1.
1864 in literature
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This article presents lists of the literary events and publications in 1864. —Opening of Our Mutual Friend January – Anthony Trollopes Can You Forgive Her, the first of his Palliser novels, begins publication in monthly parts in London. Trollope completes its writing on April 28 and the first volume is published as a book in September by Chapman & Hall, in April, The Small House at Allington concludes publication in the Cornhill Magazine and is published in book format by George Smith. January 2–April 16 – James Payn publishes his most popular story, Lost Sir Massingberd and he follows it in the magazine by Married Beneath Him. February 20 – Painter George Frederic Watts marries his 16-year-old model and she elopes less than a year later. March – The first issue of the Russian literary magazine Epoch, edited by Fyodor Dostoyevsky and this and the March–April issues contain the first publication of Fyodors existential novella Notes from Underground. April 10 – Publisher William Ticknor dies of pneumonia in Philadelphia while on a trip with Nathaniel Hawthorne for the sake of the latters health, April – Charles Baudelaire leaves Paris for Belgium in the hope of resolving his financial difficulties. May 26 – Alexandre Dumas, fils marries Nadejda Naryschkine and his father, Alexandre Dumas, père, returns to Paris from Italy. May – First Lithuanian press ban imposed in the Russian Empire, june 19 – Henrik Ibsen arrives in Rome in a self-imposed exile from Norway that will last for 27 years. June 27 – Ambrose Bierce is wounded at the Battle of Kennesaw Mountain, july 2 – The Female Detective is published under the pseudonym Andrew Forrester, junior in London, presenting the first female professional detective in fiction. Around December, she is followed by Mrs Paschal in Revelations of a Lady Detective published anonymously by William Stephens Hayward, September – A debate at the Royal Geographical Society between Richard Francis Burton and John Hanning Speke fails to take place, owing to Spekes suicide. November 10 – John Addington Symonds the younger marries Janet Catherine North, november 25 – The brothers Edwin Booth, John Wilkes Booth and Junius Brutus Booth, Jr. Former English chess master Howard Staunton publishes a facsimile of the 1600 quarto text of Shakespeares Much Ado About Nothing, rebecca Sophia Clarke – Little Prudy R. D. D
2.
1865 in literature
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This article presents lists of the literary events and publications in 1865. January – Our Young Folks, an American monthly for children produced by Ticknor and Fields in Boston, february – Publication of Leo Tolstoys 1805, an early version of War and Peace, begins in the magazine Russkiy Vestnik. June 9 – Charles Dickens is involved in the Staplehurst rail crash in England, June 14 – Karl May begins a 4-year prison sentence for thefts and frauds at Osterstein Castle. July – The American magazine for children The Little Corporal publishes its first issue, July 4 – Lewis Carrolls childrens book Alices Adventures in Wonderland is published by Macmillan in London for Charles Lutwidge Dodgson, three years after it was first narrated. November 18 – Mark Twains story The Celebrated Jumping Frog of Calaveras County is published in the New York weekly The Saturday Press in its version as Jim Smiley. English writer Edwin Abbott Abbott becomes headmaster of the City of London School at the age of 26, frederick Warne & Co established as publishers in London. José de Alencar – Iracema R. M. Facey Romfords Hounds Anthony Trollope – Can You Forgive Her, swinburne Atalanta in Calydon Chastelard, a tragedy Annals of the Joseon Dynasty Matthew Arnold – Essays in Criticism P. T. B. Yeats, Irish poet June 20 – Enrico Corradini, Italian novelist and essayist June 26 – Bernard Berenson, American art historian July 21 – M. P
3.
1870 in literature
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This article presents lists of the literary events and publications in 1871. March 7 – Thomas Hardy meets his first wife, Emma Gifford, march 28 – Serialisation of Kenward Philps The Bowery Detective in The Fireside Companion begins, the first known story to include the word detective in the title. April—September – Serialisation of Charles Dickens last novel The Mystery of Edwin Drood, spring – Serial publication begins of Aleksis Kivis only novel Seitsemän veljestä, the first significant Finnish language novel. September 17 – First performance of Alexander Pushkins play Boris Godunov at the Mariinsky Theatre in Saint Petersburg, september 20 – Friedrich Engels moves permanently to London from Manchester. December 18 – The Russian literary weekly Niva is first published by Adolf Marks in Saint Petersburg, karl May begins a second 4-year prison sentence for thefts and frauds, at Waldheim, Saxony. The David Sassoon Library in Bombay is completed
4.
1871 in literature
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This article presents lists of the literary events and publications in 1871. January 1 – The childrens literary magazine Young Folks begins publication in the United Kingdom as Our Young Folks Weekly Budget, january – John Ruskin begins publishing Fors Clavigera, his monthly letters to the workmen and labourers of Great Britain. November 25 – First performance of The Bells starring Henry Irving at the Lyceum Theatre, London, on the same night, he breaks up permanently with his wife when she criticises his choice of profession. December – Publication of George Eliots novel Middlemarch in eight parts commences, George Allen and Sons, publishers, predecessors of Allen & Unwin, established in London. Alcott – Little Men Lewis Carroll – Through the Looking-Glass and What Alice Found There George MacDonald – At the Back of the North Wind Johanna Spyri – A Leaf on Vronys Grave W. S
5.
1872 in literature
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This article presents lists of the literary events and publications in 1872. March – Sheridan Le Fanus Gothic vampire novella Carmilla concludes serialization in the monthly The Dark Blue and is included in his collection In a Glass Darkly, set in Styria, it is influential in introducing the lesbian vampire genre. July 7 – Paul Verlaine abandons his family to go to London with Arthur Rimbaud, september 30 – George MacDonald arrives in Boston to begin a lecture tour of the United States. December 3 – George Smith presents the first translation of the Epic of Gilgamesh to a meeting of the Society of Biblical Archaeology in London. December 22 – Jules Vernes novel Around the World in Eighty Days concludes serialization in the daily newspaper Le Temps the day following the date of the narrative. The Federation of Madrid expels all signatories of an article in La Emancipación. Benito Pérez Galdós begins writing the series of historical novels known as Episodios Nacionales with Trafalgar. Rose la Touche rejects John Ruskin for the last time, lafcadio Hearn becomes a reporter on the Cincinnati Daily Enquirer. The first university course in American Literature is taught at Princeton University by John Seely Hart, the Scottish Gaelic magazine Féillire is first published as Almanac Gàilig air son 1872 in Inverness. Machado de Assis – Ressurreição Mary Elizabeth Braddon – To the Bitter End Rhoda Broughton Good-bye, D.1 Warren Felt Evans – Mental Medicine Friedrich Nietzsche – The Birth of Tragedy Henry Wilson – History of the Rise and Fall of the Slave Power in America, vols. 1 &2 January 31 – Zane Grey, American Western novelist April 4 – Frida Uhl, Austrian writer May 21 – Teffi, born Nadezhda Alexandrovna Lokhvitskaya, Russian-born humorist May 31 – W. M
6.
1875 in literature
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This article presents lists of the literary events and publications in 1875. January 16 – Henry James Byrons comedy Our Boys opens at the Vaudeville Theatre in London and it becomes the worlds longest-running play up to this time, with 1,362 performances until April 1879. It also opens this year in New York, at the New Fifth Avenue Theatre, henley has also met his future wife while in hospital and written the poems collected as In Hospital. October 1 – American poet and short story writer Edgar Allan Poe is reburied in Westminster Hall and Burying Ground, Baltimore, Maryland, some controversy arises years later as to whether the correct body was exhumed. This introduces his innovative sprung rhythm and metre but, being rejected for publication in 1876, is not published until 1918, flammarion publishing house founded in Paris, France. Isaac K. Funk establishes the house of I. K. Funk & Company, predecessor of Funk & Wagnells, in the United States, caroline M. Hewins begins a childrens library in Hartford, Connecticut. Nebelspalter is founded by Jean Nötzli of Zürich as a humorous political weekly. W. Harrison Ainsworth – The Goldsmiths Wife R. D. J. W
7.
1881 in literature
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This article presents lists of the literary events and publications in 1881. February 13 – The first issue of the feminist newspaper La Citoyenne is published by Hubertine Auclert in France, april – William Poels production of Shakespeares Hamlet at St. Georges Hall, London, reverts to the first quarto text and avoids elaborate scene changes. April 23 – Gilbert and Sullivans Patience, a satire on Oscar Wilde and aestheticism, july 29 – Law on the Freedom of the Press passed in France. August 17 – The Pushkin Prize is established by the Russian Academy of Sciences, the first of the three-volume History of Woman Suffrage, is published by Susan B. Anthony and Elizabeth Cady Stanton in the United States, aleksey Konstantinovich Tolstoys historical drama Tsar Boris receives its première, posthumously, at Anna Brenkos Pushkin Theater in Moscow. The literary review and movement La Jeune Belgique is founded by poet Max Waller, the Pali Text Society is founded by British scholar Thomas William Rhys Davids for the study of Pali texts. Dominics Mrs. G. John H. Watson first meet at Bart’s Hospital, London, prior to the events commencing on March 4 narrated in Conan Doyles A Study in Scarlet
8.
1876 in poetry
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Nationality words link to articles with information on the nations poetry or literature. February 24 – Première of first stage production of the poetic drama Peer Gynt by Henrik Ibsen with incidental music by Edvard Grieg, in Christiania, Norway. M. Moores first book of verse, The Sentimental Song Book, was published in Grand Rapids, and quickly went into a second printing. A copy fell into the hands of one James F. Ryder, Ryder sent out numerous review copies to newspapers across the country, with a cover letter filled with low key mock praise. And so Moore received national attention, following Ryders lead, contemporary reviews were amusedly negative. For instance, The Rochester Democrat wrote of Sweet Singer, that Shakespeare, could he read it, if Julia A. Moore would kindly deign to shed some of her poetry on our humble grave, we should be but too glad to go out and shoot ourselves tomorrow. Toru Dutt, A Sheaf Gleaned in French Fields, Verse Translations and Poems, Bhowanipur, Calcutta, B. M. J
9.
1873 in art
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Events from the year 1873 in art. Early – Pre-Raphaelite painter Simeon Solomon is arrested in a urinal in London. May – Vincent van Gogh is re-located to London by his employer, monet, Renoir, Pissarro, and Sisley organize the Société Anonyme Coopérative des Artistes Peintres, Sculpteurs, Graveurs, etc. for the purpose of exhibiting artworks independently. The collection forming the Galleria Nazionale dellUmbria is moved to the Palazzo dei Priori, new Accademia delle Arti del Disegno established in Florence. Leslie Ward, as Spy, begins producing caricatures for the British magazine Vanity Fair
10.
1873 in architecture
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The year 1873 in architecture involved some significant architectural events and new buildings. Weltausstellung 1873 Wien, a fair in Vienna, is staged with the Rotunde as centrepiece. Architect for the exposition is Karl von Hasenauer, who is created Freiherr for his services, may 5 - Midland Grand Hotel in London, England, is substantially completed and opened, the largest hotel in the world at this time. August 22 - Garrett Theatre, Póvoa de Varzim, Portugal, september 2 - The Berlin Victory Column in Berlin, Germany. September 29 - Christ Church Cathedral, Ottawa, Canada, Ørskog Church, Norway, by Jacob Wilhelm Nordan. Rua Augusta Arch in Lisbon, built to commemorate the citys reconstruction after the 1755 earthquake, trinity Church, Copley Square, Boston, Massachusetts, USA, designed by H. H. Richardson
11.
Chicago Public Library
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The Chicago Public Library is the public library system that serves the City of Chicago in the U. S. state of Illinois. It consists of 80 locations, including a library, two regional libraries, and branches distributed throughout the citys 77 Community Areas. The Chicago Public Library is the second largest library system in Chicago by volumes held, the library is the second largest public library system in the Midwest, after the Detroit Public Library. The Chicago Public Library was created directly from the ashes of the great Chicago Fire, after circulating requests for donations throughout English society, the project donated 8,000 books. Private donors included Queen Victoria, Benjamin Disraeli, Alfred Lord Tennyson, Robert Browning, John Stuart Mill, John Ruskin, in Chicago, town leaders petitioned Mayor Joseph Medill to hold a meeting and establish the library. The meeting led to the Illinois Library Act of 1872, which allowed Illinois cities to establish tax-supported libraries, in April 1872, the Chicago City Council passed an ordinance establishing the Chicago Public Library. In the rebuilding section of the city, on January 1,1873, the water tank was 58 feet in diameter,21 feet high and with a 30-foot foundation. A two story building was soon built around it to hold city offices, and a third floor reading room was built for the library. On October 24,1873, William Frederick Poole was elected the first head librarian by the librarys Board of Directors, Poole was mainly concerned during his tenure on building the circulation. In 1874, circulation services began with 13,000 out of 17,533 available for lending, the library moved from place to place during its first 24 years. Eleven years it spent on the floor of city hall. In 1887, Poole resigned to organize the Newberry Library of Chicago, on October 15,1887, Frederick H. Hild was elected the second Librarian of the Chicago Public Library and securing a permanent home was his primary drive. Ten years later, the Central Library was opened, logan, a Civil War General and U. S. In return for the land the Library was to maintain a Civil War collection, room until the last northern Civil War veteran died. The library would remain on site for the next 96 years. It is now the Chicago Cultural Center, henry Eduard Legler assumed the leadership of the Chicago Public Library on October 11,1909. Previously a Wisconsin Progressive, he was known as an aggressive advocate of the expansion of library service. In 1916, Legler presented his Library Plan for the Whole City, a landmark in library history, the plan called for an extensive network of neighborhood library locations throughout Chicago
12.
Great Chicago Fire
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The Great Chicago Fire was a conflagration that burned from Sunday, October 8, to early Tuesday, October 10,1871. The fire killed up to 300 people, destroyed roughly 3.3 square miles of Chicago, Illinois, and left more than 100,000 residents homeless. The fire started at about 9,00 p. m. on October 8, the shed next to the barn was the first building to be consumed by the fire, but city officials never determined the exact cause of the blaze. There has, however, been much speculation over the years, the most popular tale blames Mrs. OLearys cow, who allegedly knocked over a lantern, others state that a group of men were gambling inside the barn and knocked over a lantern. Still other speculation suggests that the blaze was related to fires in the Midwest that day. The fires spread was aided by the use of wood as the predominant building material in a style called balloon frame. More than two thirds of the structures in Chicago at the time of the fire were made entirely of wood, with most of the houses, all of the citys sidewalks and many roads were also made of wood. In 1871, the Chicago Fire Department had 185 firefighters with just 17 horse-drawn steam engines to protect the entire city. The initial response by the department was quick, but due to an error by the watchman, Matthias Schaffer. These factors combined to turn a small barn fire into a conflagration, when firefighters finally arrived at DeKoven Street, the fire had grown and spread to neighboring buildings and was progressing towards the central business district. Firefighters had hoped that the South Branch of the Chicago River, all along the river, however, were lumber yards, warehouses, and coal yards, and barges and numerous bridges across the river. As the fire grew, the southwest wind intensified and became superheated, causing structures to catch fire from the heat, around 11,30 p. m. flaming debris blew across the river and landed on roofs and the South Side Gas Works. With the fire across the river and moving rapidly towards the heart of the city, about this time, Mayor Roswell B. Mason sent messages to nearby towns asking for help. When the courthouse caught fire, he ordered the building to be evacuated, at 2,30 a. m. on the 9th, the cupola of the courthouse collapsed, sending the great bell crashing down. Some witnesses reported hearing the sound from a mile away, as more buildings succumbed to the flames, a major contributing factor to the fire’s spread was a meteorological phenomenon known as a fire whirl. As overheated air rises, it comes into contact with cooler air and these fire whirls are likely what drove flaming debris so high and so far. Such debris was blown across the branch of the Chicago River to a railroad car carrying kerosene. The fire had jumped the river a second time and was now raging across the north side
13.
United States Congress
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The United States Congress is the bicameral legislature of the federal government of the United States consisting of two chambers, the Senate and the House of Representatives. The Congress meets in the Capitol in Washington, D. C, both senators and representatives are chosen through direct election, though vacancies in the Senate may be filled by a gubernatorial appointment. Members are usually affiliated to the Republican Party or to the Democratic Party, Congress has 535 voting members,435 Representatives and 100 Senators. The House of Representatives has six non-voting members in addition to its 435 voting members and these members can, however, sit on congressional committees and introduce legislation. Puerto Rico, American Samoa, Guam, the Northern Mariana Islands, the members of the House of Representatives serve two-year terms representing the people of a single constituency, known as a district. Congressional districts are apportioned to states by using the United States Census results. Each state, regardless of population or size, has two senators, currently, there are 100 senators representing the 50 states. Each senator is elected at-large in their state for a term, with terms staggered. The House and Senate are equal partners in the legislative process—legislation cannot be enacted without the consent of both chambers, however, the Constitution grants each chamber some unique powers. The Senate ratifies treaties and approves presidential appointments while the House initiates revenue-raising bills, the House initiates impeachment cases, while the Senate decides impeachment cases. A two-thirds vote of the Senate is required before a person can be forcibly removed from office. The term Congress can also refer to a meeting of the legislature. A Congress covers two years, the current one, the 115th Congress, began on January 3,2017, the Congress starts and ends on the third day of January of every odd-numbered year. Members of the Senate are referred to as senators, members of the House of Representatives are referred to as representatives, congressmen, or congresswomen. One analyst argues that it is not a solely reactive institution but has played a role in shaping government policy and is extraordinarily sensitive to public pressure. Several academics described Congress, Congress reflects us in all our strengths, Congress is the governments most representative body. Congress is essentially charged with reconciling our many points of view on the public policy issues of the day. —Smith, Roberts, and Wielen Congress is constantly changing and is constantly in flux, most incumbents seek re-election, and their historical likelihood of winning subsequent elections exceeds 90 percent
14.
Comstock laws
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The Act criminalized usage of the U. S. Half of the states passed similar anti-obscenity statutes that also banned possession and sale of obscene materials, the law was named after its chief proponent, Anthony Comstock. Due to his own personal enforcement of the law during its early days, the text of the federal bill read, in part, Be it enacted. That whoever, within the District of Columbia or any of the Territories of the United States, the Comstock Act targeted pornography, contraceptive equipment, and such educational materials as descriptions of contraceptive methods and other reproductive health-related materials. Of particular note were advertisements for abortifacients found in penny papers, Comstocks ideas of what is obscene, lewd, or lascivious were quite broad. During his time of greatest power, some anatomy textbooks were prohibited from being sent to students by the United States Postal Service. The Comstock Act clearly hinges on definitions, particularly of obscenity, though the courts originally adopted the British Hicklin test, in 1957 an American test was put into place in Roth v. The main support and active persecutor for the purposes of the Comstock laws was the New York Society for the Suppression of Vice. This memorandum linked the main message of the Y. M. C. A. to facts and figures that were drawn from the census, tax data, the 1866 memorandum supported a plan to construct a centrally located building to better serve the younger men of New York. Not only was the building to support the spiritual, mental, however, the memorandum was also used as a call to action to investigate whether or not a law was in place to reprimand and confiscate obscene literature. After conferring with an attorney, a committee was organized to write up a bill to be pushed through the New York State legislature. In 1868, the bill was passed however it was not as strong as the association would have liked it to be, after the passing of the bill, the Y. M. C. A appointed a committee to oversee the enforcement of the law. If the indicted party ended up being found guilty, the materials that were confiscated in the raid were destroyed, Anthony Comstock stated that he was determined to act the part of a good citizen, meaning that he had every intention of upholding the law. He started off by beginning a campaign against the saloons in his New York neighborhood of Brooklyn, the biggest contributor to igniting Comstocks mission to rid of any and all obscene material was when one of his dear friends died. As for a person to blame, Comstock laid all of it on Charles Conroy, after this incident, continued on with the crusade all throughout his neighborhood and in doing so, he kept a ledger that had a record of every single arrest he had made. Comstock became linked with the YMCA shortly after writing a financial request to Robert McBurney to continue with his efforts, once the current President, Morris Jesup, became aware of the letter he immediately went to see Comstock and allocated the funds towards his efforts. On top of the allocated for Comstocks efforts, Jesup also gave him a bonus for his efforts. Comstock was invited to speak before the YMCAs Committee on Obscene Literature, which was renamed the Suppression of Vice
15.
W. S. Gilbert
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Sir William Schwenck Gilbert was an English dramatist, librettist, poet and illustrator best known for the fourteen comic operas produced in collaboration with the composer Sir Arthur Sullivan. The most famous of these include H. M. S, Pinafore, The Pirates of Penzance and one of the most frequently performed works in the history of musical theatre, The Mikado. The popularity of works was supported for over a century by year-round performances of them, in Britain and abroad, by the repertory company that they founded. Eleven of the Savoy operas continue to be performed in the English-speaking world and beyond by opera companies, repertory companies, schools. Lines from these works have become part of the English language, such as short, sharp shock, What, and Let the punishment fit the crime. Gilberts creative output included over 75 plays and libretti, and numerous stories, poems and lyrics. He also began to write burlesques and his first comic plays, developing a unique absurdist and he also developed a realistic method of stage direction and a reputation as a strict theatre director. M. S. Pinafore and The Pirates of Penzance, in the 1880s, Gilbert focused on the Savoy operas, including Patience, Iolanthe, The Mikado, The Yeomen of the Guard and The Gondoliers. Gilbert won the lawsuit, but the argument caused hurt feelings among the partnership. Although Gilbert and Sullivan were persuaded to collaborate on two last operas, they were not as successful as the previous ones, in later years, Gilbert wrote several plays, and a few operas with other collaborators. He retired, with his wife and ward, Nancy McIntosh, to a country estate, Gilbert died of a heart attack while attempting to rescue a young woman to whom he was giving a swimming lesson in the lake at his home. Gilbert was born at 17 Southampton Street, Strand, London and his father, also named William, was briefly a naval surgeon, who later became a writer of novels and short stories, some of which were illustrated by his son. Gilberts mother was the former Anne Mary Bye Morris, the daughter of Thomas Morris, Gilberts parents were distant and stern, and he did not have a particularly close relationship with either of them. They quarrelled increasingly, and following the break-up of their marriage in 1876, his relationships with them, especially his mother, Gilbert was nicknamed Bab as a baby, and then Schwenck, after his fathers godparents. As a child, Gilbert travelled to Italy in 1838 and then France for two years with his parents, who returned to settle in London in 1847. He then attended Kings College London, graduating in 1856, instead he joined the Civil Service, he was an assistant clerk in the Privy Council Office for four years and hated it. In 1859 he joined the Militia, a volunteer force formed for the defence of Britain, with which he served until 1878. In 1863 he received a bequest of £300 that he used to leave the service and take up a brief career as a barrister
16.
The Happy Land
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The Happy Land is a play with music written in 1873 by W. S. Gilbert and Gilbert Arthur à Beckett. The musical play burlesques Gilberts earlier play, The Wicked World, three characters were made up and costumed to look like the caricatures of Gladstone, Lowe and Ayrton that had appeared in Vanity Fair. The scandal was great enough to be included in the Annual Registers Chronicle of Remarkable Occurrences, the play was censored by Britains Lord Chamberlain, which ironically caused it to become unusually popular. The Happy Land also anticipated some of the themes in the political satire seen in the Gilbert and Sullivan operas, including unqualified people in positions of authority, like Sir Joseph in H. M. S. Pinafore, selecting government by competitive examination as in Iolanthe, and especially the importation of English exemplars to improve a naive civilisation, as in Utopia, the Happy Land is a blank verse musical burlesque of Gilberts earlier play, The Wicked World. The plot roughly follows that of The Wicked World, with the powers of love replaced with the disaster of popular government. As in The Wicked World and several other Gilbert works, the play concerns chaos that is wreaked in Fairyland when an element of life in the world is imported. In The Wicked World, this element is mortal love, while in The Happy Land, it is government, which is delivered to Fairyland by Gladstone, Lowe. Stedman calls this a Gilbertian invasion plot, the three characters were described in the cast list as Mr. G. Mr. L. and Mr. A. Gladstones government is portrayed as mean and uncaring of Britains national interests, the three men are seen to lack substance and taste. The daring political attack was almost unprecedented on the English stage, the opening night response was described by Edward Righton, who played Mr. A. Edward, Prince of Wales, attended the play on opening night at the Royal Court Theatre on 3 March 1873. The Lord Chamberlain revoked the plays performance license on 6 March 1873, the theatre was only dark for two or three nights before the play was allowed to reopen. She also published the script as it was originally performed – with the cut sections written in all capital letters, – Miss Litton begs to inform the public that the Lord Chamberlain has forbidden Messrs. Fisher, Hill, and Righton to make up their faces in imitation of Messrs, – Royal Court Theatre,6 March. In fact, wrote The Times, the Lord Chamberlain has proved a mighty instructor, everybody perfectly knows whom are intended to represent, and every line they utter is the signal for an approving roar. The critics mostly praised the piece, although papers disagreed on whether or not the stage should be subject to censorship than the press. For instance, The Manchester Guardian wrote that the satire made Many a brilliant sally at the supposed short-comings of the present government, meanwhile, Gilbert was having some trouble keeping up the pseudonym. Shirley Brooks may have thought F. Tomline was Henry Labouchère, worse, Gilberts friend and collaborator Frederic Clay began vigorously defending him against the absolutely true allegations, forcing Gilbert to quietly take him into his confidence
17.
Royal Court Theatre
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The Royal Court Theatre is a non-commercial theatre on Sloane Square, in the Royal Borough of Kensington and Chelsea, London, England. It is noted for its contributions to modern theatre, in 1956 it was acquired by and is home to a resident company, the English Stage Company. The first theatre on Lower George Street, off Sloane Square, was the converted Nonconformist Ranelagh Chapel, marie Litton became its manager in 1871, hiring Walter Emden to remodel the interior, and it was renamed the Court Theatre. By 1878, management of the theatre was shared by John Hare, further alterations were made in 1882 by Alexander Peebles, after which its capacity was 728. After that, Arthur Cecil was co-manager of the theatre with John Clayton, among other works, they produced a series of Arthur Wing Pineros farces, including The Rector, The Magistrate, The Schoolmistress, and Dandy Dick, among others. The theatre closed on 22 July 1887 and was demolished, the present building was built on the east side of Sloane Square, replacing the earlier building, and opened on 24 September 1888 as the New Court Theatre. Designed by Walter Emden and Bertie Crewe, it is constructed of red brick, moulded brick. Originally the theatre had a capacity of 841 in the stalls, dress circle, amphitheatre, Cecil and Clayton yielded management of the theatre to Mrs. John Wood and Arthur Chudleigh in 1887, although Cecil continued acting in their company until 1895. The first production in the new building was a play by Sydney Grundy titled Mamma, starring Mrs. John Wood and John Hare, with Arthur Cecil and Eric Lewis. Harley Granville-Barker managed the theatre for the first few years of the 20th century and it ceased to be used as a theatre in 1932 but was used as a cinema from 1935 to 1940, until World War II bomb damage closed it. The interior was reconstructed by Robert Cromie, and the number of seats was reduced to under 500, George Devine was appointed artistic director at the suggestion of Oscar Lewenstein, one of the other two co-founders of the English Stage Company. The ESC opened at the Royal Court in 1956 as a subsidised theatre producing new British and foreign plays, Devine aimed to create a writers theatre, seeking to discover new writers and produce serious contemporary works. Devine produced the new companys production in 1956, John Osbornes Look Back in Anger. Osborne followed Look Back In Anger with The Entertainer, with Laurence Olivier in the lead as Archie Rice, significantly, although it was quickly reversed, the artistic board of the ESC initially rejected the play. Two members of the board were in agreement in opposing The Entertainer, in the mid-1960s, the ESC became involved in issues of censorship. The succès de scandale of the two helped to bring about the abolition of theatre censorship in the UK. During the period of Devines directorship, besides Osborne and Bond, early seasons included new international plays by Bertolt Brecht, Eugène Ionesco, Samuel Beckett, Jean-Paul Sartre, and Marguerite Duras. In addition to the 400-seat proscenium arch Theatre Downstairs, the smaller studio Theatre Upstairs was opened in 1969
18.
London
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London /ˈlʌndən/ is the capital and most populous city of England and the United Kingdom. Standing on the River Thames in the south east of the island of Great Britain and it was founded by the Romans, who named it Londinium. Londons ancient core, the City of London, largely retains its 1. 12-square-mile medieval boundaries. London is a global city in the arts, commerce, education, entertainment, fashion, finance, healthcare, media, professional services, research and development, tourism. It is crowned as the worlds largest financial centre and has the fifth- or sixth-largest metropolitan area GDP in the world, London is a world cultural capital. It is the worlds most-visited city as measured by international arrivals and has the worlds largest city airport system measured by passenger traffic, London is the worlds leading investment destination, hosting more international retailers and ultra high-net-worth individuals than any other city. Londons universities form the largest concentration of education institutes in Europe. In 2012, London became the first city to have hosted the modern Summer Olympic Games three times, London has a diverse range of people and cultures, and more than 300 languages are spoken in the region. Its estimated mid-2015 municipal population was 8,673,713, the largest of any city in the European Union, Londons urban area is the second most populous in the EU, after Paris, with 9,787,426 inhabitants at the 2011 census. The citys metropolitan area is the most populous in the EU with 13,879,757 inhabitants, the city-region therefore has a similar land area and population to that of the New York metropolitan area. London was the worlds most populous city from around 1831 to 1925, Other famous landmarks include Buckingham Palace, the London Eye, Piccadilly Circus, St Pauls Cathedral, Tower Bridge, Trafalgar Square, and The Shard. The London Underground is the oldest underground railway network in the world, the etymology of London is uncertain. It is an ancient name, found in sources from the 2nd century and it is recorded c.121 as Londinium, which points to Romano-British origin, and hand-written Roman tablets recovered in the city originating from AD 65/70-80 include the word Londinio. The earliest attempted explanation, now disregarded, is attributed to Geoffrey of Monmouth in Historia Regum Britanniae and this had it that the name originated from a supposed King Lud, who had allegedly taken over the city and named it Kaerlud. From 1898, it was accepted that the name was of Celtic origin and meant place belonging to a man called *Londinos. The ultimate difficulty lies in reconciling the Latin form Londinium with the modern Welsh Llundain, which should demand a form *lōndinion, from earlier *loundiniom. The possibility cannot be ruled out that the Welsh name was borrowed back in from English at a later date, and thus cannot be used as a basis from which to reconstruct the original name. Until 1889, the name London officially applied only to the City of London, two recent discoveries indicate probable very early settlements near the Thames in the London area
19.
William Ewart Gladstone
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William Ewart Gladstone, FRS, FSS was a British Liberal and earlier conservative politician. In a career lasting over sixty years, he served as Prime Minister four separate times, more than any other person, Gladstone was also Britains oldest Prime Minister, he resigned for the final time when he was 84 years old. Gladstone first entered Parliament in 1832, beginning as a High Tory, Gladstone served in the Cabinet of Sir Robert Peel. After the split of the Conservatives Gladstone was a Peelite – in 1859 the Peelites merged with the Whigs, as Chancellor Gladstone became committed to low public spending and to electoral reform, earning him the sobriquet The Peoples William. Gladstones first ministry saw many reforms including the disestablishment of the Church of Ireland, after his electoral defeat in 1874, Gladstone resigned as leader of the Liberal Party, but from 1876 began a comeback based on opposition to Turkeys reaction to the Bulgarian April Uprising. Gladstones Midlothian Campaign of 1879–80 was an example of many modern political campaigning techniques. The government also passed the Third Reform Act, Back in office in early 1886, Gladstone proposed Irish home rule but this was defeated in the House of Commons in July. The resulting split in the Liberal Party helped keep out of office, with one short break. In 1892 Gladstone formed his last government at the age of 82, the Second Home Rule Bill passed the Commons but was defeated in the Lords in 1893. Gladstone resigned in March 1894, in opposition to increased naval expenditure and he left Parliament in 1895 and died three years later aged 88. Gladstone was known affectionately by his supporters as The Peoples William or the G. O. M, Gladstone is consistently ranked as one of Britains greatest Prime Ministers. Born in 1809 in Liverpool, at 62 Rodney Street, William Ewart Gladstone was the son of the slave-owning merchant Sir John Gladstone. Although born and brought up in Liverpool, William Gladstone was of purely Scottish ancestry, in 1814 young Willy visited Scotland for the first time, as he and his brother John travelled with their father to Edinburgh, Biggar and Dingwall to visit their relatives. William and his brother were both made freemen of the burgh of Dingwall, in 1815 Gladstone also travelled to London and Cambridge for the first time with his parents. In London he attended a service of thanksgiving with his family at St Pauls Cathedral following the Battle of Waterloo, William Gladstone was educated from 1816 to 1821 at a preparatory school at the vicarage of St Thomass Church at Seaforth, close to his familys residence, Seaforth House. In December 1831 he achieved the double first-class degree he had long desired, Gladstone served as President of the Oxford Union debating society, where he developed a reputation as an orator, which followed him into the House of Commons. At university Gladstone was a Tory and denounced Whig proposals for parliamentary reform, following the success of his double first, William travelled with his brother John on a Grand Tour of Europe, visiting Belgium, France, Germany and Italy. On his return to England, William was elected to Parliament in 1832 as Tory Member of Parliament for Newark, partly through the influence of the local patron, the Duke of Newcastle
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Robert Lowe
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Robert Lowe, 1st Viscount Sherbrooke, GCB, PC, British statesman, was a pivotal but often forgotten figure who shaped British politics in the latter half of the 19th century. He held office under William Ewart Gladstone as Chancellor of the Exchequer between 1868 and 1873 and as Home Secretary between 1873 and 1874, Lowe is remembered for his work in education policy, his opposition to electoral reform and his contribution to modern UK company law. The Division of Lowe, a now abolished Australian electoral division located in Sydney, was named after him, Gladstone appointed Lowe as Chancellor expecting him to hold down public spending. Public spending rose, and Gladstone pronounced Lowe wretchedly deficient, most historians agree, Lowe repeatedly underestimated the revenue, enabling him to resist demands for tax cuts and to reduce the national debt instead. He insisted that the tax system be fair to all classes, by his own main criterion of fairness – that the balance between direct and indirect taxation remain unchanged – he succeeded. However historians do not believe this balance is a measure of class incidence and was by that time thoroughly archaic. Lowe was born in Bingham, Nottinghamshire, England, the son of the Reverend Robert Lowe. His mother was Ellen, the daughter of the Rev. Reginald Pyndar, Lowe had albinism, and his sight was so weak that initially it was thought he was unfit to be sent to school. In 1822 he went to a school at Southwell, then to one at Risley, in Lowes fragment of autobiography he shows an unpleasing picture of the under-feeding and other conditions of the school life of the time. The languages of Latin and Greek were the subjects of study. In 1835 he won a fellowship at Magdalen, but vacated it on marrying, on 26 March 1836, Lowe was for a few years a successful tutor at Oxford, but in 1838 was disappointed at not being elected to the professorship of Greek at the University of Glasgow. Lowe held that seat until 20 June 1848 and was elected for City of Sydney in July 1848, knatchbull was hanged on 13 February 1844. Lowe and his wife adopted Mrs. Jamiesons two orphaned children, Bobby and Polly Jamieson, on 27 January 1850, the Lowes and the two Jamieson children sailed to England, where he would enter political life. In 1852, he was returned to Parliament for Kidderminster in the Liberal interest, during his time there, he saw the Joint Stock Companies Act 1856 passed – the first nationwide codification of company law in the world. He has been referred to as the father of modern company law and this status was again referred to in the presentation by Lord Sainsbury of the second reading leading up to the new United Kingdom Companies Act 2006. One hundred and fifty years ago, my predecessor Robert Lowe, later First Viscount Sherbrooke and it was the first nationwide codification of company law in the world, and he has recently been described as the father of modern company law. Our company law continues to have an excellent record, since 1997 new incorporations have risen by over 60 per cent and the number of foreign firms incorporating in the UK has more than quadrupled. No doubt this is because, according to the World Banks assessment and this was the result of the strong feelings that had been aroused against Lingens administration of the Education Office
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Acton Smee Ayrton
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Acton Smee Ayrton was a British barrister and Liberal Party politician. Considered a radical and champion of the classes, he served as First Commissioner of Works under William Ewart Gladstone between 1869 and 1873. He is best remembered for the Ayrton controversy over scientific facilities at Kew Gardens, Ayrton was the uncle of the physicist and electrical engineer William Edward Ayrton. Ayrton practised as a solicitor in Bombay, British India, and was called to the Bar, Middle Temple, in 1857 he was elected Member of Parliament for Tower Hamlets, a seat he held until 1874. Ayrton is best remembered for the so-called Ayrton controversy and this prompted a confrontation with Joseph Dalton Hooker, who enlisted the support of Charles Darwin and Charles Lyell, amongst other scientific luminaries. After debates in both Houses of Parliament, Ayrton was transferred to the post of Judge Advocate General and the proposal failed, Ayrton remained as Judge Advocate General until the Gladstone government fell in February 1874. He lost his seat in parliament in the election of that year. In the Palace of Westminster the lantern at the top of the Elizabeth Tower is called the Ayrton Light and it was installed in 1885 at the request of Queen Victoria so that she could see from Buckingham Palace when the members were sitting and named after Ayrton. For the last few years of his life he was a frequenter of the Reform Club. He died at the Mount Dore Hotel, Bournemouth, on 30 November 1886 and he is buried in Brompton Cemetery, London. Caricatures of Acton Smee Ayrton at the National Portrait Gallery Attribution This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Courtney. Dictionary of National Biography,1901 supplement
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Prime minister
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A prime minister is the most senior minister of cabinet in the executive branch of government, often in a parliamentary or semi-presidential system. In many systems, the prime minister selects and may dismiss members of the cabinet. In most systems, the minister is the presiding member. In parliamentary systems fashioned after the Westminster system, the minister is the presiding and actual head of government. In such systems, the head of state or the head of states official representative usually holds a ceremonial position. The prime minister is often, but not always, a member of the Legislature or the Lower House thereof and is expected with other ministers to ensure the passage of bills through the legislature. In some monarchies the monarch may also exercise powers that are constitutionally vested in the crown. The first actual usage of the prime minister or Premier Ministre was used by Cardinal Richelieu when in 1625 he was named to head the royal council as prime minister of France. Louis XIV and his descendants generally attempted to avoid giving this title to their chief ministers, the term prime minister in the sense that we know it originated in the 18th century in the United Kingdom when members of parliament disparagingly used the title in reference to Sir Robert Walpole. Over time, however, the title became honorific and remains so in the 21st century, the monarchs of England and the United Kingdom had ministers in whom they placed special trust and who were regarded as the head of the government. Examples were Thomas Cromwell under Henry VIII, William Cecil, Lord Burghley under Elizabeth I, Clarendon under Charles II and these ministers held a variety of formal posts, but were commonly known as the minister, the chief minister, the first minister and finally the prime minister. The power of ministers depended entirely on the personal favour of the monarch. Although managing the parliament was among the skills of holding high office. Although there was a cabinet, it was appointed entirely by the monarch, when the monarch grew tired of a first minister, he or she could be dismissed, or worse, Cromwell was executed and Clarendon driven into exile when they lost favour. Kings sometimes divided power equally between two or more ministers to prevent one minister from becoming too powerful, late in Annes reign, for example, the Tory ministers Harley and St John shared power. The monarch could no longer any law or impose any tax without its permission. It is at point that a modern style of prime minister begins to emerge. A tipping point in the evolution of the prime ministership came with the death of Anne in 1714, George spoke no English, spent much of his time at his home in Hanover, and had neither knowledge of, nor interest in, the details of English government
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Chancellor of the Exchequer
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The office is a British Cabinet-level position. The chancellor is responsible for all economic and financial matters, equivalent to the role of Secretary of the Treasury or Minister of Finance in other nations. The position is considered one of the four Great Offices of State, the Chancellor of the Exchequer is now always Second Lord of the Treasury as one of the Lords Commissioners for executing the office of Lord High Treasurer. Formerly, in cases when the Chancellorship was vacant, the Lord Chief Justice of the Kings Bench would act as Chancellor pro tempore, the last Lord Chief Justice to serve in this way was Lord Denman in 1834. The earliest surviving records which are the results of the audit, date from 1129–30 under King Henry I. The Chancellor controlled monetary policy as well as fiscal policy until 1997, the Chancellor also has oversight of public spending across Government departments. The current Chancellor of the Exchequer is Philip Hammond and he is entrusted with a certain amount of misery which it is his duty to distribute as fairly as he can. The Chancellor has considerable control over other departments as it is the Treasury which sets Departmental Expenditure Limits, the amount of power this gives to an individual Chancellor depends on his personal forcefulness, his status within his party and his relationship with the Prime Minister. Gordon Brown, who became Chancellor when Labour came into Government in 1997, had a personal power base in the party. One part of the Chancellors key roles involves the framing of the annual year budget, as of 2017, the first is the Autumn Budget, also known as Budget Day which forecasts government spending in the next financial year and also announces new financial measures. The second is a Spring Statement, also known as a mini-Budget, britains tax year has retained the old Julian end of year,24 March /5 April. From 1993, the Budget was in spring, preceded by an annual autumn statement. This was then called Pre-Budget Report, the Autumn Statement usually took place in November or December. The 1997,2001,2002,2003,2006,2007,2008,2012 and 2016 Budgets were all delivered on a Wednesday, although the Bank of England is responsible for setting interest rates, the Chancellor also plays an important part in the monetary policy structure. He sets the target which the Bank must set interest rates to meet. Under the Bank of England Act 1998 the Chancellor has the power of appointment of four out of nine members of the Banks Monetary Policy Committee – the so-called external members. The Act also provides that the Government has the power to give instructions to the Bank on interest rates for a period in extreme circumstances. This power has never officially used. At HM Treasury the Chancellor is supported by a team of four junior ministers
