1.
Woodcut
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Woodcut is a relief printing technique in printmaking. An artist carves an image into the surface of a block of wood—typically with gouges—leaving the printing parts level with the surface while removing the non-printing parts. Areas that the artist cuts away carry no ink, while characters or images at surface level carry the ink to produce the print, the block is cut along the wood grain. The surface is covered with ink by rolling over the surface with a roller, leaving ink upon the flat surface. Multiple colors can be printed by keying the paper to a frame around the woodblocks, single-leaf woodcut is a term for a woodcut presented as a single image or print, as opposed to a book illustration. Among these the best known are the 16th century Hieronymus Andreae, Hans Lützelburger and Jost de Negker, all of whom ran workshops, the formschneider in turn handed the block on to specialist printers. There were further specialists who made the blank blocks and this is why woodcuts are sometimes described by museums or books as designed by rather than by an artist, but most authorities do not use this distinction. The division of labour had the advantage that a trained artist could adapt to the medium relatively easily, there were various methods of transferring the artists drawn design onto the block for the cutter to follow. Either the drawing would be made directly onto the block, or a drawing on paper was glued to the block, either way, the artists drawing was destroyed during the cutting process. Other methods were used, including tracing, in both Europe and the Far East in the early 20th century, some artists began to do the whole process themselves. In Japan, this movement was called sōsaku-hanga, as opposed to shin-hanga, in the West, many artists used the easier technique of linocut instead. Compared to intaglio techniques like etching and engraving, only low pressure is required to print, as a relief method, it is only necessary to ink the block and bring it into firm and even contact with the paper or cloth to achieve an acceptable print. In Europe a variety of woods including boxwood and several nut and fruit woods like pear or cherry were commonly used, in Japan, there are three methods of printing to consider, Stamping, Used for many fabrics and most early European woodcuts. Used for European woodcuts and block-books later in the fifteenth century, also used for many Western woodcuts from about 1910 to the present. The block goes face up on a table, with the paper or fabric on top, the back is rubbed with a hard pad, a flat piece of wood, a burnisher, or a leather frotton. A traditional Japanese tool used for this is called a baren, later in Japan, complex wooden mechanisms were used to help hold the woodblock perfectly still and to apply proper pressure in the printing process. This was especially helpful once multiple colors were introduced and had to be applied with precision atop previous ink layers, printing in a press, presses only seem to have been used in Asia in relatively recent times. Printing-presses were used from about 1480 for European prints and block-books, simple weighted presses may have been used in Europe before the print-press, but firm evidence is lacking
2.
Harper's Weekly
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Harpers Weekly, A Journal of Civilization was an American political magazine based in New York City. Published by Harper & Brothers from 1857 until 1916, it featured foreign and domestic news, fiction, essays on many subjects and it carried extensive coverage of the American Civil War, including many illustrations of events from the war. During its most influential period, it was the forum of the political cartoonist Thomas Nast, along with his brothers James, John, and Wesley, Fletcher Harper began the publishing company Harper & Brothers in 1825. Following the successful example of the Illustrated London News, Harper started publishing Harpers Magazine in 1850, in 1857, his company began publishing Harpers Weekly in New York City. By 1860 the circulation of the Weekly had reached 200,000, among the recurring features were the political cartoons of Thomas Nast, who was recruited in 1862 and worked with the Weekly for more than 20 years. Nast was a feared caricaturist, and is called the father of American political cartooning. He was the first to use an elephant as the symbol of the Republican Party and he also drew the legendary character of Santa Claus, his version became strongly associated with the figure, who was popularized as part of Christmas customs in the late nineteenth century. Harpers Weekly was the most widely read journal in the United States throughout the period of the Civil War, so as not to upset its wide readership in the South, Harpers took a moderate editorial position on the issue of slavery. Publications that supported abolition referred to it as Harpers Weakly, the Weekly had supported the Stephen A. Douglas presidential campaign against Abraham Lincoln, but as the American Civil War broke out, it fully supported Lincoln and the Union. The photograph inspired many free blacks in the North to enlist, some of the most important articles and illustrations of the time were Harpers reporting on the war. Besides renderings by Homer and Nast, the magazine also published illustrations by Theodore R. Davis, Henry Mosler, and the brothers Alfred and William Waud. In 1863, George William Curtis, one of the founders of the Republican Party, became the editor of the magazine. His editorials advocated civil service reform, low tariffs, and adherence to the gold standard, after the war, Harpers Weekly more openly supported the Republican Party in its editorial positions, and contributed to the election of Ulysses S. Grant in 1868 and 1872. It supported the Radical Republican position on Reconstruction, in the 1870s, the cartoonist Thomas Nast began an aggressive campaign in the journal against the corrupt New York political leader William Boss Tweed. Nast turned down a $500,000 bribe to end his attack, Tweed was arrested in 1873 and convicted of fraud. Nast and Harpers also played an important part in securing Rutherford B. Hayes 1876 presidential election, later on Hayes remarked that Nast was the most powerful, single-handed aid had. After the election, Nasts role in the magazine diminished considerably, since the late 1860s, Nast and George W. Curtis had frequently differed on political matters and particularly on the role of cartoons in political discourse. Harpers publisher Fletcher Harper strongly supported Nast in his disputes with Curtis, in 1877, Harper died, and his nephews, Joseph W. Harper Jr. and John Henry Harper, assumed control of the magazine
3.
Timothy H. O'Sullivan
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Timothy H. OSullivan was a photographer widely known for his work related to the American Civil War and the Western United States. OSullivans history and personal life remains a mystery for many historians as there is information to work off of. For example, he was born in Ireland and came to New York City two years later with his parents or his parents traveled to New York before he was born. There is no way of finding out which of the two stories is true and we do know that as a teenager, he was employed by Mathew Brady. There is no record of him fighting and he most likely did civilians work for the army such as surveying, and he took photographs in his spare time. After being honorably discharged, he rejoined Bradys team, in July 1862, OSullivan followed the campaign of Maj. Gen. John Popes Northern Virginia Campaign. By joining Alexander Gardners studio, he had his photographs published in the first Civil War photographs collection. In July 1863, he created his most famous photograph, The Harvest of Death, in 1864, following Gen. Ulysses S. Grants trail, he photographed the Siege of Petersburg before briefly heading to North Carolina to document the siege of Fort Fisher. That brought him to the Appomattox Court House, the site of Robert E. Lees surrender in April 1865, from 1867 to 1869, he was the official photographer on the United States Geological Exploration of the Fortieth Parallel under Clarence King. The expedition began at Virginia City, Nevada, where he photographed the mines and his job was to photograph the West to attract settlers. In so doing, he one of the pioneers in the field of geophotography. OSullivans pictures were among the first to record the ruins, Navajo weavers. In contrast to the Asian and Eastern landscape fronts, the matter he focused on was a new concept. It involved taking pictures of nature as an untamed, pre-industrialized land without the use of painting conventions. OSullivan combined science and art, making records of extraordinary beauty. In 1870 he joined a team in Panama to survey for a canal across the isthmus. From 1871 to 1874 he returned to the southwestern United States to join Lt. George M. Wheelers survey west of the 100th meridian west. He faced starvation on the Colorado River when some of the boats capsized
4.
United States Patent and Trademark Office
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The USPTO is unique among federal agencies because it operates solely on fees collected by its users, and not on taxpayer dollars. The USPTO is based in Alexandria, Virginia, after a 2005 move from the Crystal City area of neighboring Arlington, the head of the USPTO is Michelle K. Lee. She took up her new role on January 13,2014, on March 13, she formally took office as Director after being nominated by President Barack Obama and confirmed by the U. S. Senate. She formerly served as the Director of the USPTOs Silicon Valley satellite office, the USPTO cooperates with the European Patent Office and the Japan Patent Office as one of the Trilateral Patent Offices. The USPTO mission is to maintain a permanent, interdisciplinary historical record of all U. S. patent applications in order to fulfill objectives outlined in the United States Constitution. The legal basis for the United States patent system is Article 1, Section 8, an additional building in Arlington, Virginia, was opened in 2009. The USPTO was expected by 2014 to open its first ever satellite offices in Detroit, Dallas, Denver, the first satellite office opened in Detroit on July 13,2012. In 2013, due to the sequestration, the satellite office for Silicon Valley. However, renovation and infrastructure updates continued after the sequestration, and the Silicon Valley location is due to open in San Jose City Hall in mid-2015. As of September 30,2009, the end of the U. S. governments fiscal year, of those,6,242 were patent examiners and 388 were trademark examining attorneys, the rest are support staff. They are generally newly graduated scientists and engineers, recruited from universities around the nation. They hold degrees in scientific disciplines, but who do not necessarily hold law degrees. Unlike patent examiners, trademark examiners must be licensed attorneys, all examiners work under a strict, count-based production system. For every application, counts are earned by composing, filing, and mailing a first office action on the merits, the Patent Operations of the office is divided into nine different technology centers that deal with various arts. Prior to 2012, decisions of patent examiners may be appealed to the Board of Patent Appeals and Interferences, the United States Supreme Court may ultimately decide on a patent case. Similarly, decisions of trademark examiners may be appealed to the Trademark Trial and Appeal Board, with subsequent appeals directed to the Federal Circuit, under the America Invents Act, the BPAI was converted to the Patent Trial and Appeal Board or PTAB. In recent years, the USPTO has seen increasing delays between when a patent application is filed and when it issues, to address its workload challenges, the USPTO has undertaken an aggressive program of hiring and recruitment. The USPTO hired 1,193 new patent examiners in Fiscal Year 2006,1,215 new examiners in fiscal 2007, in 2006, USPTO instituted a new training program for patent examiners called the Patent Training Academy
5.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
6.
Old Patent Office Building
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The historic Old Patent Office Building in Washington, D. C. covers an entire city block defined by F and G Streets and 7th and 9th Streets NW in Chinatown. It served as one of the earliest United States Patent Office buildings, the building houses two Smithsonian Institution museums, the National Portrait Gallery and the Smithsonian American Art Museum. Designed in the Greek Revival style by architect Robert Mills, construction started in 1836, United States patent law required inventors to submit scale models of their inventions, which were retained by the Patent Office and required housing. Once home to early government departments, today the structure houses two museums of the Smithsonian Institution, the Smithsonian American Art Museum and the National Portrait Gallery. In Pierre Charles LEnfants plan for the city, the site of the Patent Office Building. LEnfant envisaged a nondenominational church of the Republic, which he modified to a Pantheon devoted to great Americans. Fireproofing the design was a concern, Mills spanned the interior spaces with masonry vaulting without the use of wooden beams. Skylights and interior light courts filled the spaces with daylight, construction continued under the direction of Thomas U. Walter, one of Mills harshest critics and was completed in 1865, the buildings west wing suffered a fire in 1877, destroying some 87,000 patent models, it was restored by Adolf Cluss, 1877–1885, in the style he termed modern Renaissance. From 1854 to 1857, Clara Barton worked in the building as a clerk to the Patent Commissioner, during the Civil War, the building was turned into military barracks, hospital, and morgue. Wounded soldiers lay on cots in second-floor galleries, among glass cases holding models of inventions that had submitted with patent applications. The American poet Walt Whitman frequented that noblest of Washington buildings, the building was chosen as the venue for Lincolns Second Inaugural Ball in 1865. Whitman worked in Bureau of Indian Affairs, located in the building, from January 24 to June 30,1865, in the 20th century, the building was occupied by the Patent Office until 1932, it then housed the Civil Service Commission. A street-widening sliced away the monumental stairs to its south portico, in 1953, legislation was introduced to demolish the building for a parking lot, but President Dwight D. Eisenhower signed legislation giving it to the Smithsonian in 1958. This was an important victory for the preservation movement in the United States. The Faulkner, Kingsbury & Stenhouse firm of architects supervised the renovation of the interior as museum space starting in 1964, in 1965, the building was designated a National Historic Landmark. The National Museum of American Art and the National Portrait Gallery opened in January 1968, the north wing housed the art museum and the south wing housed the portrait gallery. Office space and a cafe occupied the east wing, the center courtyard had outdoor eating space for the cafe and several large trees
7.
Theodore R. Davis
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Theodore R. Davis was a 19th-century American artist, who made numerous drawings of significant military and political events during the American Civil War and its aftermath. As a child, Theodore R. Davis was taken to Washington D. C. where he graduated from Rittenhouse Academy, when he was fifteen, he moved to New York where studied art under Henry W. Herrick and James Walker. The Training Theodore Davis received under James Walker was informal, Davis typified certain artists as special artists was hired by popular magazines and newspapers. He was hired by them to illustrate the Civil War and he was hired by Harpers Weekly in 1861. During the Civil War, he served as a captain in the 15th Connecticut Volunteer Infantry, after the war, he became a companion of the New York Commandery of the Military Order of the Loyal Legion of the United States. After the war when the Cyclorama in Atlanta was being painted and he was later added to the painting. Theodore Davis was a staff artist at Harpers Weekly, many of his drawings were published as wood engravings in Harpers Weekly. Theodore R. Davis was chosen to create the Hayes China with a chance meeting, mr. Davis suggested using flora and fauna of the American decor. Mr. Davis would come to produce 130 different designs as of animals, plants, at the time the cost for the order came out to $3,150. A guest named Clover Adams observed that when she ate at the White House she could hardly eat soup peacefully if she had to watch a coyote leap at her from behind a tree. At one point during the Civil war, Theodore Davis commanded a regiment, while documentation the war he traveled with a British Journalist, stating that he worked for the London illustrated News, but did not. A major installment in his career was his documentation of the fight between the Merrimac and the Monitor. During the war, Theodore Davis was injured twice, and his horse was shot out under him Theodore Davis worked with panoramic painters such as Friedrich Wilhelm and he worked alongside the men for larger pieces of artwork. War and American Popular Culture, A Historical Encyclopedia, the South on Paper, Line, Color, and Light. Essay by Estill Curtis Pennington and Essay and Catalogue by James C. Kelly, White House China Service http, //www. whitehousehistory. org/press-room/white/house/china Fascinating First Ladies & Fascinating Facts. Http, //www. wisconsinart. org/archives/artist/theodore-russell-davis/profile-902. aspx ©10/17/2007 Museum of Wisconsin Art, West Bend, Wisconsin ©2016, West Bend, WI | 262-334-9638 Visual Art in the Civil War
8.
Smithsonian Institution
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The Smithsonian Institution, established in 1846 for the increase and diffusion of knowledge, is a group of museums and research centers administered by the Government of the United States. Originally organized as the United States National Museum, that ceased to exist as an administrative entity in 1967. Additional facilities are located in Arizona, Maryland, Massachusetts, New York City, Texas, Virginia, more than 200 institutions and museums in 45 states, Puerto Rico, and Panama are Smithsonian Affiliates. The Institutions thirty million annual visitors are admitted without charge and its annual budget is around $1.2 billion with 2/3 coming from annual federal appropriations. Other funding comes from the Institutions endowment, private and corporate contributions, membership dues, and earned retail, concession, Institution publications include Smithsonian and Air & Space magazines. The British scientist James Smithson left most of his wealth to his nephew Henry James Hungerford, Congress officially accepted the legacy bequeathed to the nation, and pledged the faith of the United States to the charitable trust on July 1,1836. The American diplomat Richard Rush was dispatched to England by President Andrew Jackson to collect the bequest, Rush returned in August 1838 with 105 sacks containing 104,960 gold sovereigns. Once the money was in hand, eight years of Congressional haggling ensued over how to interpret Smithsons rather vague mandate for the increase, unfortunately, the money was invested by the US Treasury in bonds issued by the state of Arkansas which soon defaulted. The United States Exploring Expedition by the U. S. Navy circumnavigated the globe between 1838 and 1842, in 1846, the regents developed a plan for weather observation, in 1847, money was appropriated for meteorological research. The Institution became a magnet for young scientists from 1857 to 1866, the Smithsonian played a critical role as the U. S. partner institution in early bilateral scientific exchanges with the Academy of Sciences of Cuba. The Smithsonian Institution Building began construction in 1849, designed by architect James Renwick Jr. its interiors were completed by general contract Gilbert Cameron and the building opened in 1855. The Smithsonians first expansion came with construction of the Arts and Industries Building in 1881, Congress had promised to build a new structure for the museum if the 1876 Philadelphia Centennial Exposition generated enough income. It did, and the building was designed by architects Adolf Cluss and Paul Schulze, meigs of the United States Army Corps of Engineers. The National Zoological Park opened in 1889 to accommodate the Smithsonians Department of Living Animals and this structure was designed by the D. C. architectural firm of Hornblower & Marshall. More than 40 years would pass before the museum, the Museum of History. It was designed by the firm of McKim, Mead & White. That same year, the Smithsonian signed an agreement to take over the Cooper Union Museum for the Arts of Decoration, the National Portrait Gallery and the Smithsonian American Art Museum opened in the Old Patent Office Building on October 7,1968. The first new building to open since the National Museum of Natural History was the Hirshhorn Museum and Sculpture Garden
9.
Fireproofing
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Fireproofing is rendering something resistant to fire, or incombustible, or material for use in making anything fire-proof. It is a fire protection measure. Fireproof or fireproofing can be used as a noun, verb or adjective, applying a certification listed fireproofing system to certain structures allows them to have a fire-resistance rating. The term fireproofing may be used in conjunction with standards, as reflected in common North American construction specifications, an item classed as fireproof is resistant in specified circumstances, and may burn or be rendered inoperable by fire exceeding the intensity or duration that it is designed to withstand. Because the material was later proven to cause cancer in the long run, endothermic materials have also been used to a large extent and are still in use today, such as gypsum, concrete and other cementitious products. More highly evolved versions of these are used in aerodynamics, intercontinental ballistic missiles and re-entry vehicles, the use of these older materials has been standardised in old systems, such as those listed in BS476, DIN4102 and the National Building Code of Canada. Among the conventional materials, purpose-designed spray fireproofing plasters have become abundantly available the world over, cementitious plasters that contain Portland cement have been traditionally lightened by the use of inorganic lightweight aggregates, such as vermiculite and perlite. Gypsum plasters have been lightened by using chemical additives to create bubbles that displace solids, also, lightweight polystyrene beads have been mixed into the plasters at the factory in an effort to reduce the density, which generally results in a more effective insulation at a lower cost. The resulting plaster has qualified to the A2 combustibility rating as per DIN4102, fibrous plasters, containing either mineral wool, or ceramic fibres tend to simply entrain more air, thus displacing the heavy fibres. On-site cost reduction efforts, at times purposely contravening the requirements of the certification listing, an alternative method to keep building steel below its softening temperature is to use liquid convection cooling in hollow structural members. This method was patented in the 19th century although the first prominent example was 89 years later, money can be saved fraudulently by using apparently suitable fireproofing that is not built to the required standard. Such fraud can be prevented when documentation is required and checked to ensure that all installed configurations meet the certification standards, possible cases include, Entraining too much air in inorganic systems, thus reducing densities below fire-tested, saving on materials and labour. Spraying inorganic fireproofing materials over through-penetrations and building joints that should be firestopped, substitution of intumescent and/or endothermic fireproofing coatings by less expensive paints of similar appearance, sometimes in the packaging of the correct materials. The American and Canadian nuclear industries have, historically, not insisted on listing and approval use and compliance and this has allowed the use of Thermo-Lag 330-1, for which the basis of testing has been proven to be faulty, requiring millions of dollars of remedial work. The Thermo-Lag scandal came to light as a result of disclosures by American whistleblower Gerald W. Brown, as of 2014 certification of fireproofing and firestopping remained optional for systems installed in nuclear power plants in Canada and the United States. Reuse of older materials from demolished buildings, in newer buildings, spray fireproofing products have not been qualified to the thousands of firestop configurations, so they cannot be installed in conformance of a certification listing. If the structural steel is left without fireproofing, it can damage fire barriers, if the barriers are not firestopped properly, fire and smoke can spread from one compartment to another. Where hydrocarbon transports are permitted in tunnel construction and operations, accidental fires may occur, traffic tunnels are not ordinarily equipped with fire suppression means, such as fire sprinkler systems
10.
United States Department of State
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The Department was created in 1789 and was the first executive department established. The Department is headquartered in the Harry S Truman Building located at 2201 C Street, NW, the Department operates the diplomatic missions of the United States abroad and is responsible for implementing the foreign policy of the United States and U. S. diplomacy efforts. The Department is also the depositary for more than 200 multilateral treaties, the Department is led by the Secretary of State, who is nominated by the President and confirmed by the Senate and is a member of the Cabinet. The current Secretary of State is Rex Tillerson, beginning 1 February 2017, the Secretary of State is the second Cabinet official in the order of precedence and in the presidential line of succession, after the Vice President of the United States. This legislation remains the law of the Department of State. In September 1789, additional legislation changed the name of the agency to the Department of State and these responsibilities grew to include management of the United States Mint, keeper of the Great Seal of the United States, and the taking of the census. President George Washington signed the new legislation on September 15, most of these domestic duties of the Department of State were eventually turned over to various new Federal departments and agencies that were established during the 19th century. On September 29,1789, President Washington appointed Thomas Jefferson of Virginia, then Minister to France, from 1790 to 1800, the State Department had its headquarters in Philadelphia, the capital of the United States at the time. It occupied a building at Church and Fifth Streets, in 1800, it moved from Philadelphia to Washington, D. C. where it first occupied the Treasury Building and then the Seven Buildings at 19th Street and Pennsylvania Avenue. It moved into the Six Buildings in September 1800, where it remained until May 1801 and it moved into the War Office Building due west of the White House in May 1801. It occupied the Treasury Building from September 1819 to November 1866 and it then occupied the Washington City Orphan Home from November 1866 to July 1875. It moved to the State, War, and Navy Building in 1875, since May 1947, it has occupied the Harry S. Truman Building in the Foggy Bottom neighborhood of Washington, the State Department is therefore sometimes metonymically referred to as Foggy Bottom. Madeleine Albright became the first woman to become the United States Secretary of State, condoleezza Rice became the second female secretary of state in 2005. Hillary Rodham Clinton became the female secretary of state when she was appointed in 2009. In 2014, the State Department began expanding into the Navy Hill Complex across 23rd Street NW from the Truman Building, the Executive Branch and the U. S. Congress have constitutional responsibilities for U. S. foreign policy. Within the Executive Branch, the Department of State is the lead U. S, the Department advances U. S. objectives and interests in the world through its primary role in developing and implementing the Presidents foreign policy. It also provides an array of important services to U. S. citizens, the total Department of State budget, together with Other International Programs, costs about 45 cents a day for each resident of the United States. Keeping the public informed about U. S. foreign policy and relations with other countries, providing automobile registration for non-diplomatic staff vehicles and the vehicles of diplomats of foreign countries having diplomatic immunity in the United States
11.
Henry Leavitt Ellsworth
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Henry Leavitt Ellsworth was a Yale-educated attorney who became the first Commissioner of the U. S. Patent Office, where he encouraged innovation by inventors Samuel F. B, Ellsworth was born in Windsor, Connecticut, son of Founding Father and Chief Justice Oliver Ellsworth and Abigail Wolcott. Ellsworth graduated from Yale University in 1810, and studied law at Tapping Reeves Litchfield Law School in 1811, on June 22,1813, he married Nancy Allen Goodrich with whom Ellsworth had three children, including son Henry W. Ellsworth. Later in life, he had two subsequent wives, Marietta Mariana Bartlett and Catherine Smith, Ellsworth was named in part for his grandmothers family, the Leavitts of Suffield, Connecticut. After studying law under Judge Gould in Litchfield, Connecticut, he settled first at Windsor and then at Hartford, in 1811, when he was 19 years old and a freshly minted Yale graduate, Ellsworth undertook the first of several western trips during his lifetime. Ellsworth traveled by horseback to the Connecticut Western Reserve in present-day Ohio to investigate family lands in the region, Ellsworth wrote a small, uneven book about his experiences entitled A Tour to New Connecticut in 1811. Ellsworths mission was straightening out irregularities in land sales by the family agent, along the way Ellsworth made note of attractive vistas, rowdy drunks, solicitous innkeepers and his disappointment in places of which he had heard, like Erie. The journeys rigors were relieved by a meeting with his old friend Margaret Dwight, daughter of Yale president Timothy Dwight IV, here too, wrote Ellsworth, I met with my good old friend Margaret Dwight, we sat down and passed a few hours in social chat. Dwight wrote her own account of her Western Reserve trip, A Journey to Ohio in 1810, over twenty years later, in 1832, Ellsworth traveled west again, this time as U. S. Commissioner of Indian Tribes in Arkansas and Oklahoma, Ellsworth travelled to Fort Gibson to investigate the situation. Louis magnates of the Midwestern fur trade, in 1835, Ellsworth was elected mayor of Hartford, Connecticut, but had served only a month when he was appointed the first Commissioner of the U. S. Patent Office, an office he held for ten years, from 1835 until 1845 and his twin brother William W. Ellsworth was Governor of Connecticut from 1838 to 1842, and served as a U. S. William Wolcott Ellsworth was married to the daughter of Noah Webster, when he arrived at the Patent Office, Ellsworth found one third of the floor-space in his office occupied by over 60 models of inventions, he moved them to a separate room. He also found that no list of patent applicants had ever drawn up. Acting as Patent Commissioner, Ellsworth made a decision that profoundly affected the future of Hartford, the young Samuel Colt was struggling to establish a firm to manufacture his new revolver. Ellsworth became interested in Colts invention, and in 1836 made the decision to issue Colt U. S, in todays world Ellsworth would be described as an early technology adapter. From Ellsworths exposure to the West and knowledge of inventions, he prophesied late in life that the lands of the West would be cultivated by means of steam plows. This prophecy was introduced in the probate of his will in an attempt to prove that he was of unsound mind, by 1845 Ellsworths patent office was performing the functions of a full-fledged agricultural bureau
12.
Bret Harte
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Francis Bret Harte was an American short story writer and poet, best remembered for his short fiction featuring miners, gamblers, and other romantic figures of the California Gold Rush. In a career spanning more than four decades, he wrote poetry, fiction, plays, lectures, book reviews, editorials, and magazine sketches in addition to fiction. As he moved from California to the eastern U. S. to Europe, he incorporated new subjects and characters into his stories, but his Gold Rush tales have been most often reprinted, adapted, Bret Harte was born in Albany, New York. He was named Francis Brett Hart after his great-grandfather, Francis Brett, when he was young, his father, Henry, changed the spelling of the family name from Hart to Harte. Henrys father was Bernard Hart, an Orthodox Jewish immigrant who flourished as a merchant, later, Francis preferred to be known by his middle name, but he spelled it with only one t, becoming Bret Harte. An avid reader as a boy, Harte published his first work at age 11, rather than attracting praise, the poem garnered ridicule from his family. As an adult, he recalled to a friend, Such a shock was their ridicule to me that I wonder that I ever wrote another line of verse and his formal schooling ended when he was 13, in 1849. Harte moved to California in 1853, later working there in a number of capacities, including miner, teacher, messenger, and journalist. He spent part of his life in the northern California coastal town of Union, the Wells Fargo Messenger, July 1916, relates that, after an unsuccessful attempt to make a living in the gold camps, he signed on as a messenger with Wells Fargo & Co. He guarded treasure boxes on stagecoaches for a few months, then gave it up to become the schoolmaster at a school near Sonora and he created his character Yuba Bill from his memory of an old stagecoach driver. The 1860 massacre of between 80 and 200 Wiyots at the village of Tuluwat was well documented historically and was reported in San Francisco and New York by Harte. When serving as assistant editor for the Northern Californian, Harte editorialized about the slayings while his boss Stephen G. Whipple was temporarily absent, leaving Harte in charge of the paper. Harte published a detailed account condemning the event, writing, a shocking and revolting spectacle never was exhibited to the eyes of a Christian. Old women wrinkled and decrepit lay weltering in blood, their brains dashed out, infants scarcely a span long, with their faces cloven with hatchets and their bodies ghastly with wounds. After he published the editorial, his life was threatened, Harte quit his job and moved to San Francisco, where an anonymous letter published in a city paper is attributed to him, describing widespread community approval of the massacre. Harte married Anna Griswold on August 11,1862 in San Rafael, from the start, the marriage was rocky. Some suggested that she was handicapped by extreme jealousy, while early Harte biographer Henry C, merwin privately concluded that she was almost impossible to live with. Among Hartes first literary efforts, a poem was published in The Golden Era in 1857 and he was hired as editor of The Golden Era in the spring of 1860, which he attempted to make into a more literary publication
13.
Rain gutter
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A rain gutter or surface water collection channel is a component of water discharge system for a building. Water from a pitched roof flows down into a valley gutter, an eaves gutter is also known as an eavestrough, eaves channel, dripster, guttering or simply as a gutter. The word gutter derives from Latin gutta, meaning a drop, guttering in its earliest form consisted of lined wooden or stone troughs. Lead was a liner and is still used in pitched valley gutters. Many materials have been used to make guttering, cast iron, asbestos cement, UPVC, cast, gutters prevent water ingress into the fabric of the building by channelling the rainwater away from the exterior of the walls and their foundations. Water running down the walls causes dampness in the rooms and provides a favourable environment for growth of mould. A rain gutter may be a, Roof integral trough along the edge of the roof slope which is fashioned from the roof covering and flashing materials. Discrete trough of metal, or other material that is suspended beyond the roof edge, wall integral structure beneath the roof edge, traditionally constructed of masonry, fashioned as the crowning element of a wall. A roof must be designed with a fall to allow the rainwater to discharge. The water drains into a gutter that is fed into a downpipe, a flat roof will have a watertight surface with a fall of 1 in 60, or 1 in the case of lead. They can drain internally or to a gutter, which has a minimum 1 in 360 fall towards the downpipe. The pitch of a roof is determined by the construction material of the covering. For slate this will be at 25%, for machine made tiles it will be 35%, water falls towards a parapet gutter, a valley gutter or an eaves gutter. When two pitched roofs meet at an angle, they form a pitched valley gutter, the join is sealed with valley flashing. Parapet gutters and valley gutters discharge into internal rainwater pipes or directly into external down pipes at the end of the run, the capacity of the gutter is a significant design consideration. The area of the roof is calculated and this is multiplied by rainfall which is assumed to be 0.0208 and this gives a required discharge outfall capacity.022 l/s/m²- while one in Cumbria delivers 0.014 l/s/m². Eaves gutters can be made from a variety of such as cast iron, lead, zinc, galvanised steel, painted steel, copper, painted aluminium, PVC and occasionally from concrete, stone. Water collected by a rain gutter is fed, usually via a downpipe, alternatively it would connect via a gulley with 50mm water seal to a combined drain
14.
The Washington Star
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The Washington Star, previously known as the Washington Star-News and the Washington Evening Star, was a daily afternoon newspaper published in Washington, D. C. between 1852 and 1981. For most of time, it was the citys newspaper of record. On August 7,1981, after 128 years, the Washington Star ceased publication, in the bankruptcy sale, The Washington Post purchased the land and buildings owned by the Star, including its printing presses. The Washington Star was founded on December 16,1852 by Captain Joseph Borrows Tate, in 1853, Texas surveyor and newspaper entrepreneur William Douglas Wallach purchased the paper. As the sole owner of the paper for the next 14 years, Wallach built up the paper by capitalizing on reporting of the American Civil War, among other things. In 1867, the group of investors Crosby Stuart Noyes, Samuel H. Kauffmann, the paper would remain family-owned and operated for the next four generations. In 1907, subsequent Pulitzer Prize winning cartoonist Clifford K. Berryman joined the Star, Berryman was most famous for his 1902 cartoon of President Theodore Teddy Roosevelt, Drawing the Line in Mississippi, which spurred the creation of the teddy bear. During his career, Berryman drew thousands of cartoons commenting on American Presidents, presidential figures included former Presidents Theodore Roosevelt, Franklin D. Roosevelt, and Harry S. Truman. Berrymans career continued at the Star until he collapsed on the floor one morning in 1949. The next major change to the newspaper came in 1938 when the three owning families diversified their interests, on May 1, the Star purchased the M. A. Leese Radio Corporation and acquired Washingtons oldest radio station, WMAL, in the process. Renamed the Evening Star Broadcasting Company, the 1938 acquisition would figure later in the 1981 demise of the newspaper, suburbanization and television were accelerating the decline of evening newspapers in favor of morning dailies. The Post, meanwhile, acquired and merged with its morning rival, by the 1960s, the Post was Washingtons leading newspaper. In 1972, the Star purchased and absorbed one of DCs few remaining competing newspapers, for a short period of time after the merger, both The Evening Star and The Washington Daily News mastheads appeared on the front page. The paper soon was retitled Washington Star News and finally, The Washington Star by the late 1970s, in 1973, the Star was targeted for clandestine purchase by interests close to the South African Apartheid government in its propaganda war, in what became known as the Muldergate Scandal. The Star, whose policy had always been conservative, was seen as favorable to South Africa at the time. In early 1975, the owning families sold their interests in the paper to Joe L. Allbritton, Allbritton, who also owned Riggs Bank, then the most prestigious bank in the capital, planned to use profits from WMAL-AM-FM-TV to shore up the newspapers finances. The Federal Communications Commission stymied him with rules on media cross-ownership, however, WMAL-AM-FM was sold off in 1977, on October 1,1975, press operators at the Post went on strike, severely damaging all printing presses before leaving the building. Allbritton also had disagreements with editor Jim Bellows over editorial policy
15.
Robert Mills (architect)
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Mills studied in Charleston, South Carolina, as a student of Irish architect James Hoban—who later designed the White House, which became the official home of US presidents. Both Hoban and Mills were Freemasons, born in Charleston, South Carolina, Mills moved to Philadelphia in 1802 where he became an associate and student of Benjamin Henry Latrobe. At the age of 19, Mills, a graduate of College of Charleston, left Charleston for Washington, DC, to work with his friend, during this time, Robert met Thomas Jefferson, who became the first full term resident of the new Presidential home. Some Philadelphia buildings that Mills designed are Washington Hall, Samson Street Baptist Church, and he also designed the Upper Ferry Bridge covering. Mills designed the First Presbyterian Church in Augusta, Georgia in 1807, in 1808 Mills created blueprints for a prison used mostly for reform. In 1811 the prison was constructed in Mt. Holly, New Jersey, with the possible exception of neighbor, Eastern States Penitentiary, it is the most significant prison building in the United States says the Historic Burlington County Prison Museum Association. In 1812, Mills designed the Monumental Church in Richmond, Virginia which was built to commemorate the death of 72 people in the Richmond Theatre. Moving to Baltimore, Mills designed St. John Eager Howard, baltimores signature landmark began construction in 1815 and was completed in 1829. In 1820, Robert Mills was appointed as acting commissioner of the Board of Public Works in South Carolina, in 1823, he was the superintendent of public buildings. In the next few years, he designed buildings in South Carolina including court houses, the campus of the University of South Carolina, jails. In 1825, he authored an Atlas of the State of South Carolina, one year later, he published Statistics of South Carolina. He reputedly designed the Old Horry County Courthouse, Union County Jail, in 1836 Robert Mills won the competition for the design of the Washington Monument on the future Mall of the National Capital, Washington D. C. which is his best known work. Construction began in 1848, but was interrupted in 1854, construction of the monument resumed in 1879 and was dedicated in 1885, thirty years after the architects death. He also designed the Department of Treasury building, east of the Executive Mansion and several federal buildings in Washington. Patent Office Building, patterned after the Parthenon and the old General Post Office, in South Carolina, Mills designed county courthouses in at least 18 counties, some of the public buildings in Columbia, and a few private homes. He also designed portions of the Landsford Canal, Chester County, Robert Mills was an early advocate of fireproof construction. A fire in Kingstree, South Carolina Building which had designed by Mills. A fire also destroyed much of the Lancaster County, South Carolina Courthouse in August 2008, Mills died in Washington, D. C. in 1855 and was buried at the Congressional Cemetery there in the District of Columbia
16.
Thomas Ustick Walter
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Thomas Ustick Walter was an American architect, the dean of American architecture between the 1820 death of Benjamin Latrobe and the emergence of H. H. Richardson in the 1870s. He was the fourth Architect of the Capitol and responsible for adding the north and south wings, Walter was one of the founders and second president of the American Institute of Architects. Born in 1804 in Philadelphia, Walter was the son of mason and bricklayer Joseph S. Walter, Walter received early training in a variety of fields including masonry, mathematics, physical science, and the fine arts. At 15, Walter entered the office of William Strickland, studying architecture and mechanical drawing, Walter was commissioned by Spruce Street Baptist Church to design its new building at 418 Spruce Street. The 1829 building is home to the Society Hill Synagogue. Walters first major commission was Moyamensing Prison, the Philadelphia County Prison, designed as a humane model in its time, the prison was built between 1832 and 1835. Walter also designed the First Presbyterian Church of West Chester, which opened its doors in January 1834, in March 1834, the Walter-designed Wills Eye Hospital opened on the southwest corner of 18th and Race Streets in Philadelphia. He first came to recognition for his design of Girard College for Orphans in Philadelphia. Walter also designed mansions, banks, churches, the hotel at Brandywine Springs, in 1836, he designed the Bank of Chester County at West Chester, Pennsylvania, a decade later, he designed the 1846 Chester County Courthouse in Greek Revival style. In Lexington, Virginia, he designed the Lexington Presbyterian Church in 1843, the same year he designed the Chapel of the Cross in Chapel Hill, North Carolina. In Norfolk, Virginia, he designed the Norfolk Academy in 1840, the Tabb Street Presbyterian Church was erected at Petersburg, Virginia in 1843. It has also suggested that Walter designed the Second Empire-styled Quarters B and Quarters D at Admirals Row in Brooklyn. Georges Hall, residence of Matthew Newkirk, president of the Philadelphia, Walter also designed the Garrett-Dunn House in Philadelphias Mt. Airy neighborhood, which was destroyed by fire after being struck by lightning on August 2,2009. Among his smaller designs was the 1839 Newkirk Viaduct Monument, commissioned by the PW&B to mark the completion of the first rail line south from Philadelphia, the most famous of Walters constructions is the dome of the U. S. Capitol. By 1850, the expansion of the United States had caused a space shortage in the Capitol. Walter was selected to design extensions for the Capitol and his plan more than doubled the size of the existing building and added the familiar cast-iron dome. There were at least six draftsmen in Walters office, headed by Walters chief assistant, August Schoenborn and it appears that he was responsible for some of the fundamental ideas in the Capitol structure. These included the curved ribs and an ingenious arrangement used to cantilever the base of the columns
17.
Reinforced concrete
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The reinforcement is usually, though not necessarily, steel reinforcing bars and is usually embedded passively in the concrete before the concrete sets. Reinforcing schemes are designed to resist tensile stresses in particular regions of the concrete that might cause unacceptable cracking and/or structural failure. Modern reinforced concrete can contain varied reinforcing materials made of steel, Reinforced concrete may also be permanently stressed, so as to improve the behaviour of the final structure under working loads. In the United States, the most common methods of doing this are known as pre-tensioning and post-tensioning, durability in the concrete environment, irrespective of corrosion or sustained stress for example. François Coignet was a French industrialist of the century, a pioneer in the development of structural. Coignet was the first to use iron-reinforced concrete as a technique for constructing building structures, in 1853 Coignet built the first iron reinforced concrete structure, a four story house at 72 rue Charles Michels in the suburbs of Paris. Coignets descriptions of reinforcing concrete suggests that he did not do it for means of adding strength to the concrete, in 1854, English builder William B. Wilkinson reinforced the concrete roof and floors in the two-storey house he was constructing. His positioning of the reinforcement demonstrated that, unlike his predecessors, in 1877, Monier was granted another patent for a more advanced technique of reinforcing concrete columns and girders with iron rods placed in a grid pattern. Though Monier undoubtedly knew reinforcing concrete would improve its inner cohesion, before 1877 the use of concrete construction, though dating back to the Roman Empire and reintroduced in the mid to late 1800s, was not yet a proven scientific technology. His work played a role in the evolution of concrete construction as a proven. Without Hyatts work, more dangerous trial and error methods would have largely depended on for the advancement in the technology. G. A. Wayss was a German civil engineer and a pioneer of the iron, in 1879 Wayss bought the German rights to Moniers patents and in 1884 started the first commercial use for reinforced concrete in his firm Wayss & Freytag. Up until the 1890s Wayss and his firm greatly contributed to the advancement of Moniers system of reinforcing, ernest L. Ransome was an English-born engineer and early innovator of the reinforced concrete techniques in the end of the 19th century. With the knowledge of reinforced concrete developed during the previous 50 years, ransomes key innovation was to twist the reinforcing steel bar improving bonding with the concrete. Gaining increasing fame from his concrete constructed buildings Ransome was able to build two of the first reinforced concrete bridges in North America, one of the first concrete buildings constructed in the United States, was a private home, designed by William Ward in 1871. The home was designed to be fireproof for his wife, one of the first skyscrapers made with reinforced concrete was the 16-storey Ingalls Building in Cincinnati, constructed in 1904. Many different types of structures and components of structures can be built using reinforced concrete including slabs, walls, beams, columns, foundations, frames, Reinforced concrete can be classified as precast or cast-in-place concrete. Designing and implementing the most efficient floor system is key to creating optimal building structures, small changes in the design of a floor system can have significant impact on material costs, construction schedule, ultimate strength, operating costs, occupancy levels and end use of a building
18.
1836 U.S. Patent Office fire
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Patent Office fire was the first of several disastrous fires the U. S. Patent Office has had in its history, an initial investigation considered the possibility of arson due to suspected corruption in the Post Office, which shared the same building, but it was later ruled out. The cause was determined to be accidental. This event is considered to be a point in the history of the Patent Office. Local fire suppression efforts were incapable of preventing the damage due to lack of fire personnel, many patent documents and models from the preceding three decades were irretrievably lost. The fire broke out at 3 a. m. on December 15, at that time the Patent Office was located in Blodgets Hotel, as was the fire department and the post office. Patent Office employees stored firewood in the basement of the hotel, sometime after midnight that morning the hot ashes ignited the firewood. The fire departments hose was old and defective and would not funnel the water onto the fire, all 10,000 patents and several thousand related patent models were destroyed. In 1810, Congress had authorized the purchase of the unfinished Blodgetts Hotel from its builder to house the Post, Congress was aware of the fire risk. During the War of 1812, Superintendent Dr. William Thornton convinced members of the British expeditionary force to leave it standing while they burned the rest of the city, when the smoke cleared from the dreadful attack, the Patent Office was the only Government building. Left untouched from the Burning of Washington, consequently, a well-equipped fire station was located nearby. In 1820, Congress authorized the covering of the building with a slate roof, unfortunately, the volunteer fire department lost its sense of purpose and was disbanded. In fact, a complete firehouse equipped with an engine was just down the street. Although equipped with a pump and with riveted leather hose 1,000 feet long. Running a bucket brigade to put out the blaze was totally ineffective. The lost items included 168 folio volumes of records,26 large portfolios of some nine thousand drawings, related descriptive patent documents, the 7,000 lost models included those of various textile manufacturing processes and several models of steam-powered machinery for propelling boats. The Patent Offices own model-cases, press and seals, desks, book-cases, Congress investigated the fire immediately, suspecting arson. At the time of the fire the Post Office Department was under investigation for awarding dishonest mail contracts and it was first thought that perhaps the fire was set to destroy evidence
19.
Photolithography
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Photolithography, also termed optical lithography or UV lithography, is a process used in microfabrication to pattern parts of a thin film or the bulk of a substrate. It uses light to transfer a geometric pattern from a photomask to a light-sensitive chemical photoresist, or simply resist, on the substrate. A series of chemical treatments then engraves the exposure pattern into, or enables deposition of a new material in the desired pattern upon. For example, in integrated circuits, a modern CMOS wafer will go through the photolithographic cycle up to 50 times. This procedure is comparable to a high precision version of the used to make printed circuit boards. Subsequent stages in the process have more in common with etching than with lithographic printing and its main disadvantages are that it requires a flat substrate to start with, it is not very effective at creating shapes that are not flat, and it can require extremely clean operating conditions. The root words photo, litho, and graphy all have Greek origins, with the light, stone. As suggested by the name compounded from them, photolithography is a method in which light plays an essential role. In the 1820s, Nicephore Niepce invented a process that used Bitumen of Judea. In 1954, Louis Plambeck Jr. developed the Dycryl polymeric letterpress plate, a single iteration of photolithography combines several steps in sequence. Modern cleanrooms use automated, robotic wafer track systems to coordinate the process, the procedure described here omits some advanced treatments, such as thinning agents or edge-bead removal. Other solutions made with trichloroethylene, acetone or methanol can also be used to clean, the wafer is initially heated to a temperature sufficient to drive off any moisture that may be present on the wafer surface,150 °C for ten minutes is sufficient. Wafers that have been in storage must be cleaned to remove contamination. A liquid or gaseous adhesion promoter, such as Bisamine, is applied to promote adhesion of the photoresist to the wafer. The surface layer of silicon dioxide on the wafer reacts with HMDS to form tri-methylated silicon-dioxide, in order to ensure the development of the image, it is best covered and placed over a hot plate and let it dry while stabilizing the temperature at 120 °C. The wafer is covered with photoresist by spin coating, a viscous, liquid solution of photoresist is dispensed onto the wafer, and the wafer is spun rapidly to produce a uniformly thick layer. The spin coating typically runs at 1200 to 4800 rpm for 30 to 60 seconds, the spin coating process results in a uniform thin layer, usually with uniformity of within 5 to 10 nanometres. Thus, the top layer of resist is quickly ejected from the edge while the bottom layer still creeps slowly radially along the wafer
20.
Patent model
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A patent model was a handmade miniature model no larger than 12 by 12 by 12 that showed how an invention works. It was one of the most interesting features of the United States patent system. In the US, patent models were required from 1790 to 1880, the United States Congress abolished the legal requirement for them in 1870, but the U. S. Patent Office kept the requirement until 1880, on July 31,1790 inventor Samuel Hopkins of Pittsford, Vermont became the first person to be issued a patent in the United States. His patented invention was an improvement in the making of Pot Ash by a new apparatus & process and these earliest patent law required that a working model of each invention be produced in miniature. Some inventors still willingly submitted models at the turn of the twentieth century, in some cases, an inventor may still want to present a working model as an evidence to prove actual reduction to practice in an interference proceeding. In some jurisdictions patent models stayed an aid to demonstrate the operation of the invention, in applications involving genetics, samples of genetic material or DNA sequences may be required. The United States Patent Office used to display the models of approved patents. The United States Patent Offices collection of models have suffered two major fires- one in 1836, and another in 1877, the 1877 fire destroyed 76,000 patent models. The models were sold off by the patent office in 1925 and were purchased by Sir Henry Wellcome, although he intended to establish a patent model museum, the stock market crash of 1929 damaged his fortune, the models were left in storage. Rather than being put into a museum, these models were sold off by the foundation. A saga of legal wrangling, purchasing, and re-selling ensued, United States Patent and Trademark Office Patent drawing 1836 U. S. Patent Office fire Hughes, Debra K. Martin W. Kane, artifacts of invention, Patent models at the Hagley Museum and Library. York, Pa, York Graphic Services,1993, Patent Models Index, Guide to the Collections of the National Museum of American History, Smithsonian Institution. Smithsonian Contributions to History and Technology, no.54, inventing a Better Mousetrap,200 Years of American History in the Amazing World of Patent Models
21.
Conflagration
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A conflagration is a large and destructive fire that threatens human life, animal life, health, and/or property. It may also be described as a blaze or simply a fire, a conflagration can begin accidentally, be naturally caused, or intentionally created. Arson can be for fraud, murder, sabotage or diversion, a firestorm can form as a consequence of a very large fire, in which the central column of rising heated air induces strong inward winds, which supply oxygen to the fire. Conflagrations can cause casualties including deaths or injuries from burns, trauma due to collapse of structures and attempts to escape, firefighting is the practice of attempting to extinguish a conflagration, protect life and property, and minimize damage and injury. One of the goals of fire prevention is to avoid conflagrations, when a conflagration is extinguished, there is often a fire investigation to determine the cause of the fire. A destructive fire, usually an extensive one a very intense and uncontrolled fire a large disastrous fire During a conflagration a significant movement of air, hot gaseous products of combustion move upward, causing the influx of more dense cold air to the combustion zone. Sometimes, the influx is so intense that the fire grows into a firestorm, inside a building, the intensity of gas exchange depends on the size and location of openings in walls and floors, the ceiling height, and the amount and characteristics of the combustible materials. Industrial conflagrations include fires at oil refineries, such as the 2009 Cataño oil refinery fire. One or several fire in forests or other areas, i. e. wildfire, may grow up into or unite to a conflagration. An urban conflagration moves beyond a block. In some ships, a large uncontained fire may lead to a ship conflagration. The conflagration of a building is known as a structure fire, an asteroid more than 4.3 miles in diameter colliding with the Earth, spewing out enough ejecta to cause a global conflagration
22.
Metalworking
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Metalworking is the process of working with metals to create individual parts, assemblies, or large-scale structures. The term covers a range of work from large ships and bridges to precise engine parts. It therefore includes a wide range of skills, processes. Metalworking is a science, art, hobby, industry and trade and its historical roots span cultures, civilizations, and millennia. Metalworking has evolved from the discovery of smelting various ores, producing malleable and ductile metal useful for tools, modern metalworking processes, though diverse and specialized, can be categorized as forming, cutting, or joining processes. Todays machine shop includes a number of machine tools capable of creating a precise, the oldest archaeological evidence of copper mining and working was the discovery of a copper pendant in northern Iraq from 8,700 BCE. The earliest substantiated and dated evidence of metalworking in the Americas was the processing of copper in Wisconsin, Copper was hammered until brittle then heated so it could be worked some more. This technology is dated to about 4000-5000 BCE, the oldest gold artifacts in the world come from the Bulgarian Varna Necropolis and date from 4450 BCE. Not all metal required fire to obtain it or work it, isaac Asimov speculated that gold was the first metal. His reasoning is that by its chemistry it is found in nature as nuggets of pure gold, in other words, gold, as rare as it is, is sometimes found in nature as the metal that it is. There are a few metals that sometimes occur natively. Almost all other metals are found in ores, a mineral-bearing rock, another feature of gold is that it is workable as it is found, meaning that no technology beyond a stone hammer and anvil to work the metal is needed. This is a result of properties of malleability and ductility. The earliest tools were stone, bone, wood, and sinew, at some unknown point the connection between heat and the liberation of metals from rock became clear, rocks rich in copper, tin, and lead came into demand. These ores were mined wherever they were recognized, remnants of such ancient mines have been found all over Southwestern Asia. Metalworking was being carried out by the South Asian inhabitants of Mehrgarh between 7000–3300 BCE, the end of the beginning of metalworking occurs sometime around 6000 BCE when copper smelting became common in Southwestern Asia. Ancient civilisations knew of seven metals. Here they are arranged in order of their potential, Iron +0.44 V
23.
Woodworking
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Woodworking is the activity or skill of making items from wood, and includes cabinet making, wood carving, joinery, carpentry, and woodturning. Along with stone, clay and animal parts, wood was one of the first materials worked by early humans, microwear analysis of the Mousterian stone tools used by the Neanderthals show that many were used to work wood. The development of civilization was closely tied to the development of increasingly greater degrees of skill in working these materials, among early finds of wooden tools are the worked sticks from Kalambo Falls, Clacton-on-Sea and Lehringen. The spears from Schöningen provide some of the first examples of hunting gear. Flint tools were used for carving, since Neolithic times, carved wooden vessels are known, for example, from the Linear Pottery culture wells at Kückhofen and Eythra. Examples of Bronze Age wood-carving include tree trunks worked into coffins from northern Germany and Denmark, there is significant evidence of advanced woodworking in Ancient Egypt. Woodworking is depicted in extant ancient Egyptian drawings, and a considerable amount of ancient Egyptian furniture has been preserved. Tombs represent a collection of these artefacts and the inner coffins found in the tombs were also made of wood. The metal used by the Egyptians for woodworking tools was originally copper and eventually, commonly used woodworking tools included axes, adzes, chisels, pull saws, and bow drills. Mortise and tenon joints are attested from the earliest Predynastic period and these joints were strengthened using pegs, dowels and leather or cord lashings. Animal glue came to be used only in the New Kingdom period, Ancient Egyptians invented the art of veneering and used varnishes for finishing, though the composition of these varnishes is unknown. Woodworking was essential to the Romans and it provided, sometimes the only, material for buildings, transportation, tools, and household items. Vitruvius dedicates a chapter of his De architectura to timber. Pliny, while not a botanist, dedicated six books of his Natural History to trees and woody plants which provides a wealth of information on trees, the progenitors of Chinese woodworking are considered to be Lu Ban and his wife Lady Yun, from the Spring and Autumn period. Lu Ban is said to have introduced the plane, chalk-line and his teachings were supposedly left behind in the book Lu Ban Jing. Despite this, it is believed that the text was written some 1500 years after his death. This book is filled largely with descriptions of dimensions for use in building various items such as pots, tables, altars, etc. It mentions almost nothing of the intricate glue-less and nail-less joinery for which Chinese furniture was so famous, with the advances in modern technology and the demands of industry, woodwork as a field has changed
24.
Agricultural machinery
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Agricultural machinery is machinery used in farming or other agriculture. There are many types of equipment, from hand tools and power tools to tractors. Diverse arrays of equipment are used in organic and nonorganic farming. Especially since the advent of mechanised agriculture, agricultural machinery is an part of how the world is fed. With the coming of the Industrial Revolution and the development of complicated machines. Instead of harvesting grain by hand with a blade, wheeled machines cut a continuous swath. Instead of threshing the grain by beating it with sticks, threshing machines separated the seeds from the heads, the first tractors appeared in the late 19th century. Power for agricultural machinery was supplied by ox or other domesticated animals. With the invention of power came the portable engine, and later the traction engine. Agricultural steam engines took over the heavy pulling work of oxen, the steam-powered machines were low-powered by todays standards but, because of their size and their low gear ratios, they could provide a large drawbar pull. Their slow speed led farmers to comment that tractors had two speeds, slow, and damn slow, the internal combustion engine, first the petrol engine, and later diesel engines, became the main source of power for the next generation of tractors. These engines also contributed to the development of the self-propelled, combined harvester and thresher, instead of cutting the grain stalks and transporting them to a stationary threshing machine, these combines cut, threshed, and separated the grain while moving continuously through the field. Combines might have taken the job away from tractors. They are used to push implements—machines that till the ground, plant seed, tillage implements prepare the soil for planting by loosening the soil and killing weeds or competing plants. The best-known is the plow, the ancient implement that was upgraded in 1838 by John Deere. Plows are now used frequently in the U. S. than formerly, with offset disks used instead to turn over the soil. The most common type of seeder is called a planter, and spaces seeds out equally in long rows, some crops are planted by drills, which put out much more seed in rows less than a foot apart, blanketing the field with crops. Transplanters automate the task of transplanting seedlings to the field, with the widespread use of plastic mulch, plastic mulch layers, transplanters, and seeders lay down long rows of plastic, and plant through them automatically
25.
Carriage
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A carriage is a wheeled vehicle for people, usually horse-drawn, litters and sedan chairs are excluded, since they are wheelless vehicles. The carriage is especially designed for passenger use and for comfort or elegance. It may be light, smart and fast or heavy, large, Carriages normally have suspension using leaf springs, elliptical springs or leather strapping. A public passenger vehicle would not usually be called a carriage – terms for such include stagecoach, charabanc, working vehicles such as the wagon and cart share important parts of the history of the carriage, as does too the fast chariot. The word carriage is from Old Northern French cariage, to carry in a vehicle, a carriage is sometimes called a team, as in horse and team. A carriage with its horse is a rig, an elegant horse-drawn carriage with its retinue of servants is an equipage. A carriage together with the horses, harness and attendants is a turnout or setout, a procession of carriages is a cavalcade. Some horsecarts found in Celtic graves show hints that their platforms were suspended elastically, four-wheeled wagons were used in prehistoric Europe, and their form known from excavations suggests that the basic construction techniques of wheel and undercarriage were established then. The earliest recorded sort of carriage was the chariot, reaching Mesopotamia as early as 1900 BC, used typically for warfare by Egyptians, the near Easterners and Europeans, it was essentially a two-wheeled light basin carrying one or two passengers, drawn by one to two horses. It is likely that Roman carriages employed some form of suspension on chains or leather straps, in the kingdom of the Zhou Dynasty the Warring States were also known to have used carriages as transportation. With the decline of these civilizations these techniques almost disappeared, the medieval carriage was typically a four-wheeled wagon type, with a rounded top similar in appearance to the Conestoga Wagon familiar from the USA. Sharing the traditional form of wheels and undercarriage known since the Bronze Age, suspension is recorded in visual images and written accounts from the 14th century, and was in widespread use by the 15th century. Carriages were largely used by royalty, aristocrats, and could be decorated and gilded. These carriages were on four wheels often and were pulled by two to four depending on how they were decorated. Wood and iron were the requirements needed to build a carriage. Another form of carriage was the pageant wagon of the 14th century, historians debate on the structure and size of pageant wagons, however, they are generally miniature house-like structures that rest on four to six wheels depending on the size of the wagon. Historians also debate whether or not pageant wagons were built with pivotal axle systems, whether it was a four- or six-wheel pageant wagon, most historians maintain that pivotal axle systems were implemented on pageant wagons because many roads were often winding with some sharp turns. Six wheel pageant wagons also represent another innovation in carriages, they were one of the first carriages to use multiple pivotal axles, pivotal axles were used on the front set of wheels and the middle set of wheels
26.
Wagon
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A wagon is a heavy four-wheeled vehicle pulled by draught animals or on occasion by humans, used for transporting goods, commodities, agricultural materials, supplies and sometimes people. Wagons are immediately distinguished from carts and from lighter four-wheeled vehicles primarily for carrying people, wagons are usually pulled by animals such as horses, mules or oxen. They may be pulled by one animal or by several, often in pairs or teams, however, there are examples of human-propelled wagons, such as mining corfs. A wagon was called a wain and one who builds or repairs wagons is a wainwright. More specifically, a wain is a type of horse- or oxen-drawn, load-carrying vehicle, however, a two-wheeled haywain would be a hay cart, as opposed to a carriage. Wain is also a term for a chariot. Wain can also be a verb, to carry or deliver, a person who drives wagons is called a wagoner, a teamster, a bullocky, a muleskinner, or simply a driver. The exact name and terminology used is dependent on the design or shape of the wagon. If low and sideless may be called a dray, trolley or float, when traveling over long distances and periods, wagons may be covered with cloth to protect their contents from the elements, these are covered wagons. If it has a permanent top enclosing it, it may be called a van, many earlier designs required a very large turning radius, however, shrinking the width of the bed means decreasing the size of the load. As this is a problem that carts do not face, this factor, combined with their lighter weight, the general solutions to this problem involved several modifications to the front-axle assembly. The front axle assembly of a wagon consists of an axle, a pair of wheels, a round plate with a hole in its centre is located on the underside of the wagon. The plate on the wagon, in turn, sits on the plate on the axle between the wheels and this arrangement allows the axle and wheels to turn horizontally. The pin and hole arrangement could be reversed, the horse harness is attached to this assembly. This technique eventually led to further designs well-adapted to narrow areas, wagons have served numerous purposes, with numerous corresponding designs. As with motorized vehicles, some are designed to serve as functions as possible, while others are highly specialized. This section will discuss a broad overview of the classes of wagons, for details on specific types of wagons. Farm wagons are built for general usage in an agricultural or rural setting
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Rail transport
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Rail transport is a means of conveyance of passengers and goods on wheeled vehicles running on rails, also known as tracks. It is also referred to as train transport. In contrast to road transport, where vehicles run on a flat surface. Tracks usually consist of rails, installed on ties and ballast, on which the rolling stock, usually fitted with metal wheels. Other variations are possible, such as slab track, where the rails are fastened to a concrete foundation resting on a prepared subsurface. Rolling stock in a transport system generally encounters lower frictional resistance than road vehicles, so passenger. The operation is carried out by a company, providing transport between train stations or freight customer facilities. Power is provided by locomotives which either draw electric power from a railway system or produce their own power. Most tracks are accompanied by a signalling system, Railways are a safe land transport system when compared to other forms of transport. The oldest, man-hauled railways date back to the 6th century BC, with Periander, one of the Seven Sages of Greece, Rail transport blossomed after the British development of the steam locomotive as a viable source of power in the 19th centuries. With steam engines, one could construct mainline railways, which were a key component of the Industrial Revolution, also, railways reduced the costs of shipping, and allowed for fewer lost goods, compared with water transport, which faced occasional sinking of ships. The change from canals to railways allowed for markets in which prices varied very little from city to city. In the 1880s, electrified trains were introduced, and also the first tramways, starting during the 1940s, the non-electrified railways in most countries had their steam locomotives replaced by diesel-electric locomotives, with the process being almost complete by 2000. During the 1960s, electrified high-speed railway systems were introduced in Japan, other forms of guided ground transport outside the traditional railway definitions, such as monorail or maglev, have been tried but have seen limited use. The history of the growth, decline and restoration to use of transport can be divided up into several discrete periods defined by the principal means of motive power used. The earliest evidence of a railway was a 6-kilometre Diolkos wagonway, trucks pushed by slaves ran in grooves in limestone, which provided the track element. The Diolkos operated for over 600 years, Railways began reappearing in Europe after the Dark Ages. The earliest known record of a railway in Europe from this period is a window in the Minster of Freiburg im Breisgau in Germany
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Mechanical engineering
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Mechanical engineering is the discipline that applies the principles of engineering, physics, and materials science for the design, analysis, manufacturing, and maintenance of mechanical systems. It is the branch of engineering that involves the design, production and it is one of the oldest and broadest of the engineering disciplines. The mechanical engineering field requires an understanding of areas including mechanics, kinematics, thermodynamics, materials science, structural analysis. Mechanical engineering emerged as a field during the Industrial Revolution in Europe in the 18th century, however, Mechanical engineering science emerged in the 19th century as a result of developments in the field of physics. The field has evolved to incorporate advancements in technology, and mechanical engineers today are pursuing developments in such fields as composites, mechatronics. Mechanical engineers may work in the field of biomedical engineering, specifically with biomechanics, transport phenomena, biomechatronics, bionanotechnology. Mechanical engineering finds its application in the archives of various ancient, in ancient Greece, the works of Archimedes deeply influenced mechanics in the Western tradition and Heron of Alexandria created the first steam engine. In China, Zhang Heng improved a water clock and invented a seismometer, during the 7th to 15th century, the era called the Islamic Golden Age, there were remarkable contributions from Muslim inventors in the field of mechanical technology. Al-Jazari, who was one of them, wrote his famous Book of Knowledge of Ingenious Mechanical Devices in 1206 and he is also considered to be the inventor of such mechanical devices which now form the very basic of mechanisms, such as the crankshaft and camshaft. Newton was reluctant to publish his methods and laws for years, gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz is also credited with creating Calculus during the same time frame. On the European continent, Johann von Zimmermann founded the first factory for grinding machines in Chemnitz, education in mechanical engineering has historically been based on a strong foundation in mathematics and science. Degrees in mechanical engineering are offered at universities worldwide. In Spain, Portugal and most of South America, where neither B. Sc. nor B. Tech, programs have been adopted, the formal name for the degree is Mechanical Engineer, and the course work is based on five or six years of training. In Italy the course work is based on five years of education, and training, in Greece, the coursework is based on a five-year curriculum and the requirement of a Diploma Thesis, which upon completion a Diploma is awarded rather than a B. Sc. In Australia, mechanical engineering degrees are awarded as Bachelor of Engineering or similar nomenclature although there are a number of specialisations. The degree takes four years of study to achieve. To ensure quality in engineering degrees, Engineers Australia accredits engineering degrees awarded by Australian universities in accordance with the global Washington Accord, before the degree can be awarded, the student must complete at least 3 months of on the job work experience in an engineering firm. Similar systems are present in South Africa and are overseen by the Engineering Council of South Africa
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Hydraulic engineering
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Hydraulic engineering as a sub-discipline of civil engineering is concerned with the flow and conveyance of fluids, principally water and sewage. One feature of these systems is the use of gravity as the motive force to cause the movement of the fluids. This area of engineering is intimately related to the design of bridges, dams, channels, canals, and levees. Hydraulic engineering is the application of the principles of mechanics to problems dealing with the collection, storage, control, transport, regulation, measurement. Before beginning a hydraulic engineering project, one must figure out how water is involved. The hydraulic engineer is concerned with the transport of sediment by the river, the interaction of the water with its boundary. Fundamentals of Hydraulic Engineering defines hydrostatics as the study of fluids at rest, in a fluid at rest, there exists a force, known as pressure, that acts upon the fluids surroundings. This pressure, measured in N/m2, is not constant throughout the body of fluid, pressure, p, in a given body of fluid, increases with an increase in depth. Four basic devices for measurement are a piezometer, manometer, differential manometer, Bourdon gauge. As Prasuhn states, On undisturbed submerged bodies, pressure acts along all surfaces of a body in a liquid and this reaction is known as equilibrium. More advanced applications of pressure are that on plane surfaces, curved surfaces, dams, the main difference between an ideal fluid and a real fluid is that for ideal flow p1 = p2 and for real flow p1 > p2. Ideal fluid is incompressible and has no viscosity, ideal fluid is only an imaginary fluid as all fluids that exist have some viscosity. A viscous fluid will deform continuously under a force, whereas an ideal fluid doesnt deform. The various effects of disturbance on a flow are stable, transition. For an ideal fluid, Bernoullis equation holds along streamlines, as the flow comes into contact with the plate, the layer of fluid actually adheres to a solid surface. There is then a considerable shearing action between the layer of fluid on the surface and the second layer of fluid. The second layer is forced to decelerate, creating a shearing action with the third layer of fluid. As the fluid passes further along the plate, the zone in which shearing action occurs tends to spread further outwards and this zone is known as the boundary layer
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Pneumatic cylinder
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Pneumatic cylinder are mechanical devices which use the power of compressed gas to produce a force in a reciprocating linear motion. Like hydraulic cylinders, something forces a piston to move in the desired direction, the piston is a disc or cylinder, and the piston rod transfers the force it develops to the object to be moved. Engineers sometimes prefer to use pneumatics because they are quieter, cleaner, because the operating fluid is a gas, leakage from a pneumatic cylinder will not drip out and contaminate the surroundings, making pneumatics more desirable where cleanliness is a requirement. For example, in the puppets of the Disney Tiki Room. Once actuated, compressed air enters into the tube at one end of the piston and, hence, one major issue engineers come across working with pneumatic cylinders has to do with the compressibility of a gas. Many studies have been completed on how the precision of a cylinder can be affected as the load acting on the cylinder tries to further compress the gas used. Under a vertical load, a case where the cylinder takes on the full load, Pneumatic systems are often found in settings where even rare and brief system failure is unacceptable. In such situations locks can sometimes serve as a safety mechanism in case of loss of air supply and, leakage of air from the input or output reduces the pressure and so the desired output. Although pneumatic cylinders will vary in appearance, size and function, however, there are also numerous other types of pneumatic cylinder available, many of which are designed to fulfill specific and specialized functions. Single-acting cylinders use the pressure imparted by compressed air to create a force in one direction. More often than not, this type of cylinder has limited extension due to the space the compressed spring takes up and they have two ports to allow air in, one for outstroke and one for instroke. Stroke length for this design is not limited, however, the rod is more vulnerable to buckling and bending. Additional calculations should be performed as well, telescoping cylinders, also known as telescopic cylinders can be either single or double-acting. The telescoping cylinder incorporates a piston rod nested within a series of stages of increasing diameter. Upon actuation, the rod and each succeeding stage telescopes out as a segmented piston. The main benefit of this design is the allowance for a longer stroke than would be achieved with a single-stage cylinder of the same collapsed length. One cited drawback to telescoping cylinders is the potential for piston flexion due to the segmented piston design. Consequently, telescoping cylinders are primarily utilized in applications where the piston bears minimal side loading, cushion end air cylinders, cylinders with regulated air exhaust to avoid impacts between the piston rod and the cylinder end cover
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Eli Whitney
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Eli Whitney was an American inventor best known for inventing the cotton gin. This was one of the key inventions of the Industrial Revolution, Whitneys invention made upland short cotton into a profitable crop, which strengthened the economic foundation of slavery in the United States. Despite the social and economic impact of his invention, Whitney lost many profits in legal battles over patent infringement for the cotton gin, thereafter, he turned his attention into securing contracts with the government in the manufacture of muskets for the newly formed United States Army. He continued making arms and inventing until his death in 1825, Whitney was born in Westborough, Massachusetts, on December 8,1765, the eldest child of Eli Whitney Sr. a prosperous farmer, and his wife Elizabeth Fay, also of Westborough. Although the younger Eli, born in 1765, could technically be called a Junior and he was famous during his lifetime and afterward by the name Eli Whitney. His son, born in 1820, also named Eli, was known during his lifetime and afterward by the name Eli Whitney, Jr. Whitneys mother, Elizabeth Fay, died in 1777. At age 14 he operated a profitable nail manufacturing operation in his fathers workshop during the Revolutionary War, because his stepmother opposed his wish to attend college, Whitney worked as a farm laborer and school teacher to save money. He prepared for Yale at Leicester Academy and under the tutelage of Rev. Elizur Goodrich of Durham, Connecticut, he entered the class of 1789 and graduated Phi Beta Kappa in 1792. Whitney expected to study law but, finding himself short of funds, instead of reaching his destination, he was convinced to visit Georgia. In the closing years of the 18th century, Georgia was a magnet for New Englanders seeking their fortunes, when he initially sailed for South Carolina, among his shipmates were the widow and family of the Revolutionary hero Gen. Nathanael Greene of Rhode Island. Mrs. Greene invited Whitney to visit her Georgia plantation, Mulberry Grove and her plantation manager and husband-to-be was Phineas Miller, another Connecticut migrant and Yale graduate, who would become Whitneys business partner. Whitney is most famous for two innovations which later divided the United States in the century, the cotton gin. In the South, the cotton gin revolutionized the way cotton was harvested and reinvigorated slavery, in the North the adoption of interchangeable parts revolutionized the manufacturing industry, and contributed greatly to the U. S. victory in the Civil War. The cotton gin is a device that removes the seeds from cotton. The word gin is short for engine, the cotton gin was a wooden drum stuck with hooks that pulled the cotton fibers through a mesh. The cotton seeds would not fit through the mesh and fell outside, a single cotton gin could generate up to 55 pounds of cleaned cotton daily. Whitney received a patent for his cotton gin on March 14,1794, Whitney and his partner, Miller, did not intend to sell the gins. Rather, like the proprietors of grist and sawmills, they expected to charge farmers for cleaning their cotton – two-fifths of the value, resentment at this scheme, the mechanical simplicity of the device and the primitive state of patent law, made infringement inevitable
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Cotton gin
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A cotton gin is a machine that quickly and easily separates cotton fibers from their seeds, allowing for much greater productivity than manual cotton separation. The fibers are then processed into various goods such as linens. Seeds may be used to grow cotton or to produce cottonseed oil. Handheld roller gins had been used in India and then other countries since at earliest 500 CE, the Indian worm-gear roller gin, invented some time around the sixteenth century, has, according to Lakwete, remained virtually unchanged up to the present time. The modern mechanical cotton gin was created by American inventor Eli Whitney in 1793, whitneys gin used a combination of a wire screen and balls to pull the cotton through, while brushes continuously removed the loose cotton lint to prevent jams. It revolutionized the industry in the United States, but also led to the growth of slavery in the American South as the demand for cotton workers rapidly increased. The invention has thus been identified as an inadvertent contributing factor to the outbreak of the American Civil War, modern automated cotton gins use multiple powered cleaning cylinders and saws, and offer far higher productivity than their hand-powered forebears. The original cotton gin was invented by Eli Whitney in 1793, Whitney began to work on this project after moving to Georgia in search of work. Given that farmers were desperately searching for a way to cotton farming profitable. Whitney created two cotton gins, a one that could be hand cranked and a large one that could be driven by a horse or water power. Thanks to the gin, the amount of raw cotton yielded doubled each decade after 1800. The creation of the cotton gin also led to the creation of machines designed to spin and weave the fabric, single roller cotton gin, The Ajanta caves of India yield evidence of a single roller cotton gin in use by the 5th century. This cotton gin was used in India until innovations were made in form of foot powered gins, the cotton gin was invented in India as a mechanical device known as charkhi, more technically the wooden-worm-worked roller. This mechanical device was, in parts of India, driven by water power. Cotton fibers are produced in the pods of the cotton plant where the fibers in the bolls are tightly interwoven with seeds. To make the fibers usable, the seeds and fibers must first be separated, many simple seed-removing devices had been invented, but until the innovation of the cotton gin, most required significant operator attention and worked only on a small scale. The earliest versions of the cotton gin consisted of a single roller made of iron or wood, evidence for this type of gin has been found in Africa, Asia, and North America. These early gins were difficult to use and required a deal of skill
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National Personnel Records Center fire
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NPRC, the custodian of military service records, lost approximately 16–18 million official military personnel records as a result of the fire. In 1951, the Department of Defense retained the St. Louis firm of Hellmuth, Yamasaki, the firm visited several similar operations, including a U. S. Navy records center at Garden City, New York and a Department of Defense facility in Alexandria, Virginia. They studied the functions of each facility and the nature of the systems employed. Their report, submitted in February 1952, detailed different approaches used to achieve the respective centers mission, particularly relevant in light of future events were the findings with regard to fire prevention, detection, and suppression systems. The Naval records center in Garden City, New York, for example, was outfitted with a fire sprinkler system. The building was constructed of prestressed concrete floors and roof supported by interior columns and surrounded by a curtain wall of aluminum. Construction was completed in 1956 by the United States Army Corps of Engineers at a cost of $12.5 million, $110 million in todays dollars, an economical $10.15 per square foot. On each of the floors were large spaces for storage, stretching hundreds of feet. Along the north side of each floor were offices, separated from the storage area by a concrete block wall. The entire facility lacked heat or smoke detectors to detect fire or a fire sprinkler system to automatically extinguish fire. When the facility opened in 1956, it housed some 38 million military personnel records, by the time of the 1973 fire, their ranks had swelled to over 52 million records. Additionally,500,000 cu ft of military records were added to the collection of the center. At 12,16,15 AM on July 12,1973, at 12,16,35,20 seconds later, a building security guard picked up the fire phone and relayed the report of a passing motorcyclist who also observed the fire. By 12,17,25, the first fire trucks were dispatched,42 fire districts eventually contributed to the effort to put out the fire. Ultimately, the burned out of control for 22 hours, being fought from the exterior of the building because heat. Insufficient water pressure plagued efforts and a pumper broke down mechanically in its 40th continuous hour of operation, crews entered the building again on July 14 while the fire continued to smolder for another two days. The fire was declared out on the morning of July 16, the exact cause of the fire was never fully determined. Such reports were never confirmed, however, and to day the cause of the fire remains a mystery
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Abraham Lincoln
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Abraham Lincoln was an American politician and lawyer who served as the 16th President of the United States from March 1861 until his assassination in April 1865. Lincoln led the United States through its Civil War—its bloodiest war and perhaps its greatest moral, constitutional, in doing so, he preserved the Union, abolished slavery, strengthened the federal government, and modernized the economy. Born in Hodgenville, Kentucky, Lincoln grew up on the frontier in Kentucky. Largely self-educated, he became a lawyer in Illinois, a Whig Party leader, elected to the United States House of Representatives in 1846, Lincoln promoted rapid modernization of the economy through banks, tariffs, and railroads. Reentering politics in 1854, he became a leader in building the new Republican Party, in 1860, Lincoln secured the Republican Party presidential nomination as a moderate from a swing state. Though he gained little support in the slaveholding states of the South. Subsequently, on April 12,1861, a Confederate attack on Fort Sumter inspired the North to enthusiastically rally behind the Union. Politically, Lincoln fought back by pitting his opponents against each other, by carefully planned political patronage and his Gettysburg Address became an iconic endorsement of the principles of nationalism, republicanism, equal rights, liberty, and democracy. Lincoln initially concentrated on the military and political dimensions of the war and his primary goal was to reunite the nation. He suspended habeas corpus, leading to the ex parte Merryman decision. Lincoln closely supervised the war effort, especially the selection of top generals, including his most successful general, Lincoln tried repeatedly to capture the Confederate capital at Richmond, each time a general failed, Lincoln substituted another, until finally Grant succeeded. As the war progressed, his moves toward ending slavery included the Emancipation Proclamation of 1863. On April 14,1865, five days after the surrender of Confederate commanding general Robert E. Lee, Lincoln was assassinated by John Wilkes Booth, a Confederate sympathizer. Secretary of War Edwin Stanton launched a manhunt for Booth, and 12 days later on April 26, Lincoln has been consistently ranked both by scholars and the public as among the greatest U. S. presidents. Abraham Lincoln was born February 12,1809, the child of Thomas and Nancy Hanks Lincoln, in a one-room log cabin on the Sinking Spring Farm near Hodgenville. He was a descendant of Samuel Lincoln, an Englishman who migrated from Hingham, Norfolk to its namesake of Hingham, samuels grandson and great-grandson began the familys western migration, which passed through New Jersey, Pennsylvania, and Virginia. Lincolns paternal grandfather and namesake, Captain Abraham Lincoln, moved the family from Virginia to Jefferson County, Captain Lincoln was killed in an Indian raid in 1786. His children, including eight-year-old Thomas, the presidents father
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United States presidential inaugural balls
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United States presidential inaugural balls are large social gatherings, both white tie and black tie, held to celebrate the commencement of a new term of the President of the United States. The President, First Lady, Vice-President and Second Lady, all personal appearances at each of the inaugural balls held in their honor. Catered food, beverages, and live entertainment performed by national, other inaugural balls, unofficial and often less formal that occur before and on Inauguration Day, are given by state societies, businesses, and private organizations. The tradition of inaugural balls in the United States has evolved over time. The first inaugural ball was held by sponsors on May 7,1789 in New York City, one week after the first inauguration of George Washington. In 1809, Dolley Madison hosted a gala at Longs Hotel in Washington D. C. after the first inauguration of James Madison was held earlier in the day at the United States Capitol, a total of 400 tickets were sold for $4 a piece. In 1833, two balls were held for the inauguration of Andrew Jackson and in 1841, a third ball was added for the inauguration of William Henry Harrison. For the inaugurations of Zachary Taylor in 1849, James Buchanan in 1857, between 1885 and 1909, inaugural balls were held at the National Museum Building and the Pension Building. Other presidents have cancelled inaugural balls for various reasons, roosevelt in 1933,1937,1941, and 1945. Official inaugural balls were not reinstated until the Second inauguration of Harry S. Truman in 1949, due to their growing popularity, the number of inaugural balls grew starting in the 1950s. During the 1953 inauguration of Dwight D. Eisenhower, there were two balls and by 1957, there were a total of four balls held for Eisenhowers second inauguration, a fifth was added for the Inauguration of John F. Kennedy in 1961. Reflecting the mood of previous presidents in the early 20th century, Jimmy Carter stripped his 1977 inaugural balls of their frivolity and glamor, by 1997, the number of inaugural balls reached a peak of fourteen during the second inauguration of Bill Clinton. However, the number was reduced to eight for the first inauguration of George W. Bush in 2001, for the most recent inaugural balls held during the 2009 inauguration of Barack Obama,10 official and 121 unofficial inaugural balls were given
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Houghton Mifflin Harcourt
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Houghton Mifflin Harcourt is an educational and trade publisher in the United States. Headquartered in Bostons Back Bay, it publishes textbooks, instructional materials, assessments, reference works. The company was known as Houghton Mifflin Company but changed its name following the 2007 acquisition of Harcourt Publishing. Prior to March 2010, it was a subsidiary of Education Media and Publishing Group Limited, in 1832, William Ticknor and James Thomas Fields had gathered an impressive list of writers, including Ralph Waldo Emerson, Nathaniel Hawthorne, and Henry David Thoreau. The duo formed a relationship with Riverside Press, a Boston printing company owned by Henry Oscar Houghton. Shortly after, Houghton also founded a company with partner George Mifflin. The company still had debt from when it merged from Houghton, Osgood and Company, in 1884, James D. Hurd, the son of Melancthon Hurd became a partner. Three people in 1888 became partners as well, James Murray Kay, Thurlow Weed Barnes, shortly thereafter the company established an Educational Department, and from 1891 to 1908 sales of educational materials increased by 500 percent. Soon after 1916, Houghton Mifflin became involved in publishing standardized tests and testing materials, the company was the fourth-largest educational publisher in the United States in 1921. In 1961, Houghton Mifflin famously passed on Julia Childs Mastering the Art of French Cooking, giving it up to Alfred A. Knopf who later published it in 1962. It went on to become a success and is considered by many to be the bible of French cooking. Houghton Mifflins strategic error was depicted in the 2009 film Julie & Julia, in 1967, Houghton Mifflin became a publicly traded company on the New York Stock Exchange under the stock symbol HTN. Under president Nader F. Darehshori Houghton Mifflin acquired in 1994 for $138 million McDougal Littell, a publisher of secondary school materials. Heath and Company, a publisher of educational resources. In 1996, the company created their Great Source Education Group to combine the supplemental material product lines of their School Division and these two companies. In 1998, HMH announced a sub-brand called LOGAL Software, which was to release a new line of interactive science software called Science Gateways, as of 2017, Houghton Mifflin Harcourt is offering the Logal Science brand as a licensing opportunity on its website. Mergers and acquisitions activities have had effects on this company. In 2001, Houghton Mifflin was acquired by French media giant Vivendi Universal for $2.2 billion including assumed debt, on December 22,2006, it was announced that Riverdeep PLC had completed its acquisition of Houghton Mifflin
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Advocate
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An advocate is a type of professional person in several different legal systems and it is also a commonly used honorific for remarkable lawyers, such as in Adv. The broad equivalent in many English law-based jurisdictions can be a barrister, Advocates, who formed the senior branch of the legal profession in their field, were Doctors of Law of the Oxford, Cambridge, or Dublin and Fellows of the Society of Doctors Commons. Advocates lost their rights of audience in probate and divorce cases when the Crown took these matters over from the church in 1857. The Society of Advocates was never formally wound up, but its building was sold off in 1865, barristers were admitted to the Court of Arches of the Church of England in 1867. More recently, Solicitor Advocates have also allowed to play this role. Advocates are the only lawyers with rights of audience in the courts of the Isle of Man, in court, advocates wear a horsehair wig, stiff collar, bands and a gown in the same way as barristers do elsewhere. It is then necessary to obtain a professional qualification such as the Bar Professional Training Course or the Legal Practice Course. It is not, however, necessary actually to be admitted as an English barrister or solicitor to train as an advocate. Foreign lawyers who have registered as legal practitioners in the Isle of Man for a certain period of time may also undertake a shorter period of training. The examinations are rigorous and candidates are limited to three attempts to pass each paper, the professional conduct of advocates is regulated by the Isle of Man Law Society, which also maintains a library for its members in Douglas. While advocates in the Isle of Man have not traditionally prefixed their names with Advocate in the Channel Islands manner, Advocates are regulated by the Faculty of Advocates in Edinburgh. The Faculty of Advocates has about 750 members, of whom about 460 are in private practice, the Faculty is headed by the Dean of the Faculty who, along with the Vice-Dean, Treasurer, Clerk are elected annually by secret ballot. The Faculty has a company, Faculty Services Ltd, to which almost all advocates belong. This gives a guarantee to all newly called advocates of a place and it remains the case that advocates are not permitted to sue for their fees, as they have no contractual relationship with their instructing solicitor or with the client. Advocates wear wigs, white bow-ties, straps and gowns as dress in court, the process of becoming an advocate is referred to as devilling. All Intrants will be Scottish solicitors, i. e, a devils competence in a number of aspects of written and oral advocacy is assessed during devilling, and if a devil is assessed as not competent, he or she will not be admitted to the Faculty. Further details of this process can be found in the assessment section, there are exceptions for lawyers who are qualified in other European jurisdictions, but all must take the training course as devils. Until 2007, a number of young European lawyers were given a placement with advocates under the European Young Lawyers Scheme organised by the British Council and they are known as Eurodevils, in distinction to the Scottish devils
38.
Fireproof Building
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The Fireproof Building, also known as the County Records Building, is located at 100 Meeting Street, Charleston, South Carolina. Built in 1827, it was the most completely fire-resistant building in America and it was designated a National Historic Landmark in 1973. The Fireproof Building is set in central Charleston, at the northwest corner of Washington Square and it is a two-story masonry structure, set on a tall stone foundation with an arcade of round-arch openings and built out brick that has been stuccoed to resemble stone. The building is in the Palladian style, with Doric porticoes north and south, and achieves a sophisticated appearance with clean and crisp lines, inside, the building has an oval stair hall lit by a cupola. The stone stairs are cantilevered through three stories, the building was designed by Robert Mills and constructed by John G. Spidle in 1827. Mills, the nations first domestically-trained architect, was an advocate of buildings designed to include fire-resistant materials. It was originally used to house offices and records for Charleston County offices, today, the building is the home of the South Carolina Historical Society. The Fireproof Building was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1969, stockton, Information for Guides of Historic Charleston, South Carolina 350. South Carolina Historical Society U. S. National Park Service
39.
Kingstree, South Carolina
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Kingstree is a city and the county seat of Williamsburg County, South Carolina, United States. The population was 3,328 at the 2010 census, the original town was laid out as Williamsburg by the Lords Proprietors in colonial times. But a lone, unusually large white pine was found along the Black River, since tall white pines were ideal for use as masts for ships, it was claimed by the Crown on behalf of the king. The broad arrow mark was carved into the tree to prevent any colonists from cutting it, though white pines are native to the Appalachians as far south as Georgia, it is the only tree of King George’s ever found in the South. Over time, the county kept the name Williamsburg, but the county became known as The Kings Tree. General Francis Marion, known as the Swamp Fox, defeated the British at the Battle of the Lower Bridge in March 1781, there is a historical marker to mark the battle between US Highway 521 and the Black River. After the British had destroyed Charles Town during the revolution, General Marion gained supporters from Major John James, the Battle of Kings Tree took place on August 27,1780. The city sustained losses including, Indiantown Presbyterian Church being burned to the ground, the Kingstree Historic District, M. F. Heller House, Colonel John Gotea Pressley House, Scott House, and Thorntree are listed on the National Register of Historic Places. Williamsburg Presbyterian Church was founded in August 1736, the church consisted of three structures. Its founders built the first church in 1738 across from the Williamsburg Cemetery in town, the third, the current structure of the church located on North Academy Street was built in 1914. The stained glass windows on the roof of the church today were imported from Austria, one of the stained glass windows on the roof was removed in 1989 during a renovation and was placed behind the pulpit of the sanctuary. The first person to be buried in the cemetery was John Witherspoon. Williamsburg Presbyterian Church celebrated its 275th Birthday in October 2011, the church held a service to share Kingstrees history. The church is the oldest church still exists today between the Santee and Cape Fear Rivers in North and South Carolina. Williamsburg Presbyterian is the church to 33 other Presbyterian churches. Two daughter churches include nearby Union Presbyterian church in Salters, South Carolina, the Kingstree company formed at Williamsburg Presbyterian Churchs original churchyard in July 1780. The company was led by Captain Henry Mouzon and later turned into the battalion, the Arnette House is one of the three oldest homes in the town and was built in 1840. The home holds significance in the town because the room was used as a school for two periods of history during the early years of the home
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Lancaster County, South Carolina
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Lancaster County /ˈleɪŋkəstər/ is a county located in the U. S. state of South Carolina. As of the 2016 census estimate, its population was 89,594 and its county seat is Lancaster which has an urban population of 23,979. The county was created in 1785, Lancaster County is included in the Charlotte-Concord-Gastonia, NC-SC Metropolitan Statistical Area. It is located in the Piedmont region, for hundreds of years the Catawba Indians claimed all of present Lancaster County as part of their tribal lands. The Catawba were once considered one of the most powerful Southeastern Siouan-speaking tribes, the Catawba and other Siouan peoples are believed to have coalesced as individual tribes in the Southeast. Primarily involved in agriculture, the Catawba were friendly toward early European Immigrants, when the first White people came in the early 1750s they settled between Rum Creek and Twelve Mile Creek. Waxhaw Creek within this area had taken its name from the Waxhaw Indian tribe, the majority of the new settlers were Scots-Irish from Pennsylvania, others from North Carolina and Virginia joined them. Many of the settlers came to South Carolina from Lancaster. They had named their county for the House of Lancaster which had opposed the House of York in the struggles of 1455-85, the House of Lancaster chose the red rose as their emblem while their neighbor, York County, boasts the white rose. A second settlement was made in the part of the present Lancaster County on Hanging Rock Creek. The first grant was made there in 1752, and included the huge overhanging mass of rock from which the creek takes its name. About the time this section was opened up, others came in and settled along Lynches Creek, Little Lynches creek, Flat Creek, Beaver Creek, and lower Camp Creek. In coming to the Lancaster area, the first settlers had to follow old Indian paths, the Rocky River Road is an old route that originated as an Indian path. Today, the Rocky River Road is part of South Carolina Highway 522, according to the U. S. Census Bureau, the county has a total area of 555 square miles, of which 549 square miles is land and 6.0 square miles is water. It is bounded on the west by the Catawba River and Sugar Creek, the population density was 112 inhabitants per square mile. There were 24,962 housing units at a density of 46 per square mile. 1. 59% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race,23. 70% of all households were made up of individuals and 9. 40% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.56 and the family size was 3.01
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Lancaster County Courthouse (South Carolina)
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Lancaster County Courthouse is a historic courthouse at 104 North Main Street in Lancaster, South Carolina. Built in 1828, it has been in use since then. It was designated a National Historic Landmark in 1973, as a work of Robert Mills. It also has the distinction of being the site of the last witch trials to take place in the United States, the Lancaster County Courthouse is located in the heart of downtown Lancaster, at the southwest corner of Meeting Street and Main Street. It is a two story structure, built out of locally-made bricks laid in English bond, with Flemish bond around the windows. Its main facade is five bays wide, with the entrance on the second floor. Windows are rectangular, set in round-arch openings, the interior of the ground floor has barrel-vaulted ceilings, providing support for the upper floor. The judges bench in the courtroom is a particularly fine example of Federal period wood carving. The building has been in use as a courthouse since its construction. In 2008, the courthouse was damaged, but not destroyed, by fire caused by arson. On September 19,2008, a local 17-year-old, Martavious Carter, was accused for setting the fire while being interviewed for other crimes he had recently committed. SC-604, Lancaster County Courthouse,104 North Main Street at Dunlap Street, Lancaster, Lancaster County, SC,13 photos,3 color transparencies,2 data pages,1 photo caption page
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Smithsonian (magazine)
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Smithsonian is the official journal published by the Smithsonian Institution in Washington, D. C. The first issue was published in 1970, Thompson would later recall that his philosophy for the new magazine was that it would stir curiosity in already receptive minds. It would deal with history as it is relevant to the present and it would present art, since true art is never dated, in the richest possible reproduction. It would peer into the future via coverage of social progress and of science, technical matters would be digested and made intelligible by skilled writers who would stimulate readers to reach upward while not turning them off with jargon. We would find the best writers and the best photographers—not unlike the best of the old Life, in 1973, the magazine turned a profit for the first time. By 1974, circulation had nearly quadrupled, to 635,000, in 1980, Thompson was replaced by Don Moser, who had also worked at Life, and circulation reached upwards of two million, in turn, by Carey Winfrey upon his retirement in 2001. Smithsonian magazine provides in-depth analysis of varied topics within a range of scientific areas. Every year since 2012, the Magazine has sponsored the American Ingenuity Awards, winners have included Elon Musk, Lin-Manuel Miranda, OK Go, Dave Eggers, Aziz Ansari, Rosanne Cash, Jeff Bezos, Fred Armisen, Bill Hader and David Lynch. Presenters have included Stephen Hawking, Stephen Colbert, David Byrne, Herbie Hancock, Erin Brockovich, Ruben Blades, Bill Nye, Art Spiegelman, the American Ingenuity Award itself was created by the artist Jeff Koons. Notable past and current contributors to Smithsonian have included, Official website
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Scientific American
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Scientific American is an American popular science magazine. Many famous scientists, including Albert Einstein, have contributed articles in the past 170 years and it is the oldest continuously published monthly magazine in the United States. Scientific American was founded by inventor and publisher Rufus M. Porter in 1845 as a weekly newspaper. Throughout its early years, much emphasis was placed on reports of what was going on at the U. S, current issues include a this date in history section, featuring excerpts from articles originally published 50,100, and 150 years earlier. Topics include humorous incidents, wrong-headed theories, and noteworthy advances in the history of science, Porter sold the publication to Alfred Ely Beach and Orson Desaix Munn a mere ten months after founding it. Until 1948, it remained owned by Munn & Company, under Munns grandson, Orson Desaix Munn III, it had evolved into something of a workbench publication, similar to the twentieth-century incarnation of Popular Science. In the years after World War II, the fell into decline. Thus the partners—publisher Gerard Piel, editor Dennis Flanagan, and general manager Donald H. Miller, Miller retired in 1979, Flanagan and Piel in 1984, when Gerard Piels son Jonathan became president and editor, circulation had grown fifteen-fold since 1948. In 1986, it was sold to the Holtzbrinck group of Germany, in the fall of 2008, Scientific American was put under the control of Nature Publishing Group, a division of Holtzbrinck. Donald Miller died in December 1998, Gerard Piel in September 2004, Mariette DiChristina is the current editor-in-chief, after John Rennie stepped down in June 2009. Scientific American published its first foreign edition in 1890, the Spanish-language La America Cientifica, a Russian edition V Mire Nauki was launched in the Soviet Union in 1983, and continues in the present-day Russian Federation. Kexue, a simplified Chinese edition launched in 1979, was the first Western magazine published in the Peoples Republic of China, founded in Chongqing, the simplified Chinese magazine was transferred to Beijing in 2001. Later in 2005, an edition, Global Science, was published instead of Kexue. A traditional Chinese edition, known as 科學人, was introduced to Taiwan in 2002, the Hungarian edition Tudomány existed between 1984 and 1992. In 1986, an Arabic edition, Oloom magazine, was published, in 2002, a Portuguese edition was launched in Brazil. From 1902 to 1911, Scientific American supervised the publication of the Encyclopedia Americana and it originally styled itself The Advocate of Industry and Enterprise and Journal of Mechanical and other Improvements. On the front page of the first issue was the engraving of Improved Rail-Road Cars, the masthead had a commentary as follows, Scientific American published every Thursday morning at No.11 Spruce Street, New York, No.16 State Street, Boston, and No. 2l Arcade Philadelphia, by Rufus Porter, five copies will be sent to one address six months for four dollars in advance
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International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
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Internet Archive
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The Internet Archive is a San Francisco–based nonprofit digital library with the stated mission of universal access to all knowledge. As of October 2016, its collection topped 15 petabytes, in addition to its archiving function, the Archive is an activist organization, advocating for a free and open Internet. Its web archive, the Wayback Machine, contains over 150 billion web captures, the Archive also oversees one of the worlds largest book digitization projects. Founded by Brewster Kahle in May 1996, the Archive is a 501 nonprofit operating in the United States. It has a budget of $10 million, derived from a variety of sources, revenue from its Web crawling services, various partnerships, grants, donations. Its headquarters are in San Francisco, California, where about 30 of its 200 employees work, Most of its staff work in its book-scanning centers. The Archive has data centers in three Californian cities, San Francisco, Redwood City, and Richmond, the Archive is a member of the International Internet Preservation Consortium and was officially designated as a library by the State of California in 2007. Brewster Kahle founded the Archive in 1996 at around the time that he began the for-profit web crawling company Alexa Internet. In October 1996, the Internet Archive had begun to archive and preserve the World Wide Web in large quantities, the archived content wasnt available to the general public until 2001, when it developed the Wayback Machine. In late 1999, the Archive expanded its collections beyond the Web archive, Now the Internet Archive includes texts, audio, moving images, and software. It hosts a number of projects, the NASA Images Archive, the contract crawling service Archive-It. According to its web site, Most societies place importance on preserving artifacts of their culture, without such artifacts, civilization has no memory and no mechanism to learn from its successes and failures. Our culture now produces more and more artifacts in digital form, the Archives mission is to help preserve those artifacts and create an Internet library for researchers, historians, and scholars. In August 2012, the Archive announced that it has added BitTorrent to its file download options for over 1.3 million existing files, on November 6,2013, the Internet Archives headquarters in San Franciscos Richmond District caught fire, destroying equipment and damaging some nearby apartments. The nonprofit Archive sought donations to cover the estimated $600,000 in damage, in November 2016, Kahle announced that the Internet Archive was building the Internet Archive of Canada, a copy of the archive to be based somewhere in the country of Canada. The announcement received widespread coverage due to the implication that the decision to build an archive in a foreign country was because of the upcoming presidency of Donald Trump. Kahle was quoted as saying that on November 9th in America and it was a firm reminder that institutions like ours, built for the long-term, need to design for change. For us, it means keeping our cultural materials safe, private and it means preparing for a Web that may face greater restrictions
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Oxford University Press
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Oxford University Press is the largest university press in the world, and the second oldest after Cambridge University Press. It is a department of the University of Oxford and is governed by a group of 15 academics appointed by the known as the delegates of the press. They are headed by the secretary to the delegates, who serves as OUPs chief executive, Oxford University has used a similar system to oversee OUP since the 17th century. The university became involved in the print trade around 1480, and grew into a printer of Bibles, prayer books. OUP took on the project became the Oxford English Dictionary in the late 19th century. Moves into international markets led to OUP opening its own offices outside the United Kingdom, by contracting out its printing and binding operations, the modern OUP publishes some 6,000 new titles around the world each year. OUP was first exempted from United States corporation tax in 1972, as a department of a charity, OUP is exempt from income tax and corporate tax in most countries, but may pay sales and other commercial taxes on its products. The OUP today transfers 30% of its surplus to the rest of the university. OUP is the largest university press in the world by the number of publications, publishing more than 6,000 new books every year, the Oxford University Press Museum is located on Great Clarendon Street, Oxford. Visits must be booked in advance and are led by a member of the archive staff, displays include a 19th-century printing press, the OUP buildings, and the printing and history of the Oxford Almanack, Alice in Wonderland and the Oxford English Dictionary. The first printer associated with Oxford University was Theoderic Rood, the first book printed in Oxford, in 1478, an edition of Rufinuss Expositio in symbolum apostolorum, was printed by another, anonymous, printer. Famously, this was mis-dated in Roman numerals as 1468, thus apparently pre-dating Caxton, roods printing included John Ankywylls Compendium totius grammaticae, which set new standards for teaching of Latin grammar. After Rood, printing connected with the university remained sporadic for over half a century, the chancellor, Robert Dudley, 1st Earl of Leicester, pleaded Oxfords case. Some royal assent was obtained, since the printer Joseph Barnes began work, Oxfords chancellor, Archbishop William Laud, consolidated the legal status of the universitys printing in the 1630s. Laud envisaged a unified press of world repute, Oxford would establish it on university property, govern its operations, employ its staff, determine its printed work, and benefit from its proceeds. To that end, he petitioned Charles I for rights that would enable Oxford to compete with the Stationers Company and the Kings Printer and these were brought together in Oxfords Great Charter in 1636, which gave the university the right to print all manner of books. Laud also obtained the privilege from the Crown of printing the King James or Authorized Version of Scripture at Oxford and this privilege created substantial returns in the next 250 years, although initially it was held in abeyance. The Stationers Company was deeply alarmed by the threat to its trade, under this, the Stationers paid an annual rent for the university not to exercise its full printing rights – money Oxford used to purchase new printing equipment for smaller purposes
