1.
1841 in literature
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This article presents lists of the literary events and publications in 1841. January – Poet Elizabeth Barrett Browning is given her golden cocker spaniel Flush by writer Mary Russell Mitford, april 10 – Horace Greeley begins publication of the New-York Tribune. April 20 – Edgar Allan Poes short story The Murders in the Rue Morgue is published in Grahams Magazine, the story will be recognized as the first significant work of detective fiction. July 17 – Punch magazine is founded in London by Henry Mayhew and engraver Ebenezer Landells, edited by Mayhew, London publisher Edward Moxon is convicted of blasphemous libel for issuing an edition of Shelleys poem Queen Mab with its atheistic passages restored. Anthony Panizzi and his staff at the British Museum Library in London devise the Ninety-One Cataloguing Rules, London Library founded in Pall Mall, London on the initiative of Thomas Carlyle. Khachatur Abovian – Wounds of Armenia W. Harrison Ainsworth – Old St. K
2.
1847 in literature
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This article presents lists of literary events and publications in 1847. January – Vanity Fair, A Novel without a Hero begins serial publication in Punch magazine, with the author, William Makepeace Thackeray, march–April – Ivan Goncharovs debut novel A Common Story is published in Sovremennik. April – Robert Browning settles with his wife and fellow poet Elizabeth Barrett Browning in Florence, hans Christian Andersen begins his first visit to Britain during which he meets Charles Dickens. June 10 – Fictional date at the end of Anne Brontës The Tenant of Wildfell Hall, july – London publisher Thomas Cautley Newby accepts for publication Emily Brontës Wuthering Heights and Anne Brontës Agnes Grey. August 7–24 – Charlotte Brontë completes the manuscript of Jane Eyre at Haworth, september 16 – William Shakespeares birthplace in Stratford-upon-Avon in England is bought by the United Shakespeare Company for preservation. October 19 – Charlotte Brontës Jane Eyre is published in London by Smith, november – Dmitry Grigorovichs anti-serfdom novel Anton Goremyka is published in Sovremennik with its politically sensitive last scene rewritten by a censor. November 1 – John Maddison Mortons one-act farce Box and Cox opens at the Lyceum Theatre, London with John Pritt Harley and John Baldwin Buckstone in the title rôles. December 14 – Emily Brontës Wuthering Heights and Anne Brontës Agnes Grey are published in a 3-volume set under the pen names of Ellis, Wuthering Heights will be Emilys only published novel as she dies aged 30 a year later. London publisher E. Churton brings out the first six of George Sands books to be issued in English, the translations being by Matilda Hays, Eliza Ashurst and Rev. Edmund Larken
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1838 in architecture
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The year 1838 in architecture involved some significant architectural events and new buildings. April 8 - The British National Gallery first opens to the public in the building purpose-designed for it by William Wilkins in Trafalgar Square, palazzo Gavazzi, Milan, Italy, designed by Luigi Clerichetti. Rideau Hall, Ottawa, Canada, built by Scottish architect Thomas McKay, walton Hall, Cheshire, England, designed for Sir Gilbert Greenall, 1st Baronet, possibly by Edmund Sharpe. Grand Prix de Rome, architecture, Toussaint Uchard, january 23 - John James Clark, Australian architect April 13 - J. D
4.
George Sand
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Amantine-Lucile-Aurore Dupin, best known by her pseudonym George Sand, was a French novelist and memoirist. She is equally known for her much publicized romantic affairs with a number of artists, including Polish composer and pianist Frédéric Chopin. Sand later used the setting in many of her novels and it has been said that her upbringing was quite liberal. She was also related more distantly to King Louis Philippe of France through common ancestors from German. Sands mother, Sophie-Victoire Delaborde, however, was a commoner, in 1822, at the age of eighteen, Sand married Casimir Dudevant, illegitimate son of Baron Jean-François Dudevant. She and Dudevant had two children, Maurice and Solange, in early 1831, she left her husband and entered upon a four- or five-year period of romantic rebellion. In 1835, she was separated from Dudevant and took her children with her. Later in life, she corresponded with Gustave Flaubert, and despite their differences in temperament and aesthetic preference and she engaged in an intimate friendship with actress Marie Dorval, which led to widespread but unconfirmed rumours of a lesbian affair. Letters written by Sand to Dorval made such references as wanting you either in your dressing room or in your bed, in Majorca one can still visit the Carthusian monastery of Valldemossa, where she spent the winter of 1838–1839 with Chopin and her children. This trip to Majorca was described by her in Un hiver à Majorque and they separated two years before his death for a variety of reasons. In her novel Lucrezia Floriani, Sand used Chopin as a model for a sickly Eastern European prince named Karol and he is cared for by a middle-aged actress past her prime, Lucrezia, who suffers a great deal through her affection for Karol. Though Sand claimed not to have made an out of Chopin. However, the point in their relationship involved her daughter Solange. Chopin continued to be cordial to Solange after she and her husband, Sand took Chopins support of Solange as outright treachery and confirmation that Chopin had always loved Solange. Sands son Maurice also disliked Chopin, Maurice wanted to establish himself as the man of the estate and did not wish to have Chopin as a rival for that role. Chopin was never asked back to Nohant, in 1848, he returned to Paris from a tour of the United Kingdom, to die at the Place Vendôme in the following year. Chopin was penniless at that time, his friends had to pay for his stay there, the funeral was attended by over 3,000 people, including Eugène Delacroix, Franz Liszt, Victor Hugo and other famous people. George Sand, however, was notable by her absence, a liaison with the writer Jules Sandeau heralded her literary debut
5.
William Macready
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William Charles Macready was an English actor. He was born in London the son of William Macready the elder, on 7 June 1810 he made a successful first appearance as Romeo at Birmingham. Other Shakespearian parts followed, but a serious rupture between father and son resulted in the young mans departure for Bath in 1814, here he remained for two years, with occasional professional visits to other provincial towns. On 16 September 1816, Macready made his first London appearance at Covent Garden as Orestes in The Distressed Mother, Macreadys choice of characters was at first confined chiefly to the romantic drama. In 1818 he won a permanent success in Isaac Pococks adaptation of Scotts Rob Roy and he showed his capacity for the highest tragedy when he played Richard III at Covent Garden on 25 October 1819. Transferring his services to Drury Lane, he rose in public favour. In 1826 he completed an engagement in the United States. In 1829 he appeared as Othello in Warwick, on 15 December 1830 he appeared at Drury Lane as Werner, one of his most powerful impersonations. In 1833 he played in Antony and Cleopatra, in Byrons Sardanapalus, the first production of Bulwer-Lyttons Money took place under the artistic direction of Count dOrsay on 8 December 1840, Macready winning unmistakable success in the character of Alfred Evelyn. Both Forrest and Macready were playing Macbeth in concurrent, competing productions at the time of the riot, american playwright Richard Nelson dramatized the events surrounding the riot in his 1990 play Two Shakespearean Actors. Macready took leave of the stage in a performance of Macbeth at Drury Lane on 26 February 1851. The remainder of his life was spent in retirement. He married twice, firstly in 1823 to Catherine Frances Atkins, of a numerous family of children only one son and one daughter survived. In 1860, aged 67 he married the 23 year old Cecile Louise Frederica Spencer, by whom he had a son, Macreadys remains were deposited in the catacomb below the Anglican Chapel at Kensal Green Cemetery. In 1927 the Cheltenham Local Tablets Committee placed a tablet at No.6 Wellington Square recording Macreadys residence there from 1860-73. His daughter, Catherine Frances B Macready, was a minor Victorian poet and her book, Leaves From the Olive Mount, published by Chapman & Hall in 1860, began with a one-page dedication poem, To My Father. The writer Rowena Farre was a great-granddaughter of William Macready, american stage, film, and television actor George Macready claimed to be a descendant. Eminent persons, Biographies reprinted from the Times, D. Vol I, 1870-1875, Macmillan & Co
6.
King Lear
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King Lear is a tragedy written by William Shakespeare. The Tragedy of King Lear, a more theatrical revision, was included in the 1623 First Folio, Modern editors usually conflate the two, though some insist that each version has its own individual integrity that should be preserved. The tragedy is particularly noted for its probing observations on the nature of human suffering, george Bernard Shaw wrote, No man will ever write a better tragedy than Lear. The eldest, Goneril, speaks first, declaring her love for her father in fulsome terms, moved by her flattery Lear proceeds to grant to Goneril her share as soon as she has finished her declaration, before Regan and Cordelia have a chance to speak. He then awards to Regan her share as soon as she has spoken, in his anger he disinherits Cordelia and divides her share between Regan and Goneril. Kent objects to Lears unfair treatment of Cordelia, enraged by Kents protests, Lear then summons the Duke of Burgundy and the King of France, who have both proposed marriage to Cordelia. Learning that Cordelia has been disinherited, the Duke of Burgundy withdraws his suit, the King of France is shocked by Lears decision because up until this time Lear has only praised and favored Cordelia. Meanwhile, Gloucester has introduced his illegitimate son Edmund to Kent, Lear announces he will live alternately with Goneril and Regan, and their husbands. He reserves to himself a retinue of one hundred knights, to be supported by his daughters, Goneril and Regan speak privately, revealing that their declarations of love were fake, and that they view Lear as a foolish old man. Edmund resents his illegitimate status, and plots to dispose of his older brother Edgar. He tricks their father Gloucester with a letter, making him think Edgar plans to usurp the estate. Kent returns from exile in disguise under the name of Caius, Lear and Caius quarrel with Oswald, Gonerils steward. Lear discovers that now that Goneril has power, she no longer respects him and she orders him to behave better and reduces his retinue. Enraged, Lear departs for Regans home, Edmund learns from Curan, a courtier, that there is likely to be war between Albany and Cornwall, and that Regan and Cornwall are to arrive at Gloucesters house that evening. Taking advantage of the arrival of the duke and Regan, Edmund fakes an attack by Edgar and he disinherits Edgar and proclaims him an outlaw. Bearing Lears message to Regan, Caius meets Oswald again at Gloucesters home, quarrels with him again, when Lear arrives, he objects to the mistreatment of his messenger, but Regan is as dismissive of her father as Goneril was. Goneril arrives and supports Regans argument against him, Lear yields completely to his rage. He rushes out into a storm to rant against his ungrateful daughters, Kent later follows to protect him
7.
Theatre Royal, Covent Garden
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The Royal Opera House is an opera house and major performing arts venue in Covent Garden, central London. The large building is referred to as simply Covent Garden. It is the home of The Royal Opera, The Royal Ballet, originally called the Theatre Royal, it served primarily as a playhouse for the first hundred years of its history. In 1734, the first ballet was presented, a year later, Handels first season of operas began. Many of his operas and oratorios were written for Covent Garden and had their premieres there. The current building is the theatre on the site following disastrous fires in 1808 and 1856. The façade, foyer, and auditorium date from 1858, the main auditorium seats 2,256 people, making it the third largest in London, and consists of four tiers of boxes and balconies and the amphitheatre gallery. The proscenium is 12.20 m wide and 14.80 m high, the main auditorium is a Grade I listed building. The letters patent remained in the possession of the patentees heirs until the 19th century, in 1728, John Rich, actor-manager of the Dukes Company at Lincolns Inn Fields Theatre, commissioned The Beggars Opera from John Gay. In addition, a Royal Charter had created a fruit and vegetable market in the area, at its opening on 7 December 1732, Rich was carried by his actors in processional triumph into the theatre for its opening production of William Congreves The Way of the World. Despite the frequent interchangeability between the Covent Garden and Drury Lane companies, competition was intense, often presenting the plays at the same time. Rich introduced pantomime to the repertoire, himself performing and a tradition of seasonal pantomime continued at the modern theatre, in 1734, Covent Garden presented its first ballet, Pygmalion. Marie Sallé discarded tradition and her corset and danced in diaphanous robes, george Frideric Handel was named musical director of the company, at Lincolns Inn Fields, in 1719, but his first season of opera, at Covent Garden, was not presented until 1734. His first opera was Il pastor fido followed by Ariodante, the première of Alcina, there was a royal performance of Messiah in 1743, which was a success and began a tradition of Lenten oratorio performances. From 1735 until his death in 1759 he gave regular seasons there and he bequeathed his organ to John Rich, and it was placed in a prominent position on the stage, but was among many valuable items lost in a fire that destroyed the theatre on 20 September 1808. In 1792 the architect Henry Holland rebuilt the auditorium, within the shell of the building but deeper and wider than the old auditorium. Rebuilding began in December 1808, and the second Theatre Royal, the Old Price Riots lasted over two months, and the management was finally forced to accede to the audiences demands. During this time, entertainments were varied, opera and ballet were presented, kemble engaged a variety of acts, including the child performer Master Betty, the great clown Joseph Grimaldi made his name at Covent Garden
8.
Shakespeare
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William Shakespeare was an English poet, playwright, and actor, widely regarded as the greatest writer in the English language and the worlds pre-eminent dramatist. He is often called Englands national poet, and the Bard of Avon and his extant works, including collaborations, consist of approximately 38 plays,154 sonnets, two long narrative poems, and a few other verses, some of uncertain authorship. His plays have been translated into every major living language and are performed more often than those of any other playwright, Shakespeare was born and brought up in Stratford-upon-Avon, Warwickshire. At the age of 18, he married Anne Hathaway, with whom he had three children, Susanna, and twins Hamnet and Judith. Sometime between 1585 and 1592, he began a career in London as an actor, writer. He appears to have retired to Stratford around 1613, at age 49, Shakespeare produced most of his known work between 1589 and 1613. His early plays were primarily comedies and histories, which are regarded as some of the best work ever produced in these genres. He then wrote mainly tragedies until about 1608, including Hamlet, Othello, King Lear, in his last phase, he wrote tragicomedies, also known as romances, and collaborated with other playwrights. Many of his plays were published in editions of varying quality and it was prefaced with a poem by Ben Jonson, in which Shakespeare is hailed, presciently, as not of an age, but for all time. In the 20th and 21st centuries, his works have been adapted and rediscovered by new movements in scholarship. His plays remain highly popular and are studied, performed. William Shakespeare was the son of John Shakespeare, an alderman and a successful glover originally from Snitterfield, and Mary Arden and he was born in Stratford-upon-Avon and baptised there on 26 April 1564. His actual date of birth unknown, but is traditionally observed on 23 April. This date, which can be traced back to an 18th-century scholars mistake, has proved appealing to biographers because Shakespeare died on 23 April 1616 and he was the third child of eight and the eldest surviving son. At the age of 18, Shakespeare married 26-year-old Anne Hathaway, the consistory court of the Diocese of Worcester issued a marriage licence on 27 November 1582. The next day, two of Hathaways neighbours posted bonds guaranteeing that no lawful claims impeded the marriage, twins, son Hamnet and daughter Judith, followed almost two years later and were baptised 2 February 1585. Hamnet died of unknown causes at the age of 11 and was buried 11 August 1596, after the birth of the twins, Shakespeare left few historical traces until he is mentioned as part of the London theatre scene in 1592. The exception is the appearance of his name in the bill of a law case before the Queens Bench court at Westminster dated Michaelmas Term 1588 and 9 October 1589
9.
Henrik Wergeland
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Henrik Arnold Thaulow Wergeland was a Norwegian writer, most celebrated for his poetry but also a prolific playwright, polemicist, historian, and linguist. He is often described as a pioneer in the development of a distinctly Norwegian literary heritage. Though Wergeland only lived to be 37, his range of pursuits covered literature, theology, history, contemporary politics, social issues and his views were controversial in his time, and his literary style was variously denounced as subversive. He was the oldest son of Nicolai Wergeland, who had been a member of the constituent assembly at Eidsvoll in 1814, the father was himself pastor of Eidsvold and the poet was thus brought up in the very holy of holies of Norwegian patriotism. Wergelands younger sister was Camilla Collett and younger brother major general Joseph Frantz Oscar Wergeland, Henrik Wergeland entered The Royal Frederick University in 1825 to study for the church and graduated in 1829. That year, he became a symbol of the fight for celebration of the constitution at 17 May and he became a public hero after the infamous battle of the Square in Christiania, which came to pass because any celebration of the national day was forbidden by royal decree. Wergeland was, of course, present and became renowned for standing up against the local governors, later, he became the first to give a public address on behalf of the day and thus he was given credit as the one who initiated the day. His grave and statues are decorated by students and school children every year, notably, the Jewish community of Oslo pays their respects at his grave on 17 May, in appreciation of his efforts to allow Jews into Norway. In 1829 he published a volume of lyrical and patriotic poems, Digte, første Ring, in this book we find his ideal love, the heavenly Stella, which can be described as a Wergeland equivalent to Beatrice in Dantes poem Divina Commedia. Stella is in fact based on four girls, whom Wergeland fell in love with, the character of Stella also inspired him to endeavour on the great epic Skabelsen, Mennesket og Messias. It was remodeled in 1845 as Mennesket, in these works, Wergeland shows the history of Man and Gods plan for humanity. The works are clearly platonic-romantic, and is based on ideals from the enlightenment. Thus, he criticizes abuse of power, and notably evil priests, in the end, his credo goes like this, Heaven shall no more be split after the quadrants of altars, the earth no more be sundered and plundered by tyrants sceptres. Bloodstained crowns, executioners steel torches of thralldom and pyres of sacrifice no more shall gleam over earth, the spirits of the earth now glow in freshened hearts. Freedom is the heart of the spirit, Truth the spirits desire, earthly spirits all to the soil will fall to the eternal call, Each in own brow wears his heavenly throne. Each in own heart wears his altar and sacrificial vessel, lords are all on earth, priests are all for God. At the age of twenty-one he became a power in literature, meanwhile, he was tireless in his efforts to advance the national cause. He established popular libraries, and tried to alleviate the poverty of the Norwegian peasantry
10.
Oslo
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Oslo is the capital and the most populous city in Norway. It constitutes both a county and a municipality, founded in the year 1040, and established as a kaupstad or trading place in 1048 by Harald Hardrada, the city was elevated to a bishopric in 1070 and a capital under Haakon V of Norway around 1300. Personal unions with Denmark from 1397 to 1523 and again from 1536 to 1814, after being destroyed by a fire in 1624, the city was moved closer to Akershus Fortress during the reign of Christian IV of Denmark and renamed Christiania in his honour. It was established as a municipality on 1 January 1838, following a spelling reform, it was known as Kristiania from 1877 to 1925, at which time its original Norwegian name was restored. Oslo is the economic and governmental centre of Norway, the city is also a hub of Norwegian trade, banking, industry and shipping. It is an important centre for industries and maritime trade in Europe. The city is home to companies within the maritime sector, some of which are among the worlds largest shipping companies, shipbrokers. Oslo is a city of the Council of Europe and the European Commission intercultural cities programme. Oslo is considered a city and ranked Beta World City in studies carried out by the Globalization and World Cities Study Group. It was ranked one in terms of quality of life among European large cities in the European Cities of the Future 2012 report by fDi magazine. A survey conducted by ECA International in 2011 placed Oslo as the second most expensive city in the world for living expenses after Tokyo. In 2013 Oslo tied with the Australian city of Melbourne as the fourth most expensive city in the world, as of January 1,2016, the municipality of Oslo has a population of 658,390, while the population of the citys urban area was 942,084. The metropolitan area had an population of 1.71 million. The population was during the early 2000 increasing at record rates and this growth stems for the most part from international immigration and related high birth rates, but also from intra-national migration. The immigrant population in the city is growing faster than the Norwegian population. As of January 1,2016, the municipality of Oslo has a population of 658,390, the urban area extends beyond the boundaries of the municipality into the surrounding county of Akershus, the total population of this agglomeration is 942,084. To the north and east, wide forested hills rise above the city giving the location the shape of a giant amphitheatre. The urban municipality of Oslo and county of Oslo are two parts of the entity, making Oslo the only city in Norway where two administrative levels are integrated
11.
Longman
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Longman is a publishing company founded in London, England, in 1724 and is owned by Pearson PLC. Since 1968, Longman has been used primarily as an imprint by Pearsons Schools business, the Longman brand is also used for the Longman Schools in China and the Longman Dictionary. The Longman company was founded by Thomas Longman, the son of Ezekiel Longman, Thomas was apprenticed in 1716 to John Osborn, a London bookseller, and at the expiration of his apprenticeship married Osborns daughter. In August 1724, he purchased the stock and household goods of William Taylor, taylors two shops in Paternoster Row, London, were known respectively as the Black Swan and the Ship, and became the publishing house premises. Longman entered into partnership with his father-in-law, Osborn, who held one-sixth of the shares in Ephraim Chamberss Cyclopaedia, Longman himself was one of the six booksellers who undertook the responsibility of Samuel Johnsons Dictionary. In 1754, Longman took into partnership his nephew, Thomas Longman, upon the death of his uncle in 1755, Longman became sole proprietor. He greatly extended the colonial trade of the firm, in 1794 he took Owen Rees as a partner, in the same year, Thomas Brown entered the house as an apprentice. Of these, Thomas Norton Longman succeeded to the business, in 1804 two more partners were admitted, and the former apprentice Brown became a partner in 1811, in 1824 the title of the firm was changed to Longman, Hurst, Rees, Orme, Brown & Green. In 1799 Longman purchased the copyright of Lindley Murrays English Grammar, in the following year Richmal Mangnalls Historical and Miscellaneous Questions for the Use of Young People was purchased, and went through 84 editions by 1857. About 1800 he also purchased the copyright of Southeys Joan of Arc and Wordsworths Lyrical Ballads and he published the works of Wordsworth, Coleridge, Southey and Scott, and acted as London agent for the Edinburgh Review, which was started in 1802. In 1802 appeared the first part of Reess Cyclopædia, edited by Abraham Rees and this was completed in 39 volumes plus 6 volumes of plates in 1819. They issued in 1829 Lardners Cabinet Encyclopaedia, and in 1832 McCullochs Commercial Dictionary, Thomas Norton Longman died on 29 August 1842, leaving his two sons, Thomas and William, in control of the business in Paternoster Row. The two brothers were known for their literary talent. The family control of the firm was continued by Thomas Norton Longman, in December 1940, Longmans Paternoster Row offices were destroyed in The Blitz, along with most of the companys stock. The company survived this crisis, however, and became a company in 1948. Longman was acquired by the global publisher Pearson, owner of Penguin and The Financial Times, in 1972, Mark Longman, last of the Longman family to run the company, died. Longman continued to exist as an imprint of Pearson, under the name Pearson Longman, Pearson Longman specialized in English, including English as a second or foreign language, history, economics, philosophy, political science, and religion. Longman is now used by Pearsons ELT business
12.
Letitia Elizabeth Landon
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Letitia Elizabeth Landon, English poet and novelist, better known by her initials L. E. L. Letitia Elizabeth Landon was born on 14 August 1802 in Chelsea, London to John Landon and Catherine Jane, at the age of five, Landon began attending Mrs Rowdens school at 22 Hans Place, which counted among its alumnae Mary Russell Mitford and Lady Caroline Lamb. The family moved to the country in 1809, so that John Landon could carry out a model farm project, I never knew her to be wrong. When young, Letitia was very close to her brother, Whittington Henry. Paying for Whittington through university was one of the needs that drove Letitia to publish and she also supported his preferment and later dedicated her poem ‘Captain Cook’ to their childhood days together. Whittington went on to become a minister and published a book of Sermons in 1835, sadly, he did not show any appreciation for all his sisters financial assistance but spread false rumours about her marriage and death. Letitia also had a sister, Elizabeth Jane, who was a frail child and died in 1819. Little is known of Elizabeth but her death may well have left an impression on Letitia. The following statements from those who knew her give some idea of the known as L. E. L. Emma Roberts, from her introduction to The Zenana and other works. Gay and piquant, her complexion, dark hair, and eyes, rendered her, when in health and spirits. Her figure was slight, and beautifully proportioned, with hands and feet. A little high-backed cane chair, which gave you any idea but that of comfort, one aspect that is common to all accounts of those who knew Miss Landon is that she possessed an exceptionally high level of intelligence. Fredric Rowton in his The Female Poets of Great Britain puts it thus, Of Mrs. Macleans genius there can be but one opinion. It is distinguished by very great power, a highly sensitive and ardent imagination, an intense fervour of passionate emotion. Of mere art she displays but little and her style is irregular and careless, and her painting sketchy and rough but there is genius in every line she has written. An agricultural depression soon followed, and the family moved back to London in 1815, where John Landon made the acquaintance of William Jerdan, editor of the Literary Gazette. According to 19th-century commentator Mrs A. T. Jerdan encouraged Landons poetic endeavors, and her first poem was published under the single initial L in the Gazette in 1820, when Landon was 18. The following year, with support from her grandmother, Landon published a book of poetry, The Fate of Adelaide
13.
Alfred de Musset
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Alfred Louis Charles de Musset-Pathay was a French dramatist, poet, and novelist. Along with his poetry, he is known for writing the autobiographical novel La Confession dun enfant du siècle and his family was upper-class but poor and his father worked in various key government positions, but never gave his son any money. Early indications of Mussets boyhood talents were seen by his fondness for acting impromptu mini-plays based upon episodes from old romance stories he had read. Years later, elder brother Paul de Musset would preserve these, Alfred de Musset entered the lycée Henri-IV at the age of nine, where in 1827 he won the Latin essay prize in the Concours général. With the help of Paul Foucher, Victor Hugos brother-in-law, he began to attend, at the age of 17, the Cénacle, the literary salon of Charles Nodier at the Bibliothèque de lArsenal. After attempts at careers in medicine, law, drawing, English and piano, he one of the first Romantic writers, with his first collection of poems. By the time he reached the age of 20, his literary fame was already accompanied by a sulphurous reputation fed by his dandy side. He was the librarian of the French Ministry of the Interior under the July Monarchy, during this time he also involved himself in polemics during the Rhine crisis of 1840, caused by the French prime minister Adolphe Thiers, who as Minister of the Interior had been Mussets superior. Thiers had demanded that France should own the left bank of the Rhine, as it had under Napoleon and these demands were rejected by German songs and poems, including Nikolaus Beckers Rheinlied, which contained the verse, Sie sollen ihn nicht haben, den freien, deutschen Rhein. Musset answered to this with a poem of his own, Nous lavons eu, Mussets Nuits traces the emotional upheaval of his love for George Sand from early despair to final resignation. He is also believed to be the author of Gamiani, or Two Nights of Excess. Musset was dismissed from his post as librarian by the new minister Ledru-Rollin after the revolution of 1848 and he was however appointed librarian of the Ministry of Public Instruction in 1853. On 24 April 1845 Musset received the Légion dhonneur at the time as Balzac. Alfred de Musset died in his sleep in Paris in 1857, the cause was heart failure, the combination of alcoholism and a longstanding aortic insufficiency. One symptom that had been noticed by his brother was a bobbing of the head as a result of the amplification of the pulse and he was buried in Père Lachaise Cemetery in Paris. The French poet Arthur Rimbaud was highly critical of Mussets work, Rimbaud wrote in his Letters of a Seer that Musset did not accomplish anything because he closed his eyes before the visions. Director Jean Renoirs La règle du jeu was inspired by Mussets play Les Caprices de Marianne, henri Gervexs 1878 painting Rolla was based on a poem by de Musset. Numerous composers wrote songs using Mussets poetry during the 19th century, georges Bizets opera Djamileh is based on Mussets story Namouna
14.
The Times of India
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The Times of India is an Indian English-language daily newspaper. It is the fourth-largest newspaper in India by circulation and largest selling English-language daily in the according to Audit Bureau of Circulations. It is the oldest English-language newspaper in India still in circulation, in 1991, the BBC ranked The Times of India among the worlds six best newspapers. It is owned and published by Bennett, Coleman & Co. Ltd. which is owned by the Sahu Jain family. In 2014 however, The Times of India was ranked 174th among Indias most trusted brands according to the Brand Trust Report 2014, the Times of India issued its first edition 3 November 1838 as The Bombay Times and Journal of Commerce. In 1850, it began to publish daily editions, in 1860, editor Robert Knight bought the Indian shareholders interests, merged with rival Bombay Standard, and started Indias first news agency. It wired Times dispatches to papers across the country and became the Indian agent for Reuters news service, in 1861, he changed the name from the Bombay Times and Standard to The Times of India. In the 19th century, this company employed more than 800 people and had a sizeable circulation in India. In 1946, Bennett Coleman & Co, Ltd was sold to sugar magnate Ramkrishna Dalmia of the then-famous industrial family, the Dalmiyas, for Rs 20 million, as India was becoming independent and the British owners were leaving. In the court case followed, Ramkrishna Dalmia was sentenced to two years in Tihar Jail after having been convicted of embezzlement and fraud. But for most of the term he managed to spend in hospital. Upon his release, his son-in-law, Sahu Shanti Prasad Jain, to whom he had entrusted the running of Bennett, in the early 1960s, Shanti Prasad Jain was imprisoned on charges of selling newsprint on the black market. Based on the pleading, Justice directed the Government to assume control of the newspaper which resulted in replacing half of the directors, curiously, the court appointed D K Kunte as Chairman of the Board. Kunte had no business experience and was also an Opposition member of the Lok Sabha. In 1976, during the Emergency in India, the Government transferred ownership of the back to Ashok Kumar Jain. The move was a critique of Prime Minister Indira Gandhis 21-month state of emergency, in late 2006, Times Group acquired Vijayanand Printers Limited. VPL previously published two Kannada newspapers, Vijay Karnataka and Usha Kiran, and an English daily, Vijay Times, Vijay Karnataka was the leader in the Kannada newspaper segment then. The paper launched a Chennai edition,12 April 2008 and it launched a Kolhapur edition, February 2013
