1.
Vienna
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Vienna is the capital and largest city of Austria and one of the nine states of Austria. Vienna is Austrias primary city, with a population of about 1.8 million, and its cultural, economic and it is the 7th-largest city by population within city limits in the European Union. Today, it has the second largest number of German speakers after Berlin, Vienna is host to many major international organizations, including the United Nations and OPEC. The city is located in the part of Austria and is close to the borders of the Czech Republic, Slovakia. These regions work together in a European Centrope border region, along with nearby Bratislava, Vienna forms a metropolitan region with 3 million inhabitants. In 2001, the city centre was designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site, apart from being regarded as the City of Music because of its musical legacy, Vienna is also said to be The City of Dreams because it was home to the worlds first psycho-analyst – Sigmund Freud. The citys roots lie in early Celtic and Roman settlements that transformed into a Medieval and Baroque city and it is well known for having played an essential role as a leading European music centre, from the great age of Viennese Classicism through the early part of the 20th century. The historic centre of Vienna is rich in architectural ensembles, including Baroque castles and gardens, Vienna is known for its high quality of life. In a 2005 study of 127 world cities, the Economist Intelligence Unit ranked the city first for the worlds most liveable cities, between 2011 and 2015, Vienna was ranked second, behind Melbourne, Australia. Monocles 2015 Quality of Life Survey ranked Vienna second on a list of the top 25 cities in the world to make a base within, the UN-Habitat has classified Vienna as being the most prosperous city in the world in 2012/2013. Vienna regularly hosts urban planning conferences and is used as a case study by urban planners. Between 2005 and 2010, Vienna was the worlds number-one destination for international congresses and it attracts over 3.7 million tourists a year. The English name Vienna is borrowed from the homonymous Italian version of the name or the French Vienne. The etymology of the name is still subject to scholarly dispute. Some claim that the name comes from Vedunia, meaning forest stream, which produced the Old High German Uuenia. A variant of this Celtic name could be preserved in the Czech and Slovak names of the city, the name of the city in Hungarian, Serbo-Croatian and Ottoman Turkish has a different, probably Slavonic origin, and originally referred to an Avar fort in the area. Slovene-speakers call the city Dunaj, which in other Central European Slavic languages means the Danube River, evidence has been found of continuous habitation since 500 BC, when the site of Vienna on the Danube River was settled by the Celts. In 15 BC, the Romans fortified the city they called Vindobona to guard the empire against Germanic tribes to the north
2.
Rotunde
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The Rotunde in Vienna was a building erected for the Weltausstellung 1873 Wien. The building was a covered circular steel construction,84 m in height and 108 m in diameter. For almost one century it was the largest cupola construction in the world, larger than the Pantheon in Rome and it was designed by Austrian architect Karl Freiherr von Hasenauer and built by the German company Johann Caspar Harkort of Duisburg. The Scottish engineer for the roof was John Scott Russell who used 4,000 tons of steel with no ties, the central building of the World Fair was accepted enthusiastically by the public. It was used for shows and fairs later on, alexander Girardi performed a concert in this hall. In 1898 a Collektivausstellung österreichischer Automobilbauer was shown during the Kaiser Franz Joseph Jubiläumsausstellung, the first four cars ever built in Austria-Hungary were shown there, amongst them the car built by Siegfried Marcus in 1888/89. The Rotunde burned down in 1937 and its former location is now occupied by a portal of the Vienna International Fair
3.
Bureau International des Expositions
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To February 4,2016,169 member countries have adhered to the BIE Convention. The BIE regulates two types of expositions, Registered Exhibitions and Recognized Exhibitions, Horticultural Exhibitions with an A1 grade, regulated by the International Association of Horticultural Producers, are recognized since 1960. The USA had its membership of the BIE withdrawn in June 2001, the cause was the non-allocation of funds by the U. S. Congress for two years. The United States Congress has not provided a reason for failing to pay membership. The BIE remains open to participation from the United States, in a letter from April 20,2006, the secretary-general said, As you are aware, the United States government withdrew from the BIE in June 2001. Citizens realize and would welcome the strong impact a worlds fair can have on their city, state and it would be wonderful to, once again, attend an exhibition in the United States. Participation in the BIE is controlled by the Senate Foreign Relations Committee, rydell said the 1982 fair was not as bad as many people make it out to be. Since the start of the 21st century, Universal Expositions may occur every five years, lasting six months, on 5 and 0 ending years, i. e. Expo 2010 in Shanghai, Expo 2015 in Milan, and so forth. Countries, international organizations, civil societies, and corporations are allowed to participate in Registered Expositions, the Plaza of Africa at Seville was constructed for the same purpose. Registered Expositions are also massive in scale, sometimes 300 or 400 hectares in size, montreals Expo 67 attracted 54 million visitors, Osakas Expo 70,64 million visitors, the Seville Expo 92,41 million visitors and Shanghais Expo 2010 attracted 70 million visitors. Countries, international organizations, civil societies, and corporations are allowed to participate, the pavilions are built by the hosts and not the participants, and there is no rent for pavilions. Nevertheless, the largest pavilion may be no larger than 1000 square meters, for this reason Recognized Expositions are cheaper to run than Registered Expositions, and more money is spent on content of the pavilion as opposed to its design. A nation or organization does not need to be a member of the B. I. E. to be represented at a B. I. E, the use of mascots in World Exposition began with the 1984 Louisiana World Exposition. Seymore D. Fair, a 76 tall white pelican, was the mascot of the 1984 Louisiana World Exposition as well as the first mascot at any worlds fair. Seymore was seen as a way to highlight the water theme. Seymore D.9 in E Minor From the New World
4.
Prater
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The Prater is a large public park in Viennas 2nd district. The Wurstelprater amusement park, often simply called Prater, lies in one corner of the Wiener Prater and includes the Wiener Riesenrad Ferris wheel. The name Prater derives from one or the other or possibly both Latin words pratum, meaning meadow, and Praetor, meaning magistrate or lawyer, possibly via Spanish prado or Italian prato. The area that makes up the modern Prater was first mentioned in 1162, the word Prater was first used in 1403, originally referring to a small island in the Danube north of Freudenau, but was gradually extended to mean the neighbouring areas as well. The land changed hands frequently until it was bought by Emperor Maximilian II in 1560 to be a hunting ground, to deal with the problem of poachers, Emperor Rudolf II forbade entry to the Prater. On April 7,1766, Emperor Joseph II declared the Prater to be free for enjoyment, and allowed the establishment of coffee-houses and cafés. Throughout this time, hunting continued to place in the Prater. In 1873, a World Exhibition was held in the Prater, for which an area of land was set aside, centered on the Rotunda. This land now houses the Messegelände, on the grounds of modern-day Kaiserwiese, an attraction called Venice in Vienna” was established in 1895 by Gabor Steiner. The area included a lagoon to simulate the canals of Venice. In 2004, major renovations to the Wurstelprater began, and a new railway line was finished and brought into service on May 11,2008. The railway station Praterstern has been in operation for a time and is only a few dozen metres away from an entrance to the park. The overall area of the park has also reduced by the building of the Ernst-Happel-Stadion. In 2013, the new campus of the Wirtschaftsuniversität Wien was opened next to the Prater, the Hauptallee is the main artery, lined with horse chestnut trees, closed to motorists and known to sports enthusiasts from the annual Vienna Marathon. The Wiener Prater is home to the Liliputbahn, a gauge railway. Another unusual object to be found in the Wiener Prater is the Republik Kugelmugel, the Wiener Prater also houses a planetarium and the Prater Museum. Singers Midgets Official Prater site Liliputbahn miniature railway Official Vienna Tourism, Prater Prater on Citype Information, Prater Wien
5.
Exposition Universelle (1867)
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The International Exposition of 1867, was the second worlds fair to be held in Paris, from 1 April to 3 November 1867. Forty two nations were represented at the fair, following a decree of Emperor Napoleon III, the exposition was prepared as early as 1864, in the midst of the renovation of Paris, marking the culmination of the Second French Empire. In 1864, Napoleon III decreed that an international exposition should be held in Paris in 1867, a commission was appointed with Prince Jerome Napoleon as president, under whose direction the preliminary work began. In addition to the building, there were nearly 100 smaller buildings on the grounds. There were 50,226 exhibitors, of whom 15,055 were from France and her colonies,6176 from Great Britain and Ireland,703 from the United States and a small contingent from Canada. In the gallery of Labour History Jacques Boucher de Perthes, exposes one of the first prehistoric tools whose authenticity has been recognized with the accuracy of these theories. The exhibition also included two prototypes of the acclaimed and prize-winning hydrochronometer invented in 1867 by Gian Battista Embriaco. Farcot and sculptor Albert-Ernest Carrier-Be Belleuse, farcot exhibited several units, one of them it is currently in the Roosevelt Hotel in New Orleans. Its base, which features the face and inner mechanical movements, is carved from solid onyx marble. Atop the base, a sculpture depicting a robed female figure holds a scepter. Rotating soundlessly from the subjects hand, the scepter provides consistent motion that adds to the clocks sense of grandeur. From its base to the top of the figure stands at nearly 10 feet tall. Carrier de Belleuse was one of the most important and renowned sculptors of the 19th century, the exposition was formally opened on 1 April and closed on 31 October 1867, and was visited by 9,238,967 persons, including exhibitors and employees. This exposition was the greatest up to its time of all international expositions, for the first time Japan presented art pieces to the world in a national pavilion, especially pieces from the Satsuma and Saga clans in Kyushu. The Paris street near Champs de Mars, Rue de LExposition was named in hommage to this 1867 universal exhibition. Jules Verne visited the exhibition in 1867, his take on the newly publicized discovery of electricity inspiring him heavily in his writing of 20,000 Leagues Under the Sea. A famous revival of the ballet Le Corsaire was staged by the Ballet Master Joseph Mazilier in honor of the exhibition at the Théâtre Impérial de l´Opéra on 21 October 1867. The World Rowing Championships were held on the Seine River in July and was won by the underdog Canadian team from Saint John, rejtan This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain, Gilman, D. C
6.
Paris
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Paris is the capital and most populous city of France. It has an area of 105 square kilometres and a population of 2,229,621 in 2013 within its administrative limits, the agglomeration has grown well beyond the citys administrative limits. By the 17th century, Paris was one of Europes major centres of finance, commerce, fashion, science, and the arts, and it retains that position still today. The aire urbaine de Paris, a measure of area, spans most of the Île-de-France region and has a population of 12,405,426. It is therefore the second largest metropolitan area in the European Union after London, the Metropole of Grand Paris was created in 2016, combining the commune and its nearest suburbs into a single area for economic and environmental co-operation. Grand Paris covers 814 square kilometres and has a population of 7 million persons, the Paris Region had a GDP of €624 billion in 2012, accounting for 30.0 percent of the GDP of France and ranking it as one of the wealthiest regions in Europe. The city is also a rail, highway, and air-transport hub served by two international airports, Paris-Charles de Gaulle and Paris-Orly. Opened in 1900, the subway system, the Paris Métro. It is the second busiest metro system in Europe after Moscow Metro, notably, Paris Gare du Nord is the busiest railway station in the world outside of Japan, with 262 millions passengers in 2015. In 2015, Paris received 22.2 million visitors, making it one of the top tourist destinations. The association football club Paris Saint-Germain and the rugby union club Stade Français are based in Paris, the 80, 000-seat Stade de France, built for the 1998 FIFA World Cup, is located just north of Paris in the neighbouring commune of Saint-Denis. Paris hosts the annual French Open Grand Slam tennis tournament on the red clay of Roland Garros, Paris hosted the 1900 and 1924 Summer Olympics and is bidding to host the 2024 Summer Olympics. The name Paris is derived from its inhabitants, the Celtic Parisii tribe. Thus, though written the same, the name is not related to the Paris of Greek mythology. In the 1860s, the boulevards and streets of Paris were illuminated by 56,000 gas lamps, since the late 19th century, Paris has also been known as Panam in French slang. Inhabitants are known in English as Parisians and in French as Parisiens and they are also pejoratively called Parigots. The Parisii, a sub-tribe of the Celtic Senones, inhabited the Paris area from around the middle of the 3rd century BC. One of the areas major north-south trade routes crossed the Seine on the île de la Cité, this place of land and water trade routes gradually became a town
7.
Centennial Exposition
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Nearly 10 million visitors attended the exhibition and thirty-seven countries participated in it. The Great Central Fair of 1864, one of the fairs held during the Civil War, anticipated the combination of public, private. They also made Philadelphia a vital center in the Union war effort, the idea of the Centennial Exposition is credited to John L. Campbell, a professor of mathematics, natural philosophy and astronomy at Wabash College, Crawfordsville, Indiana. In December 1866, Campbell suggested to Philadelphias mayor that the United States Centennial be celebrated with an exposition in Philadelphia. Detractors said the project would not be able to find funding, other nations might not attend, the Franklin Institute became an early supporter of the exposition and asked the Philadelphia City Council for use of Fairmount Park. The Philadelphia City Council and the Pennsylvania General Assembly created a committee to study the project, congressman William D. Kelley spoke for the city and state and Daniel Johnson Morrell introduced a bill to create a United States Centennial Commission. The bill, which passed on March 3,1871, provided that the U. S. government would not be liable for any expenses, the United States Centennial Commission organized on March 3,1872, with Joseph R. Hawley of Connecticut as president. The Centennial Commissions commissioners included one representative from state and territory in the United States. On June 1,1872, Congress created a Centennial Board of Finance to help raise money, the boards president was John Welsh, brother of philanthropist William Welsh, who had raised funds for The Great Sanitary Fair in 1864. The board was authorized to sell up to US$10 million in stock via US$10 shares, the board sold US$1,784,320 worth of shares by February 22,1873. Philadelphia contributed US$1.5 million and Pennsylvania gave US$1 million, on February 11,1876, Congress appropriated US$1.5 million in a loan. John Welsh enlisted help from the women of Philadelphia who had helped him in The Great Sanitary Fair, a Womens Centennial Executive Committee was formed with Elizabeth Duane Gillespie, a descendant of Benjamin Franklin, as president. In its first few months, the group raised US$40,000, when the group learned the planning commission was not doing much to display the work of women, the group raised US$30,000 for a womens exhibition building. In 1873, the Centennial Commission named Alfred T. Goshorn as the general of the Exposition. The Fairmount Park Commission set aside 450 acres of West Fairmount Park for the exposition, the Commission decided to classify the exhibits into seven departments, agriculture, art, education and science, horticulture, machinery, manufactures, and mining and metallurgy. Newspaper publisher John W. Forney agreed to head and pay for a Philadelphia commission sent to Europe to invite nations to exhibit at the exposition, despite fears of a European boycott and high American tariffs making foreign goods not worthwhile, no European country declined the invitation. To accommodate out-of-town visitors, temporary hotels were constructed near the Centennials grounds, Philadelphia streetcars increased service and the Pennsylvania Railroad ran special trains from Philadelphias Market Street, New York City, Baltimore and Pittsburgh. The Philadelphia and Reading Railroad ran special trains from the Center City part of Philadelphia, a small hospital was built on the Expositions grounds by the Centennials Medical Bureau, but despite a heat wave during the summer, no mass deaths or epidemics occurred
8.
Philadelphia
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In 1682, William Penn, an English Quaker, founded the city to serve as capital of the Pennsylvania Colony. Philadelphia was one of the capitals in the Revolutionary War. In the 19th century, Philadelphia became an industrial center. It became a destination for African-Americans in the Great Migration. The areas many universities and colleges make Philadelphia a top international study destination, as the city has evolved into an educational, with a gross domestic product of $388 billion, Philadelphia ranks ninth among world cities and fourth in the nation. Philadelphia is the center of activity in Pennsylvania and is home to seven Fortune 1000 companies. The Philadelphia skyline is growing, with a market of almost 81,900 commercial properties in 2016 including several prominent skyscrapers. The city is known for its arts, culture, and rich history, Philadelphia has more outdoor sculptures and murals than any other American city. Fairmount Park, when combined with the adjacent Wissahickon Valley Park in the watershed, is one of the largest contiguous urban park areas in the United States. The 67 National Historic Landmarks in the city helped account for the $10 billion generated by tourism, Philadelphia is the only World Heritage City in the United States. Before Europeans arrived, the Philadelphia area was home to the Lenape Indians in the village of Shackamaxon, the Lenape are a Native American tribe and First Nations band government. They are also called Delaware Indians and their territory was along the Delaware River watershed, western Long Island. Most Lenape were pushed out of their Delaware homeland during the 18th century by expanding European colonies, Lenape communities were weakened by newly introduced diseases, mainly smallpox, and violent conflict with Europeans. Iroquois people occasionally fought the Lenape, surviving Lenape moved west into the upper Ohio River basin. The American Revolutionary War and United States independence pushed them further west, in the 1860s, the United States government sent most Lenape remaining in the eastern United States to the Indian Territory under the Indian removal policy. In the 21st century, most Lenape now reside in the US state of Oklahoma, with communities living also in Wisconsin, Ontario. The Dutch considered the entire Delaware River valley to be part of their New Netherland colony, in 1638, Swedish settlers led by renegade Dutch established the colony of New Sweden at Fort Christina and quickly spread out in the valley. In 1644, New Sweden supported the Susquehannocks in their defeat of the English colony of Maryland
9.
World's fair
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A worlds fair, world fair, world exposition, or universal exposition is a large international exhibition designed to showcase achievements of nations. These exhibitions vary in character and are held in varying parts of the world, the next world Expo is Expo 2020 and is to be held in Dubai, UAE. Since the 1928 Convention Relating to International Exhibitions came into force, bIE-approved fairs are of three types, universal, specialized and horticultural. They usually last from three weeks to six months, Worlds fairs originated in the French tradition of national exhibitions, a tradition that culminated with the French Industrial Exposition of 1844 held in Paris. This fair was followed by other exhibitions in continental Europe. The best-known first World Expo was held in The Crystal Palace in Hyde Park, London, United Kingdom, in 1851, under the title Great Exhibition of the Works of Industry of All Nations. The Great Exhibition, as it is called, was an idea of Prince Albert, Queen Victorias husband. It influenced the development of aspects of society, including art-and-design education, international trade and relations. This expo was the most obvious precedent for the international exhibitions, later called worlds fairs. Since their inception in 1851, the character of world expositions has evolved, three eras can be distinguished, the era of industrialization, the era of cultural exchange, and the era of nation branding. The first era could be called the era of industrialization and covered, roughly, in these days, world expositions were especially focused on trade, and were famous for the display of technological inventions and advancements. World expositions were the platforms where the state-of-the-art in science and technology from around the world were brought together, inventions such as the telephone were first presented during this era. An important part of the image of worlds fairs stems from this first era, the 1939–40 New York Worlds Fair diverged from the original focus of the worlds fair expositions. From then on, worlds fairs adopted specific cultural themes, they forecasted a future for society. Technological innovations were no longer the primary exhibits at fairs, the fairs encouraged effective intercultural communication for the exchange of innovation. The 1967 International and Universal Exposition in Montreal was promoted under the name Expo 67, event organizers retired the term worlds fair in favor of expo. From Expo 88 in Brisbane onwards, countries started to use world expositions more widely, finland, Japan, Canada, France and Spain are cases in point. A large study by Tjaco Walvis called Expo 2000 Hanover in Numbers showed that improving national image was the primary goal for 73% of the countries at Expo 2000
10.
Austria-Hungary
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The union was a result of the Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867 and came into existence on 30 March 1867. Austria-Hungary consisted of two monarchies, and one region, the Kingdom of Croatia-Slavonia under the Hungarian crown. It was ruled by the House of Habsburg, and constituted the last phase in the evolution of the Habsburg Monarchy. Following the 1867 reforms, the Austrian and the Hungarian states were co-equal, Foreign affairs and the military came under joint oversight, but all other governmental faculties were divided between respective states. Austria-Hungary was a state and one of the worlds great powers at the time. Austria-Hungary was geographically the second-largest country in Europe after the Russian Empire, at 621,538 km2, the Empire built up the fourth-largest machine building industry of the world, after the United States, Germany, and the United Kingdom. After 1878, Bosnia and Herzegovina was under Austro-Hungarian military and civilian rule until it was annexed in 1908. The annexation of Bosnia also led to Islam being recognized as a state religion due to Bosnias Muslim population. Austria-Hungary was one of the Central Powers in World War I and it was already effectively dissolved by the time the military authorities signed the armistice of Villa Giusti on 3 November 1918. The realms full, official name was The Kingdoms and Lands Represented in the Imperial Council, each enjoyed considerable sovereignty with only a few joint affairs. Certain regions, such as Polish Galicia within Cisleithania and Croatia within Transleithania, enjoyed autonomous status, the division between Austria and Hungary was so marked that there was no common citizenship, one was either an Austrian citizen or a Hungarian citizen, never both. This also meant that there were always separate Austrian and Hungarian passports, however, neither Austrian nor Hungarian passports were used in the Kingdom of Croatia-Slavonia-Dalmatia. Instead, the Kingdom issued its own passports which were written in Croatian and French and it is not known what kind of passports were used in Bosnia-Herzegovina, which was under the control of both Austria and Hungary. The Kingdom of Hungary had always maintained a separate parliament, the Diet of Hungary, the administration and government of the Kingdom of Hungary remained largely untouched by the government structure of the overarching Austrian Empire. Hungarys central government structures remained well separated from the Austrian imperial government, the country was governed by the Council of Lieutenancy of Hungary – located in Pressburg and later in Pest – and by the Hungarian Royal Court Chancellery in Vienna. The Hungarian government and Hungarian parliament were suspended after the Hungarian revolution of 1848, despite Austria and Hungary sharing a common currency, they were fiscally sovereign and independent entities. Since the beginnings of the union, the government of the Kingdom of Hungary could preserve its separated. After the revolution of 1848–1849, the Hungarian budget was amalgamated with the Austrian, from 1527 to 1851, the Kingdom of Hungary maintained its own customs controls, which separated her from the other parts of the Habsburg-ruled territories
11.
Rotunda (architecture)
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A rotunda is any building with a circular ground plan, and sometimes covered by a dome. It can also refer to a room within a building. The Pantheon in Rome is a famous rotunda, a Band Rotunda is a circular bandstand, usually with a dome. The rotunda has historical and architectural value because it was widespread in medieval Central Europe, a great number of parochial churches were built in this form in the 9th to 11th centuries BCE in Central Europe. This type of circular shaped parochial building can be found in great number in Hungary, Poland, Slovakia, Croatia, Austria, Bavaria, Dalmatia, Germany, and it was thought of as a structure descending from the Roman Pantheon. However, it can be found mainly not on former Roman territories, generally its size was 6–9 meters inner diameter and the apsis was directed toward the east. Sometimes 3 or 4 apsides were glued to the central circle, several types of rotundas are found in the Carpathian Basin, within the former boundaries of Medieval Hungary. The role and form developed from gradual enlargements of ancient small village churches, many of them still stand today, e. g. in Nagytótlak, Kallósd and Kissikátor in Hungary or in Bíňa and Šivetice in Slovakia. In many places the ancient foundations have been excavated and conserved, the village church of Sárospatak is complete with a simple circular nave and an eastern apse. The church of Alagimajor at Dunakeszi was enlarged toward the apse in the 14th century, in many cases the rotunda was used as the apse of the villages new and larger church. Such semi-circle apses are preserved all over the Carpathian Basin, rotundas of six apses, a most interesting form, are found at Karcsa, Kiszombor in Hungary, at Horjany in Ukraine and several places in Armenia. There is a connection between Central European and Caucasian rotundas of the 9th to 11th centuries BCE. Several Armenian built rotunda churches have sixfold arched central apsis, i. e. at Aragatz, Bagaran, Bagnayr, Botshor, at the same time eightfold arched central buildings are also frequently occurring in Armenia, Ani, Irind, Varzhahan. It was a suggestion that there was not only western European, temple of Heaven construction completed on 1420 during Yongle Emperor who also constructed Forbidden City of China. Fujian Tulou is a traditional rural dwellings of the Hakka in Fujian region of China and they are built between the 12th and the 20th centuries. The Baptistery at the Piazza dei Miracoli, Pisa, Italy, the Church of the Rotonda in Thessaloniki, built as the Tomb of Galerius in 306 AD. The St George Rotunda in Sofia, Bulgaria, a 4th-century Early Christian church, St. George Cathedral Church at Zvartnots, Armenia. St. Martins Rotunda in Vyšehrad Castle, Prague, Czech Republic, the Rotunda of St Marija Assunta in Mosta, Malta
12.
John Scott Russell
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John Scott Russell FRSE FRS was a Scottish civil engineer, naval architect and shipbuilder who built the Great Eastern in collaboration with Isambard Kingdom Brunel. He made the discovery of the wave of translation that gave birth to the study of solitons. Russell was a promoter of the Great Exhibition of 1851, John Russell was born on 9 May 1808 in Parkhead, Glasgow, the son of Reverend David Russell and Agnes Clark Scott. He spent one year at St. Andrews University before transferring to Glasgow University and it was while at Glasgow University that he added his mothers maiden name, Scott, to his own, to become John Scott Russell. Arthur Sullivan and his friend Frederic Clay were frequent visitors at the Scott Russell home in the mid-1860s, Clay became engaged to Alice, at some point in 1868, Sullivan started a simultaneous affair with Louise. Both relationships had ceased by early 1869, the American engineer Alexander Lyman Holley befriended Scott Russell and his family on his various visits to London at the time of the construction of Great Eastern. Holley also visited Scott Russells house in Sydenham, as a result of this, Holley, and his colleague Zerah Colburn, travelled on the maiden voyage of Great Eastern from Southampton to New York in June 1860. Scott Russells son, Norman, stayed with Holley at his house in Brooklyn — Norman also travelled on the maiden voyage and his son, Norman, followed his father in becoming a naval architect, contributing to the Institution of Naval Architects which his father had founded. While in Edinburgh he experimented with engines, using a square boiler for which he developed a method of staying the surface of the boiler which became universal. The Scottish Steam Carriage Company was formed producing a steam carriage with two cylinders developing 12 horsepower each, six were constructed in 1834, well-sprung and fitted out to high standard, which ran between Glasgow and Paisley at hourly intervals at 15 mph. The road trustees objected that it wore out the road and placed various obstructions of logs and stones in the road, but eventually one of the carriages was overturned and the boiler smashed, causing the death of several passengers. Two of the coaches were sent to London where they ran for a time between London and Greenwich. In 1834, while conducting experiments to determine the most efficient design for canal boats, in fluid dynamics the wave is now called Russells solitary wave. Its height gradually diminished, and after a chase of one or two miles I lost it in the windings of the channel. Such, in the month of August 1834, was my first chance interview with that singular, Scott Russell spent some time making practical and theoretical investigations of these waves. Unlike normal waves they will never merge—so a small wave is overtaken by a large one, if a wave is too big for the depth of water, it splits into two, one big and one small. Scott Russells experimental work seemed at contrast with Isaac Newtons and Daniel Bernoullis theories of hydrodynamics and his contemporaries spent some time attempting to extend the theory but it would take until the 1870s before an explanation was provided. Lord Rayleigh published a paper in Philosophical Magazine in 1876 to support John Scott Russells experimental observation with his mathematical theory, in his 1876 paper, Lord Rayleigh mentioned Scott Russells name and also admitted that the first theoretical treatment was by Joseph Valentin Boussinesq in 1871
13.
Viktor Hartmann
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Viktor Alexandrovich Hartmann was a Russian architect and painter. He was associated with the Abramtsevo Colony, purchased and preserved beginning in 1870 by Savva Mamontov, victor-Edouard Hartmann was born in Saint Petersburg into a family of German ancestry. He was orphaned at an age and grew up in the house of his mothers sister, L. Hemilian, and her husband Alexandre Hemilian. He studied at the Academy of Fine Arts in Saint Petersburg and he also worked as an architect and sketched, among other things, the monument to the thousandth anniversary of Russia in Novgorod, which was inaugurated in 1862. He made most of his colors and pencil drawings on journeys abroad in the years 1864 to 1868. Together with Ivan Ropet, Hartmann was one of the first artists to include traditional Russian motifs in his work, since Vladimir Stasov had introduced him to the circle of Mily Balakirev in 1870, he had been a close friend of the composer Modest Mussorgsky. This inspired Mussorgsky to compose his suite Pictures at an Exhibition, most of the works shown at the 1874 exhibition are now lost. List of Russian artists Reproductions of Viktor Hartmanns pictures More reproductions of Viktor Hartmanns pictures
14.
Port of Rijeka
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The Port of Rijeka is a seaport in Rijeka, Croatia, located on the shore of the Kvarner Gulf in the Adriatic Sea. The first records of the date to 1281. It was the port of the Kingdom of Hungary in the 19th century. Today, it is the largest port in Croatia with a throughput of 11.2 million tonnes, mostly oil, general cargo and bulk cargo. The partnership aims to expand the capacity to 600,000 TEUs. The third concessionaire is Jadranski naftovod, which operates an oil terminal in Omišalj, the first record of a port in Rijeka dates back to 1281, when the Great Council of the Republic of Venice reported a conflict of Venetian merchants and ship owners from Zadar and Rab. In 1719, the Port of Rijeka was granted a charter as a port by Holy Roman Emperor Charles VI, and the first road connecting the port to the hinterland. The inland connections were improved by the construction of the Josephina and Louisiana roads in 1779 and 1810 respectively. In 1776, Rijeka became a corpus separatum within the Habsburg Monarchy, known under its Hungarian/Italian name of Fiume, the development in this period boosted the Port of Rijeka to rank tenth in transport volume among European ports as it reached a peak in 1913. In the second half of the 19th century, a breakwater was built along with wharfs in the city of Rijeka itself. In the period, railway infrastructure was built to the north of the port, along with storage facilities, administrative buildings. The railway facilities were designed by Jozsef Bainville, while the port itself was designed by Hilarion Pascal, who had designed the Port of Marseille. The design was presented as a port at the Weltausstellung in Vienna in 1873. After the defeat of Austria-Hungary in World War I and the Treaty of Rapallo of 1920 and that marked the beginning of the ports decline, as it lost a large portion of its major market, Hungary. During World War II, Rijeka was targeted by around 30 Allied bombing raids, among the ships sunk in the port was the German auxiliary cruiser Kiebitz, which would later be raised and repaired to become the Yugoslav Navy Yacht Galeb. The city of Rijeka purchased the ship, which was moored in the port. Following World War II and the Paris Peace Treaties, Rijeka became a part of Croatia and Yugoslavia and this provided the Port of Rijeka with a new market and sparked further development. A bulk cargo terminal was completed in 1967, followed by warehouses in Škrljevo in 1978, in 1979, a container terminal in Sušak, a phosphate terminal in Rijeka and a timber terminal in Bršica were added
15.
Osman Hamdi Bey
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Osman Hamdi Bey was an Ottoman administrator, intellectual, art expert and also a prominent and pioneering painter. He was also an accomplished archaeologist, and is regarded as the pioneer of the museum curators profession in Turkey and he was the founder of Istanbul Archaeology Museums and of Istanbul Academy of Fine Arts, known today as the Mimar Sinan University of Fine Arts. He was adopted by Kaptan-ı Derya Hüsrev Pasha and eventually rose to the ranks of the class of the Ottoman Empire. Osman Hamdi went to school in the popular Istanbul quarter of Beşiktaş, after which he studied Law, first in Istanbul. However, he decided to pursue his interest in painting instead, left the Law program, during his nine-year stay in Paris, the international capital of fine arts at the time, he showed a keen interest for the artistic events of his day. His stay in Paris was also marked by the first ever visit by an Ottoman sultan to Western Europe, Osman Hamdi Bey also met his first wife Marie, a French woman, in Paris when he was a student. After receiving his fathers blessings, she accompanied him to Istanbul when he returned in 1869, during the 1870s, he worked on several assignments in the upper echelons of the Ottoman bureaucracy. Osman Hamdi exhibited three paintings at the 1867 Paris Exposition Universelle, none seem to have survived today, but their titles were Repose of the Gypsies, Black Sea Soldier Lying in Wait, and Death of the Soldier. An important step in his career was his assignment as the director of the Imperial Museum in 1881 and he used his position as museum director to develop the museum and rewrite the antiquities laws and to create nationally sponsored archaeological expeditions. In 1882, he instituted and became director of the Academy of Fine Arts, in 1884, he oversaw the promulgation of a Regulation prohibiting historical artifacts from being smuggled abroad, a giant step in constituting a legal framework of preservation of the antiquities. He conducted the first scientific based archaeological researches done by a Turkish team and his digs included sites as varied as the Commagene tomb-sanctuary in Nemrut Dağı in southeastern Anatolia, the Hekate sanctuary in Lagina in southwestern Anatolia, and Sidon in Lebanon. The sarcophagi he discovered in Sidon are considered among the jewels of archaeological findings. To lodge these, he started building what is today the Istanbul Archaeology Museum in 1881, the museum officially opened in 1891 under his directorship. Throughout his professional career as museum and academy director, Osman Hamdi continued to paint in the style of his teachers, Gérôme and Boulanger. His 1906 painting, The Tortoise Trainer, broke a record in Turkey by being sold for the amount of 3.5 million dollars in December 2004. The painting was acquired by the Suna and İnan Kıraç Foundation and is currently on display at the Pera Museum in İstanbul, modern researchers have identified the animals portrayed are Testudo graeca ibera, a variety of the Spur-thighed Tortoise. A reproduction of the painting appeared on the cover of the Bibliotheca Herpetologica issue in which the paper about the identification was published. His daughter Nazlı Hamdi married an Ottoman diplomat, Esat Cemil Bey, in 1912, and the couple had one daughter, Cenan Hamdi Sarç, Cenan Hamdi married Ömer Celal Sarç, who was the rector of Istanbul University in 1932
16.
Turkish bath
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A Turkish bath is the Islamic variant of the Roman bath, steambath, sauna, or Russian banya, distinguished by a focus on water, as distinct from ambient steam. In Western Europe, the Turkish bath as a method of cleansing, the process involved in taking a Turkish bath is similar to that of a sauna, but is more closely related to ancient Greek and ancient Roman bathing practices. The Turkish bath starts with relaxation in a room that is heated by a flow of hot, dry air. Bathers may then move to an even hotter room before they wash in cold water, after performing a full body wash and receiving a massage, bathers finally retire to the cooling-room for a period of relaxation. The difference between the Islamic hammam and the Victorian Turkish bath is the air, the hot air in the Victorian Turkish bath is dry, in the Islamic hammam the air is often steamy. The bather in a Victorian Turkish bath will often take a plunge in a pool after the hot rooms. In the Islamic hammams the bathers splash themselves with cold water and it is not wet air, nor moist air, nor vapoury air, it is not vapour in any shape or form whatever. It is an immersion of the body in hot common air. One of the Five Pillars of Islam is prayer and it is customary before praying for Muslims to perform ablutions. The two Islamic forms of ablution are ghusl, a cleansing, and wudu, a cleansing of the face, hands. In the most extreme of cases, cleansing with pure soil or sand is also permissible, often, hammams are located close to mosques and other places for prayer for those who wish to perform deeper cleansing. Islamic hammams, particularly in the Moroccan case, evolved from their Roman roots to adapt to the needs of ritual purification according to Islam, for example, in most Roman-style hammams, one finds a cold pool for full submergence of the body. The style of bathing is less preferable in the Islamic faith, for al-Ghazali, the hammam is a primarily male experience, and he cautions that women are to enter the hammam only after childbirth or illness. Even then al-Gazali finds it admissible for men to prohibit their wives or sisters from using the hammam, the major point of contention surrounding hammams in al-Ghazalis estimation is nakedness. In his work he warns that overt nakedness is to be avoided, … he should shield it from the sight of others and second, guard against the touch of others. He focuses extensively in his writing on the avoidance of touching the penis during bathing and he writes that nakedness is decent only when the area between the knees and the lower stomach of a man are hidden. For women, exposure of only the face and palms is appropriate, according to al-Gazali, the prevalence of nakedness in the hammam could incite indecent thoughts or behaviours and so it is a controversial space. Ritual ablution is also required before or after sexual intercourse, during those centuries of war, peace, alliance, trade and competition, the two cultures had tremendous influence on each other
17.
Vilayet
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The Vilayets of the Ottoman Empire were the first-order administrative division, or provinces, of the later empire, introduced with the promulgation of the Vilayet Law of 21 January 1867. The reform was part of the administrative reforms that were being enacted throughout the empire. The reform was at first implemented experimentally in the Danube Vilayet, specially formed in 1864, the reform was gradually implemented, and not until 1884 was it applied to the entirety of the Empires provinces. The term vilayet is derived from the Arabic word wilayah or wilaya, while in Arabic, the word wilaya is used to denote a province or region or district without any specific administrative connotation, the Ottomans used it to denote a specific administrative division. The vali was the representative of the Sultan in the vilayet and he was assisted by secretaries in charge of finances, correspondence and archives, dealings with foreigners, public works, agriculture and commerce, nominated by the respective ministers. Along with the justice, these officials formed the vilayets executive council. In addition, there was a provincial council of four members. The governor of the sanjak, where the vilayets capital was located, deputized for the vali in the latters absence. Provinces of Turkey Six vilayets, the Armenian vilayets of the empire Vilayet Law Vilayet Law of 1864, official translation to French pp. 36–45 Vilayet Law of 1867, in French
18.
Folk costume
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A folk costume expresses an identity through costume, which is usually associated with a geographic area or a period of time in history. It can also indicate social, marital and/or religious status, such costumes often come in two forms, one for everyday occasions, the other for festivals and formal wear. Following the outbreak of nationalism, the peasantry of Europe came to serve as models for all that appeared genuine. Their dress crystallised into so-called typical forms, and enthusiasts adopted that attire as part of their symbolism, in areas where Western dress codes have become usual, traditional garments are often worn at special events or celebrations, particularly those connected with cultural traditions, heritage or pride. International events may cater for non-Western attendees with a dress code such as business suit or national dress. In modern times, there are instances where traditional garments are required by sumptuary laws, in Bhutan, the traditional Tibetan-style clothing of gho and kera for men, kira and toego for women, must be worn by all citizens, including those not of Tibetan heritage. In Saudi Arabia, women are required to wear the abaya in public. Tibet – Chuba Inner Mongolia – Deel Japan – Kimono, Junihitoe, Sokutai Korea – Hanbok Mongolia – Deel Taiwan – Hanfu, Every ethnic group in the country has their national costume. Kebayas, sarongs and the Beskap jacket of the Javanese and the Kain batik, vietnam – Áo giao lĩnh, Áo dài, Áo tứ thân, Áo bà ba. Abkhazia – Chokha Armenia – Each region has its own style of folk costume, kuwait – Thawb Oman – Dishdasha Ossetia – Chokha Qatar – Kandura Palestine – Keffiyeh, Taqiyah, Palestinian costumes. Saudi Arabia – Thawb, Ghutrah, Agal, Bisht, Abaya, Jilbab, Niqab Syria – Dishdasha Turkey – Fez, Kaftan, Shalvar. United Arab Emirates – Kandura Yemen – Similar to Saudi Arabia, scotland – Highland dress, Kilt or trews, tam oshanter or Balmoral bonnet, doublet, Aboyne dress, and brogues or ghillies. Greek fishermans caps in many villages by the Aegean sea. Italy – Italian folk dance costumes, Roman clothing, Toga, Stola South Tyrol – Tracht, slovenia – Gorenjska noša Spain – Every autonomous region has its own national costume. For example, Bavarias well-known Tracht, Lederhosen and Dirndl, liechtenstein – Tracht, Dirndl Netherlands – Dutch cap, Klompen, poffer Switzerland – Every canton has its own specific design of a national costume. A good example is seen in the attire of Paul Bunyan. Deep South and other parts of the American South – Traditional Southern US wear includes white seersucker suits and string ties for men and these short pants remained commonplace among young urban American boys until the mid 20th century. Nantucket – Summer residents of Nantucket will often wear Nantucket Reds, amish, the Pennsylvania Dutch and some sects of Mormon fundamentalism preserve traditional 19th century clothing styles
19.
Rijeka
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Rijeka is the principal seaport and the third-largest city in Croatia. It is located on Kvarner Bay, an inlet of the Adriatic Sea and has a population of 128,624 inhabitants, the metropolitan area, which includes adjacent towns and municipalities, has a population of more than 240,000. According to the 2011 census data, the majority of its citizens are presently Croats, along with small numbers of Bosniaks, Italians. Rijeka is the city of Primorje-Gorski Kotar County. The citys economy depends on shipbuilding and maritime transport. Rijeka hosts the Croatian National Theatre Ivan pl. Zajc, first built in 1765, as well as the University of Rijeka, founded in 1973, historically Fiumano served as a lingua franca for the many ethnicities inhabiting the multicultural port-town. In 2016, Rijeka was selected as the European Capital of Culture for 2020, alongside Galway, historically, Rijeka was also called Tharsatica, Vitopolis, or Flumen in Latin. The city is called Rijeka in Croatian, Reka in Slovene and it is called Fiume in Italian. All these names mean river in their respective languages, meanwhile, Hungarian has adopted the Italian name while in German the city has been called Sankt Veit am Flaum or Pflaum. The Bay of Rijeka, which is bordered by Vela Vrata, Srednja Vrata, the City of Rijeka lies at the mouth of river Rječina and in the Vinodol micro-region of the Croatian coast. Two important land transport routes start in Rijeka due to its location, the first route is to the Pannonian Basin given that Rijeka is located alongside the narrowest point of the Dinaric Alps. The other route, across Postojna Gate connects Rijeka with Slovenia, Italy, the city long retained its dual character. Pliny mentioned Tarsatica in his Natural History, in the time of Augustus, the Romans rebuilt Tharsatica as a municipium Flumen, situated on the right bank of small river Rječina. It became a city within the Roman Province of Dalmatia until the 6th century, after the 4th century Rijeka was rededicated to St. Vitus, the citys patron saint, as Terra Fluminis sancti Sancti Viti or in German Sankt Veit am Pflaum. From the 5th century onwards, the town was ruled successively by the Ostrogoths, the Byzantines, the Lombards, Croats settled the city starting in the 7th century giving it the Croatian name, Rika svetoga Vida. At the time, Rijeka was a feudal stronghold surrounded by a wall, at the center of the city, its highest point, was a fortress. In 799 Rijeka was attacked by the Frankish troops of Charlemagne and their Siege of Trsat was at first repulsed, during which the Frankish commander Duke Eric of Friuli was killed. However, the Frankish forces finally occupied and devastated the castle, while the Duchy of Croatia passed under the overlordship of the Carolingian Empire, from about 925, the town was part of the Kingdom of Croatia, from 1102 in personal union with Hungary
20.
JSTOR
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JSTOR is a digital library founded in 1995. Originally containing digitized back issues of journals, it now also includes books and primary sources. It provides full-text searches of almost 2,000 journals, more than 8,000 institutions in more than 160 countries have access to JSTOR, most access is by subscription, but some older public domain content is freely available to anyone. William G. Bowen, president of Princeton University from 1972 to 1988, JSTOR originally was conceived as a solution to one of the problems faced by libraries, especially research and university libraries, due to the increasing number of academic journals in existence. Most libraries found it prohibitively expensive in terms of cost and space to maintain a collection of journals. By digitizing many journal titles, JSTOR allowed libraries to outsource the storage of journals with the confidence that they would remain available long-term, online access and full-text search ability improved access dramatically. Bowen initially considered using CD-ROMs for distribution, JSTOR was initiated in 1995 at seven different library sites, and originally encompassed ten economics and history journals. JSTOR access improved based on feedback from its sites. Special software was put in place to make pictures and graphs clear, with the success of this limited project, Bowen and Kevin Guthrie, then-president of JSTOR, wanted to expand the number of participating journals. They met with representatives of the Royal Society of London and an agreement was made to digitize the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society dating from its beginning in 1665, the work of adding these volumes to JSTOR was completed by December 2000. The Andrew W. Mellon Foundation funded JSTOR initially, until January 2009 JSTOR operated as an independent, self-sustaining nonprofit organization with offices in New York City and in Ann Arbor, Michigan. JSTOR content is provided by more than 900 publishers, the database contains more than 1,900 journal titles, in more than 50 disciplines. Each object is identified by an integer value, starting at 1. In addition to the site, the JSTOR labs group operates an open service that allows access to the contents of the archives for the purposes of corpus analysis at its Data for Research service. This site offers a facility with graphical indication of the article coverage. Users may create focused sets of articles and then request a dataset containing word and n-gram frequencies and they are notified when the dataset is ready and may download it in either XML or CSV formats. The service does not offer full-text, although academics may request that from JSTOR, JSTOR Plant Science is available in addition to the main site. The materials on JSTOR Plant Science are contributed through the Global Plants Initiative and are only to JSTOR
21.
International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
22.
The Great Exhibition
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It was the first in a series of Worlds Fairs, exhibitions of culture and industry that became popular in the 19th century, and it was a much anticipated event. The Great Exhibition was organized by Henry Cole and Prince Albert, husband of the reigning monarch, Queen Victoria. It was arguably a response to the highly successful French Industrial Exposition of 1844, indeed, Queen Victoria and her family visited three times. Although the Great Exhibition was a platform on which countries from around the world could display their achievements, Britain sought to prove its own superiority. The British exhibits at the Great Exhibition held the lead in almost every field where strength, durability, utility and quality were concerned, whether in iron and steel, Britain also sought to provide the world with the hope of a better future. Europe had just struggled through two decades of political and social upheaval, and now Britain hoped to show that technology. Technology and moving machinery were popular, especially working exhibits and she also notes that visitors could watch the entire process of cotton production from spinning to finished cloth. Scientific instruments were found in class X, and included electric telegraphs, microscopes, air pumps and barometers, a special building, nicknamed The Crystal Palace, or The Great Shalimar, was built to house the show. The building was architecturally adventurous, drawing on Paxtons experience designing greenhouses for the sixth Duke of Devonshire. It took the form of a glass house,1851 feet long by 454 feet wide and was constructed from cast iron-frame components and glass made almost exclusively in Birmingham. From the interior, the large size was emphasized with trees and statues, this served, not only to add beauty to the spectacle. The Crystal Palace was an success, considered an architectural marvel. The building was moved and re-erected in 1854 in enlarged form at Sydenham Hill in south London. It was destroyed by fire on 30 November 1936, six million people—equivalent to a third of the entire population of Britain at the time—visited the Great Exhibition. The average daily attendance was 42,831 with an attendance of 109,915 on 7 October. The event made a surplus of £186,000, which was used to found the Victoria and Albert Museum, the Science Museum and they were all built in the area to the south of the exhibition, nicknamed Albertopolis, alongside the Imperial Institute. The remaining surplus was used to set up an educational trust to provide grants and scholarships for industrial research, the Exhibition caused controversy as its opening approached. Some conservatives feared that the mass of visitors might become a revolutionary mob, must shock every honest and well-meaning Englishman
23.
Exposition Universelle (1855)
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The Exposition Universelle of 1855 was an International Exhibition held on the Champs-Élysées in Paris from 15 May to 15 November 1855. Its full official title was the Exposition Universelle des produits de lAgriculture, today the expositions sole physical remnant is the Théâtre du Rond-Point des Champs-Élysées designed by architect Gabriel Davioud, which originally housed the Panorama National. The exposition was an event in France, then newly under the reign of Emperor Napoleon III. It followed Londons Great Exhibition of 1851 and attempted to surpass that fairs Crystal Palace with its own Palais de lIndustrie, the arts displayed were shown in a separate pavilion on Avenue Montaigne. There were works from artists from 29 countries, including French artists Francois Rude, Ingres, Delacroix and Henri Lehmann, and British artists William Holman Hunt and John Everett Millais. According to its report,5,162,330 visitors attended the exposition. Expenses amounted to upward of $5,000,000, while receipts were scarcely one-tenth of that amount, the exposition covered 16 hectares with 34 countries participating. For the exposition, Napoleon III requested a system for Frances best Bordeaux wines which were to be on display for visitors from around the world. Brokers from the wine industry ranked the wines according to a reputation and trading price. The result was the important Bordeaux Wine Official Classification of 1855, thurston, H. T. Colby, F. M. eds. article name needed
24.
1862 International Exhibition
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The International of 1862, or Great London Exposition, was a worlds fair. William Sterndale Bennett composed music for the opening ceremony, all told, it attracted about 6.1 million visitors. Receipts were slightly above cost, leaving a profit of £790. It was held in South Kensington, London, on a site now occupied by the Natural History Museum and they were intended to be permanent, and were constructed in an un-ornamented style with the intention of adding decoration in later years as funds allowed. Much of the construction was of cast-iron,12,000 tons worth, fowke paid particular attention to lighting pictures in a way that would eliminate glare. Behind the picture galleries were the Industrial Buildings and these were composed of naves and transepts, lit by tall clerestories, with the spaces in the angles between them filled by glass-roofed courts. Above the brick entrances on the east and west fronts were two great glass domes, each 150 feet wide and 260 feet high - at that time the largest domes ever built. The timber-framed Machinery Galleries, the parts of the structure intended to be temporary. The opening took place on 1 May 1862, Queen Victoria, still in mourning for her consort Prince Albert did not attend, instead her cousin the Duke of Cambridge presided from a throne sited beneath the western dome. An opening address was delivered by the Earl Granville, chairman of Her Majestys Commissioners, an official closing ceremony took place on 1 November 1862, but the exhibition remained open to the public until 15 November 1862. Parliament declined the Governments wish to purchase the building and the materials were sold, the exhibition was a showcase of the advances made in the industrial revolution, especially in the decade since the first Great Exhibition of 1851. Among the items on display were, the telegraph, submarine cables. There was also a range of goods including fabrics, rugs, sculptures, furniture, plates, porcelain, silver and glass wares. The manufacture of ice by an early refrigerator caused a sensation, the work shown by William Morriss decorative arts firm of Morris, Marshall, Faulkner & Co. attracted much notice. The exposition also introduced the use of caoutchouc for rubber production, benjamin Simpson showed photos from the Indian subcontinent. The images were made using the new collodion wet plate process which allowed exposure times of only a few seconds and these images provide a vivid three-dimensional record of the exhibition. They were on sale to the public in boxed sets and were delivered to the Queen by messenger so that she could experience the exhibition from her seclusion in mourning. The London and North Western Railway exhibited one of their express passenger locomotives, there was an extensive art galley designed to allow an even light without reflection on the pictures
25.
Exposition Universelle (1878)
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The third Paris Worlds Fair, called an Exposition Universelle in French, was held from 1 May through to 10 November 1878. It celebrated the recovery of France after the 1870–71 Franco-Prussian War, however, efforts made in April were prodigious, and by 1 June, a month after the formal opening, the exhibition was finally completed. This exposition was on a far larger scale than any previously held anywhere in the world and it covered over 66 acres, the main building in the Champ de Mars and the hill of Chaillot, occupying 54 acres. The Gare du Champ de Mars was rebuilt with four tracks to receive rail traffic occasioned by the exposition, the Pont dIéna linked the two exhibition sites along the central allée. The French exhibits filled one-half of the space, with the remaining exhibition space divided among the other nations of the world. Germany was the major country which was not represented. The United States exhibition was headed by a series of commissioners, young, a former United States Congressman and major general in the Confederate States Army and Floyd Perry Baker, a Kansas newspaper editor, as well as other generals, politicians, and celebrities. The United Kingdoms expenditure was defrayed out of the consolidated revenue, the UK display was under the control of a royal commission, of which the Prince of Wales was president. The Gallery of Machines was a building, an industrial showcase of low transverse arches. Many of the buildings and statues were made of staff, a low-cost temporary building material invented in Paris in 1876, which consisted of fiber, plaster of Paris. On the northern bank of the Seine River, a palace was constructed for the exhibition at the tip of the Place du Trocadéro. It was a handsome Moorish structure, with towers 76 metres in height, on 30 June 1878, the completed head of the Statue of Liberty was showcased in the garden of the Trocadéro palace, while other pieces were on display in the Champs de Mars. Among the many inventions on display was Alexander Graham Bells telephone, thomas Edison had on display a megaphone and phonograph. International juries judged the various exhibits, awarding medals of gold, silver, one popular feature was a human zoo, called a negro village, composed of 400 indigenous people. Gold award for painting, Jan Matejko, for the The Hanging of the Sigismund Bell, Union of Lublin, gold award for photography, Aimé Dupont Over 13 million people paid to attend the exposition, making it a financial success. In addition to the impetus given to French trade, the revenue from customs. Concurrent with the exposition, a number of meetings and conferences were held to gain consensus on international standards, French writer Victor Hugo led the Congress for the Protection of Literary Property, which led to the eventual formulation of international copyright laws. Similarly, other meetings led to efforts to standardize the flow of mail from country to country, the International Congress for the Amelioration of the Condition of Blind People led to the worldwide adoption of the Braille System of touch-reading
26.
Melbourne International Exhibition (1880)
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The Melbourne International Exhibition is the eighth Worlds fair officially recognised by the Bureau of International Expositions and the first official Worlds Fair in the Southern Hemisphere. After being granted self-governance, Victoria and New South Wales, saw an economic growth as result of the discovery. This growth during the 1850s and 1860s led to rivalry between their respective capitals Melbourne and Sydney, Melbourne started preparations in 1879 and filed a plan to the Parliament. Melbournes rival Sydney, the older of the two cities, wanted to be the first and organised an exhibition in record time, Melbourne decided to start their exhibition shortly after the one in Sydney, so the participants could transport their exhibits during the winter of 1880. The Melbourne International Exhibition was held from 1 October 1880 until 30 April 1881 and it was the second international exhibition to be held in Australia, the first being held the previous year in Sydney. 1.459 million people visited the exhibition, but made a loss of 277292 pounds, the exhibition was also opened for entertainment and tourism. The Royal Exhibition Building, set in the Victorian Carlton Gardens was completed in 1880 to host the exhibition, the foundation stone was laid by Victorian governor George Bowen. The building was extended and reused in 1888 as venue for the Melbourne Centennial Exhibition, some of the original building remains today and is a World Heritage Site
27.
1888 Barcelona Universal Exposition
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The 1888 Barcelona Universal Exposition was Spains first International Worlds Fair and ran from May 20 to December 9,1888. It was also the first of the two held in Barcelona, eugenio Serrano de Casanova tried to launch an exposition in 1886, and when that failed, the Mayor of Barcelona, Francesc Rius i Taulet, took over the planning of the project. The fair was hosted on the reconstructed 115-acre site of the main public park. More than 2 million people from Spain, the rest of Europe, and other points of embarkation visited the exhibition. The fair was opened by Alfonso XIII of Spain and Maria Christina of Austria, twenty-seven countries participated, including China, Japan and the United States. The piano manufacturer Erard sponsored a series of 20 concerts featuring Isaac Albéniz, another product of the World Fair is the Modernista or Neo-Mudéjar Arc de Triomf, the Fairs former gateway, presiding over Passeig de Lluís Companys. Other architectural details in the city bear witness to the passage of the World Fair as well, the Columbus Monument, a 60 m tall monument to Christopher Columbus, was built for the exposition on the site where Columbus returned to Europe after his first voyage to the Americas. It was erected at the end of Les Rambles and remains standing today
28.
Exposition Universelle (1889)
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The Exposition Universelle of 1889 was a worlds fair held in Paris, France, from 6 May to 31 October 1889. It was held during the year of the 100th anniversary of the storming of the Bastille, an event considered symbolic of the beginning of the French Revolution. The 1889 Exposition covered an area of 0.96 km2, including the Champ de Mars, the Trocadéro, the quai dOrsay, a part of the Seine. Transport around the Exposition was partly provided by a 3 kilometre 600 millimetre gauge railway by Decauville and it was claimed that the railway carried 6,342,446 visitors in just six months of operation. Some of the used on this line later saw service on the Chemins de Fer du Calvados. The main symbol of the Fair was the Eiffel Tower, which served as the arch to the Fair. The 1889 fair was held on the Champ de Mars in Paris, which had been the site of the earlier Paris Universal Exhibition of 1867, since the lifts had not been completed when the Exposition opened, the first visitors had to walk up to the second floor platform. Workers had worked through the night the day before the exhibition opened to complete the construction needed to safely allow patrons to set foot upon the structure. No one other than construction personnel were allowed higher than the second floor platform, an equally significant building constructed for the fair was the Galerie des machines, designed by architect Ferdinand Dutert and engineer Victor Contamin. It was reused at the exposition of 1900 and then destroyed in 1910, at 111 meters, the Galerie spanned the longest interior space in the world at the time, using a system of hinged arches made of steel or iron. Although often described as being constructed of steel, it was made of iron. There is a description, with illustrations, of the Expositions two famous buildings in the British journal Engineering. A follow-up report appears a late issue with this summation, the exhibition will be famous for four distinctive features, the 28 June issue of Engineering also mentions a remarkable Great Model of the Earth created by Theodore Villard and Charles Cotard. There were unseasonal thunderstorms in Paris during that summer of 1889, causing distress to the canopies and decoration of the exposition. The Exhibition included a building by the Paris architect Pierre-Henri Picq and this was an elaborate iron and glass structure decorated with ceramic tiles in a Byzantine-Egyptian-Romanesque style. After the Exposition the building was shipped to Fort de France and reassembled there, known as the Schoelcher Library, initially it contained the 10,000 books that Victor Schoelcher had donated to the island. Today it houses over 250,000 books and an ethnographic museum, a Negro village where 400 people were displayed constituted the major attraction. At the Exposition, the French composer Claude Debussy first heard Javanese gamelan music and this influenced some of his later compositions
29.
World's Columbian Exposition
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The Worlds Columbian Exposition was a worlds fair held in Chicago in 1893 to celebrate the 400th anniversary of Christopher Columbuss arrival in the New World in 1492. The centerpiece of the Fair, the water pool, represented the long voyage Columbus took to the New World. Chicago bested New York City, Washington, D. C. the Exposition was an influential social and cultural event and had a profound effect on architecture, sanitation, the arts, Chicagos self-image, and American industrial optimism. The layout of the Chicago Columbian Exposition was, in part, designed by John Wellborn Root, Daniel Burnham, Frederick Law Olmsted. It was the prototype of what Burnham and his colleagues thought a city should be and it was designed to follow Beaux Arts principles of design, namely French neoclassical architecture principles based on symmetry, balance, and splendor. The color of the generally used to cover the buildings facades gave the fairgrounds its nickname. Many prominent architects designed its 14 great buildings, artists and musicians were featured in exhibits and many also made depictions and works of art inspired by the exposition. The exposition covered more than 600 acres, featuring nearly 200 new buildings of predominantly neoclassical architecture, canals and lagoons, more than 27 million people attended the exposition during its six-month run. Dedication ceremonies for the fair were held on October 21,1892, the fair continued until October 30,1893. On October 9,1893, the day designated as Chicago Day, the debt for the fair was soon paid off with a check for $1.5 million. Chicago has commemorated the fair one of the stars on its municipal flag. Schwab, Chicago railroad and manufacturing magnate John Whitfield Bunn, and Connecticut banking, insurance, the fair was planned in the early 1890s during the Gilded Age of rapid industrial growth, immigration, and class tension. Worlds fairs, such as Londons 1851 Crystal Palace Exhibition, had been successful in Europe as a way to bring together societies fragmented along class lines, the first American attempt at a worlds fair in Philadelphia in 1876, drew crowds but was a financial failure. Nonetheless, ideas about distinguishing the 400th anniversary of Columbus landing started in the late 1880s. Civic leaders in St. Louis, New York City, Washington DC and Chicago expressed an interest in hosting a fair to generate profits, boost real estate values, Congress was called on to decide the location. What finally persuaded Congress was Chicago banker Lyman Gage, who raised several million dollars in a 24-hour period, over. The exposition corporation and national exposition commission settled on Jackson Park, Daniel H. Burnham was selected as director of works, and George R. Davis as director-general. Burnham emphasized architecture and sculpture as central to the fair and assembled the periods top talent to design the buildings, the temporary buildings were designed in an ornate Neoclassical style and painted white, resulting in the fair site being referred to as the “White City”
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Brussels International Exposition (1897)
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The Brussels International Exposition of 1897 was a Worlds fair held in Brussels, Belgium, from May 10,1897 through November 8,1897. There were 27 participating countries, and an attendance of 7.8 million people. The main venues of the fair were the Cinquantenaire Parks and a section at Tervuren showcasing King Leopold II of Belgiums personal property. The two exposition sites were linked by a purpose-built tramway, the Tervuren section was hosted in the Palace of the Colonies, designed by Belgian architect Albert-Philippe Aldophe. In the main hall Georges Hobé designed a distinctive wooden Art Nouveau structure to evoke the forest, using Bilinga wood, an African tree. The interior exhibition displayed ethnographic objects, stuffed animals and in the Hall of the Great Cultures Congos most important export products were displayed, coffee, cacao, in the park, an example Congolese village was built, where 267 Africans lived through the period of the fair. The success of this led to the permanent establishment of the Royal Museum for Central Africa in 1898. Henri Privat-Livemont produced posters for the exposition, there seem to be few physical remnants. A public favorite at the World’s fair was Vieux-Bruxelles, a miniature city and its construction was begun on 19 October 1896 and its inauguration took place on 24 April 1897. Somewhat foreshadowing Main Street at Disneyland, Vieux-Bruxelles offered visitors nostalgic, as Charles Vogel put it, Bruxelles-Kermesse, c’est la cité populaire avec ses distractions nombreuses, ses plaisirs à la bonne franquette, ses éléments de gaieté partout renouvelés. … Le visiteur est frappé tout d’abord par un ensemble de constructions diverses, maisons, portes monumentales, tours, … Ce n’est pas un musée, un groupement archaïque, c’est une vieille ville
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Exposition Universelle (1900)
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The style that was universally present in the Exposition was Art Nouveau. The staging of the first International Exhibition in 1855 was motivated by a desire to re-establish pride, the succession of exhibitions followed the same theme, the regeneration of nationality after war. Eight years before the launch of the 1900 Paris Exposition Universelle, countries from around the world were invited by France to showcase their achievements and lifestyles, the Exposition Universelle was a uniting and learning experience. It presented the opportunity for foreigners to realize the similarities between nations as well as their unique differences, new cultures were experienced and an overall better understanding of the values each country had to offer was gained. The learning atmosphere aided in attempts to increase cultural tolerance, deemed necessary after a period of war, the early announcement and the massively positive response disenchanted the interest that had been circling around the first German International Exposition. It is suspected that the Exposition Universelle did not do as well financially as expected because the public did not have the funds to participate in the fair. The 1900 Paris Exposition Universelle was so expensive to organize and run that the cost per visitor ended up being about six hundred more than the price of admission. The exhibition lost a total of 82,000 francs after six months in operation. Many Parisians had invested money in shares sold to raise money for the event, with a much larger expected turnout the exhibit sites had gone up in value. Continuing to pay rent for the sites became increasingly hard for concessionaires as they were receiving fewer customers than anticipated, the concessionaires went on strike, which ultimately resulted in the closure of a large part of the exposition. To resolve the matter, the concessionaires were given a refund of the rent they had paid. The financial consequences of the 1900 Exposition Universelle were devastating for many Parisians, the Exposition Universelle was where talking films and escalators were first publicized, and where Campbells Soup was awarded a gold medal. At the exposition Rudolf Diesel exhibited his engine, running on peanut oil. Brief films of excerpts from opera and ballet were apparently the first films exhibited publicly with projection of both image and recorded sound, the exposition also featured many panoramic paintings and extensions of the panorama technique, such as the Cinéorama, Mareorama, and Trans-Siberian Railway Panorama. The centrepiece of the Palais de lOptique was the 1. 25-metre-diameter Great Exposition Refractor and this telescope was the largest refracting telescope at that time. The optical tube assembly was 60 meters long and 1.5 meters in diameter, light from the sky was sent into the tube by a movable 2-meter mirror. Partly organized by Booker Washington and W. E. B, du Bois, this exhibition aimed at showing African Americans positive contributions to American society. Many of the buildings constructed for the Exposition Universelle were demolished after the conclusion of the exposition, many of the buildings were built on a framework of wood, and covered with staff, which was formed into columns, statuary, walls, stairs, etc
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Louisiana Purchase Exposition
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The Louisiana Purchase Exposition, informally known as the St. Louis Worlds Fair, was an international exposition held in St. Louis, Missouri, United States, from April 30 to December 1,1904. Local, state, and federal funds totaling $15 million were used to finance the event, more than 60 countries and 43 of the 45 American states maintained exhibition spaces at the fair, which was attended by nearly 19.7 million people. Historians generally emphasize the prominence of themes of race and empire, from the point of view of the memory of the average person who attended the fair, it primarily promoted entertainment, consumer goods and popular culture. In 1904, St. Louis hosted a Worlds Fair to celebrate the centennial of the 1803 Louisiana Purchase, an additional $5 million was generated through private donations by interested citizens and businesses from around Missouri, a fundraising target reached in January 1901. The fundraising mission was aided by the support of President of the United States William McKinley. The exposition remained in operation from its opening until December 1,1904, the fairs 1, 200-acre site, designed by George Kessler, was located at the present-day grounds of Forest Park and on the campus of Washington University, and was the largest fair to date. There were over 1,500 buildings, connected by some 75 miles of roads and it was said to be impossible to give even a hurried glance at everything in less than a week. The Palace of Agriculture alone covered some 20 acres, exhibits were staged by approximately 50 foreign nations, the United States government, and 43 of the then-45 U. S. states. These featured industries, cities, private organizations and corporations, theater troupes, over 19 million individuals were in attendance at the fair. In conjunction with the Exposition the U. S, post Office issued a series of five commemorative stamps celebrating the 100th anniversary of the Louisiana Purchase. Louisiana Purchase Commemoratives Kessler, who designed many parks in Texas. A popular myth says that Frederick Law Olmsted, who had died the year before the Fair, designed the park, there are several reasons for this confusion. First, Kessler in his twenties had worked briefly for Olmsted as a Central Park gardener, second, Olmsted was involved with Forest Park in Queens, New York. Third, Olmsted had planned the renovations in 1897 to the Missouri Botanical Garden several blocks to the southeast of the park, finally, Olmsteds sons advised Washington University on integrating the campus with the park across the street. Taylor quickly appointed Emmanuel Louis Masqueray to be his Chief of Design, Masqueray resigned shortly after the Fair opened in 1904, having been invited by Archbishop John Ireland of St. Paul, Minnesota to design a new cathedral for the city. Paul J. Pelz was architect for the Palace of Machinery, many African Americans contributed to architecture design, but were not credited. Florence Hayward, a freelance writer in St. Louis in the 1900s was determined to play a role in the Worlds Fair. She negotiated a position on the otherwise all-male Board of Commissioners, Hayward learned that one of the potential contractors for the fair was not reputable and warned the Louisiana Purchase Exposition Company
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Milan International (1906)
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The Milan International was a worlds fair held in Milan in 1906 titled LEsposizione Internazionale del Sempione, or sometimes The Great Expo of Work. It received 4,012,776 visits and covered 250 acres, the fair opened on 28 April 1906, ran until 31 October and marked the opening of the Simplon Tunnel. The fair was held in Sempione Park and Piazza dArmi, with the first location hosting fine arts displays, countries contributing included many from Western Europe, China, Japan, Turkey, United States, Canada and several South American countries shared a pavilion. The International Commission on Occupational Health was founded at the Milan International and is active, and the Milan aquarium was built. Expo 2015 Worlds fair Milan Triennial Official website of the BIE MI1906 - La città bianca nella storia e nelle collezioni
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Brussels International 1910
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Exposition Universelle et Internationale was a worlds fair held in Brussels in 1910 from 23 April to 1 November. This was just thirteen years after the previous Brussels worlds fair and it received 13 million visitors, covered 220 acres and lost 100,000 Belgian Francs. A major site for the exhibition was the Mont des Arts,26 countries participated, including France and Germany whose Attaché des Reichskommissars Heinrich Albert. The fine art section included modern art loaned by the French including 3 works each by Monet, Rodin, painters who participated included the Belgian Aloïs Boudry who won a silver medal, and the French Adrien Karbowsky. The altarpiece of the St. Jan Berchmans Church, Brussels was presented There was a big fire on 14 and 15 August which gutted several pavilions, the Hotel Astoria, Brussels was built for the fair, and is now a protected monument
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Turin International
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The Turin International was a worlds fair held in Turin in 1911 titled Esposizione internazionale dellindustria e del lavoro. It received 4,012,776 visits and covered 247 acres and this fair deliberately distinguished itself by focusing on industry and labour. The fair was held in the Parco del Valentino
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Exposition universelle et internationale (1913)
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The Exposition universelle et internationale of 1913 was a Worlds Fair held in Ghent from 6 April to 31 October. A tunnel in the Gent-Sint-Pieters railway station project is named after him. A number of buildings were completed for the occasion, notably, Gent-Sint-Pieters railway station was completed in 1912 in time for the exposition, and was situated opposite the new hotel, Flandria Palace. The park, Citadelpark, was redesigned for the fair. The exposition was held on an area of 130 hectares, which was larger than Expo 58 in Brussels, various Belgian cities had a pavilion and an artificial town, called Oud Vlaenderen was created. The four sons of Aymon statue, depicting Reinout, Adelaert, Ritsaert and Writsaert on their horse, in preparation for the exhibition, renovations were made in the centre of Ghent, including a large number of houses on the Graslei. The construction of the exhibition was controversial and ended on the eve of World War I with serious debts, belgiums first aerial postage service was operated from 1 May to 25 August by Henri Crombez during the exposition
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1929 Barcelona International Exposition
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The 1929 Barcelona International Exposition was the second World Fair to be held in Barcelona, the first one being in 1888. It took place from 20 May 1929 to 15 January 1930 in Barcelona, Catalonia and it was held on Montjuïc, the hill overlooking the harbor, southwest of the city center, and covered an area of 118 hectares at an estimated cost of 130 million pesetas. Twenty European nations participated in the fair, including Germany, Britain, Belgium, Denmark, France, Hungary, Italy, Norway, Romania, in addition, private organizations from the United States and Japan participated. Latin American countries as well as the United States were represented in the Ibero-Americana section in Sevilla, a new exposition was proposed to highlight the citys further technological progress and increase awareness abroad of modern Catalan industry. This new exhibition required the planning of Montjuïc and its adjacent areas. The exposition called for a deal of urban development within the city. At a local level, this meant the consolidation of Noucentisme, the idea of a new exhibition began to take shape in 1905, promoted by the architect Josep Puig i Cadafalch, as a way of bringing out the new Plan of links designed by Léon Jaussely. It was initially proposed that the Exposition should be constructed in the area of the Besòs River, while originally planned for 1917, the exposition was delayed due to World War I. In 1915, the committee presented a first draft by Puig i Cadafalch, the principal difficulty of the project was the amount of land required. The exposition would need at least 110 hectares, and the Barcelona City Council had only 26 by 1914, thus, using an 1879 law, they resorted to land-expropriation. In 1917, development work began at Montjuïc, with assistant engineer Marià Rubio i Bellver, landscaping was done by Jean-Claude Nicolas Forestier, who was assisted by Maria Rubio i Tudurí Nicolau. Their design was distinctly Mediterranean, with influences, combining the gardens with the construction of pergolas. Likewise, a funicular was built to access to the top of the mountain, as well as an aerial tram. However, the tram did not open until 1931, after the fair was closed. Also, the delay made obsolete the goal of promoting electrical industry, the change of objective led to the reorganization of the exhibition, so that it was devoted to three aspects, industry, the sports, and art. In this new period, the fell into the hands of Pere Domènech i Roura, the Marquis de Foronda. Despite this diversity, most buildings—at least the official ones—had a common theme of monumentality and grandiosity and this particularly included Art Deco and rationalism. The exposition was opened by King Alfonso XIII on 19 May 1929, in terms of cost, the exhibition lost money, with a deficit of 180 million pesetas
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Ibero-American Exposition of 1929
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The Ibero-American Exposition of 1929 was a worlds fair held in Seville, Spain, from 9 May 1929 until 21 June 1930. Each Spanish region and each of the provinces of Andalusia were also represented, spain’s Dictator General Miguel Primo de Rivera gave the opening address. Primo de Rivera allowed the Spanish King Alfonso XIII to give the final words, the purpose of the exposition was to improve relations between Spain and the countries in attendance, many of which were former Spanish colonies. Other countries were represented at the International section in Barcelona, the exposition was smaller in scale than the International Exposition held in Barcelona during that same year, but it was not lacking in style. The city of Seville had prepared for the Exposition over the course of 19 years, the exhibition buildings were constructed in María Luisa Park along the Guadalquivir River. A majority of the buildings were built to remain permanent after the closing of the exposition, many of the foreign buildings, including the United States exhibition building, were to be used as consulates after the closing of the exhibits. By the opening of the all of the buildings were complete. Spain spent an amount of money in developing its exhibits for the fair. The exhibits were designed to show the social and economic progress of Spain as well as expressing its culture, Spanish architect Don Aníbal González designed the largest and most famous of the buildings, which surrounded the Plaza de España. The largest of the exhibits housed in building was located in the “Salón del Descubrimento de América. An exact replica of Columbus’s ship the “Santa María, ” complete with a costumed crew, the cities of Spain contributed structures designed to reflect their unique cultures to be placed in the “Pabellones de las regiones españolas”. Spain’s exhibits also included a collection of art located in the Palacio Mudéjar, Palacio Renacimiento. The Institute of Art from the University of Seville was moved to the Palacio Mudéjar for the duration of the exposition on the permission gained from the committee by Count Columbi. The committee also set aside funds from their budget to purchase materials for the Institute, the main building was to serve as the U. S. Of the Ibero-American nations in attendance of the exposition,10 constructed pavilions to display their exhibits, other nations, including Bolivia, Panama, El Salvador, Costa Rica, and Ecuador displayed their native products in the “Galerías comerciales americanas”. The largest of the ten pavilions was the Peruvian pavilion, which was designed by the architect Don Manuel Piqueras Cotolí, the pavilion contained a large archeology collection consisting of three halls filled with pre-Columbian era artifacts, which were to be kept on permanent display. The pavilion also contained an agricultural exhibit filled with stuffed vicuñas, alpacas, llamas, the exhibit was complemented by a pack of live llamas grazing on the pavilion grounds. The Republic of Colombia constructed a pavilion designed by Seville architect José Granados, the pavilion included a collection of sculpture and artwork by Colombian artist Rómulo Rozo, and of Colombian emeralds, and a coffee café that demonstrated all of the steps in coffee cultivation
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Century of Progress
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The theme of the fair was technological innovation. A Century of Progress was organized as an Illinois nonprofit corporation in January 1928 for the purpose of planning and hosting a Worlds Fair in Chicago in 1934. City officials designated three and a half miles of reclaimed land along the shore of Lake Michigan between 12th and 39th streets on the Near South Side for the fairgrounds. Held on a 427 acres portion of Burnham Park the Century of Progress opened on May 27,1933, the fairs opening night began with a nod to the heavens. Lights were automatically activated when the rays of the star Arcturus were detected, the star was chosen as its light had started its journey at about the time of the previous Chicago worlds fair—the Worlds Columbian Exposition—in 1893. The rays were focused on cells in a series of astronomical observatories. The fair buildings were multi-colored, to create a Rainbow City as opposed to the White City of the Worlds Columbian Exposition, the buildings generally followed Moderne architecture in contrast to the neoclassical themes used at the 1893 fair. One famous feature of the fair were the performances of fan dancer Sally Rand, other popular exhibits were the various auto manufacturers, the Midway, and a recreation of important scenes from Chicagos history. One of the highlights of the 1933 Worlds Fair was the arrival of the German airship Graf Zeppelin on October 26,1933, after circling Lake Michigan near the exposition for two hours, Commander Hugo Eckener landed the 776-foot airship at the nearby Curtiss-Wright Airport in Glenview. It remained on the ground for twenty-five minutes then took off ahead of a weather front bound for Akron. This triggered dissension in the days following its visit, particularly within the citys large German-American population, but it was Packard which won the best of show. Marine artist Hilda Goldblatt Gorenstein painted twelve murals for the Navys exhibit in the Federal Building for the fair, the first Major League Baseball All-Star Game was held at Comiskey Park in conjunction with the fair. To cap its record-breaking speed run, the Zephyr arrived dramatically on-stage at the fairs Wings of a Century transportation pageant, the two trains launched an era of industrial streamlining. Both trains later went into revenue service, the Union Pacifics as the City of Salina. The Zephyr is now on exhibit at Chicagos Museum of Science, Frank Buck furnished a wild animal exhibit, Frank Buck’s Jungle Camp. Over two million people visited Buck’s reproduction of the camp he and his native assistants lived in while collecting animals in Asia, after the fair closed, Buck moved the camp to a compound he had created at Amityville, New York. Planning for the design of the Exposition began over five years prior to Opening Day, local architects on the committee included Edward Bennett, John Holabird, and Hubert Burnham. Frank Lloyd Wright was specifically left off the commission due to his inability to work well with others, members of this committee ended up designing most of the large, thematic exhibition pavilions
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Brussels International Exposition (1935)
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The Brussels International Exposition of 1935 a Universal exhibition held in Heysel, near Brussels in Belgium, between 27 April and 6 November 1935. Officially sanctioned by the Bureau International des Expositions, twenty-five countries officially participated, the theme was colonization, on the 50th anniversary of the establishment of the Congo Free State. The expo attracted some twenty million visitors, the Belgian art exposition prominently displayed the work of contemporary Belgian artists, including Paul Delvaux, René Magritte and Louis Van Lint, boosting their careers. The Palais des Expositions, and at least three other of the 1935 structures, were re-used for Expo 58 which was held at the site in 1958
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1939 New York World's Fair
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Many countries around the world participated in it, and over 44 million people attended its exhibits in two seasons. The NYWF of 1939–1940 was the first exposition to be based on the future, with a slogan of Dawn of a New Day. To its visitors the Fair will say, Here are the materials, ideas and these are the tools with which the World of Tomorrow must be made. They are all interesting and much effort has been expended to lay them before you in an interesting way, familiarity with today is the best preparation for the future. Within six months of the Fairs opening, the Second World War would begin, in 1935, at the height of the Great Depression, a group of New York City businessmen decided to create an international exposition to lift the city and the country out of depression. Not long after, these men formed the New York Worlds Fair Corporation, the NYWFC elected former chief of police Grover Whalen as the president of their committee. This event turned the area into a City park after the exposition closed, edward Bernays directed public relations of the fair in 1939, which he called democricity. Promotion of this event took many forms. Howard Hughes flew a special Worlds Fair flight around the world to promote the fair in 1938, on April 30,1939, a very hot Sunday, the fair had its grand opening, with 206,000 people in attendance. The April 30 date coincided with the 150th anniversary of George Washingtons inauguration, in Lower Manhattan, although many of the pavilions and other facilities were not quite ready for this opening, it was put on with pomp and great celebration. David Sarnoff, then president of RCA and an advocate of television. On April 30,1939, the ceremony and President Roosevelts speech were seen on black. NBC used the event to inaugurate regularly scheduled broadcasts in New York City over their station W2XBS. An estimated 1,000 people viewed the Roosevelt telecast on about 200 television sets scattered throughout the New York metropolitan area. In order to convince visitors that the television sets were not a trick. As part of the exhibit at the RCA pavilion, visitors could see themselves on television, there were also television demonstrations at the General Electric and Westinghouse pavilions. During this formal introduction at the fair, television became available for public purchase at various stores in the New York City area. After Albert Einstein gave a speech that discussed cosmic rays, the lights were ceremonially lit
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Expo 58
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Expo 58, also known as the Brussels World’s Fair, was held from 17 April to 19 October 1958. It was the first major Worlds Fair registered under the Bureau International des Expositions after World War II, nearly 15,000 workers spent three years building the 2 km2 site on the Heysel plateau,7 kilometres northwest of central Brussels, Belgium. Many of the buildings were re-used from the Brussels International Exposition of 1935, every 25 years starting in 1855, Belgium had staged large national events to celebrate its national independence following the Belgian Revolution of 1830. However, the Belgian government under prime minister Achille Van Acker decided to forego celebrations in 1955 to have funding for the 1958 Expo. Expo 58 was the 11th Worlds Fair hosted by Belgium, since Expo 58, Belgium has not arranged any more world fairs. The site is best known for the Atomium, a giant model of a cell of an iron crystal. More than 41 million visitors visited the site, which was opened with a call for peace and social and economic progress. Another exhibition at the Belgian pavilion was the Congolese village that some have branded a human zoo, the Austrian pavilion was designed by Karl Schwanzer in modernist style. It was later transferred to Vienna to host the museum of the 20th century, in 2011 it was reopened under the new name 21er Haus. The exposition One Day in Czechoslovakia was designed by Jindřich Santar who cooperated with artists Jiří Trnka, Antonín Kybal, Stanislav Libenský, architects of the simple, but modern and graceful construction were František Cubr, Josef Hrubý and Zdeněk Pokorný. The teams artistic freedom, so rare in the hard-line communist regime of the 1950s, was ensured by the government committee for exhibitions chairman František Kahuda and he supported the famous Laterna Magika show, as well as Josef Svobodas technically unique Polyekran. The Czechoslovak pavilion was visited by 6 million people and was awarded the best pavilion of the Expo 58. This was designed by the architect Pedro Ramírez Vázquez and it was awarded the expositions star of gold. The city of Paris had its own pavilion, separate from the French one and this was produced by the designer James Gardner, architect Howard Lobb & engineer Felix Samuely. The on-site British architect was Michael Blower, Brussels born and bilingual and it was designed by noted architect Edward Durell Stone. The Soviet pavilion was an impressive building which they folded up. They had a facsimile of Sputnik which mysteriously disappeared, and they accused the US of stealing it and they had a bookstore selling science and technology books in English and other languages published by the Moscow Press. On the exposition there was also a model of Lenin first nuclear icebreaker, the Soviet exposition was awarded with a Grand Prix
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