859, but was defeated by John Bright, in 1865, Acland returned to the House of Commons as a Liberal when he was elected as one of two representatives for Devonshire North. Between 1869 and 1874, he served as a Church Estates Commissioner and he never held ministerial office but was sworn of the Privy Council in 1883. The Devonshire North constituency was abolished by the Redistribution of Seats Act of 1885 and he voted for the First Home Rule Bill in June 1885 and this led to him being defeated at the 1886 general election. Apart from his public career Acland was also a patron of art and he was a friend of John Ruskin and an early admirer of John Everett Millais. Acland married firstly Mary Mordaunt, daughter of Sir Charles Mordaunt, 8th Baronet and they had three sons and two daughters. After her death in 1851 he married secondly Mary Erskine, only surviving child of John Erskine, lady Acland died in May 1892. Acland survived her by six years and died in May 1898 and he was succeeded in the baronetcy by his eldest son Thomas, who was also a politician. Aclands second son Arthur, who succeeded in the baronetcy in 1919, sidney Lee, ed. Acland, Thomas Dyke. Dictionary of National Biography,1901 supplement, new York, St Martins Press,1990, Leigh Rayments list of baronets Lundy, Darryl
22.
Exmoor pony
–
The Exmoor pony is a horse breed native to the British Isles, where some still roam as semi-feral livestock on Exmoor, a large area of moorland in Devon and Somerset in southwest England. The Exmoor has been given endangered status by the Rare Breeds Survival Trust and it is one of the British Isles mountain and moorland pony breeds, having conformation similar to that of other cold-weather-adapted pony breeds. The Exmoor pony is hardy and used for a variety of equestrian activities, in its free-roaming state, the breeds presence on Exmoor contributes to the conservation and management of several natural pasture habitats. Equines have been present in Britain since 700,000 BC, some claim that the breed has been purebred since the ice age, others claim this is unsupported by modern DNA research. There is however a close resemblance to the primitive wild horse. Archeological investigations have shown that horses were used for transport in the southwest of England as early as 400 BC, the breed nearly became extinct after the Second World War, owing to soldiers using them for target practice and thieves killing them for their meat. After the war a group of breeders worked to save the Exmoor. The first stud book was published in 1963, and in 1981 publicity resulted in increased interest in the breed, as of 2010 there were an estimated 800 Exmoor ponies worldwide. Exmoor ponies are usually a variant of dark bay, called brown, with markings around the eyes, muzzle, flanks. Pangaré markings occur in other equines as well as horses, and are considered to be a primitive trait, entry in the breed registry requires that the animal have no white markings. The chest is deep and the broad, the croup level. The legs are short, with bone and hard hooves. While an extra tooth may have developed from this extra blood supply. Exmoor fanciers claim the breed is descended from an isolated population of wild ancestors bred pure since the Ice Age. However, horses have been present in Britain for hundreds of thousands of years, no genetic studies to date have correlated these prehistoric remains to any modern breed. What has been studied are Y-chromosomes and mitochondrial DNA obtained from Exmoor ponies, the Exmoor pony shares this general Y-chromosome haplotype. The Exmoor pony has a frequency of pre-domestication mtDNA-haplotypes. The distance between the Exmoor and Pottock was 0.37, and between the Exmoor and Merens was 0.40, a wider gap than the distance between the Exmoor and Tarpan
23.
London
–
London /ˈlʌndən/ is the capital and most populous city of England and the United Kingdom. Standing on the River Thames in the south east of the island of Great Britain and it was founded by the Romans, who named it Londinium. Londons ancient core, the City of London, largely retains its 1. 12-square-mile medieval boundaries. London is a global city in the arts, commerce, education, entertainment, fashion, finance, healthcare, media, professional services, research and development, tourism. It is crowned as the worlds largest financial centre and has the fifth- or sixth-largest metropolitan area GDP in the world, London is a world cultural capital. It is the worlds most-visited city as measured by international arrivals and has the worlds largest city airport system measured by passenger traffic, London is the worlds leading investment destination, hosting more international retailers and ultra high-net-worth individuals than any other city. Londons universities form the largest concentration of education institutes in Europe. In 2012, London became the first city to have hosted the modern Summer Olympic Games three times, London has a diverse range of people and cultures, and more than 300 languages are spoken in the region. Its estimated mid-2015 municipal population was 8,673,713, the largest of any city in the European Union, Londons urban area is the second most populous in the EU, after Paris, with 9,787,426 inhabitants at the 2011 census. The citys metropolitan area is the most populous in the EU with 13,879,757 inhabitants, the city-region therefore has a similar land area and population to that of the New York metropolitan area. London was the worlds most populous city from around 1831 to 1925, Other famous landmarks include Buckingham Palace, the London Eye, Piccadilly Circus, St Pauls Cathedral, Tower Bridge, Trafalgar Square, and The Shard. The London Underground is the oldest underground railway network in the world, the etymology of London is uncertain. It is an ancient name, found in sources from the 2nd century and it is recorded c.121 as Londinium, which points to Romano-British origin, and hand-written Roman tablets recovered in the city originating from AD 65/70-80 include the word Londinio. The earliest attempted explanation, now disregarded, is attributed to Geoffrey of Monmouth in Historia Regum Britanniae and this had it that the name originated from a supposed King Lud, who had allegedly taken over the city and named it Kaerlud. From 1898, it was accepted that the name was of Celtic origin and meant place belonging to a man called *Londinos. The ultimate difficulty lies in reconciling the Latin form Londinium with the modern Welsh Llundain, which should demand a form *lōndinion, from earlier *loundiniom. The possibility cannot be ruled out that the Welsh name was borrowed back in from English at a later date, and thus cannot be used as a basis from which to reconstruct the original name. Until 1889, the name London officially applied only to the City of London, two recent discoveries indicate probable very early settlements near the Thames in the London area
24.
James Blundell (physician)
–
James Blundell English obstetrician who performed the first successful transfusion of human blood to a patient for treatment of a haemorrhage. James Blundell was born in London and his fathers name was Major Blundell and mother was Sarah Ann Haighton. Major owned a company called Major Blundell and Co, James began his education under Rev. Thomas Thomason, and his uncle, the physiologist John Haighton. He developed an interest in the field, and studied at Guys Hospital in London. Like his uncle, who had developed several instruments used today for the delivery of babies, James specialised in the field of obstetrics. Later he graduated from the University of Edinburgh Medical School with his MD in 1813, a year later He began his career in London by lecturing on midwifery and physiology. By 1818, he succeeded his uncle and became the lecturer on both subjects at Guys Hospital where his classes on obstetricy and the diseases of women were reported to be the largest in London. In 1818, Blundell proposed that a blood transfusion would be appropriate to treat postpartum hemorrhage. He had seen many of his patients dying in childbirth, however, he was also familiar with the work of Leacock in Edinburgh, who said that the transfer of blood from one species would be harmful to another. He also discovered the importance of letting all the air out of a prior to the transfusion. Regardless of the date, it is agreed upon that Dr. Blundell extracted four ounces of blood from the arm of the patients using a syringe. Over the course of five years, he conducted ten documented blood transfusions, five of which were beneficial to the patients, during his life he also devised many instruments for the transfusion of blood, many of which are still in use today. He became the author of Researches Physiological and Pathological in 1824, later publications include Principles and Practice of Obstetricy in 1834 and Observations on some of the More Important Diseases of Women in 1837. In using the sound for diagnostic purposes, he was considered more advanced than other obstetricians of the day. He left Guys in 1834 following a dispute with the hospital treasurer and he became a fellow of the Royal College of Physicians in 1838, and later published Hexametrical Experiments, or, A version of four of Virgils pastorals. With hints to explain the method of reading, and an essay on the laws of metre that year. Dr. Blundell never married, but lived with his grand niece Mary Ann Harriet Noyes, from the 1871 British Census, we know he was living at 80 Piccadilly in London, but he also had a home in Westminster at No.1 Great George Street. Dr. Blundell retired from practice in 1847, in his final years, it is said that he never rose before noon, saw patients in the afternoon, dined and then saw more patients after 8 or 9 pm
25.
Treaty of 1818
–
Signed during the presidency of James Monroe, it resolved standing boundary issues between the two nations. The two nations agreed to a boundary line involving the 49th parallel north, in part because a straight-line boundary would be easier to survey than the boundaries based on watersheds. Article I secured fishing rights along Newfoundland and Labrador for the U. S. to the Stony Mountains, britain ceded the part of Ruperts Land and Red River Colony south of the 49th parallel. The United States ceded the portion of the Louisiana Purchase that lay north of the 49th parallel. This article settled a dispute caused by ignorance of actual geography in the boundary agreed to in the 1783 Treaty of Paris that ended the American Revolutionary War. That earlier treaty had placed the boundary between the United States and British possessions to the north along a line going westward from the Lake of the Woods to the Mississippi River. The parties had failed to realize that the river did not extend that far north, article III provided for joint control of land in the Oregon Country for ten years. Both could claim land and both were guaranteed free navigation throughout, article IV confirmed the Anglo-American Convention of 1815, which regulated commerce between the two parties, for an additional ten years. Article V agreed to refer differences over a U. S. claim arising from the Treaty of Ghent, the U. S. claim was for return of, or compensation for, slaves that were in British territory or on British naval vessels when the treaty was signed. The Treaty of Ghent article in question was about handing over property, article VI established that ratification would occur within at most six months of signing the treaty. The treaty was negotiated for the U. S, the treaty was signed on October 20,1818. Ratifications were exchanged on January 30,1819. S. and Canada, despite the relatively friendly nature of the agreement, it nevertheless resulted in a fierce struggle for control of the Oregon Country in the following two decades. S. By the 1830s, with pressure in the U. S. S. mountain men, immigrants who had arrived at the post over the Oregon Trail. By the middle 1840s, the tide of U. S. immigration, as well as a U. S. political movement to claim the entire territory, led to a renegotiation of the agreement. The Oregon Treaty in 1846 permanently established the 49th parallel as the boundary between the United States and British North America to the Pacific Ocean, adams–Onís Treaty of 1819, between the U. S. and Spain, resolved borders from Florida to the Pacific Ocean. The Webster–Ashburton Treaty of 1842 resolved uncertainties left by the 1818 treaty, including the Northwest Angle problem, Oregon boundary dispute, concerning the joint occupation of the Oregon Country by U. S. and British settlers. Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, which established most of the border between the US and Mexico after the defeat and occupation of Mexico in 1848, ending the Mexican–American War. The Gadsden Purchase, which completed the acquisition of the southwestern United States and this article traces British-United States negotiations regarding ocean fisheries from 1783 to 1910
26.
Lake of the Woods
–
Lake of the Woods is a lake occupying parts of the Canadian provinces of Ontario and Manitoba and the U. S. state of Minnesota. It separates a small area of Minnesota from the rest of the United States. The Northwest Angle and the town of Angle Township can only be reached from the rest of Minnesota by crossing the lake or by traveling through Canada, the Northwest Angle is the northernmost part of the contiguous United States. Its northwesternmost point served as a landmark in treaties defining the international border. Lake of the Woods is fed by the Rainy River, Shoal Lake, Kakagi Lake, the lake drains into the Winnipeg River and then into Lake Winnipeg. Ultimately, its outflow goes north through the Nelson River to Hudson Bay, Lake of the Woods is over 70 miles long and wide, and contains more than 14,552 islands and 65,000 miles of shoreline. It would amount to the longest coastline of any Canadian lake, Lake of the Woods is also the sixth largest freshwater lake located in the United States, after the five Great Lakes. There are also several hundred nesting pairs of eagles in this area. Lake of the Woods, a translation of the original French name lac des Bois, was so named from its wooded setting, however, it may have been a mistranslation of the Indian name. The earliest name we find the lake known by is that given by Verandrye in his journey in 1731 and he says it was called Lake Minitie or Des Bois. The former of these names, Minitie, seems to be Ojibway, the other name Lac des Bois, or Lake of the Woods, seems to have been a mis-translation of the Indian name by which the Lake was known. The construction of dams at the Lake of the Woods outlets in present-day Kenora in the late 19th century led to concerns over high, the federal governments of Canada and the United States referred the matter to the International Joint Commission in 1912. In 1917 the IJC recommended the creation of boards and the operating conditions they would apply to lake level management. The first of these boards, the Lake of the Woods Control Board, was established by Canadian Order-in-Council in 1919, in 1922 the Canada-Ontario-Manitoba Tripartite Agreement was signed by the respective governments. Initially only Canada and Ontario appointed members to the board as, at that time, in 1958, having gained control over its natural resources, Manitoba passed its own Lake of the Woods Control Board Act. That same year, Canada and Ontario amended their original versions of the acts, as a result of these legislative changes, the LWCB now has one member appointed by Canada, two appointed by Ontario, and one appointed by Manitoba. This treaty established the water level operating range on Lake of the Woods, defined the purpose and general mode of operation, and provided for two boards to control regulation. In cases where agreement could not be reached between Canadian and American members of the board, the disputed matter would be referred to the IJC for final decision
27.
Rocky Mountains
–
The Rocky Mountains, commonly known as the Rockies, are a major mountain range in western North America. The Rocky Mountains stretch more than 3,000 miles from the northernmost part of British Columbia, in western Canada, to New Mexico, in the Southwestern United States. Within the North American Cordillera, the Rockies are somewhat distinct from the Pacific Coast Ranges, the Rocky Mountains were initially formed from 80 million to 55 million years ago during the Laramide orogeny, in which a number of plates began to slide underneath the North American plate. The angle of subduction was shallow, resulting in a belt of mountains running down western North America. Since then, further tectonic activity and erosion by glaciers have sculpted the Rockies into dramatic peaks, at the end of the last ice age, humans started to inhabit the mountain range. The first mention of their present name by a European was in the journal of Jacques Legardeur de Saint-Pierre in 1752, the Rocky Mountains are commonly defined as stretching from the Liard River in British Columbia south to the Rio Grande in New Mexico. The United States definition of the Rockies includes the Cabinet and Salish Mountains of Idaho and their counterparts north of the Kootenai River, the Columbia Mountains, are considered a separate system in Canada, lying to the west of the huge Rocky Mountain Trench. This runs the length of British Columbia from its beginnings in the middle Flathead River valley in western Montana to the bank of the Liard River. The Rockies vary in width from 70 to 300 miles, also west of the Rocky Mountain Trench, farther north and facing the Muskwa Range across the trench, are the Stikine Ranges and Omineca Mountains of the Interior Mountains system of British Columbia. A small area east of Prince George, British Columbia on the side of the Trench. In Canada geographers define three main groups of ranges, the Continental Ranges, Hart Ranges and Muskwa Ranges, the Muskwa and Hart Ranges together comprise what is known as the Northern Rockies. The western edge of the Rockies includes ranges such as the Wasatch near Salt Lake City, the Great Basin and Columbia River Plateau separate these sub-ranges from distinct ranges further to the west, most prominent among which are the Sierra Nevada, Cascade Range and Coast Mountains. The Rocky Mountain System within the United States is a United States physiographic region, the Rocky Mountains are notable for containing the highest peaks in central North America. The ranges highest peak is Mount Elbert located in Colorado at 14,440 feet above sea level, Mount Robson in British Columbia, at 12,972 feet, is the highest peak in the Canadian Rockies. The Continental Divide of the Americas is located in the Rocky Mountains, triple Divide Peak in Glacier National Park is so named because water that falls on the mountain reaches not only the Atlantic and Pacific, but Hudson Bay as well. Farther north in Alberta, the Athabasca and other rivers feed the basin of the Mackenzie River, see Rivers of the Rocky Mountains for a list of rivers. Human population is not very dense in the Rocky Mountains, with an average of four people per square kilometer, however, the human population grew rapidly in the Rocky Mountain states between 1950 and 1990. The 40-year statewide increases in range from 35% in Montana to about 150% in Utah
28.
Northwest Angle
–
The Northwest Angle, known simply as the Angle by locals, and coextensive with Angle Township, is a part of northern Lake of the Woods County, Minnesota. The land area of the Angle is separated from the rest of Minnesota by Lake of the Woods and it is one of only six non-island locations in the 48 contiguous states that are practical exclaves of the U. S. It is the northernmost township in Minnesota and contains the northernmost point in the contiguous 48 states, the unincorporated community of Angle Inlet is located in the Northwest Angle. Seventy percent of the land of the Angle is held in trust by the Red Lake Indian Reservation, although the Angle is listed as one of several distinct regions of Minnesota, its total population was 119 at the 2010 census. The area is water and the land is mostly forest. The initial establishment of Angle Township being in the United States was due to a map-makers error, the parties did not suspect that the source of the Mississippi River, Lake Itasca, was south of that point. The entire Mississippi was too far south to be intersected by a line running west from the Lake of the Woods, the parties had used the Mitchell Map during the treaty negotiations, that map showed the Mississippi extending far to the north. In the Anglo-American Convention of 1818, the error was corrected by having the boundary continue due south from the northwest point of the lake to the 49th parallel, the Webster–Ashburton Treaty of 1842 reaffirmed this border. S. Territory to its east, now known as the Northwest Angle, according to the United States Census Bureau, Angle Township has a total area of 596.3 square miles of which 123.09 square miles is land and 473.2 square miles is water. Of the 2000 census population of 152, there were 118 living on the mainland, all of the populated islands are north of the 49th parallel. The mainland portion of the north of the 49th parallel has an area of 116.632 square miles. The total land area of all islands is 6.303 square miles, the township has the last one-room public school in the state. Elm Point, in Lake of the Woods County, is a small cape southwest of the Northwest Angle and it borders Canada and is, together with a similar smaller cape to the west, separated by land from the continental United States. No automobile ferries currently operate on the lake, so vehicles coming from the rest of Minnesota can reach the Angle without crossing the only in winter. While the ice is forming in late autumn and breaking up in the spring, the distance from Warroad or Roseau to the Angle proper is approximately 63 miles through Minnesota and Manitoba back to the Angles U. S. border. It is approximately 10 miles from the border to the rural developments of the Northwest Angle. Because of laws restricting fishing, some residents of the Northwest Angle suggested leaving the United States and this angered the leaders of Red Lake Indian Reservation, which holds most of the Northwest Angles land. In 1997, in order to change what were considered unequal fishing regulations between the U. S. S, the mock secession succeeded in getting fishing regulations better synchronized across these international waters
29.
Anglicanism
–
Anglicanism is a tradition within Christianity comprising the Church of England and churches which are historically tied to it or hold similar beliefs, worship practices and church structures. The word Anglican originates in ecclesia anglicana, a medieval Latin phrase dating to the Magna Carta and before, adherents of Anglicanism are called Anglicans. As the name suggests, the churches of the Anglican Communion are linked by bonds of tradition, affection and they are in full communion with the See of Canterbury, and thus the Archbishop of Canterbury, in his person, is a unique focus of Anglican unity. He calls the once-a-decade Lambeth Conference, chairs the meeting of primates, Anglicans base their Christian faith on the Bible, traditions of the apostolic Church, apostolic succession, and writings of the Church Fathers. Anglicanism forms one of the branches of Western Christianity, having declared its independence from the Holy See at the time of the Elizabethan Religious Settlement. Many of the new Anglican formularies of the mid-16th century corresponded closely to those of contemporary Protestantism, the word Anglican originates in ecclesia anglicana, a medieval Latin phrase dating to at least 1246 that means the English Church. Adherents of Anglicanism are called Anglicans, as an adjective, Anglican is used to describe the people, institutions and churches, as well as the liturgical traditions and theological concepts developed by the Church of England. As a noun, an Anglican is a member of a church in the Anglican Communion, the word is also used by followers of separated groups which have left the communion or have been founded separately from it, although this is sometimes considered as a misuse. The word Anglicanism came into being in the 19th century, although the term Anglican is found referring to the Church of England as far back as the 16th century, its use did not become general until the latter half of the 19th century. Elsewhere, however, the term Anglican Church came to be preferred as it distinguished these churches from others that maintain an episcopal polity, as such, it is often referred to as being a via media between these traditions. Anglicans understand the Old and New Testaments as containing all necessary for salvation and as being the rule. Reason and Tradition are seen as means to interpret Scripture. Anglicans understand the Apostles Creed as the symbol and the Nicene Creed as the sufficient statement of the Christian faith. Anglicans celebrate the sacraments, with special emphasis being given to the Eucharist, also called Holy Communion. Unique to Anglicanism is the Book of Common Prayer, the collection of services that worshippers in most Anglican churches used for centuries and it was called common prayer originally because it was intended for use in all Church of England churches which had previously followed differing local liturgies. The term was kept when the church became international because all Anglicans used to share in its use around the world, in 1549, the first Book of Common Prayer was compiled by Thomas Cranmer, who was then Archbishop of Canterbury. The founding of Christianity in Britain is commonly attributed to Joseph of Arimathea, according to Anglican legend, Saint Alban, who was executed in 209 AD, is the first Christian martyr in the British Isles. A new culture emerged around the Irish Sea among the Celtic peoples with Celtic Christianity at its core, what resulted was a form of Christianity distinct from Rome in many traditions and practices
30.
Commissioners' church
–
The 1818 Act supplied a grant of money and established the Church Building Commission to direct its use, and in 1824 made a further grant of money. In addition to paying for the building of churches, the Commission had powers to divide and subdivide parishes, the Commission continued to function as a separate body until the end of 1856, when it was absorbed into the Ecclesiastical Commission. In some cases the Commissioners provided the full cost of the new church, in other cases they provided a grant, the First Parliamentary Grant for churches amounted to £1 million. The Second Parliamentary Grant of 1824 amounted to an additional £500,000, the Commission was founded on a wave of national triumph following the defeat of Napoleon at the Battle of Waterloo in 1815, hence the suggestion of the word Waterloo in the title. But even if this were a factor in founding the Commission, towards the end of the 18th century the Church of England was facing a number of problems and challenges. Meanwhile, the organisation of the Church of England had not been modified to reflect this change, in addition, there was a concern in society that, following the French Revolution of 1789–99, there might be a similar uprising in Britain. It was considered that the influence of the Church and its religious, some argued that a major function of the church was to complement the work of the state, that the churchs main function was social control. On top of this, the Church of England had its own problems, some of them even amounting to abuses, such as pluralism, absenteeism. There was a disparity between the incomes of the parochial clergy. The educational level of the clergy and their training was often inadequate, challenges to the church came from main two sources, dissent and secularism. The rise of movements was blamed partly on the lack of accommodation in the churches provided by the state church. A major impediment to increasing the number of churches in the expanded towns was the difficulty in providing a regular income for an incumbent parson. Most parish livings in the Church of England were then primarily supported from agricultural tithes collected from farms in the parish. In expanding towns and cities, new churches had tended to be provided in association with residential developments as proprietary chapels, neither method of finance had proved capable of funding the provision of clergy for poorer urban populations. During the early 1810s groups were formed to address these problems by both parties in the Church of England, the Evangelicals and the High Churchmen. There was growing pressure for Parliament to meet the problems, following the defeat of Napoleon in 1815 there was also a movement to build churches as a national thank-offering. In December 1815 Joshua Watson and the pamphleteer John Bowdler, wrote a memorial to the Prime Minister, Lord Liverpool, there was initial reluctance from the politicians to agree to the proposal, partly because of the financial deficit following the Napoleonic Wars. In 1817 a committee was appointed to form a society for promoting public worship by obtaining additional church-room for the middle and this led to Parliaments agreement to provide the First Parliamentary Grant of £1 million for building new churches
31.
Besses o' th' Barn Band
–
Besses o th Barn Band is an English brass band that has been in existence in the Besses o th Barn area of Whitefield, Greater Manchester since at least 1818. A junior section, Besses Boys Band, was established in 1943, Besses o th Barn Band was in existence by 1818 and probably originally called Cleggs Reed Band, after a local cotton manufacturer and keyed bugle player, John Clegg. It may have been called Stand Band for a period soon after that, Stand is an area of Whitefield close to Besses o th Barn. The instruments used by the band in its early years were more varied than later became the case, in 1853, Besses became an all-brass band. In the 1880s, the band bought a building at Moss Lane, Whitefield, having enjoyed considerable success by 1887, it was decided to establish the band as a limited company called the Besses o th Barn Old Band Union Limited. While a few bands were able to obtain patronage from wealthy sponsors, most relied on membership subscriptions, public appeals, the latter was particularly significant but noteworthy institutions such as Besses and the Black Dyke Band earned large sums from participating in contests. Entrants to contests were expected not to be musicians. The two major contests were the British Open and the National Championships, but there were other more local events. By the 1870s, the roster of instruments permitted for use in contests had been codified, public interest in contests was in decline from the 1950s but Besses was among the bands that had diversified into recording its output. Sales of recordings continued to be significant for another decade, among the bands earliest recordings was Edward Germans Henry VIII Morris Dance in May 1904. The quality of the earliest recordings tends to obscure this,3 Showcase for Brass British Bandsman 4. Disk 3 –1 x track Willie Wood b, disk 18 –2 x tracks Willie Wood c. Disk 133 –2 x tracks Ifor James d, disk 177 –8 tracks Roy Newsome e. Disk 196 – Besses Boys x 7 Barrie Chappel f, disk 197 –9 tracks Roy Newsome g. Disk 254 –7 tracks Frank Bryce h, disk 258 –9 tracks Roy Newsome The band made two world tours in the early 1900s, one between 1906 and 1908 and the other also lasting for more than a year. With Alexander Owen as its conductor, the band visited Australia, Canada, Fiji, Hawaii, New Zealand, South Africa, a tour of Canada between August and October 1932 saw them play 112 concerts. Besses Boys Band was formed in October 1943, having been preceded from 1940 by classes that taught musical theory, there had been a trend for the creation of junior bands since around the early 1930s. J. C. Wright was the first bandmaster and senior members assisted in teaching the newcomers, Besses Band faced massive problems during the Second World War and the new section ensured its survival
32.
Whitefield, Greater Manchester
–
Whitefield is a town in the Metropolitan Borough of Bury, Greater Manchester, England. It lies on undulating ground above the Irwell Valley, along the bank of the River Irwell,3 miles south-southeast of Bury. Prestwich and the M60 motorway lie just to the south, historically a part of Lancashire, Whitefield has been suggested as lying on the path of an ancient Roman road leading from Mamucium in the south to Bremetennacum in the north. Throughout the Middle Ages, Whitefield was a division of the township of Pilkington, itself a part of the parish of Prestwich-cum-Oldham, Pilkington and Whitefield have historic associations with the Earls of Derby. Farming was the industry of this rural area, with locals supplementing their incomes by hand-loom woollen weaving in the domestic system. The urbanisation and development of Whitefield largely coincided with the Industrial Revolution, the name Whitefield is thought to derive from the medieval bleachfields used by Flemish settlers to whiten their woven fabrics, or else from the wheat crop once cultivated in the district. The construction of a major roads routed through the village facilitated Whitefields expansion into a town during the mid-19th century. Whitefield was created a government district in 1866, and was governed by a local board of health until 1894. There are several theories for the origin of the place name, One, published in John Wilsons A History of Whitefield, is that the name is derived from the Flemish weavers who used to lay out their fabrics to bleach in the sun. A third is that the name refers to a field of white flowers, in Elizabethan times, Whitefield was mostly moorland and until the 19th century existed, along with the districts of Ringley, Unsworth and Outwood, as part of the Manor of Pilkington. In the 15th century the Pilkington family who, during the Wars of the Roses, supported the House of York, Thomas Pilkington was at this time lord of many estates in Lancashire including the Manor of Bury. In 1485 Richard III was killed in the Battle of Bosworth, the Duke of Richmond, representing the House of Lancaster, was crowned Henry VII. Sir William Stanley may have placed the crown upon his head, as a reward for the support of his family, on 27 October 1485 Henry made Thomas Stanley the Earl of Derby. Thomas Pilkington was attainted, and in February 1489 Earl Thomas was given many confiscated estates including those of Pilkington, which included the township of Pilkington, and Bury. Over the centuries, hamlets grew at Besses o th Barn, Lily Hill, Four Lane Ends, Stand, Besses o th Barn was for some time known as Stone Pale and a small street of that name still exists. Whitefield was in 1853 a part of the township of Pilkington, Pilkington ceased to be a township in 1894 and at the same time part of the old boundary of Whitefield was absorbed by Radcliffe. The realignment of the boundary with Radcliffe was due to the location of the Whitefield sewage works, which lying between Hillock and Parr Lane were in the wrong place to serve the Stand Lane area. Whitefield had gained a local board in 1866, but after the dissolution of Pilkington township in 1894, a town hall was established in 1933 with the purchase of the house previously known as Underley, along with 3 acres of surrounding land
33.
Manchester
–
Manchester is a major city and metropolitan borough in Greater Manchester, England, with a population of 514,414 as of 2013. It lies within the United Kingdoms second-most populous urban area, with a population of 2.55 million, Manchester is fringed by the Cheshire Plain to the south, the Pennines to the north and east and an arc of towns with which it forms a continuous conurbation. The local authority is Manchester City Council and it was historically a part of Lancashire, although areas of Cheshire south of the River Mersey were incorporated during the 20th century. Throughout the Middle Ages Manchester remained a township but began to expand at an astonishing rate around the turn of the 19th century. Manchesters unplanned urbanisation was brought on by a boom in textile manufacture during the Industrial Revolution, Manchester achieved city status in 1853. The Manchester Ship Canal opened in 1894, creating the Port of Manchester and its fortunes declined after the Second World War, owing to deindustrialisation. The city centre was devastated in a bombing in 1996, but it led to extensive investment, in 2014, the Globalization and World Cities Research Network ranked Manchester as a beta world city, the highest-ranked British city apart from London. Manchester is the third-most visited city in the UK and it is notable for its architecture, culture, musical exports, media links, scientific and engineering output, social impact, sports clubs and transport connections. Manchester Liverpool Road railway station was the worlds first inter-city passenger railway station and in the city scientists first split the atom, the name Manchester originates from the Latin name Mamucium or its variant Mancunium and the citizens are still referred to as Mancunians. These are generally thought to represent a Latinisation of an original Brittonic name, both meanings are preserved in languages derived from Common Brittonic, mam meaning breast in Irish and mother in Welsh. The suffix -chester is a survival of Old English ceaster and their territory extended across the fertile lowland of what is now Salford and Stretford. Central Manchester has been settled since this time. A stabilised fragment of foundations of the version of the Roman fort is visible in Castlefield. After the Roman withdrawal and Saxon conquest, the focus of settlement shifted to the confluence of the Irwell, much of the wider area was laid waste in the subsequent Harrying of the North. Thomas de la Warre, lord of the manor, founded and constructed a church for the parish in 1421. The church is now Manchester Cathedral, the premises of the college house Chethams School of Music. The library, which opened in 1653 and is open to the public today, is the oldest free public reference library in the United Kingdom. Manchester is mentioned as having a market in 1282, around the 14th century, Manchester received an influx of Flemish weavers, sometimes credited as the foundation of the regions textile industry
34.
Chubb detector lock
–
This alerts the owner to the fact that the lock has been tampered with. Any person who attempts to pick a detector lock must avoid triggering the automatic jamming mechanism, if the automatic jamming mechanism is accidentally triggered the lock-picker has the additional problem of resetting the detector mechanism before their next attempt to open the lock. The first detector lock was produced in 1818 by Jeremiah Chubb of Portsmouth, England and it remained unpicked until the Great Exhibition of 1851. Jeremiah Chubb, who was working with his brother, Charles, as an outfitter and ironmonger in Portsmouth. This security feature was known as a regulator, and was tripped when a lever was pushed past the position required to bring the lever in line to open the lock. As a result of innovation, Jeremiah was able to claim the £100 reward offered by the Government. A convict aboard one of the hulks in Portsmouth Docks was given the Chubb lock with a promise of a free pardon from the Government. The convict, who was a locksmith by trade and had picked every lock he had been presented with, was confident he could do the same with the detector lock. After two or three months of trying he was forced to admit defeat, in 1820, Jeremiah joined his brother Charles in starting their own lock company, Chubb. They moved from Portsmouth to Willenhall, which was the capital of Great Britain. In 1836 they moved to St James Square in the same town, a further move to the site of the old Workhouse in Railway Street followed in 1838. The Chubb lock reportedly became popular as a result of the interest generated when George IV accidentally sat on a Chubb lock that still had the key inserted, a number of improvements were made to the original design over the years but the basic principle behind its construction remained unchanged. In 1824, Charles patented a design that no longer required a special regulator key to reset the lock. The original lock used four levers, but by 1847 work by Jeremiah, Charles, his son John and others resulted in a six-lever version. A later innovation was the curtain, a disc that allowed the key to pass but narrowed the field of view, eventually, Chubb began to manufacture brass padlocks incorporating the detector mechanism. Competition in the business was fierce and there were various challenges issued in an attempt to prove the superiority of one type of lock over another. Joseph Bramah exhibited one of his locks in the window of his shop, in 1832, a Mr Hart, replying to a challenge by Chubb, failed to pick one of his detector locks. After a number of people tried and failed, the first person to pick the six-lever Chubb lock was Alfred Charles Hobbs, Chubb locks are mentioned twice in the Sherlock Holmes stories by Arthur Conan Doyle
35.
Jane Austen
–
Jane Austen was an English novelist known primarily for her six major novels, which interpret, critique and comment upon the British landed gentry at the end of the 18th century. Austens plots often explore the dependence of women on marriage in the pursuit of social standing. Her works critique the novels of sensibility of the half of the 18th century and are part of the transition to 19th-century literary realism. With the publications of Sense and Sensibility, Pride and Prejudice, Mansfield Park and Emma and she wrote two additional novels, Northanger Abbey and Persuasion, both published posthumously in 1818, and began another, eventually titled Sanditon, but died before its completion. Her novels have rarely been out of print, although they were published anonymously, a significant transition in her posthumous reputation occurred in 1869, fifty-two years after her death, when her nephews publication of A Memoir of Jane Austen introduced her to a wider audience. Austen has inspired a number of critical essays and literary anthologies. Her novels have inspired many films, from 1940s Pride and Prejudice to more recent productions, Sense and Sensibility, Jane Austens use of biting irony, along with her realism and social commentary have earned her great and historical importance to critics and scholars. The Bank of England has confirmed that the face of the new plastic £10 note will be Austen, the notes are expected to be released in summer 2017. There is little information about Jane Austens life except the few letters that survive. During her lifetime Austen wrote approximately 3,000 letters but only about 160 survive, many of the letters were written to Austens older sister Cassandra, who in 1843 burned the greater part of them and cut pieces out of those she kept. Cassandra believed that in the interest of tact and Janes penchant for forthrightness, the paucity of record of Austens life leaves modern biographers little to work with. The situation was compounded as successive generations of the family expunged and sanitized the already opaque details of Austens biography, Jane Austen was born in Steventon, Hampshire, on 16 December 1775. She was born a month later than her parents expected, her father wrote of her arrival in a letter that her mother certainly expected to have brought to bed a month ago. He added that her arrival was particularly welcome as a companion to her sister. The winter of 1776 was particularly harsh and it was not until 5 April that she was baptised at the church with the single name Jane. For much of Janes life, George Austen served as the rector of the Anglican parishes at Steventon, and he came from an old, respected, and wealthy family of wool merchants. Over the centuries as each generation of eldest sons received inheritances their wealth was consolidated and he and his two sisters were orphaned as children and had to be taken in by relatives. His sister Philadelphia went to India to find a husband and George entered St Johns College, Oxford on a fellowship and she came from the prominent Leigh family, her father was rector at All Souls College, Oxford, where she grew up among the gentry
36.
Northanger Abbey
–
For the novels film adaptations, see Northanger Abbey or Northanger Abbey. Northanger Abbey /ˈnɔːrθˌæŋɡər/ was the first of Jane Austens novels to be completed for publication, in 1803, the novel is a satire of the Gothic novels popular at the time of its first writing in 1798–99. The heroine, Catherine, thinks life is like a Gothic novel, Austen first titled it Susan, when she sold it in 1803 for £10 to a London bookseller, Crosby & Co. who decided against publishing. She further revised the novel in 1816-1817, with the intention of having it published, the lead characters name was changed from Susan to Catherine, and Austen changed the working title to Catherine. Neither novel was published under the working title Jane Austen used, aside from first being published together, the two novels are not linked, and later editions were published as separate novels. The novel names many of the Gothic novels of that time and includes commentary by Austen on the value of novels. As almost all her letters were burned after her death, later scholars appreciate this insight into Austens views, seventeen-year-old Catherine Morland is one of ten children of a country clergyman. Although a tomboy in her childhood, by the age of 17 she is in training for a heroine and is fond of reading Gothic novels. Catherine is invited by the Allens, her neighbours in Fullerton, to accompany them to visit the town of Bath and partake in the winter season of balls, theatre. Although initially the excitement of Bath is dampened by her lack of acquaintances, she is introduced to a clever young gentleman, Henry Tilney. Much to Catherines disappointment, Henry does not reappear in the subsequent week and, not knowing whether or not he has left Bath for good, she wonders if she will ever see him again. Through Mrs Allens old schoolfriend Mrs Thorpe, she meets her daughter Isabella, a vivacious and flirtatious woman. Mrs Thorpes son John is also a friend of Catherines older brother, James, James and John arrive unexpectedly in Bath. While Isabella and James spend time together, Catherine becomes acquainted with John, Henry Tilney then returns to Bath, accompanied by his younger sister Eleanor, who is a sweet, elegant, and respectable young lady. Catherine also meets their father, the imposing General Tilney, the Thorpes are not very happy about Catherines friendship with the Tilneys, as they correctly perceive Henry as a rival for Catherines affections. Catherine tries to maintain her friendships with both the Thorpes and the Tilneys, though John Thorpe continuously tries to sabotage her relationship with the Tilneys and this leads to several misunderstandings, which upset Catherine and put her in the awkward position of having to explain herself to the Tilneys. Jamess father approves of the match and offers his son a country living of a modest sum,400 pounds annually. The couple must therefore wait until time to marry
37.
Persuasion (novel)
–
Persuasion is the last novel fully completed by Jane Austen. It was published at the end of 1817, six months after her death and they rent their home to an Admiral and his wife. The wife’s brother, Navy Captain Frederick Wentworth, had engaged to Anne in 1806. This sets the scene for many humorous encounters as well as a second, well-considered chance at love, the novel was well-received in the early 19th century. Greater fame came later in the century, continued in the 20th century, much scholarly debate on Austens work has since been published. Anne Elliot is noteworthy among Jane Austens heroines for her relative maturity, as Persuasion is Austens last completed novel, it is accepted as her most maturely written novel showing a refinement of literary conception indicative of a woman approaching forty years of age. Unlike Sense and Sensibility and Pride and Prejudice, the novel Persuasion was not rewritten from earlier drafts of novels which Austen had originally started before 1800 and her use of free indirect discourse in narrative was by 1816 fully developed and in full evidence. The first edition of Persuasion was co-published with the previously unpublished Northanger Abbey, written in 1803, the story begins seven years after the broken engagement of Anne Elliot to then Commander Frederick Wentworth. Anne Elliot, then 19 years old, fell in love and he was clever, confident, ambitious, and employed, but not yet wealthy and with no particular family connections to recommend him. Her father Sir Walter and her older sister Elizabeth maintained that he was no match for an Elliot of Kellynch Hall, Lady Russell, acting in place of Annes late mother, persuaded her to break the engagement, which she saw as imprudent for one so young. They are the ones who know about this short engagement. The Elliot family is now in financial trouble, Kellynch Hall will be let, and the family will settle in Bath until finances improve. The Baronet Sir Walter, the father and daughter Elizabeth. Anne is less sure she will enjoy Bath, Mary is married to Charles Musgrove of nearby Uppercross Hall, the heir to a respected local squire. Anne visits Mary and her family, where she is well-loved, the end of the war puts sailors back on shore, including the tenants of Kellynch Hall, Admiral Croft and his wife Sophia, who is the sister of Frederick Wentworth, now a wealthy naval captain. Frederick visits his sister and meets the Uppercross family, including Anne, the Musgroves, including Mary, Charles, and Charless sisters, Henrietta and Louisa, welcome the Crofts and Wentworth. He tells all he is ready to marry, Henrietta is engaged to her clergyman cousin Charles Hayter, who is away for the first few days that Wentworth joins their social circle. Both the Crofts and Musgroves enjoy speculating about which sister Wentworth might marry, once Hayter returns, Henrietta turns her affections to him again
38.
John Keats
–
John Keats was an English Romantic poet. He had a significant influence on a range of poets. Jorge Luis Borges stated that his first encounter with Keatss work was the most significant literary experience of his life, the poetry of Keats is characterised by sensual imagery, most notably in the series of odes. This is typical of poets, as they aimed to accentuate extreme emotion through the emphasis of natural imagery. Today his poems and letters are some of the most popular, John Keats was born in Moorgate, London, on 31 October 1795 to Thomas Keats and his wife, born Frances Jennings. There is no evidence of his exact birthplace. Although Keats and his family seem to have marked his birthday on 29 October and he was the eldest of four surviving children, his younger siblings were George, Thomas, and Frances Mary Fanny who eventually married Spanish author Valentín Llanos Gutiérrez. Another son was lost in infancy and his father first worked as a hostler at the stables attached to the Swan and Hoop Inn, an establishment he later managed, and where the growing family lived for some years. Keats believed that he was born at the inn, a birthplace of humble origins, the Globe pub now occupies the site, a few yards from the modern-day Moorgate station. He was baptised at St Botolph-without-Bishopsgate, and sent to a dame school as a child. His parents were unable to afford Eton or Harrow, so in the summer of 1803, he was sent to board at John Clarkes school in Enfield, the small school had a liberal outlook and a progressive curriculum more modern than the larger, more prestigious schools. In the family atmosphere at Clarkes, Keats developed an interest in classics and history, the headmasters son, Charles Cowden Clarke, also became an important mentor and friend, introducing Keats to Renaissance literature, including Tasso, Spenser, and Chapmans translations. The young Keats was described by his friend Edward Holmes as a character, always in extremes, given to indolence. However, at 13 he began focusing his energy on reading and study, in April 1804, when Keats was eight, his father died. The cause of death was a fracture, suffered when he fell from his horse while returning from a visit to Keats. Frances remarried two months later, but left her new husband soon afterwards, and the four went to live with their grandmother, Alice Jennings. In March 1810 when Keats was 14, his mother died of tuberculosis and she appointed two guardians, Richard Abbey and John Sandell, to take care of them. That autumn, Keats left Clarkes school to apprentice with Thomas Hammond, a surgeon and apothecary who was a neighbour, Keats lodged in the attic above the surgery at 7 Church Street until 1813
39.
Endymion (poem)
–
Endymion is a poem by John Keats first published in 1818. It begins with the line A thing of beauty is a joy for ever, Endymion is written in rhyming couplets in iambic pentameter. Keats based the poem on the Greek myth of Endymion, the shepherd beloved by the moon goddess Selene, the poem elaborates on the original story and renames Selene Cynthia. It starts by painting a scene of trees, rivers, shepherds. The shepherds gather around an altar and pray to Pan, god of shepherds, as the youths sing and dance, the elder men sit and talk about what life would be like in the shades of Elysium. However, Endymion, the brain-sick shepherd-prince of Mt. Latmos, is in a trancelike state and his sister, Peona, takes him away and brings him to her resting place where he sleeps. After he wakes, he tells Peona of his encounter with Cynthia, the poem is divided into four books, each approximately 1000 lines long. Book I gives Endymions account of his dreams and experiences, as related to Peona, in Book II, Endymion ventures into the underworld in search of his love. He encounters Adonis and Venus—a pairing of mortal and immortal—apparently foreshadowing a similar destiny for the mortal Endymion, Book III reveals Endymions enduring love, and he begs the Moon not to torment him any longer as he journeys through a watery void on the sea floor. There he meets Glaucus, freeing the god from a years of imprisonment by the witch Circe. Book IV, And so he groand, as one by beauty slain, Endymion falls in love with a beautiful Indian maiden. Both ride winged black steeds to Mount Olympus where Cynthia awaits, only for Endymion to forsake the goddess for his new, mortal, Endymion and the Indian girl return to earth, the latter saying she cannot be his love. He is miserable, till quite suddenly he comes upon the Indian maiden again and she then tells him of how she tried to forget him, to move on, but that in the end, There is not one, / No, no, not one/ But thee. Endymion received scathing criticism after its release, and Keats himself noted its diffuse, however, he did express regret in its publishing, saying it is not without a feeling of regret that I make public. Not all critics disliked the work, the poet Thomas Hood wrote Written in Keats Endymion, in which the Muse. charming the air to music. gave back Endymion in a dreamlike tale. Henry Morley said, The song of Endymion throbs throughout with a noble poets sense of all that his art means for him, what mechanical defects there are in it may even serve to quicken our sense of the youth and freshness of this voice of aspiration. This poem is quoted by Monsieur Verdoux in Charlie Chaplins homonymous film and our feet were soft in flowers. Briggs, Harold E. Keatss Conscious and Unconscious Reactions to Criticism of Endymion, PMLA,60, pp. 1106–29
40.
Thomas Love Peacock
–
Thomas Love Peacock was an English novelist, poet, and official of the East India Company. He was a friend of Percy Bysshe Shelley and they influenced each others work. Peacock wrote satirical novels, each with the basic setting. Peacock was born in Weymouth, Dorset, the son of Samuel Peacock and his wife Sarah Love, daughter of Thomas Love and his father was a glass merchant in London, partner of a Mr Pellatt, presumed to be Apsley Pellatt. Peacock went with his mother to live with her family at Chertsey in 1791 and in 1792 went to a run by Joseph Harris Wicks at Englefield Green where he stayed for six. Peacocks father died in 1794 in poor circumstances leaving a small annuity, Peacocks first known poem was an epitaph for a school fellow written at the age of ten and another on his Midsummer Holidays was written when he was thirteen. Around that time in 1798 he was taken from school. In February 1800, Peacock became a clerk with Ludlow Fraser Company and he lived with his mother on the firms premises at 4 Angel Court Throgmorton Street. He won the prize from the Monthly Preceptor for a verse answer to the question Is History or Biography the More Improving Study. He also contributed to The Juvenile Library, a magazine for youth whose competitions excited the emulation of other boys including Leigh Hunt, de Quincey. He began visiting the Reading Room of the British Museum and continued doing so for years, diligently studying the best literature in Greek, Latin, French. In 1804 and 1806 he published two volumes of poetry, The Monks of St. Mark and Palmyra, some of Peacocks juvenile compositions were privately printed by Sir Henry Cole. In around 1806 Peacock left his job in the city and during the year made a walking tour of Scotland. The annuity left by his father expired in October 1806, in 1807 he returned to live at his mothers house at Chertsey. He was briefly engaged to Fanny Faulkner, but it was broken off through the interference of her relations and his friends, as he hints, thought it wrong that so clever a man should be earning so little money. In the autumn of 1808 he became secretary to Sir Home Popham. By the end of the year he was serving Captain Andrew King aboard HMS Venerable in the Downs and his preconceived affection for the sea did not reconcile him to nautical realities. Writing poetry, he says, or doing anything else that is rational, I would give the world to be at home and devote the winter to the composition of a comedy
41.
Nightmare Abbey
–
Nightmare Abbey is an 1818 novella by Thomas Love Peacock, and his third long work of fiction to be published. It was written in late March and June 1818, and published in London in November of the year by T. Hookham Jr of Old Bond Street and Baldwin. The novella was lightly revised by the author in 1837 for republication in Volume 57 of Bentleys Standard Novels, most of the characters in the novella are based on historical figures whom Peacock wishes to pillory. Mr Glowry is a gentleman who likes to surround himself with servants with long faces or dismal names such as Raven. The only exception is the sanguine Mr Hilary, who, as Mr Glowrys brother-in-law, is obliged to visit the abbey from family interests, the Reverend Mr Larynx, the vicar of nearby Claydyke, readily adapts himself to whatever company he is in. Scythrop is recovering from an affair which ended badly when Mr Glowry. To distract himself Scythrop takes up the study of German romantic literature, most of these involve secret societies of Illuminati. He writes a suitably impenetrable treatise on the subject, which only seven copies. Seven is a number and he determines to seek out his readers. He has a chamber constructed in his gloomy tower as a secret retreat from the enemies of mankind. Things become interesting when Mr and Mrs Hilary arrive with their niece and she flirts with Scythrop, who quickly falls in love, but when she plays hard to get, he retreats to his tower to nurse his wounded heart. Mr Glowry tries to dissuade Scythrop from setting his mind on a woman who not only has no fortune but is insufferably merry-hearted into the bargain, when this fails he turns to Mrs Hilary, who decides in the interests of propriety to take Marionetta away. But Scythrop threatens to drink poison unless his father drops the matter, back at Nightmare Abbey Marionetta, now sure of Scythrops heart, torments him for her own pleasure. The other guests pass the time dining, playing billiards and discussing contemporary literature and philosophy, a new visitor arrives at the Abbey, Mr Asterias the ichthyologist, who is accompanied by his son Aquarius. The guests discuss Mr Asteriass theory on the existence of mermaids and it transpires that a report of a mermaid on the sea-coast of Lincolnshire is the immediate reason for Mr Asteriass visit. A few nights later he glimpses a figure on the shore near the Abbey and is convinced that it is his mermaid. Over the next few days Marionetta notices a change in Scythrops deportment. Failing to draw the secret out of him, she turns to Mr Flosky for advice, Scythrop grows every day more distrait, and Marionetta fears that he no longer loves her
42.
Walter Scott
–
Sir Walter Scott, 1st Baronet, FRSE was a Scottish historical novelist, playwright and poet. Many of his works remain classics of both English-language literature and of Scottish literature, famous titles include Ivanhoe, Rob Roy, Old Mortality, The Lady of the Lake, Waverley, The Heart of Midlothian and The Bride of Lammermoor. A prominent member of the Tory establishment in Edinburgh, Scott was an member of the Highland Society. He survived a bout of polio in 1773 that left him lame. To cure his lameness he was sent in 1773 to live in the rural Scottish Borders at his grandparents farm at Sandyknowe, adjacent to the ruin of Smailholm Tower. Here he was taught to read by his aunt Jenny, and learned from her the speech patterns and many of the tales and legends that characterised much of his work. In January 1775 he returned to Edinburgh, and that went with his aunt Jenny to take spa treatment at Bath in England. In the winter of 1776 he went back to Sandyknowe, with another attempt at a cure at Prestonpans during the following summer. In 1778, Scott returned to Edinburgh for private education to him for school. In October 1779 he began at the Royal High School of Edinburgh and he was now well able to walk and explore the city and the surrounding countryside. His reading included chivalric romances, poems, history and travel books and he was given private tuition by James Mitchell in arithmetic and writing, and learned from him the history of the Church of Scotland with emphasis on the Covenanters. Scott began studying classics at the University of Edinburgh in November 1783, at the age of 12, in March 1786 he began an apprenticeship in his fathers office to become a Writer to the Signet. While at the university Scott had become a friend of Adam Ferguson, Scott met the blind poet Thomas Blacklock, who lent him books and introduced him to James Macphersons Ossian cycle of poems. During the winter of 1786–87 the 15-year-old Scott saw Robert Burns at one of these salons, for what was to be their only meeting. When Burns noticed a print illustrating the poem The Justice of the Peace and asked who had written the poem, only Scott knew that it was by John Langhorne, and was thanked by Burns. When it was decided that he would become a lawyer, he returned to the university to study law, first taking classes in Moral Philosophy, after completing his studies in law, he became a lawyer in Edinburgh. As a lawyers clerk he made his first visit to the Scottish Highlands directing an eviction and he was admitted to the Faculty of Advocates in 1792. He had an unsuccessful love suit with Williamina Belsches of Fettercairn, as a boy, youth and young man, Scott was fascinated by the oral traditions of the Scottish Borders
1818 in the United Kingdom