1.
1859 in literature
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This article presents lists of the literary events and publications in 1859. – Tidskrift för hemmet, the first womens magazine in the Nordic countries, is established by Sophie Leijonhufvud, february 1 – George Eliots Adam Bede, her first full-length novel, is published by John Blackwood in the United Kingdom. April 30 – Charles Dickenss new weekly magazine All the Year Round is published for the first time in London, june–July – Frances Harpers The Two Offers, the first English-language short story by an African American author, is published in the first volume of The Anglo-African Magazine. November 26 – Wilkie Collinss sensation novel The Woman in White, an early example of mystery fiction, begins serialization in All the Year Round
2.
1860 in literature
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This article presents lists of literary events and publications in 1860. January First issue of the Cornhill Magazine published in London, anthony Trollopes Framley Parsonage is serialized in it throughout the year. Mrs. Henry Woods sensation novel East Lynne begins serialization in The New Monthly Magazine and this year also her first full-length novel Danesbury House is published. Approximate date - The Catholic newspaper LUnivers is suppressed by the French government, january 28 - The first of Charles Dickens literary sketches under the general title of The Uncommercial Traveller is published in his magazine All the Year Round. February - Mary Elizabeth Braddon gives up her career to write. In the same year, she meets her future husband John Maxwell, march 27 - The Irish melodrama The Colleen Bawn, or The Brides of Garryowen, written by and starring Dion Boucicault, is first performed at Miss Laura Keenes theatre, New York. April 4 - George Eliots novel The Mill on the Floss is published by John Blackwood in three volumes, june 30 -1860 Oxford evolution debate, Samuel Wilberforce and Thomas Huxley debate the theories of Charles Darwin at the Oxford University Museum of Natural History. Lewis Carroll is among the audience, August 25 - Wilkie Collins sensation novel The Woman in White, an early example of mystery fiction, concludes serialization in the magazine All the Year Round. It is published in form in London around August 15. September 3 - Charles Dickens burns most of his papers at his home in Kent. December 1 - Charles Dickenss Bildungsroman Great Expectations begins serialization in his magazine All the Year Round, alexander Bain is appointed to the chair of logic and English literature at the University of Aberdeen. Andreas Munch becomes the first person to be granted a pension by the Parliament of Norway. Bram Stokers horror novel The Lair of the White Worm is set in this year
3.
1862 in literature
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This article presents lists of the literary events and publications in 1862. February – Ivan Turgenevs novel Fathers and Sons is published by Russkiy Vestnik in Moscow, the first English language translations are by Charles Edwin Wilbour, published in New York on June 7, and by Frederic Charles Lascelles Wraxall, published in London in October. April 28 - Thomas Hardy becomes an assistant to architect Arthur Blomfield, april 6 – Two months after joining the staff of General William Babcock Hazen, Ambrose Bierce participates in the Battle of Shiloh, later the subject of a memoir. Among those on the side is future journalist and explorer Henry Morton Stanley. June – Nikolai Chernyshevsky is imprisoned in Saint Petersburg and begins his novel What Is To Be Done, June 4 – Henry Morton Stanley, now a Galvanized Yankee, joins the Union Army, he is discharged 18 days later because of illness. July – George Eliots historical novel Romola begins serialization in Cornhill Magazine, George Murray Smith of the publishers Smith, Elder & Co. has agreed a £7,000 advance for it. July 1 – Moscows first free public library opens as The Library of the Moscow Public Museum and Rumiantsev Museum, july 4 – Charles Dodgson extemporises a story for 10-year-old Alice Liddell and her sisters on a rowing boat trip on The Isis from Oxford to Godstow. The story becomes the manuscript Alices Adventures Underground and is published in 1865 as Alices Adventures in Wonderland, september 23 – Leo Tolstoy marries Sophia Andreevna Behrs,16 years his junior, in Moscow, having given her a diary detailing his previous sexual relations. November 26 – Charles Dodgson sends the manuscript of Alices Adventures Underground to Alice Liddell. November 29 – Serialization of The Notting Hill Mystery by Charles Felix commences in Once A Week, december – Louisa May Alcott becomes a nurse at the Union hospital in Georgetown, D. C. December 24 – William Dean Howells marries Elinor Mead at the American embassy in Paris, date unknown James Russell Lowell begins writing for The North American Review. Karl Heinrich Ulrichs begins writing about homosexuality under the pseudonym of Numa Numantius, Henry Wood – The Channings Frances Freeling Broderip – Tale of the Toys, Told by Themselves F. W. Farrar – St.3 Newdigate Prize – Arthur C
4.
1864 in literature
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This article presents lists of the literary events and publications in 1864. —Opening of Our Mutual Friend January – Anthony Trollopes Can You Forgive Her, the first of his Palliser novels, begins publication in monthly parts in London. Trollope completes its writing on April 28 and the first volume is published as a book in September by Chapman & Hall, in April, The Small House at Allington concludes publication in the Cornhill Magazine and is published in book format by George Smith. January 2–April 16 – James Payn publishes his most popular story, Lost Sir Massingberd and he follows it in the magazine by Married Beneath Him. February 20 – Painter George Frederic Watts marries his 16-year-old model and she elopes less than a year later. March – The first issue of the Russian literary magazine Epoch, edited by Fyodor Dostoyevsky and this and the March–April issues contain the first publication of Fyodors existential novella Notes from Underground. April 10 – Publisher William Ticknor dies of pneumonia in Philadelphia while on a trip with Nathaniel Hawthorne for the sake of the latters health, April – Charles Baudelaire leaves Paris for Belgium in the hope of resolving his financial difficulties. May 26 – Alexandre Dumas, fils marries Nadejda Naryschkine and his father, Alexandre Dumas, père, returns to Paris from Italy. May – First Lithuanian press ban imposed in the Russian Empire, june 19 – Henrik Ibsen arrives in Rome in a self-imposed exile from Norway that will last for 27 years. June 27 – Ambrose Bierce is wounded at the Battle of Kennesaw Mountain, july 2 – The Female Detective is published under the pseudonym Andrew Forrester, junior in London, presenting the first female professional detective in fiction. Around December, she is followed by Mrs Paschal in Revelations of a Lady Detective published anonymously by William Stephens Hayward, September – A debate at the Royal Geographical Society between Richard Francis Burton and John Hanning Speke fails to take place, owing to Spekes suicide. November 10 – John Addington Symonds the younger marries Janet Catherine North, november 25 – The brothers Edwin Booth, John Wilkes Booth and Junius Brutus Booth, Jr. Former English chess master Howard Staunton publishes a facsimile of the 1600 quarto text of Shakespeares Much Ado About Nothing, rebecca Sophia Clarke – Little Prudy R. D. D
5.
1861 in art
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Events from the year 1861 in art. February – Hilda Sjölin opens a studio in Malmö, making her one of the first known Swedish female professional photographers. Paul Cézanne and his friend Émile Zola arrive in Paris, berthe Morisot becomes a pupil of Corot. Édouard Manet has his first paintings accepted by the Salon, william Bell Scott concludes his series of murals of Northumbrian history at Wallington Hall with Iron and Coal, the Nineteenth Century
6.
1861 in architecture
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The year 1861 in architecture involved some significant architectural event and new buildings. Arlington Street Church in Boston, Massachusetts, United States, designed by Arthur Gilman, st James the Less, Pimlico, London, designed by George Edmund Street. St. Michaels Church, Berlin, designed by August Soller in 1845 and completed by Richard Lucae, Andreas Simons, tromsø Cathedral, Norway, designed by Christian Heinrich Grosch. Palácio do Grão-Pará, Petrópolis, Brazil, designed by Theodore Marx with de Araújo Porto Alegre, mary Birdsall House in Richmond, Indiana. Grand Prix de Rome, architecture, Constant Moyaux
7.
1861 in science
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The year 1861 in science and technology involved some significant events, listed below. May 13 – Comet C/1861 J1 first observed from Australia by John Tebbutt, anton de Bary publishes his first work on fungi, describing sexual reproduction in Peronospora. March 30 – William Crookes announces his discovery of thallium, rubidium is discovered by Robert Bunsen and Gustav Kirchhoff, in Heidelberg, Germany, in the mineral lepidolite through the use of their spectroscope. Aleksandr Butlerov is instrumental in creating the theory of chemical structure, josef Loschmidt publishes Chemische Studien, proposing two-dimensional representations for over 300 molecules and recognising variations in atomic size. Ernest Solvay develops the Solvay process for the manufacture of soda ash, eduard Suess proposes the former existence of the supercontinent Gondwana. Paul Broca identifies the production center of the brain. Franciscus Donders introduces the term visual acuity, guillaume Duchenne describes Duchenne muscular dystrophy. Prosper Ménière reports the association of vertigo with inner ear disorders, Ádám Politzer publishes the technique of Politzerization used in otorhinolaryngology. Ignaz Semmelweis publishes Die Ätiologie, der Begriff und die Prophylaxis des Kindbettfiebers, september – First complete identified skeleton of Archaeopteryx unearthed near Langenaltheim, Germany. January 1 – First steam-powered carousel recorded, in Bolton, England, William Froude publishes the first results of his research into ship hull design. Dr. Richard J. Gatling invents the Gatling gun, james Clerk Maxwell demonstrates the principle of permanent three-colour photography. Michael Faradays Royal Institution Christmas Lectures published as The Chemical History of a Candle, copley Medal, Louis Agassiz Wollaston Medal for geology, Heinrich Bronn February 15 – Alfred North Whitehead, English mathematician. April 24 – Hedda Andersson, Swedish physician May 20 – Henry Gantt, june 9 – Pierre Duhem, French philosopher of science. July 18 – Kadambini Ganguly, Indian physician, july 26 – Ægidius Elling, Norwegian gas turbine pioneer. August 9 – Dorothea Klumpke, American astronomer, december 17 – Arthur E. Kennelly, Irish American electrical engineer. January 3 – Arnold Adolph Berthold, German physiologist, may 16 – John Stevens Henslow, English botanist. June 18 – Eaton Hodgkinson, English structural engineer, november 10 – Isidore Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, French zoologist. November 13 – Sir John Forbes, Scottish-born royal physician, december 10 – Thomas Southwood Smith, English physician and sanitary reformer
8.
Irish poetry
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Irish poetry includes poetry in two languages, Irish and English. The earliest surviving poems in Irish date back to the 6th century and this culminated in the work of the poets of the Irish Literary Revival in the late 19th and early 20th century. Poetry in Irish represents the oldest vernacular poetry in Europe, the earliest examples date from the 6th century, and are generally short lyrics on themes from religion or the world of nature. They were frequently written by their authors in the margins of the illuminated manuscripts that they were copying. The best known example is Pangur Bán and it was practical for poems to be short because the Irish recognized that it was necessary to use any means necessary to make the poems lasting in their oral culture. To accomplish such a feat as well as they have, they used complicated rhyme schemes that would render a poem nonsensical if any of the key words were changed from the original version, in an oral culture, Irish poetry had many uses. A poem could be used to both the poet and the subject of the poem, oftentimes kings would commission poets to create a piece about them. Such poems would be passed on to descendants so they would remember the deeds of past generations. Kings would also commission poets to write poems of advertisement, speaking of the greatness and worthiness. Oral poetry, because it was in the vernacular, was used for entertainment. Poems that were entertaining could also be informative, teaching people lessons or offering them wisdom of experience for dealing with situations they would encounter in their everyday lives. Finally, poems, especially those featured in the sagas, were thought to be an instrument of the supernatural, Another source of early Irish poetry is the poems in the tales and sagas, such as the Táin Bó Cúailnge. Unlike many other European epic cycles, the Irish sagas were written in prose, Irish bards formed a professional hereditary caste of highly trained, learned poets. As officials of the court of king or chieftain, they performed a number of official roles and they were chroniclers and satirists whose job it was to praise their employers and damn those who crossed them. It was believed that a well-aimed bardic satire, glam dicin, the Metrical Dindshenchas, or Lore of Places, is probably the major surviving monument of Irish bardic verse. It is a great onomastic anthology of naming legends of significant places in the Irish landscape, the earliest of these date from the 11th century, and were probably originally compiled on a provincial basis. As a national compilation, the Metrical Dindshenchas has come down to us in two different recensions. Knowledge of the real or putative history of local places formed an important part of the education of the elite in ancient Ireland, verse tales of Fionn and the Fianna, sometimes known as Ossianic poetry, were extremely common in Ireland and Scotland throughout this period
9.
Elizabeth Barrett Browning
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Elizabeth Barrett Browning was one of the most prominent English poets of the Victorian era, popular in Britain and the United States during her lifetime. Born in County Durham, the eldest of 12 children, Elizabeth Barrett wrote poetry from about the age of six and her mothers collection of her poems forms one of the largest collections extant of juvenilia by any English writer. At 15 she became ill, suffering intense head and spinal pain for the rest of her life, later in life she also developed lung problems, possibly tuberculosis. She took laudanum for the pain from an age, which is likely to have contributed to her frail health. In the 1830s Elizabeth was introduced to society through her cousin. Her first adult collection of poems was published in 1838 and she wrote prolifically between 1841 and 1844, producing poetry, translation and prose and she campaigned for the abolition of slavery and her work helped influence reform in the child labour legislation. Her prolific output made her a rival to Tennyson as a candidate for poet laureate on the death of Wordsworth, Elizabeths volume Poems brought her great success, attracting the admiration of the writer Robert Browning. Their correspondence, courtship and marriage were carried out in secret, following the wedding she was indeed disinherited by her father. The couple moved to Italy in 1846, where she would live for the rest of her life and they had one son, Robert Barrett Browning, whom they called Pen. She died in Florence in 1861, a collection of her last poems was published by her husband shortly after her death. Elizabeths work had a influence on prominent writers of the day, including the American poets Edgar Allan Poe. She is remembered for such poems as How Do I Love Thee. some of Elizabeth Barretts family had lived in Jamaica since 1655. Their wealth derived mainly from Edward Barrett, owner of 10,000 acres in the estates of Cinnamon Hill, Cornwall, Cambridge, Elizabeths maternal grandfather owned sugar plantations, mills, glassworks and ships that traded between Jamaica and Newcastle. What the family believed to be their genealogy in relation to Jamaica is unclear, the family wished to hand down their name, stipulating that Barrett should always be held as a surname. In some cases inheritance was given on condition that the name was used by the beneficiary, given this strong tradition, Elizabeth used Elizabeth Barrett Moulton Barrett on legal documents and before she was married often signed herself Elizabeth Barrett Barrett or EBB. Elizabeths father chose to raise his family in England while his business enterprises remained in Jamaica, the fortune of Elizabeths mothers line, the Graham Clarke family, also derived in part from slave labour, and was considerable. Elizabeth Barrett Moulton-Barrett was born on 6 March 1806, in Coxhoe Hall and her parents were Edward Barrett Moulton Barrett and Mary Graham Clarke, Elizabeth was the eldest of 12 children. All lived to adulthood except for one girl, who died at the age of three, when Elizabeth was eight, the children all had nicknames, Elizabeth was Ba
10.
Robert Browning
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Robert Browning was an English poet and playwright whose mastery of the dramatic monologue made him one of the foremost Victorian poets. His poems are known for their irony, characterization, dark humour, social commentary, historical settings, Brownings early career began promisingly, but was not a success. His reputation took more than a decade to recover, during which time he moved away from the Shelleyan forms of his early period, in 1846 Browning married the older poet Elizabeth Barrett, who at the time was considerably better known than himself. So started one of historys most famous literary marriages and they went to live in Italy, a country he called my university, and which features frequently in his work. By the time of her death in 1861, he had published the crucial collection Men and Women, the collection Dramatis Personae and the book-length epic poem The Ring and the Book followed, and made him a leading British poet. He continued to write prolifically, but his reputation rests largely on the poetry he wrote in this middle period. Unusually for a poet, societies for the study of his work were founded while he was still alive, such Browning Societies remained common in Britain and the United States until the early 20th century. Brownings admirers have tended to temper their praise with reservations about the length and difficulty of his most ambitious poems, particularly The Ring and the Book. Nevertheless, they have included such eminent writers as Henry James, Oscar Wilde, George Bernard Shaw, G. K. Chesterton, Ezra Pound, Jorge Luis Borges, among living writers, Stephen Kings The Dark Tower series and A. S. Byatts Possession refer directly to Brownings work, today Brownings critically most esteemed poems include the monologues Childe Roland to the Dark Tower Came, Fra Lippo Lippi, Andrea Del Sarto, and My Last Duchess. Robert Browning was born in Walworth in the parish of Camberwell, Surrey and he was baptized on 14 June 1812, at Locks Fields Independent Chapel, York Street, Walworth, the only son of Sarah Anna and Robert Browning. His father was a clerk for the Bank of England. Brownings paternal grandfather was an owner in Saint Kitts, West Indies. Brownings father had sent to the West Indies to work on a sugar plantation. Brownings mother was the daughter of a German shipowner who had settled in Dundee in Scotland, the evidence, however, is inconclusive either way. Roberts father, a collector, amassed a library of around 6,000 books. As such, Robert was raised in a household of significant literary resources and his mother, to whom he was very close, was a devout nonconformist and a talented musician. His younger sister, Sarianna, also gifted, became her brothers companion in his later years and his father encouraged his childrens interest in literature and the arts
11.
Florence
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Florence is the capital city of the Italian region of Tuscany and of the Metropolitan City of Florence. It is the most populous city in Tuscany, with 383,083 inhabitants, Florence was a centre of medieval European trade and finance and one of the wealthiest cities of the time. It is considered the birthplace of the Renaissance, and has called the Athens of the Middle Ages. A turbulent political history includes periods of rule by the powerful Medici family, from 1865 to 1871 the city was the capital of the recently established Kingdom of Italy. The Historic Centre of Florence attracts 13 million tourists each year and it was declared a World Heritage Site by UNESCO in 1982. The city is noted for its culture, Renaissance art and architecture, the city also contains numerous museums and art galleries, such as the Uffizi Gallery and the Palazzo Pitti, and still exerts an influence in the fields of art, culture and politics. Due to Florences artistic and architectural heritage, it has been ranked by Forbes as one of the most beautiful cities in the world, in 2008, the city had the 17th highest average income in Italy. Florence originated as a Roman city, and later, after a period as a flourishing trading and banking medieval commune. According to the Encyclopædia Britannica, it was politically, economically, and culturally one of the most important cities in Europe, the language spoken in the city during the 14th century was, and still is, accepted as the Italian language. Starting from the late Middle Ages, Florentine money—in the form of the gold florin—financed the development of all over Europe, from Britain to Bruges, to Lyon. Florentine bankers financed the English kings during the Hundred Years War and they similarly financed the papacy, including the construction of their provisional capital of Avignon and, after their return to Rome, the reconstruction and Renaissance embellishment of Rome. Florence was home to the Medici, one of European historys most important noble families, Lorenzo de Medici was considered a political and cultural mastermind of Italy in the late 15th century. Two members of the family were popes in the early 16th century, Leo X, catherine de Medici married king Henry II of France and, after his death in 1559, reigned as regent in France. Marie de Medici married Henry IV of France and gave birth to the future king Louis XIII, the Medici reigned as Grand Dukes of Tuscany, starting with Cosimo I de Medici in 1569 and ending with the death of Gian Gastone de Medici in 1737. The Etruscans initially formed in 200 BC the small settlement of Fiesole and it was built in the style of an army camp with the main streets, the cardo and the decumanus, intersecting at the present Piazza della Repubblica. Situated along the Via Cassia, the route between Rome and the north, and within the fertile valley of the Arno, the settlement quickly became an important commercial centre. Peace returned under Lombard rule in the 6th century, Florence was conquered by Charlemagne in 774 and became part of the Duchy of Tuscany, with Lucca as capital. The population began to again and commerce prospered
12.
Julia Ward Howe
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Julia Ward Howe was an American poet and author, best known for writing The Battle Hymn of the Republic. She was also an advocate for abolitionism and was a social activist, Howe was born in New York City. She was the fourth of seven born to an upper middle class couple. Her father Samuel Ward III was a Wall Street stockbroker, well-to-do banker and her mother was the poet Julia Rush Cutler, related to Francis Marion, the Swamp Fox of the American Revolution. She died of tuberculosis when her daughter was five years old and she was educated by private tutors and in schools for young ladies until she was sixteen. Her eldest brother Samuel Cutler Ward traveled in Europe and brought home a private library and she had access to these modern works, many contradicting the Calvinistic world view presented by her father. She became well read and intelligent, though as much a social butterfly as she was a scholar and she was brought into contact with some of the greatest minds of her time because of her father’s status as a successful banker. She interacted with Charles Dickens, Charles Sumner, and Margaret Fuller, sam married into the prominent Astor family, allowing him great social freedom that he shared with his sister. The siblings were cast into mourning time when their father died in 1839, shortly afterwards, brother Henry died, then Samuels wife Emily died, along with their newborn child. Julia was visiting Boston in 1841 when she met Samuel Gridley Howe and they announced their engagement quite suddenly on February 21. Howe had courted her for a time, but he had recently shown an interest in her sister Louisa. In 1843, they married despite their age difference. She gave birth to their first child while honeymooning in Europe and she bore their last child in 1858 at the age of forty. They had six children, Julia Romana Howe, Florence Marion Howe, Henry Marion Howe, Laura Elizabeth Howe, Maud Howe, Julia was likewise an aunt of novelist Francis Marion Crawford. Howe lived and raised her children in South Boston, while her husband pursued his advocacy work and she hid her unhappiness with their marriage behind a cheerful demeanor and singing at parties, earning the nickname the family champagne from her children. She made frequent visits to Gardiner, Maine where she stayed at The Yellow House and she was unhappy with her surroundings, so she took lectures, and studied foreign languages, and wrote plays and dramas. Julia had published essays on Goethe, Schiller and Lamartine before her marriage to Howe, in the New York Review and her book Passion-Flowers was published in December 1853. The book collected intensely personal poems and was written without the awareness of her husband and her second anonymous collection, Words for the Hour, appeared in 1857
13.
Battle Hymn of the Republic
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The Battle Hymn of the Republic, also known as Mine Eyes Have Seen the Glory outside of the United States, is a song by American writer Julia Ward Howe using the music from the song John Browns Body. Howes more famous lyrics were written in November 1861, and first published in The Atlantic Monthly in February 1862, the song links the judgment of the wicked at the end of the age with the American Civil War. Since that time, it has become a popular and well-known American patriotic song. The Glory, Hallelujah tune was a folk hymn developed in the oral tradition of camp meetings in the southern United States. In the first known version, Canaans Happy Shore, the text includes the verse Oh, Brothers will you meet me /On Canaans happy shore. And chorus There well shout and give him glory /For glory is his own, the tune and variants of these words spread across both the southern and northern United States. At a flag-raising ceremony at Fort Warren, near Boston, Massachusetts on Sunday May 12,1861, Brothers tune and the Glory, Hallelujah chorus, was publicly played perhaps for the first time. The American Civil War had begun the previous month, in 1890, George Kimball wrote his account of how the 2nd Infantry Battalion of the Massachusetts militia, known as the Tiger Battalion, collectively worked out the lyrics to John Browns Body. Kimball wrote, We had a jovial Scotchman in the battalion, named John Brown. and as he happened to bear the name of the old hero of Harpers Ferry. These ditties underwent various ramifications, until eventually the lines were reached, — John Browns body lies a-mouldering in the grave, and, — Hes gone to be a soldier in the army of the Lord, His souls marching on. These lines seemed to give satisfaction, the idea that Browns soul was marching on receiving recognition at once as having a germ of inspiration in it. They were sung over and over again with a deal of gusto. Some leaders of the battalion, feeling the words were coarse and irreverent, tried to urge the adoption of more fitting lyrics, the lyrics were soon prepared for publication by members of the battalion, together with publisher C. S. Hall. They selected and polished verses they felt appropriate, and may even have enlisted the services of a poet to help polish. Kimballs battalion was dispatched to Murray, Kentucky early in the Civil War, rufus R. Dawes, then in command of Company K of the 6th Wisconsin Volunteer Infantry, stated in his memoirs that the man who started the singing was Sergeant John Ticknor of his company. Howes companion at the review, The Reverend James Freeman Clarke, of the writing of the lyrics, Howe remembered, I went to bed that night as usual, and slept, according to my wont, quite soundly. I awoke in the gray of the twilight, and as I lay waiting for the dawn. Having thought out all the stanzas, I said to myself, I must get up and write these verses down, lest I fall asleep again and forget them
14.
English poetry
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This article focuses on poetry written in English from the United Kingdom, England, Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland. The article does not include poetry from other countries where the English language is spoken, the earliest surviving English poetry, written in Anglo-Saxon, the direct predecessor of modern English, may have been composed as early as the 7th century. This is generally taken as marking the beginning of Anglo-Saxon poetry and it is possible to identify certain key moments, however. The Dream of the Rood was written before circa AD700, by and large, however, Anglo-Saxon poetry is categorised by the manuscripts in which it survives, rather than its date of composition. While the poetry that has survived is limited in volume, it is wide in breadth, beowulf is the only heroic epic to have survived in its entirety, but fragments of others such as Waldere and the Finnesburg Fragment show that it was not unique in its time. Other genres include much religious verse, from works to biblical paraphrase, elegies such as The Wanderer, The Seafarer, and The Ruin, and numerous proverbs, riddles. With one notable exception, Anglo-Saxon poetry depends on alliterative verse for its structure, with the Norman conquest of England, beginning in 1111 the Anglo-Saxon language rapidly diminished as a written literary language. The new aristocracy spoke predominantly Norman, and this became the language of courts, parliament. While Anglo-Norman or Latin was preferred for high culture, English literature by no means died out, other transitional works were preserved as popular entertainment, including a variety of romances and lyrics. With time, the English language regained prestige, and in 1362 it replaced French and Latin in Parliament, the reputation of Chaucers successors in the 15th century has suffered in comparison with him, though Lydgate and Skelton are widely studied. A group of Scottish writers arose who were believed to be influenced by Chaucer. The rise of Scottish poetry began with the writing of The Kingis Quair by James I of Scotland, the main poets of this Scottish group were Robert Henryson, William Dunbar and Gavin Douglas. The Renaissance was slow in coming to England, with the generally accepted start date being around 1509 and it is also generally accepted that the English Renaissance extended until the Restoration in 1660. However, a number of factors had prepared the way for the introduction of the new learning long before this start date. A number of medieval poets had, as noted, shown an interest in the ideas of Aristotle. The introduction of printing by Caxton in 1474 provided the means for the more rapid dissemination of new or recently rediscovered writers and thinkers. Caxton also printed the works of Chaucer and Gower and these books helped establish the idea of a poetic tradition that was linked to its European counterparts. In addition, the writings of English humanists like Thomas More and Thomas Elyot helped bring the ideas, the establishment of the Church of England in 1535 accelerated the process of questioning the Catholic world-view that had previously dominated intellectual and artistic life
15.
Matthew Arnold
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Matthew Arnold was an English poet and cultural critic who worked as an inspector of schools. He was the son of Thomas Arnold, the headmaster of Rugby School. Matthew Arnold has been characterised as a writer, a type of writer who chastises. The Reverend John Keble, who would one of the leaders of the Oxford Movement. Thomas Arnold admired Kebles hymns in The Christian Year, only reversing himself with exasperation when this old friend became a Romeward-tending High Church reactionary in the 1830s. In 1828, Arnolds father was appointed Headmaster of Rugby School and his family took up residence. In 1831, Arnold was tutored by his uncle, Rev. John Buckland in the village of Laleham. In 1834, the Arnolds occupied a home, Fox How. William Wordsworth was a neighbour and close friend, in 1836, Arnold was sent to Winchester College, but in 1837 he returned to Rugby School where he was enrolled in the fifth form. He moved to the form in 1838 and thus came under the direct tutelage of his father. He wrote verse for the manuscript Fox How Magazine co-produced with his brother Tom for the enjoyment from 1838 to 1843. During his years there, he won prizes for English essay writing. His prize poem, Alaric at Rome, was printed at Rugby, in 1841, he won an open scholarship to Balliol College, Oxford. During his residence at Oxford, his friendship ripened with Arthur Hugh Clough, Arnold attended John Henry Newmans sermons at St. Marys but did not join the Oxford Movement. His father died suddenly of disease in 1842, and Fox How became his familys permanent residence. Arnolds poem Cromwell won the 1843 Newdigate prize and he graduated in the following year with a 2nd class honours degree in Literae Humaniores. In 1845, after an interlude of teaching at Rugby, he was elected Fellow of Oriel College. In 1847, he became Private Secretary to Lord Lansdowne, Lord President of the Council, in 1849, he published his first book of poetry, The Strayed Reveller
16.
Francis William Newman
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Francis William Newman, the younger brother of Cardinal Newman, was an English scholar and miscellaneous writer. Born in London, Newman and his brother were educated at Ealing, and subsequently at Oxford, where he had a distinguished career. He was elected fellow of Balliol in the same year, in 1827 he went to Delgany, co. Conscientious scruples respecting the ceremony of infant baptism led him to resign his fellowship in 1830 and his letters written home during the period of his mission were collected and published in 1856. In 1846 he moved to become a professor of Latin at University College, London and that eccentricity is described by critic Lionel Trilling in his book on Newmans contemporary, Matthew Arnold. According to Trilling, Newman was a militant vegetarian, an intransigent anti-vivisectionist, the perfection of the soul, he said, lay in its becoming woman. He believed in womans right to vote, to educate herself and he sought to make life rational in all things, including clothing. He wore an alpaca tailcoat in summer, three coats in winter, and in bad weather, he wore a rug with a cut for his head. When it was muddy, he wore pants edged with six inches of leather, in his numerous metrical translations from the classics, especially his version of the Iliad, he attracted the irreverent criticism of Matthew Arnold. His miscellaneous essays, some of much value, were collected in several volumes before his death and his last publication, Contributions chiefly to the Early History of Cardinal Newman, was generally condemned as deficient in fraternal feeling. George Eliot called our blessed St. Francis and his soul, was a blessed yea and he had been blind for five years before his death, but retained his faculties to the last. Although for most of his life, he preached a kind of rational-mystical agnosticism. in his old age, karl Marx quoted from Newmans Lectures on Political Economy, given at Bedford College, in Capital, Volume III, p.595. Newman is listed on the face of the Reformers Memorial in Kensal Green Cemetery in London. Francis William Newman The Science of Evidence Newman, Francis William, the Soul, its Sorrows and Aspirations. Francis William Newman Lectures on Political Economy, personal Narrative in Letters, Principally from Turkey in the Years 1830–3. Theism, doctrinal and practical, or, Didactic religious utterances, the text of the Iguvine inscriptions with Interlinear Latin Translation and Notes. A dictionary of modern Arabic, Volume 1, a dictionary of modern Arabic, Volume 2. Translations Into Latin, Newman, Francis William, T. G. Sieveking, Memoir and Letters of Francis W. Newman
17.
Richard Watson Dixon
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Richard Watson Dixon, English poet and divine, son of Dr James Dixon, a Wesleyan minister. He was the eldest son of Dr. James Dixon, a distinguished Wesleyan preacher, by Mary, Watson, who made a home with her daughter, he retained an affectionate recollection as of a very good and clever woman. He was born on 5 May 1833 at Islington, and educated, under Dr. Gifford, at King Edwards School, Birmingham, an excellent account of these Oxford days was contributed by Dixon to Mr. J. W. Mackails Life of Morris. We all had the notion of doing things for men according to our own will. At Oxford Dixon read for the classical schools, and graduated B. A. in 1857. His first published volume of poems, called ‘Christs Company, ’ had already appeared in 1861, and a second, ‘Historical Odes, ’ followed in 1863. These early poems of Dixon were distinguished by not a little of the colour and imagination, and also by something of the eccentricity, that marked the early efforts of the Pre-Raphaelite school. The poems of the first volume, though largely upon religious subjects, are not strictly religious poetry, the ‘Historical Odes’ show an advance in simplicity, and a power, that Dixon afterwards carried further, of ode construction. The odes upon Wellington and Marlborough contain much good writing, after leaving Oxford, Dixon lodged for a time with Morris and Burne-Jones in Red Lion Square. In 1858, he was ordained to the curacy of St. Mary-the-Less, Lambeth, Mr. Gregory, in 1861, he moved to the curacy of St. Mary, Newington Butts. From 1863 to 1868 he was master at Carlisle High School. After that he was for eight years vicar of Hayton, in Cumberland, and was presented by the bishop of Carlisle to the vicarage of Warkworth in Northumberland. His friends would have greatly valued for him the increase of leisure and opportunities for study which a cathedral stall would have afforded, but it was not to be. The distinctions which he received after the appearance of the first volume of his history, in 1877, were such as to reduce the already scanty leisure of a hardworked parish clergyman. In 1874, he had been made honorary canon of Carlisle, in 1879 he became dean of Brampton, in 1884 rural dean of Alnwick. He was chaplain to the sheriff of Cumberland in 1883. In 1885, he stood for the professorship of poetry at Oxford, the short preface to Eudocia and her Brothers upon the use of the heroic couplet shows that he possessed keen critical powers and a faculty of lucid exposition. Dixon was briefly considered for Poet Laureate when Alfred Tennyson died in 1892, on 9 April 1861, he married the widow of William Thomson of Haddingtonshire
18.
Edward Lear
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Edward Lear was an English artist, illustrator, musician, author and poet, and is known now mostly for his literary nonsense in poetry and prose and especially his limericks, a form he popularised. As an author, he is principally for his popular nonsense collections of poems, songs, short stories, botanical drawings, recipes. He also composed and published twelve musical settings of Tennysons poetry, Lear was born into a middle-class family at Holloway, North London, the penultimate of twenty-one children of Ann Clark Skerrett and Jeremiah Lear. He was raised by his eldest sister, also named Ann,21 years his senior, owing to the familys limited finances, Lear and his sister were required to leave the family home and live together when he was aged four. Ann doted on Edward and continued to act as a mother for him until her death, Lear suffered from lifelong health afflictions. From the age of six he suffered frequent grand mal seizures, and bronchitis, asthma. Lear experienced his first seizure at a fair near Highgate with his father, the event scared and embarrassed him. Lear felt lifelong guilt and shame for his epileptic condition and his adult diaries indicate that he always sensed the onset of a seizure in time to remove himself from public view. When Lear was about seven years old he began to show signs of depression and he suffered from periods of severe melancholia which he referred to as the Morbids. He was the first major bird artist to draw birds from real live birds, Lears first publication, published when he was 19 years old, was Illustrations of the Family of Psittacidae, or Parrots in 1830. One of the greatest ornithological artists of his era, he contributed to John Goulds works and was compared favourably with the naturalist John James Audubon. Unfortunately his eyesight deteriorated too much to work with precision on the fine drawings and etchings of plates used in lithography, thus he turned to landscape painting. Among other travels, he visited Greece and Egypt during 1848–49 and his landscape style often shows views with strong sunlight, with intense contrasts of colour. Between 1878 and 1883 Lear spent his summers on Monte Generoso and his oil painting The Plains of Lombardy from Monte Generoso is in the Ashmolean Museum in the English city of Oxford. Throughout his life he continued to paint seriously and he had a lifelong ambition to illustrate Tennysons poems, near the end of his life a volume with a small number of illustrations was published. In 1842 Lear began a journey into the Italian peninsula, travelling through the Lazio, Rome, Abruzzo, Molise, Apulia, Calabria, and Sicily. In personal notes, together with drawings, Lear gathered his impressions on the Italian way of life, folk traditions, and the beauty of the ancient monuments. Of particular interest to Lear was the Abruzzo, which he visited in 1843, through the Marsica, at Castel di Sangro, Lear described the winter stillness of the mountains and the beautiful basilica
19.
Woodcut
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Woodcut is a relief printing technique in printmaking. An artist carves an image into the surface of a block of wood—typically with gouges—leaving the printing parts level with the surface while removing the non-printing parts. Areas that the artist cuts away carry no ink, while characters or images at surface level carry the ink to produce the print, the block is cut along the wood grain. The surface is covered with ink by rolling over the surface with a roller, leaving ink upon the flat surface. Multiple colors can be printed by keying the paper to a frame around the woodblocks, single-leaf woodcut is a term for a woodcut presented as a single image or print, as opposed to a book illustration. Among these the best known are the 16th century Hieronymus Andreae, Hans Lützelburger and Jost de Negker, all of whom ran workshops, the formschneider in turn handed the block on to specialist printers. There were further specialists who made the blank blocks and this is why woodcuts are sometimes described by museums or books as designed by rather than by an artist, but most authorities do not use this distinction. The division of labour had the advantage that a trained artist could adapt to the medium relatively easily, there were various methods of transferring the artists drawn design onto the block for the cutter to follow. Either the drawing would be made directly onto the block, or a drawing on paper was glued to the block, either way, the artists drawing was destroyed during the cutting process. Other methods were used, including tracing, in both Europe and the Far East in the early 20th century, some artists began to do the whole process themselves. In Japan, this movement was called sōsaku-hanga, as opposed to shin-hanga, in the West, many artists used the easier technique of linocut instead. Compared to intaglio techniques like etching and engraving, only low pressure is required to print, as a relief method, it is only necessary to ink the block and bring it into firm and even contact with the paper or cloth to achieve an acceptable print. In Europe a variety of woods including boxwood and several nut and fruit woods like pear or cherry were commonly used, in Japan, there are three methods of printing to consider, Stamping, Used for many fabrics and most early European woodcuts. Used for European woodcuts and block-books later in the fifteenth century, also used for many Western woodcuts from about 1910 to the present. The block goes face up on a table, with the paper or fabric on top, the back is rubbed with a hard pad, a flat piece of wood, a burnisher, or a leather frotton. A traditional Japanese tool used for this is called a baren, later in Japan, complex wooden mechanisms were used to help hold the woodblock perfectly still and to apply proper pressure in the printing process. This was especially helpful once multiple colors were introduced and had to be applied with precision atop previous ink layers, printing in a press, presses only seem to have been used in Asia in relatively recent times. Printing-presses were used from about 1480 for European prints and block-books, simple weighted presses may have been used in Europe before the print-press, but firm evidence is lacking
20.
Francis Turner Palgrave
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Francis Turner Palgrave was a British critic, anthologist and poet. He was born at Great Yarmouth, the eldest son of Sir Francis Palgrave and his brothers were William Gifford Palgrave, Inglis Palgrave and Reginald Palgrave. His childhood was spent at Yarmouth and at his fathers house in Hampstead, in 1846 he interrupted his university career to serve as assistant private secretary to Gladstone, but returned, to Oxford the next year, and took a first class in Literae Humaniores. From 1847 to 1862 he was fellow of Exeter College, in 1850 Palgrave accepted the vice-principalship of Kneller Hall Training College at Twickenham. There he came into contact with Alfred Tennyson, and laid the foundation of a lifelong friendship, when the training college was abandoned, Palgrave returned to Whitehall in 1855, becoming examiner in the Education Department, and eventually assistant secretary. He married, in 1862, Cecil Grenville Milnes, daughter of James Milnes-Gaskell, in 1884 he resigned his position at the Education Department, and in the following year succeeded John Campbell Shairp as professor of poetry at Oxford. The well known controversialist Jacob Omnium pointed out in a series of letters to the press that the two lived together, William Holman Hunt wrote a reply supporting Palgrave and Woolner, but Palgrave was forced to withdraw the catalogue. He died in London, and was buried in the cemetery on Barnes Common, Palgrave published both criticism and poetry, but his work as a critic was by far the more important. His Visions of England has dignity and lucidity, but little of the magic which the greatest of his predecessors in the Oxford chair considered rightly to be the test of inspiration. His last volume of poetry, Amenophis, appeared in 1892 and his criticism is considered to demonstrate fine and sensitive tact, quick intuitive perception, and generally sound judgment. His Handbook to the Fine Arts Collection, International Exhibition,1862 and his Landscape in Poetry showed wide knowledge and critical appreciation of one of the most attractive aspects of poetic interpretation. He published a collection of hymns in 1867 which ran to three editions, each slightly enlarged. See Gwenllian F Palgrave, F. T. Palgrave and this article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh, ed. Palgrave, Francis Turner. A Short Biographical Dictionary of English Literature, London, J. M. Dent & Sons. Works by Francis Turner Palgrave at Project Gutenberg Works by or about Francis Turner Palgrave at Internet Archive Works by Francis Turner Palgrave at LibriVox Palgrave, Francis Turner
