1.
2nd millennium
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The second millennium was a period of time that began on January 1,1001 and ended on December 31,2000 of the Gregorian calendar. It was the period of one thousand years in the Anno Domini or Common Era. The Renaissance saw the beginning of the migration of humans from Europe, Africa. The interwoven international trade led to the formation of multi-national corporations, international business ventures reduced the impact of nationalism in popular thought. The world population doubled over the first seven centuries of the millennium, consequently, unchecked human activity had considerable social and environmental consequences, giving rise to extreme poverty, climate change and biotic crisis. The 2nd millennium was a period of time began on January 1,1001. It was the period of one thousand years in the Anno Domini or Common Era. The Julian calendar was used in Europe at the beginning of the millennium, so the end date is always calculated according to the Gregorian calendar, but the beginning date is usually according to the Julian calendar. Stephen Jay Gould argued that it is not possible to decide if the millennium ended on December 31,1999, or December 31,2000. The second millennium is perhaps more popularly thought of as beginning and ending a year earlier, thus starting at the beginning of 1000 and finishing at the end of 1999. Many public celebrations for the end of the millennium were held on December 31,1999 – January 1, the civilizations in this section are organized according to the UN geoscheme. The events in this section are organized according to the UN geoscheme, the people in this section are organized according to the UN geoscheme. See also Lists of people by nationality Category, People by century Category, People by nationality and period Gottlieb, Agnes Hooper, Henry Gottlieb, Barbar Bowers,1,000 Years,1,000 People, Ranking the Men and Women Who Shaped the Millennium
2.
18th century
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The 18th century lasted from January 1,1701 to December 31,1800 in the Gregorian calendar. During the 18th century, the Enlightenment culminated in the French, philosophy and science increased in prominence. Philosophers dreamed of a brighter age and this dream turned into a reality with the French Revolution of 1789-, though later compromised by the excesses of the Reign of Terror under Maximilien Robespierre. At first, many monarchies of Europe embraced Enlightenment ideals, but with the French Revolution they feared losing their power, the Ottoman Empire experienced an unprecedented period of peace and economic expansion, taking part in no European wars from 1740 to 1768. The 18th century also marked the end of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth as an independent state, the once-powerful and vast kingdom, which had once conquered Moscow and defeated great Ottoman armies, collapsed under numerous invasions. European colonization of the Americas and other parts of the world intensified and associated mass migrations of people grew in size as the Age of Sail continued. Great Britain became a major power worldwide with the defeat of France in North America in the 1760s, however, Britain lost many of its North American colonies after the American Revolution, which resulted in the formation of the newly independent United States of America. The Industrial Revolution started in Britain in the 1770s with the production of the steam engine. Despite its modest beginnings in the 18th century, steam-powered machinery would radically change human society, western historians have occasionally defined the 18th century otherwise for the purposes of their work. To historians who expand the century to include larger historical movements, 1700-1721, Great Northern War between Tsarist Russia and the Swedish Empire. 1701, Kingdom of Prussia declared under King Frederick I,1701, Ashanti Empire is formed under Osei Kofi Tutu I. 1701–1714, The War of the Spanish Succession is fought, involving most of continental Europe, 1701–1702, The Daily Courant and The Norwich Post become the first daily newspapers in England. 1702, Forty-seven Ronin attack Kira Yoshinaka and then commit seppuku in Japan,1703, Saint Petersburg is founded by Peter the Great, it is the Russian capital until 1918. 1703–1711, The Rákóczi Uprising against the Habsburg Monarchy,1704, End of Japans Genroku period. 1704, First Javanese War of Succession,1705, George Frideric Handels first opera, Almira, premieres. 1706, War of the Spanish Succession, French troops defeated at the Battles of Ramilies,1706, The first English-language edition of the Arabian Nights is published. 1707, The Act of Union is passed, merging the Scottish and English Parliaments,1707, After Aurangzebs death, the Mughal Empire enters a long decline and the Maratha Empire slowly replaces it. 1707, Mount Fuji erupts in Japan for the first time since 1700,1707, War of 27 Years between the Marathas and Mughals ends in India
3.
19th century
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The 19th century was the century marked by the collapse of the Spanish, Napoleonic, Holy Roman and Mughal empires. After the defeat of the French Empire and its allies in the Napoleonic Wars, the Russian Empire expanded in central and far eastern Asia. By the end of the century, the British Empire controlled a fifth of the worlds land, the Industrial Revolution began in Great Britain and spread to continental Europe, North America and Japan. The Victorian era was notorious for the employment of children in factories and mines, as well as strict social norms regarding modesty. Japan embarked on a program of rapid modernization following the Meiji Restoration, before defeating China, under the Qing Dynasty, europes population doubled during the 19th century, from approximately 200 million to more than 400 million. Numerous cities worldwide surpassed populations of a million or more during this century, London became the worlds largest city and capital of the British Empire. Its population increased from 1 million in 1800 to 6.7 million a century later, liberalism became the pre-eminent reform movement in Europe. Slavery was greatly reduced around the world, following a successful slave revolt in Haiti, Britain and France stepped up the battle against the Barbary pirates and succeeded in stopping their enslavement of Europeans. The UKs Slavery Abolition Act charged the British Royal Navy with ending the slave trade. The first colonial empire in the century to abolish slavery was the British, americas 13th Amendment following their Civil War abolished slavery there in 1865, and in Brazil slavery was abolished in 1888. Similarly, serfdom was abolished in Russia, in the 19th century approximately 70 million people left Europe, with most migrating to the United States of America. The 19th century also saw the creation, development and codification of many sports, particularly in Britain. Also, ladywear was a sensitive topic during this time. 1801, Ranjit Singh crowned as King of Punjab,1801, Napoleon signs the Concordat of 1801 with the Pope. 1801, Cairo falls to the British,1801, Assassination of Tsar Paul I of Russia. 1802, Ludwig van Beethoven performs his Moonlight Sonata for the first time,1803, William Symington demonstrates his Charlotte Dundas, the first practical steamboat. 1803, The United States more than doubles in size when it buys out Frances territorial claims in North America via the Louisiana Purchase. This begins the U. S. s westward expansion to the Pacific referred to as its Manifest Destiny which involves annexing and conquering land from Mexico, Britain,1803, The Wahhabis of the First Saudi State capture Mecca and Medina
4.
20th century
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The 20th century was a century that began on January 1,1901 and ended on December 31,2000. It was the tenth and final century of the 2nd millennium and it is distinct from the century known as the 1900s, which began on January 1,1900 and ended on December 31,1999. It saw great advances in communication and medical technology that by the late 1980s allowed for near-instantaneous worldwide computer communication, the term short twentieth century was coined to represent the events from 1914 to 1991. It took all of history up to 1804 for the worlds population to reach 1 billion, world population reached 2 billion estimates in 1927, by late 1999. Globally approximately 45% of those who were married and able to have children used contraception, 40% of pregnancies were unplanned, the century had the first global-scale total wars between world powers across continents and oceans in World War I and World War II. The century saw a shift in the way that many people lived, with changes in politics, ideology, economics, society, culture, science, technology. The 20th century may have seen more technological and scientific progress than all the other centuries combined since the dawn of civilization, terms like ideology, world war, genocide, and nuclear war entered common usage. It was a century that started with horses, simple automobiles, and freighters but ended with high-speed rail, cruise ships, global commercial air travel and the space shuttle. Horses, Western societys basic form of transportation for thousands of years, were replaced by automobiles and buses within a few decades. Humans explored space for the first time, taking their first footsteps on the Moon, mass media, telecommunications, and information technology made the worlds knowledge more widely available. Advancements in medical technology also improved the health of many people, rapid technological advancements, however, also allowed warfare to reach unprecedented levels of destruction. World War II alone killed over 60 million people, while nuclear weapons gave humankind the means to annihilate itself in a short time, however, these same wars resulted in the destruction of the Imperial system. For the first time in history, empires and their wars of expansion and colonization ceased to be a factor in international affairs, resulting in a far more globalized. The last time major powers clashed openly was in 1945, and since then, technological advancements during World War I changed the way war was fought, as new inventions such as tanks, chemical weapons, and aircraft modified tactics and strategy. After more than four years of warfare in western Europe, and 20 million dead. The regime of Tsar Nicholas II was overthrown during the conflict, Russia became the first communist state, at the beginning of the period, Britain was the worlds most powerful nation, having acted as the worlds policeman for the past century. Meanwhile, Japan had rapidly transformed itself into an advanced industrial power. Its military expansion into eastern Asia and the Pacific Ocean culminated in an attack on the United States
5.
1830s
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The 1830s decade ran from January 1,1830, to December 31,1839. July 30,1836 – The first English language newspaper is published in Hawaii,1838 – The Pitcairn Islands become a Crown colony of the United Kingdom, and women there are the first in the world to be granted and maintain, another one womens suffrage. China was ruled by the Daoguang Emperor of the Qing dynasty during the 1830s, the decade witnessed a rapid rise in the sale of opium in China, despite efforts by the Daoguang Emperor to end the trade. A turning point came in 1834, with the end of the monopoly of the British East India Company, by 1838, opium sales climbed to 40,000 chests. In 1839, newly appointed imperial commissioner Lin Zexu banned the sale of opium, Lin also closed the channel to Guangzhou, leading to the seizure and destruction of 20,000 chests of opium. The British retaliated, seizing Hong Kong on August 23 of that year and it would end three years later with the signing of the Treaty of Nanking in 1842. July 1837 – Charles W. King sets sail on the American merchant ship Morrison, in the Morrison Incident, he is turned away from Japanese ports with cannon fire. 1830 – The Java War ends, Prince Mongkut of Siam founds the Dhammayut Buddhist reform movement. The Padri War was fought from 1803 until 1837 in West Sumatra between the Padris and the Adats, the latter asked for the help of the Dutch, who intervened from 1821 and helped the Adats defeat the Padri faction. The conflict intensified in the 1830s, as the war centered on Bonjol. It finally fell in 1837 after being besieged for three years, and along with the exile of Padri leader Tuanku Imam Bonjol, the conflict died out,1839 – The Emperor Minh Mạng renames Việt Nam to Đại Nam. The various Maori chieftains of Northland region of North Island proclaim their independence as the United Tribes of New Zealand, the British Crown immediately recognizes their claim. August 15,1834 – The South Australia Act allows for the creation of a colony there, June 8,1835 – The Australian city of Melbourne is founded by John Batman and John Pascoe Fawkner. October 28,1835 – United Tribes of New Zealand founded at Waitangi with the Declaration of Independence of New Zealand, November 19,1835 – A force of 500 Māori people invade and enslave the peoples of the Chatham Islands. July 27,1836 – Adelaide, South Australia, is founded, December 26,1836 – The colony of South Australia is officially proclaimed. December 28,1836 – Colony of South Australia founded by Captain John Hindmarsh June 10,1838 –28 Indigenous Australians are killed in the Myall Creek Massacre. 1838 – Five nuns from the Religious Sisters of Charity in Ireland become the first women of religion to set foot on Australian soil. December 1838 – First Anglo-Afghan War, British and Presidency armies set out from Punjab in support of Shah Shujah Durranis claim to the throne of Afghanistan
6.
1840s
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The 1840s was a really active and extremely turbulent decade that ran from January 1,1840, to December 31,1849. Throughout the decade, many countries worldwide saw many revolts as well as uprisings, asides from uprisings, the United States began to see a shifting population that migrated to the West Coast, as the California Gold Rush ensued in the latter half of the decade. In 1842, Tahiti and Tahuata were declared a French protectorate, the capital of Papeetē was founded in 1843. In 1845, George Tupou I united Tonga into a kingdom, on August 29,1842, the first of two Opium Wars ended between China and Britain with the Treaty of Nanking. One of the consequences was the cession of modern-day Hong Kong Island to the British, Hong Kong would eventually be returned to China in 1997. Other events, July 3,1844 – The United States signs the Treaty of Wanghia with the Chinese Government, the 1840s comprised the end of the Tenpō era, the entirety of the Kōka era, and the beginning of the Kaei era. The decade saw the end of the reign of Emperor Ninko in 1846, emperors Minh Mạng, Thiệu Trị and Tự Đức ruled Vietnam during the 1840s under the Nguyễn dynasty. 1848 – British, Dutch, and German governments lay claim to New Guinea, First signing of the Treaty of Waitangi on February 6,1840, at Waitangi, Northland New Zealand. The treaty between the British Crown and Māori made New Zealand colony and is considered the point of modern New Zealand. July 20,1845 – Charles Sturt enters the Simpson Desert in central Australia, may 25,1846 – The Royal Geographical Society awards Paweł Edmund Strzelecki a Gold Medal for exploration in the south eastern portion of Australia. The British attempted to impose a puppet regime on Afghanistan under Shuja Shah, by 1842, mobs were attacking the British on the streets of Kabul and the British garrison was forced to abandon the city due to constant civilian attacks. During the retreat from Kabul, the British army of approximately 4,500 troops and 12,000 camp followers was subjected to a series of attacks by Afghan warriors. All of the British soldiers were killed except for one and he, after the Battle of Kabul, Britain placed Dost Mohammad Khan back into power and withdrew from Afghanistan. March 24,1843 – Battle of Hyderabad, The Bombay Army led by Major General Sir Charles Napier defeats the Talpur Emirs, the Sikh Empire was founded in 1799, ruled by Ranjit Singh. When Singh died in 1839, the Sikh Empire began to fall into disorder, there was a succession of short-lived rulers at the central Durbar, and increasing tension between the Khalsa and the Durbar. In May 1841, the Dogra dynasty invaded western Tibet, marking the beginning of the Sino-Sikh war and this war ended in a stalemate in September 1842, with the Treaty of Chushul. The British East India Company began to build up its strength on the borders of the Punjab. Eventually, the increasing tension goaded the Khalsa to invade British territory, under weak, the hard-fought First Anglo-Sikh War ended in defeat for the Khalsa
7.
1850s
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The 1850s was a decade that ran from January 1,1850, to December 31,1859. At the mean time, The United States saw its peak on mass migration to the American West, that particularly made the nation experience an economic boom, as well as a rapidly increasing population. Crimean War fought between Imperial Russia and an alliance consisting of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, the Second French Empire, the Kingdom of Sardinia, the majority of the conflict takes place around Crimea, on the northern coasts of the Black Sea. On 8 October 1856, the Second Opium War between several powers and China begins with the Arrow Incident on the Pearl River. Second War of Italian Independence, also known as Franco-Austrian War, moldavia and Wallachia are unified and form Romania. Gideon T. Stewart attempts to create a Prohibition Party, dissolution of the Mughal Empire by the British. First commercially successful sewing machine made by Isaac Singer Ukrainian settlers bring Carniolan honeybees to the Primorsky Krai The word girlfriend first appears in writing in 1855, the word boyfriend first appears in writing in 1856. Nikola Tesla American texts from the 1850s American speeches from the 1850s
8.
1860s
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The 1860s were an extremely different decade with numerous cultural, social, and political upheavals in Europe and America. Revolutions were prevalent in Germany and the Ottoman Empire, the abolition of slavery in America led to the breakdown of the Atlantic Slave Trade, which was already suffering from the abolition of slavery in most of Europe in the late 1820s and ’30s. After the Civil War, turmoil continued in Reconstruction, with the rise of white supremacist organizations like the Ku Klux Klan, replacement of President of Mexico Benito Juárez at first with Juan Nepomuceno Almonte and then by Emperor Maximilian of Mexico with the establishment of the Second Mexican Empire. Juárez eventually manages to recover his position, on 18 October 1860, the first Convention of Peking formally ended the Second Opium War. The American Civil War lasted from 1861 to 1865, the Paraguayan War starts in South America, with the invasion of Paraguay by the Triple Alliance. It will kill almost 60% of the country’s population, the main phase of the New Zealand Wars between British colonials and the Māori population begins with the First Taranaki War in 1860. The most significant campaign is the Invasion of Waikato in 1863, the Kingdom of Prussia under Bismarck invaded Denmark in 1864, which ended in the division of Schleswig, the location of a pro-German revolt, between Prussia and the Austrian Empire. Though Prussia and Austria had both fought side by side in war, Prussia later attacked Austria in the Austro-Prussian war of 1866. The technological and logistical superiority of Prussias armed forces obliterated Austria and its allies, by the end of these conflicts, Prussia was seen as the most powerful state in Germany, and had total hegemony over the other German states. The NGF was formed after the Austro-Prussian war, uniting the states of north Germany, the Bhutan War between the British Empire and Bhutan lasted from 1864 to 1865. It ended in a British victory and the loss of some Bhutanese territory to British India, beginning of the Reconstruction era under President Andrew Johnson. 1863–64 January Uprising in the Russian Empire, on 19 July 1864 the fall of Nanjing formally ended the 14-year Taiping Rebellion. Italian Unification under King Victor Emmanuel II, Wars for expansion and national unity continue until the incorporation of the Papal States. Tokugawa Yoshinobu, 15th and last of the Tokugawa shoguns loses control to the Meiji Emperor, the samurai class fails to survive while the daimyōs turn to politics. The Dominion of Canada is created by the British North America Act on July 1,1867, President of the United States Abraham Lincoln is assassinated by John Wilkes Booth, April 14,1865. King of Madagascar Radama II is captured by soldiers and strangled to death, manuel Isidoro Belzu, President of Bolivia is assassinated. Father of Canadian Confederation, Thomas DArcy McGee is assassinated by Patrick J. Whelan, sakamoto Ryōma, a prominent figure in the Bakumatsu era in Japan and part of the movement to overthrow the Tokugawa shogunate, is assassinated along with Nakaoka Shintarō at a Kyoto inn in 1867. The First Transcontinental Railroad in the USA is completed in 1869, the Suez Canal in Egypt is opened in 1869
9.
1870s
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The 1870s continued the trends of the previous decade, as new empires, imperialism and militarism rose in Europe and Asia. The United States was recovering from the American Civil War, germany unified in 1871 and began its Second Reich. Labor unions and strikes occurred worldwide in the part of the decade. The Reconstruction era of the United States brought a legacy of bitterness, franco-Prussian War resulted in the collapse of the Second French Empire and in the formation of both the French Third Republic and the German Empire. The Anglo-Zulu War lasted from 11 January 1879 to 4 July 1879, the Third Carlist War was the last Carlist War in Spain. Bulgaria and Romania declared independence following a war against the Ottoman Empire, the Sioux battled the United States Cavalry and resisted encroachment by white settlers on the Great Plains. Passive resistance was used to prevent the confiscation of Māori land at Parihaka in New Zealand, the German Empire and Alliance System emerged. Racial and economic politics in Americas Reconstruction were bitter, pessimistic, the Gilded Age began in 1874, lasting until 1896. The prototype telephone was invented by Alexander Graham Bell in 1876, the first version of the light bulb was invented by Thomas Edison in 1879. The phonograph is invented in 1877 by Thomas Edison, the steam drill is invented in 1879. Ludwig Boltzmann statistically defined thermodynamic entropy,1873 Weltausstellung in Vienna,1876 Centennial Exposition in Philadelphia and 1878 Exposition universelle in Paris. Members of the association, which soon included Cézanne, Berthe Morisot, another painter who greatly influenced Monet and his friends, Johan Jongkind, declined to participate, as did Manet. In total, thirty artists participated in their first exhibition, held in April 1874 at the studio of the photographer Nadar, the group soon became known as the Impressionists. Jeanne Calment, born 1875, would become the longest-living human being in recorded history. She lived until 1997, at the age of 122 and she still holds the record as of 2016. Lewis Carroll publishes Through the Looking-Glass
10.
1847
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As of the start of 1847, the Gregorian calendar was 12 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923. January 4 – Samuel Colt sells his first revolver pistol to the U. S government, January 13 – The Treaty of Cahuenga ends the fighting in the Mexican–American War in California. Frémont is appointed Governor of the new California Territory, January 17 – St. Anthony Hall is founded at Columbia University, New York City. January 30 – Yerba Buena, California is renamed San Francisco, February 5 – A rescue effort, called the First Relief, leaves Johnsons Ranch to save the ill-fated Donner Party. These California bound emigrants became snowbound in the Sierra Nevada in the winter of 1846–47, march 1 The state of Michigan formally abolishes the death penalty. Faustin Soulouque is elected the President of Haiti, march 4 – The 30th United States Congress is sworn into office. March 9 – Mexican–American War, United States forces under General Winfield Scott invade Mexico near Veracruz, march 14 – Verdis opera Macbeth premieres at Teatro della Pergola in Florence, Italy. March 29 – Mexican–American War, United States forces led by General Winfield Scott take Veracruz after a siege, april 5 – The worlds first municipally-funded civic public park, Birkenhead Park in Birkenhead on Merseyside in England, is opened. April 15 – The Lawrence School, Sanawar is established, april 25 – The brig Exmouth carrying Irish emigrants from Derry bound for Quebec is wrecked off Islay with only three survivors from more than 250 on board. May – The Architectural Association School of Architecture is founded in London, may 7 – In Philadelphia, the American Medical Association is founded. May 8 – In Japan,1847 Zenkoji earthquake, according to official estimated, may 31 – Second Treaty of Erzurum, the Ottoman Empire cedes Abadan Island to the Persian Empire. Ltd, which becomes the northern England supermarket chain Booths, is founded when 19-year-old tea dealer Edwin Henry Booth opens a shop called The China House in Blackpool, june 1 The first congress of the Communist League is held in London. June 26 – Opening of the first passenger railway wholly within modern-day Denmark, july 1 – The United States issues its first postage stamps. July 24 – After 17 months of travel, Brigham Young leads 148 Mormon pioneers into Salt Lake Valley, july 26 – Liberia gains independence. July 29 – The Cumberland School of Law is founded at Cumberland University in Lebanon, at the end of this year only 15 law schools exist in the United States. August 12 – U. S. troops of General Winfield Scott begin to advance along the aqueduct around Chalco and Xochimilco lakes in Mexico August 20 – U. S. September 14 – U. S. general Winfield Scott enters Mexico City, september 30 – The Vegetarian Society was formed in the United Kingdom. It remains the oldest in the world, october – Last volcanic eruption of Mount Guntur in West Java
11.
1848
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As of the start of 1848, the Gregorian calendar was 12 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923. January 3 – Joseph Jenkins Roberts is sworn in as the first president of the independent African Republic of Liberia, January 12 – The Palermo rising erupts in Sicily, against the Bourbon Kingdom of the Two Sicilies. January 24 – California Gold Rush, James W. Marshall finds gold at Sutters Mill, in Coloma, January 31 Construction of the Washington Monument begins in Washington, D. C. Frémont is court-martialed on grounds of mutiny and disobeying orders, the verdict is set aside by United States President James K. Polk, but Frémont retires to California Territory. February 21 – Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels publish The Communist Manifesto in London, february 23 – François Guizot, Prime Minister of France, resigns. 52 people from the Paris mob are killed by soldiers guarding public buildings, february 24 – Louis Philippe I, King of the French, abdicates in favour of his grandson, Prince Philippe, Count of Paris, and flees to England after days of revolution in Paris. The French Second Republic is later proclaimed by Alphonse de Lamartine in the name of the government elected by the Chamber under the pressure of the mob. March 2 – The March Disturbances in Sweden, March 11 – Louis-Hippolyte Lafontaine and Robert Baldwin became the first Joint Premiers of the Province of Canada to be democratically elected under a system of responsible government. March 13 – Prince Klemens von Metternich gives up office as State Chancellor, March 15 – Start of the Hungarian Revolution of 1848. The Hungarian young revolutionary intellectuals led by Sándor Petőfi, Mór Jókai, March 18 – In Berlin barricade fighting between revolutionaries and royalist forces marks the culmination of the German revolutions of 1848–49. Hundreds are killed in the clashes but king Frederick William IV of Prussia is forced to honour the dead, March 22 – Republic of San Marco comes into existence in Venice. March 23 – Founding of the New Zealand city of Dunedin, April 10 A Chartist Monster Rally is held in Kennington Park London, headed by Feargus OConnor. A petition demanding the franchise is presented to the Parliament of the United Kingdom, the Illinois and Michigan Canal is completed. April 11 – The first Hungarian national government is formed, under the leadership of Lajos Batthyány, the April Laws, the first democratic revolutionary laws in Hungary are promulgated. The Habsburg emperor, and Hungarian king Ferdinand I of Austria, ratifies these laws, April 18 – Second Anglo-Sikh War breaks out in the Punjab. The allocution, by which Pius is seen to withdraw his support for the Italian unification movement, is a key first step in the soon-to-be crushing reaction against the revolutions of 1848. May 15 Radicals invade the French Chamber of Deputies,40,000 Romanians meet at Blaj to protest Transylvania becoming a part of Hungary. May 18 – The first German National Assembly opens in Frankfurt, may 19 – The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, ending the Mexican–American War, is ratified by the Mexican government
12.
1849
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As of the start of 1849, the Gregorian calendar was 12 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923. January 1 – France issues Ceres, the nations first postage stamp, january 5 – Hungarian Revolution of 1848, The Austrian army led by Alfred I, Prince of Windisch-Grätz, enters in the Hungarian capitals, Buda and Pest. The Hungarian government and parliament flees to Debrecen, january 8 – Hungarian Revolution of 1848, Romanian armed groups massacre 600 unarmed Hungarian civilians at Nagyenyed. January 13 – Second Anglo-Sikh War – British forces retreat from the Battle of Tooele, january 21 General elections are held in the Papal States. Hungarian Revolution of 1848, The Hungarian army in Transylvania led by Josef Bem is defeated by the Austrians led by Anton Puchner at the battle of Nagyszeben. January 23 – Elizabeth Blackwell is awarded her M. D. by the Medical Institute of Geneva, New York, january 27 – The Fayetteville and Western Plank Road Company is incorporated to build a plank road from Fayetteville to Bethania, North Carolina. January 31 – Hungarian Revolution of 1848, A Russian army of 10000 soldiers enters Transylvania, february 1 – Abolition of the Corn Laws by the United Kingdoms Importation Act 1846 comes fully into effect. February 4 – Hungarian Revolution of 1848, The Austrian army led by Anton Puchner defeats the Hungarians led by general Josef Bem in the battle of Vízakna. February 5 – Hungarian Revolution of 1848, The Hungarian revolutionary army led by Richard Guyon break through the pass of Branyiszkó, february 8 – The new Roman Republic is proclaimed. February 9 – Hungarian Revolution of 1848, Josef Bems Hungarian army defeats Anton Puchner in the battle of Piski, february 14 – In New York City, James Knox Polk becomes the first President of the United States to have his photograph taken. February 21 – Second Anglo-Sikh War, Battle of Gujrat – British East India Company forces defeat those of the Sikh Empire in Punjab, february 27 – Hungarian Revolution of 1848, The main Hungarian and Austrian armies meet in the Battle of Kápolna. February 28 – Regular steamboat service from the west to the east coast of the United States begins with the arrival of the SS California in San Francisco Bay. The California leaves New York Harbor on October 6,1848, rounds Cape Horn at the tip of South America, march – The Frankfurt Parliament completes its drafting of a liberal constitution and elects Frederick William IV emperor of the new German national state. March 3 The United States Department of the Interior is established, incorporating the Census Office, General Land Office, Office of Indian Affairs and Patent, minnesota becomes a United States territory. The United States Congress passes the Gold Coinage Act allowing the minting of gold coins, march 4 Zachary Taylor becomes President of the United States, but refuses to be sworn into office on a Sabbath. Urban legend holds that David Rice Atchison, President pro tempore of the United States Senate is President de jure for a single day, march 5 Hungarian Revolution of 1848, The Hungarians led by János Damjanich and Károly Vécsey defeat the Austrians at Szolnok. President Zachary Taylor is sworn in, the most part of Transylvania is liberated from the Austrian rule. The Austrian and the Russian troops flee to Wallachia, march 28 – Four Christians are ordered burnt alive in Antananarivo, Madagascar, by Queen Ranavalona I, and 14 others are executed
13.
1851
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As of the start of 1851, the Gregorian calendar was 12 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923. January 11 – Hong Xiuquan officially begins the Taiping Rebellion, January 15 – Christian Female College, modern-day Columbia College, receives its charter from the Missouri General Assembly. January 28 – Northwestern University is founded in Illinois, February 6 – Black Thursday in Australia, Bushfires sweep across the state of Victoria, burning about a quarter of its area. February 12 – Edward Hargraves claims to have gold in Australia. February 15 – In Boston, Massachusetts, members of the anti-slavery Boston Vigilance Committee rescue fugitive slave Shadrach Minkins from a courtroom following his arrest by U. S. marshals. March 1 – Victor Hugo uses the phrase United States of Europe in a speech to the French National Assembly, march 11 – Giuseppe Verdis opera Rigoletto is first performed at La Fenice in Venice. March 27 – The first white men reportedly see Yosemite Valley, march 30 – A population census is taken in the United Kingdom. 6.3 million live in cities of 20,000 or more in England, april 9 – San Luis, the oldest permanent settlement in the state of Colorado, is founded by settlers from Taos, New Mexico. April 20 – Ramón Castilla loses power in Peru, april 21 – John Stuart Mill marries Harriet Taylor. April 28 – Santa Clara College is chartered in Santa Clara, may 1 The Great Exhibition of the Works of Industry of All Nations in the Crystal Palace, Hyde Park, London is opened by Queen Victoria. Mid-May to mid-July – Great Flood of 1851, extensive flooding across the Midwestern United States, the town of Des Moines is virtually washed away, and many rainfall records hold for 160 years. June 21 – The Immortal Game, a chess match, is played between Adolf Anderssen and Lionel Kieseritzky during a break in the first international tournament, held in London. July 1 The Colony of Victoria separates from New South Wales, serial poisoner Hélène Jégado is arrested in Rennes, France. July 10 – The University of the Pacific is chartered as California Wesleyan College in Santa Clara, july 29 – Annibale de Gasparis, in Naples, Italy discovers asteroid 15 Eunomia. August 1 – Virginia closes its Reform Constitutional Convention deciding that all men have the right to vote. August 22 – The yacht America wins the first Americas Cup race, september 15 – Saint Josephs University is founded in Philadelphia. September 18 – The New York Times is founded, september 30 – The HSwMS Eugenie leaves from Karlskrona, Sweden to begin its voyage as the first Swedish Royal Navy vessel to circumnavigate the world. October – The Reuters news service is founded, october 15 – The City of Winona, Minnesota is founded
14.
1852
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As of the start of 1852, the Gregorian calendar was 12 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923. January 14 – President Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte proclaimed a new constitution for the French Second Republic, january 15 – Nine men representing various Jewish charitable organizations came together to form what became the Mount Sinai Hospital in New York City. January 17 – The United Kingdom recognized the independence of the Transvaal, February 11 – The first British public toilet for women was opened in Bedford Street, London. February 15 – The Great Ormond Street Hospital for Sick Children, London, February 16 – The Studebaker Brothers Wagon Company, precursor of the automobile manufacturer, was established. February 25 – HMS Birkenhead sank near Cape Town, British Cape Colony, only 193 of the 643 on board survived after troops stood firm on the deck so as not to overwhelm the lifeboats containing women and children. March 1 – Archibald Montgomerie, 13th Earl of Eglinton was appointed Lord Lieutenant of Ireland, March 2 – The first American experimental steam fire engine was tested. March 4 – Phi Mu sorority was founded in Macon Georgia March 20 – Uncle Toms Cabin by Harriet Beecher Stowe was published in form in Boston. April 1 – The Second Anglo-Burmese War began, april 18 – Taiping Rebellion, Taiping forces began the siege of Guilin. May 19 – Taiping Rebellion, The siege of Guilin was lifted, june 12 – Taiping Rebellion, Taiping forces entered Hunan. July 1 – United States statesman Henry Clay was the first to receive the honor of lying in state in the United States Capitol rotunda, July 5 – Frederick Douglass delivered his famous speech What to the Slave is the Fourth of July. July 28 – Henry Clay steamboat disaster in Riverdale, Bronx, August 3 – The first Boat Race between Yale and Harvard, the first American intercollegiate athletic event, was held. September 24 – French engineer Henri Giffard made the first airship trip from Paris to Trappes, october 7 — After learning that U. S. President Fillmore has sent Commodore Matthew C. Perry, to trade with Japan, Nicholas I of Russia sent Rear Admiral Yevfimy Putyatin to lead the Pallada on a similar mission. Putyatin arrived on August 21,1853, one month after Perry, october 16 — After nearly five years imprisonment in France, former Algerian Emir Abdelkader El Djezairi was released by orders of then-president Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte. The theorem was not proven for almost 123 years, until 1976, october 31 — General Joaquin Solares of Guatemala led an invasion of neighboring Honduras, beginning a war that lasted until February 13,1856. November – Leo Tolstoys debut novel Childhood was published under the initials L. N. in this issue of the Saint Petersburg literary journal Sovremennik. November 2 – U. S. presidential election,1852, november 4 – Camillo Benso, Count of Cavour becomes the Piedmontese prime minister. November 11 – The new Palace of Westminster was opened in London, november 21–22 – The New French Empire was confirmed by plebiscite,7,824,000 for,253,000 against
15.
1853
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As of the start of 1853, the Gregorian calendar was 12 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923. January 6 – Florida Governor Thomas Brown signs the legislation that provides support for the new East Florida Seminary. January 8 – Taiping Rebellion, Zeng Guofan is ordered to assist the governor of Hunan in organising a militia force to search for local bandits, January 12 – Taiping Rebellion, The Taiping army occupies Wuchang. January 19 – Giuseppe Verdis opera Il Trovatore premieres in performance at Teatro Apollo in Rome, february 10 – Taiping Rebellion, Taiping forces assemble at Hanyang, Hankou and Wuchang for the march on Nanjing. February 12 – Puerto Montt is founded in the Reloncaví Sound, february 22 – Washington University in St. Louis is founded as Eliot Seminary. March – The clothing company Levi Strauss & Co. is founded in the United States, march 4 – Franklin Pierce is affirmed as President of the United States. His only child was killed in an accident on January 6. March 20 – Taiping Rebellion, A rebel army of around 750,000 seizes Nanjing, killing 30,000 Imperial troops. April 16 – Foundation of Indian Railways, opening of first passenger railway in India, from Bombay to Thana, may The worlds first public aquarium opens at the London Zoo. An outbreak of yellow fever kills 7,790 in New Orleans, isambard Kingdom Brunel accepts John Scott Russells tender for construction of the SS Great Eastern passenger steamer. May 12–October 31 – Great Industrial Exhibition held in Dublin, Ireland, may 23 – The first plat for Seattle, Washington is laid out. June 27 – Taiping Rebellion, The Northern Expeditionary Force crosses the Yellow River, june 30 – Georges-Eugène Haussmann is selected as préfect of the Seine to begin the re-planning of Paris. Commodore Matthew Perry arrives in Edo Bay, Japan, with a request for a trade treaty, july 25 – Outlaw and bandit Joaquin Murrieta is killed in California. July 27 – Iesada succeeds his father Ieyoshi as Japanese Shogun, august 12 – New Zealand acquires self-government. August 23 – The first true International Meteorological Organization is established in Brussels, august 24 The Royal Norwegian Navy Museum is founded at Karljohansvern in Horten, perhaps the worlds first naval museum. Potato chips are first prepared, by George Crum at Saratoga Springs, New York, september 19 – Hudson Taylor first leaves for China. October 1 – The Bechstein piano company is founded, one of three established in a Golden year in the history of the piano, october 4–5 – Crimean War, The Ottoman Empire starts war with Russia. October 4 – On the east coast of the United States, Donald McKay launches the Great Republic, the worlds biggest sailing ship, october 28 – Crimean War, The Ottoman army crosses the Danube into Vidin/Calafat in Wallachia
16.
1850 in architecture
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The year 1850 in architecture involved some significant architectural events and new buildings. Britannia Bridge in north Wales, engineered by Robert Stephenson, is opened, newcastle railway station in the north-east of England, designed by John Dobson, is opened. Sainte-Geneviève Library in Paris, designed by Henri Labrouste, is completed, château de Boursault, France, designed by Jean-Jacques Arveuf-Fransquin. Vĩnh Tràng Temple, Mỹ Tho, Vietnam
17.
1850 in art
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Events from the year 1850 in art. Controversial exhibition of Pre-Raphaelite paintings by Holman Hunt and Millais at the Royal Academy, james Collinson resigns from the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood, which then dissolves. Francisco Goyas engravings, Proverbios, are posthumously published, edouard Pingret relocates to Mexico City. Grand Prix de Rome, painting, William-Adolphe Bouguereau, Paul Baudry, Grand Prix de Rome, sculpture, Grand Prix de Rome, architecture, Grand Prix de Rome, music, J. A
18.
1850 in France
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Events from the year 1850 in France. 15 April - Angers Bridge collapsed when 478 French soldiers marched across it,16 May - French battleship Le Napoléon is launched. France begins to transport colonists to Algeria
19.
1850 in Sweden
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Events from the year 1850 in Sweden Monarch – Oscar I19 June – The wedding between Crown Prince Charles and Louise of the Netherlands. 30 July - First issue of Hallandsposten, - Eriksbergs Mekaniska Verkstad is founded. - The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints in Sweden is established in Sweden, - The harpist Pauline Åhman becomes the first female instrumentalist employed at the Royal Swedish Chapel orchestra Kungliga Hovkapellet
20.
1850 in the United States
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Events from the year 1850 in the United States. President, Zachary Taylor, Millard Fillmore Vice President, Millard Fillmore, vacant Chief Justice, taney Speaker of the House of Representatives, Howell Cobb Congress, 31st January 29 – Henry Clay introduces the Compromise of 1850 to the U. S. Congress. February 28 – The University of Utah opens in Salt Lake City, March 7 – United States Senator Daniel Webster gives his Seventh of March speech in which he endorses the Compromise of 1850 in order to prevent a possible civil war. March 16 – Nathaniel Hawthornes The Scarlet Letter is published, March 19 – American Express is founded by Henry Wells & William Fargo. April 4 – Los Angeles, California is incorporated as a city, April 15 – San Francisco, California is incorporated as a city. April 19 – Clayton-Bulwer Treaty is signed by the United States and Great Britain, may 7 – The Brigantine USS Advance is loaned to the United States Navy. May 23 – The USS Advance puts to sea from New York City to search for John Franklins Arctic expedition, june 3 – The traditional date of Kansas City, Missouris founding. This is the date on which it is incorporated by Jackson County, july 9 – President Zachary Taylor dies in office, Vice President Millard Fillmore becomes the 13th President of the United States. September 9 California is admitted as the 31st U. S. state, New Mexico Territory is organized by order of the U. S. Congress. September 18 – The Fugitive Slave Law is passed by the U. S. Congress, october 19 – Phi Kappa Sigma International Fraternity was founded at the University of Pennsylvania. October 28 – Delegate Edward Ralph May delivers speech on behalf of African American suffrage to the Indiana Constitutional Convention, the American System of Watch Manufacturing starts in Roxbury, Massachusetts, U. S. A. US census shows that 11. 2% of the population classed as Negro are of mixed race, lehman Brothers is established in Montgomery, Alabama. Allan Pinkerton forms the North-Western Police Agency, later the Pinkerton National Detective Agency, harriet Tubman becomes an official conductor of the Underground Railroad. St. Marys Institute is founded in Dayton, Ohio, the University of Rochester is founded in Rochester, New York. California Gold Rush January 1 – John Barclay Armstrong, Texas Ranger lieutenant, cummins, United States Senator from Iowa from 1908 till 1926. October 30 – John Patton, Jr. United States Senator from Michigan from 1894 till 1895. November 18 – John S. Armstrong, American real estate developer March 28 – Gerard Brandon, fourth and sixth Governor of Mississippi from 1825 to 1826, calhoun, seventh Vice President of the United States from 1825 to 1832 April 24 – John Norvell, U. S. Senator from Michigan from 1837 to 1841 May 16 – William Hendricks, Senator from Kentucky from 1819 to 1829 Media related to 1850 in the United States at Wikimedia Commons
21.
1850 in rail transport
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This article lists events related to rail transport that occurred in 1850. January – Maine Central Railroad predecessor Androscoggin and Kennebec Railroad is completed between Auburn, Maine and Waterville, Maine, may 13 – The Mecklenburgische Eisenbahngesellschaft opens the Rostock-Bützow-Bad Kleinen and Güstrow-Bützow railway lines in northern Germany. July 1 – Joseph Hamilton Beattie succeeds John Viret Gooch as locomotive engineer for London, august 29 – Robert Stephensons Royal Border Bridge for the York, Newcastle and Berwick Railway at Berwick-upon-Tweed, England is opened by Queen Victoria. October 19 – Robert Stephensons Britannia Bridge, completing the Chester, november 20 – The first train operates on the Milwaukee, St. Paul and Pacific Railroad, a predecessor of the Milwaukee Road. The Richmond and Danville Railroad begins operation in Virginia, construction begins on the first transcontinental railroad to be completed, the Panama Railway. February 27 – Henry Huntington, nephew of Collis P. Huntington, november 19 – Jule Murat Hannaford, president of Northern Pacific Railway 1913–1920, is born July 7 – Timothy Hackworth, English steam locomotive builder
22.
Gregorian calendar
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The Gregorian calendar is internationally the most widely used civil calendar. It is named after Pope Gregory XIII, who introduced it in October 1582, the calendar was a refinement to the Julian calendar involving a 0. 002% correction in the length of the year. The motivation for the reform was to stop the drift of the calendar with respect to the equinoxes and solstices—particularly the northern vernal equinox, transition to the Gregorian calendar would restore the holiday to the time of the year in which it was celebrated when introduced by the early Church. The reform was adopted initially by the Catholic countries of Europe, the last European country to adopt the reform was Greece, in 1923. Many countries that have used the Islamic and other religious calendars have come to adopt this calendar for civil purposes. The reform was a modification of a made by Aloysius Lilius. His proposal included reducing the number of years in four centuries from 100 to 97. Lilius also produced an original and practical scheme for adjusting the epacts of the moon when calculating the date of Easter. For example, the years 1700,1800, and 1900 are not leap years, but the years 1600 and 2000 are. The canonical Easter tables were devised at the end of the third century, when the vernal equinox fell either on 20 March or 21 March depending on the years position in the leap year cycle. As the rule was that the full moon preceding Easter was not to precede the equinox, the date was fixed at 21 March for computational purposes, the Gregorian calendar reproduced these conditions by removing ten days. To unambiguously specify a date, dual dating or Old Style, dual dating gives two consecutive years for a given date, because of differences in the starting date of the year, and/or to give both the Julian and the Gregorian dates. The Gregorian calendar continued to use the calendar era, which counts years from the traditional date of the nativity. This year-numbering system, also known as Dionysian era or Common Era, is the predominant international standard today, the Gregorian calendar is a solar calendar. A regular Gregorian year consists of 365 days, but as in the Julian calendar, in a leap year, in the Julian calendar a leap year occurs every 4 years, but the Gregorian calendar omits 3 leap days every 400 years. In the Julian calendar, this day was inserted by doubling 24 February. In the modern period, it has become customary to number the days from the beginning of the month, some churches, notably the Roman Catholic Church, delay February festivals after the 23rd by one day in leap years. Gregorian years are identified by consecutive year numbers, the cycles repeat completely every 146,097 days, which equals 400 years
23.
Ab urbe condita
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Ab urbe condita is a Latin phrase meaning from the founding of the City, traditionally dated to 753 BC. AUC is a system used by some ancient Roman historians to identify particular Roman years. Renaissance editors sometimes added AUC to Roman manuscripts they published, giving the impression that the Romans usually numbered their years using the AUC system. The dominant method of identifying Roman years in Roman times was to name the two consuls who held office that year, the regnal year of the emperor was also used to identify years, especially in the Byzantine Empire after 537 when Justinian required its use. The traditional date for the founding of Rome of 21 April 753 BC, was initiated by 1st century BC scholar Marcus Terentius Varro, the correctness of Varros calculation has not been confirmed but it is still used worldwide. From Emperor Claudius onwards, Varros calculation superseded other contemporary calculations, celebrating the anniversary of the city became part of imperial propaganda. Claudius was the first to hold magnificent celebrations in honour of the citys anniversary, hadrian and Antoninus Pius held similar celebrations, in 121 AD and 147/148 AD respectively. During 248 AD, Philip the Arab celebrated Romes first millennium, coins from his reign commemorate the celebrations. The Anno Domini year numbering was developed by a monk named Dionysius Exiguus in Rome during 525, in his Easter table the year 532 AD was equated with the regnal year 248 of Emperor Diocletian. It was later calculated that the year 1 AD corresponds to the Roman year 754 AUC, based on Varros epoch
24.
Balinese saka calendar
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The Balinese saka calendar is one of two calendars used on the Indonesian island of Bali. Unlike the 210-day pawukon calendar, it is based on the phases of the moon, based on a lunar calendar, the saka year comprises twelve months, or sasih, of 30 days each. The months are adjusted by allocating two lunar days to one day every 9 weeks. This day is called ngunalatri, Sanskrit for minus one night, the length of these months is calculated according to the normal 63-day cycle. Both sets of days are numbered 1 to 15, the first day of the year is usually the day after the first new moon in March. Note, however, that Nyepi falls on the first day of Kadasa, the calendar is 78 years behind the Gregorian calendar, and is calculated from the beginning of the Saka Era in India. It is used alongside the 210-day Balinese pawukon calendar, and Balinese festivals can be calculated according to either year, the Indian saka calendar was used for royal decrees as early as the ninth century CE. The same calendar was used in Java until Sultan Agung replaced it with the Javanese calendar in 1633, the Balinese Hindu festival of Nyepi, the day of silence, marks the start of the Saka year. Tilem Kepitu, the last day of the 7th month, is known as Siva Ratri, devotees stay up all night and meditate. There are another 24 ceremonial days in the Saka year, usually celebrated at Purnama, ISBN9813018496 Hobart, Angela, Ramseyer, Urs & Leeman, Albert The Peoples of Bali, Blackwell Publishers. ISBN063117687 X Ricklefs, M. C, A History of Modern Indonesia, MacMillan, ISBN 978-0-333-24380-0
25.
Bengali calendars
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The Bengali Calendar or Bangla Calendar is a solar calendar used in the region of Bengal. A revised version of the calendar is the national and official calendar in Bangladesh, the New Year in the Bengali calendar is known as Pôhela Bôishakh. The Bengali Era or Anno Bengal, the Bengali year is 594 less than the AD or CE year in the Gregorian calendar if it is before Pôhela Bôishakh, the revised version of the Bengali calendar was officially adopted in Bangladesh in 1987. However, it is not followed in India where the traditional version continues to be followed due to occurrence of Hindu festivals based on a particular sidereal solar day. The Bengali calendar is a solar calendar, the calendar was developed by Alauddin Husain Shah, a Hussain Shahi sultan of Bengal by combining the lunar Islamic calendar with the solar calendar, prevalent in Bengal. All theories agree that the Mughal Emperor, Akbar was instrumental in promulgating the Bengali calendar, Akbar modified, developed and re introduced the Bengali Calendar in order to make tax collection easier in Bengal. The calendar was called as Tarikh-e-Elahi. Sources credit the idea to Alauddin Husain Shah, akbars royal astronomer Fathullah Shirazi developed the Bengali calendar, by synthesizing the Lunar Islamic and Solar calendars. The calendar started with the Islamic calendar value, but the Sanskrit month names were used from the earlier version, the distinctive characteristic of the Bengali year was that rather than being a lunar calendar, it was based on a union of the solar and lunar year. This was essentially a great promotion as the solar and lunar years were formulated in very diverse systems, primarily this calendar was named as Fasli Sôn and then Bônggabdô. The Bengali Year was launched on 1584 AD or 992 AH and this was the day that Akbar defeated Hemu in the clash of Panipat to ascend the throne. The month of Muharram in the year 963 AH was equal to the month of Boishakh in the Bengali calendar, in the Tarikh-e-Elahi version of the calendar, each day of the month had a separate name, and the months had different names from what they have now. The Bengali calendar consists of 6 seasons, known as Rreetu ঋতু or Kal কাল, hence after some centuries the months will shift far away from the actual seasons. But the new revised version of the Bengali calendar used in Bangladesh will continue to maintain the seasons on time as mentioned above. The Bengali Calendar incorporates the seven-day week as used by other calendars. The names of the days of the week in the Bengali Calendar are based on the Navagraha, the day begins and ends at sunrise in the Bengali calendar, unlike in the Gregorian calendar, where the day starts at midnight. Pôhela Bôishakh in West Bengal and other states of India with Bengali diaspora, is celebrated on 14/15 April of the Gregorian calendar, however, according to the revised version of the calendar, now followed in Bangladesh, Pôhela Bôishakh always falls on 14 April. It is not clear, from what ground they start counting of 1st Bengali calendar year from the 593AD, the length of a year is counted as 365 days, as in the Gregorian calendar
26.
Berber calendar
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The Berber calendar is the agricultural calendar traditionally used by Berbers. It is also known as the fellaḥi, the calendar is utilized to regulate the seasonal agricultural works. It is used in lieu of the Islamic calendar, a calendar considered ill-adapted for agriculture because it does not relate to seasonal cycles. The current Berber calendar is a legacy of the Roman province of Mauretania Caesariensis, the latter calendar was used in Europe before the adoption of the Gregorian calendar, with month names derived from Latin. Berber populations previously used various indigenous calendars, such as that of the Guanche autochthones of the Canary Islands, however, relatively little is known of these ancient calendrical systems. Not much is known about the division of time among the ancient Berbers, some elements of a pre-Islamic, and almost certainly a pre-Roman calendar, emerge from some medieval writings, analyzed by Nico van den Boogert. Some correspondences with the traditional Tuareg calendar suggest that in antiquity there existed, with degree of diffusion. According to a 17th-century manuscript by Tomás Marín de Cubas, they computed their year, called Acano and it began in summer, when the sun enters in Cancer, on June 21, at the first conjunction they celebrated nine festival days for the crop. The name of one month is known in the native language. It seems it was the month of the year, corresponding to August. Such a name, in case it was made up by something like *wen that of + smet, may correspond, in the list of medieval Berber month names, with the ninth and tenth months, but data are too scarce for this hypothesis to be deepened. The agricultural Berber calendar still in use is almost certainly derived from the Julian calendar, the only slight discrepancy lies in that the extra day in leap years is not usually added at the end of February, but at the end of the year. Jean Servier has doubted that the calendar descends directly from the Julian calendar of the Latin era, there are standard forms for the names of the Amazigh calendar. The table below provides the forms used in Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia. In some areas they may be different due to communication and manipulation by the government. Moreover, pronunciation differs according to the region, the coldest period is made up by 20 white nights, from 12 to 31 dujamber, and 20 black nights, beginning on the first day of yennayer, corresponding to the Gregorian 14 January. The first day of the year is celebrated in various ways in the different parts of North Africa, a widespread tradition is a meal with particular foods, which vary from region to region, but in many zones it is provided by the sacrifice of an animal. In Algeria, such a holiday is celebrated even by people who dont use the Berber calendar in daily life
27.
Queen Victoria
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Victoria was Queen of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland from 20 June 1837 until her death. From 1 May 1876, she adopted the title of Empress of India. Victoria was the daughter of Prince Edward, Duke of Kent and Strathearn, both the Duke of Kent and King George III died in 1820, and Victoria was raised under close supervision by her German-born mother Princess Victoria of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld. She inherited the throne aged 18, after her fathers three brothers had all died, leaving no surviving legitimate children. The United Kingdom was already a constitutional monarchy, in which the sovereign held relatively little direct political power. Privately, Victoria attempted to influence government policy and ministerial appointments, publicly, Victoria married her first cousin, Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, in 1840. Their nine children married into royal and noble families across the continent, tying them together, after Alberts death in 1861, Victoria plunged into deep mourning and avoided public appearances. As a result of her seclusion, republicanism temporarily gained strength and her Golden and Diamond Jubilees were times of public celebration. Her reign of 63 years and seven months is known as the Victorian era and it was a period of industrial, cultural, political, scientific, and military change within the United Kingdom, and was marked by a great expansion of the British Empire. She was the last British monarch of the House of Hanover and her son and successor, Edward VII, belonged to the House of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, the line of his father. Victorias father was Prince Edward, Duke of Kent and Strathearn, until 1817, Edwards niece, Princess Charlotte of Wales, was the only legitimate grandchild of George III. Her death in 1817 precipitated a crisis that brought pressure on the Duke of Kent. In 1818 he married Princess Victoria of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld, a widowed German princess with two children—Carl and Feodora —by her first marriage to the Prince of Leiningen and her brother Leopold was Princess Charlottes widower. The Duke and Duchess of Kents only child, Victoria, was born at 4.15 a. m. on 24 May 1819 at Kensington Palace in London. Victoria was christened privately by the Archbishop of Canterbury, Charles Manners-Sutton, on 24 June 1819 in the Cupola Room at Kensington Palace and she was baptised Alexandrina, after one of her godparents, Emperor Alexander I of Russia, and Victoria, after her mother. Additional names proposed by her parents—Georgina, Charlotte, and Augusta—were dropped on the instructions of the Dukes eldest brother, George, the Duke of Clarence and the Duke of Kent married on the same day in 1818, but both of Clarences daughters died as infants. Victorias father died in January 1820, when Victoria was less than a year old, a week later her grandfather died and was succeeded by his eldest son, George IV. The Duke of York died in 1827, when George IV died in 1830, he was succeeded by his next surviving brother, William IV, and Victoria became heir presumptive
28.
Buddhist calendar
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While the calendars share a common lineage, they also have minor but important variations such as intercalation schedules, month names and numbering, use of cycles, etc. In Thailand, the name Buddhist Era is a numbering system shared by the traditional Thai lunisolar calendar. The Southeast Asian lunisolar calendars are based on an older version of the Hindu calendar. One major difference is that the Southeast Asian systems, unlike their Indian cousins, instead, they employ their versions of the Metonic cycle. However, since the Metonic cycle is not very accurate for sidereal years, yet no coordinated structural reforms of the lunisolar calendar have been undertaken. Today, the traditional Buddhist lunisolar calendar is used mainly for Theravada Buddhist festivals, the Thai Buddhist Era, a renumbered Gregorian calendar, is the official calendar in Thailand. The Burmese calendar in turn was based on the original Surya Siddhanta system of ancient India, one key difference with Indian systems is that the Burmese system has followed a variation of the Metonic cycle. It is unclear from where, when or how the Metonic system was introduced, the Burmese system, and indeed the Southeast Asian systems, thus use a strange combination of sidereal years from Indian calendar in combination with the Metonic cycle better for tropical years. In all Theravada traditions, the epochal year 0 date was the day in which the Buddha attained parinibbāna. However, not all agree on when it actually took place. In Burmese Buddhist tradition, it was 13 May 544 BCE, but in Thailand, it was 11 March 545 BCE, the date which the current Thai lunisolar and solar calendars use as the epochal date. In Myanmar, the difference between BE and CE can be 543 or 544 for CE dates, and 544 or 543 for BCE dates, in Sri Lanka, the difference between BE and CE is 544. The calendar recognizes two types of months, synodic month and sidereal month, the Synodic months are used to compose the years while the 27 lunar sidereal days, alongside the 12 signs of the zodiac, are used for astrological calculations. The days of the month are counted in two halves, waxing and waning, the 15th of the waxing is the civil full moon day. The civil new moon day is the last day of the month, because of the inaccuracy of the calendrical calculation systems, the mean and real New Moons rarely coincide. The mean New Moon often precedes the real New Moon, as the Synodic lunar month is approximately 29.5 days, the calendar uses alternating months of 29 and 30 days. Various regional versions of Chula Sakarat/Burmese calendar existed across various regions of mainland Southeast Asia, unlike Cambodian and Burmese systems, Kengtung, Lan Na, Lan Xang and Sukhothai systems refer to the months by numbers, not by names. The Buddhist calendar is a calendar in which the months are based on lunar months
29.
Byzantine calendar
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The Byzantine calendar, also called Creation Era of Constantinople or Era of the World, was the calendar used by the Eastern Orthodox Church from c.691 to 1728 in the Ecumenical Patriarchate. It was also the official calendar of the Byzantine Empire from 988 to 1453, the calendar was based on the Julian calendar, except that the year started on 1 September and the year number used an Anno Mundi epoch derived from the Septuagint version of the Bible. Its year one, the date of creation, was September 1,5509 BC. It is not known who invented the World era and when, nevertheless, the first appearance of the term is in the treatise of a certain monk and priest, Georgios, who mentions all the main variants of the World Era in his work. He also already regards it as the most convenient for the Easter computus and this date underwent minor revisions before being finalized in the mid-7th century, although its precursors were developed c. By the second half of the 7th century, the Creation Era was known in Western Europe, by the late 10th century around AD988, when the era appears in use on official government records, a unified system was widely recognized across the Eastern Roman world. The era was ultimately calculated as starting on September 1, Thus historical time was calculated from the creation, and not from Christs birth, as in the west. The Eastern Church avoided the use of the Anno Domini system of Dionysius Exiguus, meanwhile, as Russia received Orthodox Christianity from Byzantium, she inherited the Orthodox Calendar based on the Byzantine Era. After the collapse of the Byzantine Empire in 1453, the era continued to be used by Russia and it was only in AD1700 that the Byzantine World Era in Russia was changed to the Julian Calendar by Peter the Great. It still forms the basis of traditional Orthodox calendars up to today, September AD2000 began the year 7509 AM. Both of these early Christian writers, following the Septuagint version of the Old Testament, the Alexandrian Era developed in AD412, was the precursor to the Byzantine Era. After the initial attempts by Hippolytus, Clement of Alexandria and others, the Alexandrine monk Panodorus reckoned 5904 years from Adam to the year AD412. This created the Alexandrian Era, whose first day was the first day of the proleptic Alexandrian civil year in progress,29 August 5493 BC, with the ecclesiastical year beginning on 25 March 5493 BC. This system presents in a sort of way the mystical coincidence of the three main dates of the worlds history, the beginning of Creation, the Incarnation. It was the first day of the year in the medieval Julian calendar, the Alexandrian Era of March 25,5493 BC was adopted by church fathers such as Maximus the Confessor and Theophanes the Confessor, as well as chroniclers such as George Syncellus. Its striking mysticism made it popular in Byzantium especially in monastic circles and it had for its basis a chronological list of events extending from the creation of Adam to the year AD627. The chronology of the writer is based on the figures of the Bible, St. John Chrysostom says in his Homily On the Cross and the Thief, that Christ, opened for us today Paradise, which had remained closed for some 5000 years. St. Isaac the Syrian writes in a Homily that before Christ, for five thousand five hundred
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