1.
United States presidential election, 1912
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The United States presidential election of 1912 was the 32nd quadrennial presidential election, held on Tuesday, November 5,1912. The election was a rare four-way contest, incumbent President William Howard Taft was renominated by the Republican Party with the support of its conservative wing. After former President Theodore Roosevelt failed to receive the Republican nomination, he called his own convention and it nominated Roosevelt and ran candidates for other offices in major states. Meanwhile, the Socialist Party of America renominated its perennial standard-bearer and it is the last election in which a former, or incumbent, President ran for the office without being nominated as either a Democrat or Republican. It is also the last election in which an incumbent president running for re-election failed to either first or second in the popular vote count. Wilson won the election, gaining a majority in the Electoral College and winning 42% of the popular vote, while Roosevelt won 27%, Taft 23%. Wilson became the elected president from the Democratic Party between 1896 and 1932, and the second of only two Democrats to be elected president between 1860 and 1932. This was also the last election in more than one nominee had previously been elected president. Republican President Theodore Roosevelt had declined to run for re-election in 1908 in fulfillment of a pledge to the American people not to seek a full term. Roosevelts first term as president was incomplete, as he succeeded to the office upon the assassination of William McKinley and he had tapped Secretary of War William Howard Taft to become his successor, and Taft defeated Democrat William Jennings Bryan in the general election. The progressive Republicans favored restrictions on the employment of women and children, promoted ecological conservation, the progressives were also in favor of the popular election of federal and state judges and opposed to having judges appointed by the president or state governors. By 1910 the split between the two wings of the Republican Party was deep, and this, in turn, caused Roosevelt and Taft to turn against one another, despite their personal friendship. Republican candidates, William Howard Taft, President of the United States Theodore Roosevelt, La Follette, Senator from Wisconsin For the first time, significant numbers of delegates to the national conventions were elected in presidential preference primaries. Primary elections were advocated by the faction of the Republican Party. Altogether, twelve states held Republican primaries, La Follette won two of the first four primaries. Beginning with his victory in Illinois on April 9, however, Roosevelt won nine of the last ten presidential primaries. As a sign of his popularity, Roosevelt even carried Tafts home state of Ohio. The Republican Convention was held in Chicago from June 18 to 22, Taft, however, had begun to gather delegates earlier, and the delegates chosen in the primaries were a minority
2.
Chicago
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Chicago, officially the City of Chicago, is the third-most populous city in the United States. With over 2.7 million residents, it is the most populous city in the state of Illinois, and it is the county seat of Cook County. In 2012, Chicago was listed as a global city by the Globalization and World Cities Research Network. Chicago has the third-largest gross metropolitan product in the United States—about $640 billion according to 2015 estimates, the city has one of the worlds largest and most diversified economies with no single industry employing more than 14% of the workforce. In 2016, Chicago hosted over 54 million domestic and international visitors, landmarks in the city include Millennium Park, Navy Pier, the Magnificent Mile, Art Institute of Chicago, Museum Campus, the Willis Tower, Museum of Science and Industry, and Lincoln Park Zoo. Chicagos culture includes the arts, novels, film, theater, especially improvisational comedy. Chicago also has sports teams in each of the major professional leagues. The city has many nicknames, the best-known being the Windy City, the name Chicago is derived from a French rendering of the Native American word shikaakwa, known to botanists as Allium tricoccum, from the Miami-Illinois language. The first known reference to the site of the current city of Chicago as Checagou was by Robert de LaSalle around 1679 in a memoir, henri Joutel, in his journal of 1688, noted that the wild garlic, called chicagoua, grew abundantly in the area. In the mid-18th century, the area was inhabited by a Native American tribe known as the Potawatomi, the first known non-indigenous permanent settler in Chicago was Jean Baptiste Point du Sable. Du Sable was of African and French descent and arrived in the 1780s and he is commonly known as the Founder of Chicago. In 1803, the United States Army built Fort Dearborn, which was destroyed in 1812 in the Battle of Fort Dearborn, the Ottawa, Ojibwe, and Potawatomi tribes had ceded additional land to the United States in the 1816 Treaty of St. Louis. The Potawatomi were forcibly removed from their land after the Treaty of Chicago in 1833, on August 12,1833, the Town of Chicago was organized with a population of about 200. Within seven years it grew to more than 4,000 people, on June 15,1835, the first public land sales began with Edmund Dick Taylor as U. S. The City of Chicago was incorporated on Saturday, March 4,1837, as the site of the Chicago Portage, the city became an important transportation hub between the eastern and western United States. Chicagos first railway, Galena and Chicago Union Railroad, and the Illinois, the canal allowed steamboats and sailing ships on the Great Lakes to connect to the Mississippi River. A flourishing economy brought residents from rural communities and immigrants from abroad, manufacturing and retail and finance sectors became dominant, influencing the American economy. The Chicago Board of Trade listed the first ever standardized exchange traded forward contracts and these issues also helped propel another Illinoisan, Abraham Lincoln, to the national stage
3.
Illinois
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Illinois is a state in the midwestern region of the United States, achieving statehood in 1818. It is the 6th most populous state and 25th largest state in terms of land area, the word Illinois comes from a French rendering of a native Algonquin word. For decades, OHare International Airport has been ranked as one of the worlds busiest airports, Illinois has long had a reputation as a bellwether both in social and cultural terms and politics. With the War of 1812 Illinois growth slowed as both Native Americans and Canadian forces often raided the American Frontier, mineral finds and timber stands also had spurred immigration—by the 1810s, the Eastern U. S. Railroads arose and matured in the 1840s, and soon carried immigrants to new homes in Illinois, as well as being a resource to ship their commodity crops out to markets. Railroads freed most of the land of Illinois and other states from the tyranny of water transport. By 1900, the growth of jobs in the northern cities and coal mining in the central and southern areas attracted a new group of immigrants. Illinois was an important manufacturing center during both world wars, the Great Migration from the South established a large community of African Americans in Chicago, who created the citys famous jazz and blues cultures. Three U. S. presidents have been elected while living in Illinois, Abraham Lincoln, Ulysses S. Grant, additionally, Ronald Reagan, whose political career was based in California, was the only U. S. president born and raised in Illinois. Today, Illinois honors Lincoln with its official slogan, Land of Lincoln. The Abraham Lincoln Presidential Library and Museum is located in the capital of Springfield. Illinois is the spelling for the early French Catholic missionaries and explorers name for the Illinois Native Americans. American scholars previously thought the name Illinois meant man or men in the Miami-Illinois language and this etymology is not supported by the Illinois language, as the word for man is ireniwa and plural men is ireniwaki. The name Illiniwek has also said to mean tribe of superior men. The name Illinois derives from the Miami-Illinois verb irenwe·wa he speaks the regular way and this was taken into the Ojibwe language, perhaps in the Ottawa dialect, and modified into ilinwe·. The French borrowed these forms, changing the ending to spell it as -ois. The current spelling form, Illinois, began to appear in the early 1670s, the Illinois name for themselves, as attested in all three of the French missionary-period dictionaries of Illinois, was Inoka, of unknown meaning and unrelated to the other terms. American Indians of successive cultures lived along the waterways of the Illinois area for thousands of years before the arrival of Europeans, the Koster Site has been excavated and demonstrates 7,000 years of continuous habitation
4.
Chicago Coliseum
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The first Coliseum stood at State and Washington streets in Chicagos downtown in the late 1860s. The second, at 63rd Street near Stony Island Avenue in the south sides Woodlawn community, in the 1960s and early 1970s it served as a general admission venue for rock concerts, roller derbys and professional wrestling matches, it closed in 1971 and was demolished in 1982. The first Coliseum hosted horse shows, boxing matches, and circus acts beginning in 1866, typical of most 19th century cities, Chicago had a flourishing bachelor subculture, which made events at the Coliseum often rowdy affairs. The arenas history is hazy as there are no sources as to when it opened or closed. The second Coliseum, in the Woodlawn neighborhood on the south side, had a difficult history. Initial construction began early in 1895 on a 14-acre site of the Worlds Columbian Exposition, but on August 22, the structure collapsed. Construction of the 300-by-700 foot building entailed the use of 2.5 million pounds of steel,3.2 million feet of lumber, and 3 million bricks, and was finally completed in June 1896. The building was impressive in size for its day, twice as large as Madison Square Garden, the facility housed seven acres of interior floor space. In October 1896 the Coliseum hosted the Barnum and Bailey Circus, college football teams immediately saw the feasibility of playing indoor games in the Coliseum, and four big games took place, University of Michigan vs. University of Chicago, Thanksgiving Day, November 26,1896, won by Chicago, University of Wisconsin, December 19,1896, won by Carlisle, 18–8. University of Illinois, November 20,1897, won by Carlisle, University of Chicago, Thanksgiving Day, November 25,1897, won by Chicago, 21–12. The Carlisle games represented the first time the Carlisle Indian School played in the Midwest, in January 1897, the Coliseum hosted one of the largest trade shows in the country, the annual Bicycle manufacturers trade show. Another grand trade show took place in October, the Chicago Horse Show, the Coliseum by this time was hailed as a financial success. But all this would come to an end. Despite initial reports of deaths, only one fireman died. The building was destroyed, primarily when one of the 14 arches supporting the roof fell over to bring down all the other arches like a row of dominoes. The fire consumed the building within 20 minutes and this massive structure, one of the greatest indoor facilities of the 19th century, had a lifespan of only 19 months. Candy manufacturer Charles F. Gunther built the third Coliseum on Wabash Avenue and he purchased Libby Prison, a structure in Richmond, Virginia, constructed as a warehouse which became a Confederate prison during the Civil War
5.
Theodore Roosevelt
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Theodore Roosevelt Jr. was an American statesman, author, explorer, soldier, naturalist, and reformer who served as the 26th president of the United States from 1901 to 1909. As a leader of the Republican Party during this time, he became a force for the Progressive Era in the United States in the early 20th century. Born a sickly child with debilitating asthma, Roosevelt successfully overcame his health problems by embracing a strenuous lifestyle and he integrated his exuberant personality, vast range of interests, and world-famous achievements into a cowboy persona defined by robust masculinity. Home-schooled, he began a lifelong naturalist avocation before attending Harvard College and his first of many books, The Naval War of 1812, established his reputation as both a learned historian and as a popular writer. Upon entering politics, he became the leader of the faction of Republicans in New Yorks state legislature. Returning a war hero, he was elected governor of New York in 1898, the state party leadership distrusted him, so they took the lead in moving him to the prestigious but powerless role of vice presidential candidate as McKinleys running mate in the election of 1900. Roosevelt campaigned vigorously across the country, helping McKinleys re-election in a victory based on a platform of peace, prosperity. Following the assassination of President McKinley in September 1901, Roosevelt succeeded to the office at age 42, making conservation a top priority, he established a myriad of new national parks, forests, and monuments intended to preserve the nations natural resources. In foreign policy, he focused on Central America, where he began construction of the Panama Canal and he greatly expanded the United States Navy and sent the Great White Fleet on a world tour to project the United States naval power around the globe. His successful efforts to end the Russo-Japanese War won him the 1906 Nobel Peace Prize, elected in 1904 to a full term, Roosevelt continued to promote progressive policies, but many of his efforts and much of his legislative agenda were eventually blocked in Congress. Roosevelt successfully groomed his close friend, William Howard Taft, to succeed him in the presidency, after leaving office, Roosevelt went on safari in Africa and toured Europe. Returning to the United States, he became frustrated with Tafts approach, failing to win the Republican presidential nomination in 1912, Roosevelt founded his own party, the Progressive, so-called Bull Moose Party, and called for wide-ranging progressive reforms. The split among Republicans enabled the Democrats to win both the White House and a majority in the Congress in 1912, Republicans aligned with Taft nationally would control the Republican Party for decades. Frustrated at home, Roosevelt led an expedition to the Amazon basin. During World War I, he opposed President Woodrow Wilson for keeping the country out of the war, and offered his military services, although planning to run again for president in 1920, Roosevelt suffered deteriorating health and died in early 1919. Roosevelt has consistently ranked by scholars as one of the greatest American presidents. Historians admire Roosevelt for rooting out corruption in his administration, but are critical of his 1909 libel lawsuits against the World and his face was carved into Mount Rushmore, alongside those of George Washington, Thomas Jefferson, and Abraham Lincoln. Theodore Roosevelt Jr. was born on October 27,1858, at East 20th Street in New York City and he was the second of four children born to socialite Martha Stewart Mittie Bulloch and glass businessman and philanthropist Theodore Roosevelt Sr
6.
New York (state)
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New York is a state in the northeastern United States, and is the 27th-most extensive, fourth-most populous, and seventh-most densely populated U. S. state. New York is bordered by New Jersey and Pennsylvania to the south and Connecticut, Massachusetts, and Vermont to the east. With an estimated population of 8.55 million in 2015, New York City is the most populous city in the United States, the New York Metropolitan Area is one of the most populous urban agglomerations in the world. New York City makes up over 40% of the population of New York State, two-thirds of the states population lives in the New York City Metropolitan Area, and nearly 40% lives on Long Island. Both the state and New York City were named for the 17th-century Duke of York, the next four most populous cities in the state are Buffalo, Rochester, Yonkers, and Syracuse, while the state capital is Albany. New York has a diverse geography and these more mountainous regions are bisected by two major river valleys—the north-south Hudson River Valley and the east-west Mohawk River Valley, which forms the core of the Erie Canal. Western New York is considered part of the Great Lakes Region and straddles Lake Ontario, between the two lakes lies Niagara Falls. The central part of the state is dominated by the Finger Lakes, New York had been inhabited by tribes of Algonquian and Iroquoian-speaking Native Americans for several hundred years by the time the earliest Europeans came to New York. The first Europeans to arrive were French colonists and Jesuit missionaries who arrived southward from settlements at Montreal for trade, the British annexed the colony from the Dutch in 1664. The borders of the British colony, the Province of New York, were similar to those of the present-day state, New York is home to the Statue of Liberty, a symbol of the United States and its ideals of freedom, democracy, and opportunity. In the 21st century, New York has emerged as a node of creativity and entrepreneurship, social tolerance. On April 17,1524 Verrazanno entered New York Bay, by way of the now called the Narrows into the northern bay which he named Santa Margherita. Verrazzano described it as a vast coastline with a delta in which every kind of ship could pass and he adds. This vast sheet of water swarmed with native boats and he landed on the tip of Manhattan and possibly on the furthest point of Long Island. Verrazannos stay was interrupted by a storm which pushed him north towards Marthas Vineyard, in 1540 French traders from New France built a chateau on Castle Island, within present-day Albany, due to flooding, it was abandoned the next year. In 1614, the Dutch under the command of Hendrick Corstiaensen, rebuilt the French chateau, Fort Nassau was the first Dutch settlement in North America, and was located along the Hudson River, also within present-day Albany. The small fort served as a trading post and warehouse, located on the Hudson River flood plain, the rudimentary fort was washed away by flooding in 1617, and abandoned for good after Fort Orange was built nearby in 1623. Henry Hudsons 1609 voyage marked the beginning of European involvement with the area, sailing for the Dutch East India Company and looking for a passage to Asia, he entered the Upper New York Bay on September 11 of that year
7.
Hiram Johnson
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He was Theodore Roosevelts running mate in the 1912 presidential election on the Progressive party. His mother was Annie DeMontfredy, partially descended of a family of Huguenots who had left France after the Edict of Nantes, Annie was a member of the Daughters of the American Revolution, claiming descent from a general of the Continental Army. Johnson had a brother and three sisters, after attending public schools and Heald College, Johnson first worked as a shorthand reporter and stenographer in law offices. He eventually pursued a career, studying at the University of California, Berkeley. He was admitted to the bar in 1888 and commenced practice in his hometown, in 1902, he moved to San Francisco. He served as assistant district attorney and became active in reform politics and he attracted statewide attention in 1908 when he assisted Francis J. Heney in the graft prosecution of Abe Ruef and Mayor Eugene Schmitz. His success was due in large measure to the fact that after Heney was gunned down in the courtroom and he married Minne L. McNeal, the couple had two sons. In 1910, Johnson won the election as a member of the Lincoln–Roosevelt League. He toured the state in an open automobile, in office, Johnson was a populist who implemented many important reforms. Among them was the election of U. S. senators. In 1911, Johnson and the Progressives added initiative, referendum, Johnson was instrumental in the establishment of a railroad commission to regulate the power of the Southern Pacific Railroad. On taking office, Johnson soon paroled the convicted Southern Pacific train bandit Chris Evans, nationally, Johnson was a founder of the Progressive Party in 1912. The Progressives finished second ahead of the incumbent Republican, President William Howard Taft. Johnson was re-elected governor of California in 1914, almost doubling his opponents vote total, in 1916, Johnson ran successfully for the U. S. Senate, defeating Democrat George S. Patton, Sr. and assuming office on March 16,1917. It is alleged that was the year that he spoke the words for which he is best remembered today, however, the source of the famous quote has yet to be determined. From 1917 to 1929, he resided at Riversdale in Riverdale Park, following Theodore Roosevelts death in January 1919, Johnson was regarded as the natural leader of the Progressive Party. In 1920, however, he did not attempt to revive the Progressive Party and he was defeated for the Republican presidential nomination by U. S. Johnson also did not get the support of Roosevelts family, who instead supported Roosevelts long-time friend Leonard Wood, at the convention, Johnson was asked to serve as Hardings running mate, but he declined
8.
California
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California is the most populous state in the United States and the third most extensive by area. Located on the western coast of the U. S, California is bordered by the other U. S. states of Oregon, Nevada, and Arizona and shares an international border with the Mexican state of Baja California. Los Angeles is Californias most populous city, and the second largest after New York City. The Los Angeles Area and the San Francisco Bay Area are the nations second- and fifth-most populous urban regions, California also has the nations most populous county, Los Angeles County, and its largest county by area, San Bernardino County. The Central Valley, an agricultural area, dominates the states center. What is now California was first settled by various Native American tribes before being explored by a number of European expeditions during the 16th and 17th centuries, the Spanish Empire then claimed it as part of Alta California in their New Spain colony. The area became a part of Mexico in 1821 following its war for independence. The western portion of Alta California then was organized as the State of California, the California Gold Rush starting in 1848 led to dramatic social and demographic changes, with large-scale emigration from the east and abroad with an accompanying economic boom. If it were a country, California would be the 6th largest economy in the world, fifty-eight percent of the states economy is centered on finance, government, real estate services, technology, and professional, scientific and technical business services. Although it accounts for only 1.5 percent of the states economy, the story of Calafia is recorded in a 1510 work The Adventures of Esplandián, written as a sequel to Amadis de Gaula by Spanish adventure writer Garci Rodríguez de Montalvo. The kingdom of Queen Calafia, according to Montalvo, was said to be a land inhabited by griffins and other strange beasts. This conventional wisdom that California was an island, with maps drawn to reflect this belief, shortened forms of the states name include CA, Cal. Calif. and US-CA. Settled by successive waves of arrivals during the last 10,000 years, various estimates of the native population range from 100,000 to 300,000. The Indigenous peoples of California included more than 70 distinct groups of Native Americans, ranging from large, settled populations living on the coast to groups in the interior. California groups also were diverse in their organization with bands, tribes, villages. Trade, intermarriage and military alliances fostered many social and economic relationships among the diverse groups, the first European effort to explore the coast as far north as the Russian River was a Spanish sailing expedition, led by Portuguese captain Juan Rodríguez Cabrillo, in 1542. Some 37 years later English explorer Francis Drake also explored and claimed a portion of the California coast in 1579. Spanish traders made unintended visits with the Manila galleons on their trips from the Philippines beginning in 1565
9.
1916 Progressive National Convention
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Theodore Roosevelts Progressive Party held its 1916 national convention, in conjunction with the Republican national convention. This was to facilitate a possible reconciliation, five delegates from each convention met to negotiate. The Progressives wanted reunification, but with Roosevelt as the Republican presidential nominee, meanwhile, Charles Evans Hughes, a moderate progressive, became the front-runner at the Republican convention, though opposed by many conservatives. The Progressives suggested Hughes as a compromise candidate, then Roosevelt sent a message proposing conservative Senator Henry Cabot Lodge. The shocked Progressives immediately nominated Roosevelt again, with Louisiana businessman John M. Parker as the Vice Presidential nominee, Parker had run for governor as a Progressive early in 1916. Parker got a respectable 37% of the vote and he was the only Progressive to run for governor that year. However, Roosevelt later telegraphed the convention and declared that he could not accept their nomination, there had been a weak attempt to replace Roosevelt on the ticket with the former Kansas Congressman Victor Murdock, but the motion was defeated 31 to 15. Most of its members would return to the Republican Party, although a minority supported Wilson for his efforts in keeping the United States out of World War I. He also believed Wilson was allowing Germany and other warring nations in Europe to bully, the Roosevelt-Parker ticket did manage to get on the ballot in several states. 1916 Democratic National Convention 1916 Republican National Convention United States presidential election,1916
10.
1912 Republican National Convention
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The 1912 National Convention of the Republican Party of the United States was held at the Chicago Coliseum, Chicago, Illinois, from June 18 to June 22,1912. The party nominated President William Howard Taft and Vice President James S. Sherman for re-election, Sherman died days before the election, and was replaced as Republican vice-presidential nominee by Nicholas M. Butler of New York. This convention marked the beginning of a split in the party and this was the first year for Republican primaries. Though Roosevelt had endorsed Taft as his successor, Tafts perceived drift to the right had alienated Roosevelt, Roosevelt overwhelmingly won the primaries — winning 9 out of 12 states. Taft won only the state of Massachusetts, he even lost his state of Ohio to Roosevelt. La Follette Sr. a reformer, won two states, through the primaries, Senator La Follette won a total of 36 delegates, President Taft won 48 delegates, and Roosevelt won 278 delegates. However 36 states did not hold primaries, but instead selected delegates via state conventions, entering the convention, the Roosevelt and Taft forces seemed evenly matched, and a compromise candidate seemed possible. The Taft and Roosevelt camps engaged in a fight for the delegations of various states, with Taft emerging victorious, following the seating of the anti-Roosevelt delegations, California Governor Hiram Johnson proclaimed that progressives would form a new party to nominate Roosevelt. Though many of Roosevelts delegates remained at the convention, most refused to part in the presidential ballot in protest of the contested delegates. Roosevelt ultimately ran a third party campaign as part of the Progressive Party, Taft and Roosevelt both lost the 1912 election to the Democratic nominee, Woodrow Wilson. Like Taft, Vice President James S. Sherman of New York was renominated by the party. Though Taft and Sherman did not get along early in their tenure, Tafts allies sought progressive leaders such as Idaho Senator William E. Borah and Vermont Governor John A. Mead to join the ticket, but both declined to be considered, missouri Governor Herbert S. Hadley and former Vice President Charles Fairbanks were also mentioned as possibilities. Sherman died shortly before the election, and was not replaced on the ticket, William Howard Taft —302 votes Theodore Roosevelt —107 votes Robert La Follette — ~36 votes Abstained —322 votes James S. Sherman. Votes 1912 Democratic National Convention United States presidential election,19121912 Republican National Convention, accessed February 1,20061912 Republican Convention,1912 Presidential Election Project, Department of History, Ohio State University. Accessed February 1,20061912, A Party Splits, Parades, accessed February 1,2006 Bull Moose years, Who Won the Presidential Primaries in 1912. William Jennings Bryan, Virgil V. McNitt, Republican Party platform of 1912 at The American Presidency Project 1912 Republican National Convention at Smithsonian Magazine
11.
Progressive Party (United States, 1912)
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The Progressive Party of 1912 was an American third party. The new party was known for taking advanced positions on progressive reforms, beset by factionalism and failure to win many offices, the party went into rapid decline by 1914 and virtually disappeared in 1916. The Progressive party was nicknamed the Bull Moose Party after journalists quoted Roosevelt saying that he felt fit as a bull moose shortly after the new party was formed. He had selected Taft, his Secretary of War, to succeed him as presidential candidate, Roosevelt became disappointed by Tafts increasingly conservative policies. Taft upset Roosevelt when he used the Sherman Anti-Trust Act to sue U. S. Steel for an action that President Roosevelt had explicitly approved and they became openly hostile, and Roosevelt decided to seek the presidency. Roosevelt entered the late, as Taft was already being challenged by progressive leader Senator Robert La Follette of Wisconsin. Most of La Follettes supporters switched to Roosevelt, leaving the Wisconsin Senator embittered, nine of the states where progressive elements were strongest had set up preference primaries, which Roosevelt won. For example, he bought up the votes of delegates from the southern states, the Republican national convention rejected Roosevelts protests. Roosevelt and his supporters walked out, and the convention re-nominated Taft, the next day, Roosevelt supporters met to form a new political party of their own. California governor Hiram Johnson became its chairman, and a new convention was scheduled for August, Roosevelts family gave $77,500 and others gave $164,000. The total was nearly $600,000, far less than the major parties, the new party had serious structural defects. Since it insisted on running complete tickets against the regular Republican ticket in most states, the exception was California, where the progressive element took control of the Republican Party and Taft was not even on the November ballot. Only five of the 15 more progressive Republican Senators declared support for it, Republican Representatives, governors, committeemen, and the publishers and editors of Republican-leaning newspapers showed comparable reluctance. Many of Roosevelts closest political allies supported Taft, including his son-in-law, for men like Longworth, expecting a future of his own in Republican politics, bolting the party would have seemed tantamount to career suicide. However, many independent reformers still signed up, despite these obstacles, the August convention opened with great enthusiasm. Over 2,000 delegates attended, including many women, in 1912, neither Taft nor Wilson endorsed womens suffrage on the national level. The notable suffragist and social worker Jane Addams gave a speech for Roosevelts nomination. However, Roosevelt insisted on excluding black Republicans from the South, yet he alienated white southern supporters on the eve of the election by publicly dining with black people at a Rhode Island hotel
12.
Frank Munsey
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Frank Andrew Munsey was an American newspaper and magazine publisher and author. He was born in Mercer, Maine, but spent most of his life in New York City, the village of Munsey Park, New York is named for him, along with the Munsey Building in downtown Baltimore. Munsey is credited with the idea of using new high-speed printing presses to print on inexpensive, untrimmed and this innovation, known as pulp magazines, became an entire industry unto itself and made Munsey quite wealthy. He often shut down the process and changed the content of magazines when they became unprofitable. Munsey was of English ancestry, his family emigrated from England to America during the era in the early 1600s. Early in life, Munsey ran a store, at which he failed. He next became an operator and then manager of the Western Union telegraph office, in Augusta. Publishing was an industry in Augusta at the time. Munsey was very ambitious, and being in charge of the telegraph office gave him an insight of the printing business. In 1882 he moved from Augusta to New York City and entered the publishing industry and he formed a partnership with a friend in New York and an Augusta stockbroker. After arriving in New York, the stockbroker backed out of the agreement, approaching a New York publisher, Munsey managed to edit and produce the first issue of his magazine, Golden Argosy, only two months and nine days after his arrival. However, five months later, the publisher went bankrupt and entered receivership, by placing a claim for his unpaid salary, Munsey was able to take control of the magazine. Borrowing $300 from a friend in Maine, he managed to keep the magazine going while learning enough about the publishing industry to eventually succeed. Golden Argosy was a boys adventure magazine in a dime novel format with a mix of both articles and fiction. In 1888, the name was changed to The Argosy to attract an older audience and it was renamed Argosy Magazine, and by 1903, circulation climbed to a half million copies per month. In 1889 he founded Munseys Weekly, a 36-page quarto magazine, designed to be a magazine of the people and for the people, with pictures and art and good cheer and it was a success, soon selling 40,000 copies per week. In 1891 the magazine became a monthly, Munseys Magazine, in 1892 the magazine began to include a novel in every issue. By 1895 circulation was over half a million copies per month, in October,1906, he began publishing Railroad Mans Magazine, the first specialized pulp magazine which featured railroad related stories and articles
13.
George Walbridge Perkins
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George Walbridge Perkins I was an American politician and businessman. He was a leader of the Progressive Movement, especially the Theodore Roosevelts Progressive party of 1912, starting as an office boy he became a leading executive in insurance, steel and banking, always on the alert for new and better ways to do business. He was a top aide to financier J. P. Morgan, and handled complex issues involving U. S. Steel, International Harvester and he was vice-president of New York Life Insurance Company and a partner in J. P. Morgan & Co. He served as president of the Palisades Interstate Park Commission from its creation in 1900 until his death in 1920 and he was born on January 31,1862 in Chicago, Illinois. With only an education, he began work as an office boy in the Chicago office of the New York Life Insurance Company. By 1898 he had risen to the position of vice president, Perkins played an important role in the development of New York Life. A strong believer in the Efficiency Movement, he sought out instances of waste, for example, he noticed that the old routine of farming out territory to middlemen, who in turn appointed men who did the actual soliciting for policies, was inefficient. The local agents were underpaid and often made misrepresentations in order to get initial premiums, Perkins, starting in 1892, made the local agents and solicitors permanent employees, and by introducing in 1896, his system of benefits based on length of service and value of policies written. He opened up new markets in Russia and Europe. He also helped reorganize Morgans United States Steel Corporation, in 1910 Perkins began to pursue Progressive Era reform causes. Perkins was an exponent of the evils of competition and the advantages of cooperation in business— he believed in the Good Trust. His biographer, John A. Garraty summarizes Perkins business philosophy as follows, competition is cruel, wasteful, destructive, outmoded, co-operation, inherent in any theory of a well-ordered Universe, is humane, efficient, inevitable and modern. In 1912 he helped organize Theodore Roosevelts new Progressive party, becoming its executive secretary, at the convention an anti-trust plank was suddenly dropped, shocking reformers like Gifford Pinchot who saw Roosevelt as a true trust-buster. They blamed Perkins Perkins ties to big business alarmed the radical wing of the party, after 1913 he focused on New York City politics, while continuing as Progressive National Chairman. In 1916 he campaigned for Charles Evans Hughes and the GOP, the result was a deep split in the new party that was never resolved. Perkins was in control of the party in 1913. On September 7,1917, the New York State Senate rejected his nomination as Chairman of the recently established New York State Food Control Commission. On October 2, the State Senate rejected again his nomination, as chairman of a finance committee of the Young Mens Christian Association, he raised $200,000,000 for welfare work among American soldiers abroad
14.
J. P. Morgan
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John Pierpont J. P. Morgan was an American financier and banker who dominated corporate finance and industrial consolidation in late 19th and early 20th Century United States. In 1892, Morgan arranged the merger of Edison General Electric and he was instrumental in the creation of the United States Steel Corporation, International Harvester and AT&T. He directed the banking coalition that stopped the Panic of 1907 and he was the leading financier of the Progressive Era, and his dedication to efficiency and modernization helped transform American business. Morgan has been described as America’s greatest banker, Morgan died in Rome, Italy, in his sleep in 1913 at the age of 75, leaving his fortune and business to his son, John Pierpont Morgan, Jr. His fortune was estimated at only US$80 million, prompting John D. Rockefeller to say, Morgan was born into the influential Morgan family in Hartford, Connecticut, and was raised there. He was the son of Junius Spencer Morgan and Juliet Pierpont, Pierpont, as he preferred to be known, had a varied education due in part to the plans of his father. In the fall of 1848, Pierpont transferred to the Hartford Public School and then to the Episcopal Academy in Cheshire, Connecticut, boarding with the principal. In September 1851, Morgan passed the exam for The English High School of Boston. In the spring of 1852, an illness struck which was to more common as his life progressed. Rheumatic fever left him in so much pain that he could not walk and he convalesced there for almost a year, then returned to the English High School in Boston to resume his studies. After he graduated, his father sent him to Bellerive, a school near the Swiss village of Vevey and his father then sent him to the University of Göttingen in order to improve his German. He attained a level of German within six months and also a degree in art history, then traveled back to London via Wiesbaden. Morgan went into banking in 1857 at the London branch of merchant banking firm Peabody, in 1858, he moved to New York City to join the banking house of Duncan, Sherman & Company, the American representatives of George Peabody and Company. Morgan had avoided serving during the war by paying a substitute $300 to take his place, from 1860 to 1864, as J. Pierpont Morgan & Company, he acted as agent in New York for his fathers firm, renamed J. S. Morgan & Co. upon Peabodys retirement in 1864, from 1864–72, he was a member of the firm of Dabney, Morgan, and Company. In 1871, he partnered with the Drexels of Philadelphia to form the New York firm of Drexel, at that time, Anthony J. Drexel became Pierponts mentor at the request of Junius Morgan. After the death of Anthony Drexel, the firm was rechristened J. P. Morgan & Company in 1895, retaining close ties with Drexel & Company of Philadelphia, Morgan, Harjes & Company of Paris, and J. S. By 1900, it was one of the most powerful banking houses of the world, Morgan had many partners over the years, such as George W. Perkins, but always remained firmly in charge
15.
International Harvester
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The International Harvester Company was a United States manufacturer of agricultural machinery, construction equipment, trucks, and household and commercial products. In 1902, J. P. Morgan merged the McCormick Harvesting Machine Company and Deering Harvester Company, in 1985, International Harvester sold off most of its agricultural division to Tenneco, Inc. which merged it into its subsidiary J. I. Case under the Case IH brand, following the terms of IHs agreement with Tenneco, International Harvester renamed itself Navistar International Corporation in 1986. Together with his brother Leander J. McCormick, McCormick moved to Chicago in 1847, the McCormick reaper sold well, partially as a result of savvy and innovative business practices. Their products came onto the market just as the development of railroads offered wide distribution to distant market areas and he developed marketing and sales techniques, developing a vast network of trained salesmen able to demonstrate operation of the machines in the field. In 1902, the McCormick Harvesting Machine Company and Deering Harvester Company, banker J. P. Morgan provided the financing. In 1919, the Parlin and Orendorff factory in Canton, Illinois, was a leader in the manufacturing industry. International Harvester purchased the factory, calling it the Canton Works, in 1926, IHs Farmall Works began production in a new plant in Rock Island, Illinois, built solely to produce the new Farmall tractor. By 1930, the 100, 000th Farmall was produced, IH next set their sights on introducing a true general-purpose tractor designed to satisfy the needs of the average US family farmer. IH ranked 33rd among United States corporations in the value of World War II production contracts, in 1946 IH acquired a defense plant in Louisville, Kentucky, which was enlarged, expanded, and re-equipped for production of the Farmall A, B, and the new 340 tractors. Then in 1948, IH acquired the Metropolitan Body Company of Bridgeport and this was the manufacturing facility for the bodies of the commercially successful Metro line of forward control vans and trucks from 1938 until roughly 1964. In 1974, the five-millionth IHC tractor was produced at the Rock Island Farmall plant, throughout the 1960s and 1970s, despite good sales, IHs profit margins remained slim. An overly conservative management, combined with a policy of in-house promotions, tended to stifle new management strategies. Products with increasingly ancient technology continued in production despite their marginal addition to sales, in 1979, IH named a new CEO, who was determined to improve profit margins and drastically cut ballooning costs. Unprofitable model lines were terminated, and factory production curtailed, by the end of the year, IH profits were at their highest in 10 years, but cash reserves were still too low. Union members became increasingly irate over production cutbacks and other cost-cutting measures, in the spring and summer of 1979, IH began short-term planning for a strike that seemed inevitable. Then on November 1, IH announced figures showing that president, McCardell sought overtime, work rule, and other changes from the United Auto Workers, which led to a strike on November 2,1979. Soon after, the economy turned unfavorable, and IH faced a financial crisis, the strike lasted about six months
16.
Onward, Christian Soldiers
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Onward, Christian Soldiers is a 19th-century English hymn. The words were written by Sabine Baring-Gould in 1865, and the music was composed by Arthur Sullivan in 1871, Sullivan named the tune St. Gertrude, after the wife of his friend Ernest Clay Ker Seymer, at whose country home he composed the tune. The Salvation Army adopted the hymn as its favoured processional, the piece became Sullivans most popular hymn. The lyric was written as a hymn for children walking from Horbury Bridge. It was originally entitled, Hymn for Procession with Cross and Banners and he later allowed hymn-book compilers to alter the lyrics. For example, The Fellowship Hymn Book, with his permission, changed the phrase one in hope and doctrine to one in hope and purpose. For the 1909 edition of Hymns Ancient and Modern, he changed the line of the same verse from We are not divided to Though divisions harass. However, Baring-Gould’s original words are used in most modern hymnals, Baring-Gould originally set the lyrics to a melody from the slow movement of Joseph Haydn’s Symphony in D, No.15. This was printed in 1871 in an English church periodical, the Church Times, the hymn did not receive wide acceptance, however, until Sullivan wrote the tune St. Gertrude for it. Sullivan quoted the tune in his Boer War Te Deum, first performed in 1902, another hymn sung to the St. Gertrude tune is Forward Through the Ages, written by Frederick Lucian Hosmer in 1908. When I looked upon that densely packed congregation of fighting men of the language, of the same faith, of the same fundamental laws. It swept across me that here was the hope, but also the sure hope. The song has been sung at funerals, including at the funeral of American president Dwight D. Eisenhower at the National Cathedral, Washington. Apart from its obvious martial associations, the song has been associated with protest against the established order, an attempt was made in the 1980s to strip Onward, Christian Soldiers from the United Methodist Hymnal and the Episcopal Hymnal 1982 due to perceived militarism. Outrage among church-goers caused both committees to back down, however, the hymn was omitted from both the 1990 and 2013 hymnals of the Presbyterian Church, the Australian Hymn Book, published in 1977, and its successor, Together in Song, published in 1999. The Spiritualists National Union hymnbook has a variation on the hymn, entitled Onward, Comrades, in some modern Anglican hymn books, it is replaced with Onward, Christian Pilgrims set to the same tune. Largely because of its association with missionaries of various types, the song is sung in a number of movies, the 1939 film, Stanley and Livingstone, depicts Dr. David Livingstone spiritedly leading a choir of African people in this anthem. The piece appears in other films, including Major Barbara, Mrs. Onward Christian Soldiers is the title of a 1984 album
17.
Armageddon
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According to the Book of Revelation, Armageddon is the prophesied location of a gathering of armies for a battle during the end times, variously interpreted as either a literal or a symbolic location. The term is used in a generic sense to refer to any end of the world scenario. Megiddo was the location of ancient battles, including one in the 15th century BC. Modern Megiddo is a town approximately 25 miles west-southwest of the tip of the Sea of Galilee in the Kishon River area in Israel. The word Armageddon appears only once in the Greek New Testament, the word is translated to Greek from Hebrew har məgiddô, har meaning a mountain or range of hills, - hill, mount, X promotion. This is a form of Harar to loom up, a mountain, -hill. Megiddo /meg-id-do/ Megiddon or Megiddo, a place of crowds. )The name refers to a made by King Ahab that dominated the Plain of Jezreel. None of these Old Testament passages describes the city of Megiddo as being associated with any particular prophetic beliefs, because of the seemingly highly symbolic and even cryptic language of this one New Testament passage, some Christian scholars conclude that Mount Armageddon must be an idealized location. Rushdoony says, There are no mountains of Megiddo, only the Plains of Megiddo and this is a deliberate destruction of the vision of any literal reference to the place. Torrey, Kline and Jordan argue that the word is derived from the Hebrew moed, thus, Armageddon would mean Mountain of Assembly, which Jordan says is a reference to the assembly at Mount Sinai, and to its replacement, Mount Zion. Armageddon is the name given to this event based on scripture references regarding divine obliteration of Gods enemies. The hermeneutical method supports this position by referencing Judges 4 and 5 where God miraculously destroys the enemy of His elect, Israel, at Megiddo, when Sennacheribs 185,000 are slain by the Angel of Jehovah, that is a shadow of the final Har-Magedon. When God grants a little handful of Maccabees a glorious victory over an enemy which far outnumbers it, but the real, the great, the final Har Magedon coincides with the time of Satan’s little season. The Dispensational viewpoint interprets biblical prophecy literally and expects that the fulfillment of prophecy will also be literal, depending upon the context of scripture. In his discussion of Armageddon, J. Pentecost writes, It has been held commonly that the battle of Armageddon is an isolated event transpiring just prior to the advent of Christ to the earth. The Greek word polemo, translated battle in Revelation 16,14, signifies a war or campaign, while machē signifies a battle and this distinction is observed by Trench, and is followed by Thayer and Vincent. The use of the word polemos in Revelation 16,14 would signify that the events that culminate in the gathering at Armageddon at the second advent are viewed by God as one connected campaign and this area would conform to the extent pictured by John in Revelation 14,20. Pentecost then outlines the biblical time period for this campaign to occur, the invasion of Israel by the Northern Confederacy will bring the Beast and his armies to the defense of Israel as her protector
18.
William Howard Taft
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William Howard Taft served as the 27th President of the United States and as the tenth Chief Justice of the United States, the only person to have held both offices. In 1921, President Warren G. Harding appointed Taft to be chief justice, Taft was born in Cincinnati in 1857. His father, Alphonso Taft, was a U. S. Attorney General, William Taft attended Yale and was a member of Skull and Bones secret society like his father, and after becoming a lawyer was appointed a judge while still in his twenties. He continued a rapid rise, being named Solicitor General and as a judge of the Sixth Circuit Court of Appeals, in 1901, President William McKinley appointed Taft civilian governor of the Philippines. In 1904, Roosevelt made him Secretary of War, and he became Roosevelts hand-picked successor, despite his personal ambition to become chief justice, Taft declined repeated offers of appointment to the Supreme Court of the United States, believing his political work to be more important. With Roosevelts help, Taft had little opposition for the Republican nomination for president in 1908, in the White House, he focused on East Asia more than European affairs, and repeatedly intervened to prop up or remove Latin American governments. Taft sought reductions to trade tariffs, then a source of governmental income. Controversies over conservation and over antitrust cases filed by the Taft administration served to separate the two men. Roosevelt challenged Taft for renomination in 1912, Taft used his control of the party machinery to gain a bare majority of delegates, and Roosevelt bolted the party. The split left Taft with little chance of re-election, he took only Utah, after leaving office, Taft returned to Yale as a professor, continuing his political activity and working against war through the League to Enforce Peace. In 1921, President Harding appointed Taft as chief justice, an office he had long sought, Chief Justice Taft was a conservative on business issues, but under him, there were advances in individual rights. In poor health, he resigned in February 1930, after his death the next month, he was buried at Arlington National Cemetery, the first president and first Supreme Court justice to be interred there. Taft is generally listed near the middle in historians rankings of U. S. presidents, William Howard Taft was born September 15,1857 in Cincinnati, Ohio, to Alphonso Taft and Louise Torrey. The Taft family was not wealthy, living in a modest home in the suburb of Mount Auburn, Alphonso served as a judge, ambassador and in the cabinet, as War Secretary and Attorney General under Ulysses S. Grant. William Taft was not seen as brilliant as a child, but was a worker, Tafts demanding parents pushed him and his four brothers toward success. He attended Woodward High School in Cincinnati, at Yale College, which he entered in 1874, the heavyset, jovial Taft was popular. One classmate described him succeeding through hard work rather than being the smartest, in 1878, Taft graduated, second in his class out of 121. He attended Cincinnati Law School, and graduated with a Bachelor of Laws in 1880, while in law school, he worked on The Cincinnati Commercial newspaper, edited by Murat Halstead
19.
Woodrow Wilson
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Thomas Woodrow Wilson was an American politician and academic who served as the 28th President of the United States from 1913 to 1921. Born in Staunton, Virginia, he spent his years in Augusta, Georgia and Columbia. In 1910, he was the New Jersey Democratic Partys gubernatorial candidate and was elected the 34th Governor of New Jersey, while in office, Wilson reintroduced the spoken State of the Union, which had been out of use since 1801. Leading the Congress that was now in Democratic hands, he oversaw the passage of progressive legislative policies unparalleled until the New Deal in 1933. The Federal Reserve Act, Federal Trade Commission Act, the Clayton Antitrust Act, through passage of the Adamson Act that imposed an 8-hour workday for railroads, he averted a railroad strike and an ensuing economic crisis. Upon the outbreak of World War I in 1914, Wilson maintained a policy of neutrality, Wilson faced former New York Governor Charles Evans Hughes in the presidential election of 1916. By a narrow margin, he became the first Democrat since Andrew Jackson elected to two consecutive terms, Wilsons second term was dominated by American entry into World War I. In April 1917, when Germany had resumed unrestricted submarine warfare and sent the Zimmermann Telegram, the United States conducted military operations alongside the Allies, although without a formal alliance. During the war, Wilson focused on diplomacy and financial considerations, leaving military strategy to the generals, loaning billions of dollars to Britain, France, and other Allies, the United States aided their finance of the war effort. On the home front, he raised taxes, borrowing billions of dollars through the publics purchase of Liberty Bonds. In his 1915 State of the Union Address, Wilson asked Congress for what became the Espionage Act of 1917, the crackdown was intensified by his Attorney General A. Mitchell Palmer to include expulsion of non-citizen radicals during the First Red Scare of 1919–1920. Wilson staffed his government with Southern Democrats who implemented racial segregation at the Treasury, Navy and he gave department heads greater autonomy in their management. Following his return from Europe, Wilson embarked on a tour in 1919 to campaign for the treaty. The treaty was met with concern by Senate Republicans, and Wilson rejected a compromise effort led by Henry Cabot Lodge. Due to his stroke, Wilson secluded himself in the White House, disability having diminished his power, forming a strategy for re-election, Wilson deadlocked the 1920 Democratic National Convention, but his bid for a third-term nomination was overlooked. Wilson was a devoted Presbyterian and Georgist, and he infused his views of morality into his domestic and he appointed several well known radically progressive single taxers to prominent positions in his administration. His ideology of internationalism is now referred to as Wilsonian, an activist foreign policy calling on the nation to promote global democracy and he was the third of four children of Joseph Ruggles Wilson and Jessie Janet Woodrow. Wilsons paternal grandparents immigrated to the United States from Strabane, County Tyrone, Ireland and his mother was born in Carlisle, England, the daughter of Rev. Dr. Thomas Woodrow from Paisley, Scotland, and Marion Williamson from Glasgow
20.
Women's suffrage
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Womens suffrage is the right of women to vote in elections. Limited voting rights were gained by women in Finland, Iceland, Sweden and some Australian colonies, National and international organizations formed to coordinate efforts to gain voting rights, especially the International Woman Suffrage Alliance, and also worked for equal civil rights for women. In 1881, the Isle of Man gave women who owned property the right to vote, in 1893, the British colony of New Zealand, granted women the right to vote. The colony of South Australia, did the same in 1894 and women were able to vote in the next election, South Australia also permitted women to stand for election alongside men. In 1899 Western Australia enacted full womens suffrage, enabling women to vote in the referendum of 31 July 1900. In 1902 women in the four colonies also acquired the right to vote. Discriminatory restrictions against Aboriginal people, including women, voting in elections, were not completely removed until 1962. Norway followed, granting full womens suffrage in 1913, most independent countries enacted womens suffrage in the interwar era, including Canada in 1917, Britain in 1918 and the United States in 1920. If women could work in factories, it seemed both ungrateful and illogical to deny them a place in the polling booth. But the vote was more than simply a reward for war work. Late adopters in Europe included Spain in 1931, France in 1944, Italy in 1946, Greece in 1952, Switzerland in 1971, the United States gave women equal voting rights in all states with the Nineteenth Amendment ratified in 1920. Canada and a few Latin American nations passed womens suffrage before World War II while the vast majority of Latin American nations established womens suffrage in the 1940s, the last Latin American country to give women the right to vote was Paraguay in 1961. In December 2015, women were first allowed to vote in Saudi Arabia, extended political campaigns by women and their supporters have generally been necessary to gain legislation or constitutional amendments for womens suffrage. In many countries, limited suffrage for women was granted before universal suffrage for men, for instance, in ancient Athens, often cited as the birthplace of democracy, only adult, male citizens who owned land were permitted to vote. Through subsequent centuries, Europe was generally ruled by monarchs, though forms of parliament arose at different times. Their Protestant successors enjoyed the same privilege almost into modern times and they make decisions there like the men, and it is they who even delegated the first ambassadors to discuss peace. The Iroquois, like many First Nations peoples in North America, had a kinship system. Property and descent were passed through the female line, Women elders voted on hereditary male chiefs and could depose them
21.
Suffragette
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Suffragettes were members of womens organizations in the late-19th and early-20th centuries which advocated the extension of the franchise, or the right to vote in public elections, to women. It particularly refers to militants in the United Kingdom such as members of the Womens Social and Political Union, suffragist is a more general term for members of the suffrage movement. The term suffragette is particularly associated with activists in the British WSPU, led by Emmeline and Christabel Pankhurst, Women in South Australia achieved the same right and became the first to obtain the right to stand for parliament in 1895. Women in Britain over the age of 30, meeting certain property qualifications, were given the right to vote in 1918, opinion amongst historians today is divided as to whether the militant tactics of the suffragettes helped or hindered their cause. British suffragettes were mostly women from upper and middle-class backgrounds, frustrated by their social, mill introduced the idea of womens suffrage on the platform he presented to the British electorate in 1865. He was subsequently joined by men and women fighting for the same cause. The term suffragette was first used as a term of derision by the journalist Charles E, hands in the London Daily Mail to describe activists in the movement for womens suffrage, in particular members of the Womens Social and Political Union. But the women he intended to ridicule embraced the term saying suffraGETtes implied not only that they wanted the vote, the National Union of Womens Suffrage Societies, founded in 1897, was formed from local suffrage societies. The union was led by Millicent Fawcett, who believed in constitutional campaigning, issuing leaflets, organising meetings and presenting petitions, in 1903 Emmeline Pankhurst founded a new organisation, the Womens Social and Political Union. She thought the movement would have to become radical and militant if it was going to be effective, the Daily Mail gave them the name Suffragettes. Some radical techniques used by the suffragettes, especially hunger strikes, were learned from Russian exiles from tsarism who had escaped to England, many suffragists at the time, and most historians since, have argued that the actions of the militant suffragettes damaged their cause. Opponents at the time saw evidence that women were too emotional, from 1909, the Pank-A-Squith board game was sold by the WSPU to raise awareness of their campaign and raise money. The name is derived from Pankhurst the surname of the leaders of the WSPU, and Asquith, the surname of the Prime Minister at the time and a largely hated figure by the movement. The Peoples History Museum in Manchester has a Pank-A-Squith board game on display in the main galleries, one suffragette, Emily Davison, died under the Kings horse Anmer at the Epsom Derby of 4 June 1913. It is debated whether she was trying to pin a Votes for Women banner on the Kings horse or not, many of her fellow suffragettes were imprisoned and refused food as a scare tactic against the government. The Liberal government of the day led by Asquith responded with the Cat, another prominent British Suffragette, Sophia Duleep Singh was almost forgotten for 70 years. In the early-20th century until the First World War, approximately one thousand suffragettes were imprisoned in Britain, most early incarcerations were for public order offences and failure to pay outstanding fines. The first suffragettes to be imprisoned were Christabel Pankhurst and Annie Kenney in October 1905 and this cause was taken up by the Womens Social and Political Union, a large organisation in Britain, that lobbied for womens suffrage led by militant suffragette Emmeline Pankhurst
22.
Jane Addams
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She co-founded, with Ellen Gates Starr, the first settlement house in the United States, Chicagos Hull House that would later become known as one of the most famous settlement houses in America. In an era when presidents such as Theodore Roosevelt and Woodrow Wilson identified themselves as reformers and social activists and she helped America address and focus on issues that were of concern to mothers, such as the needs of children, local public health, and world peace. Thus, these were matters of which women would have more knowledge than men and she said that if women were to be responsible for cleaning up their communities and making them better places to live, they needed to be able to vote to do so effectively. Addams became a model for middle-class women who volunteered to uplift their communities. She is increasingly being recognized as a member of the American pragmatist school of philosophy, in 1889 she co-founded Hull House, and in 1920 she was a co-founder for the ACLU. In 1931 she became the first American woman to be awarded the Nobel Peace Prize, three of her siblings died in infancy, and another died at age 16, leaving only four by the time Addams was age eight. Her mother, Sarah Addams, died when Jane was two years old, Addams spent her childhood playing outdoors, reading indoors, and attending Sunday school. When she was four she contracted tuberculosis of the spine, known as Pottss disease and this made it complicated as a child to function with the other children, considering she had a limp and could not run as well. As a child, she thought she was ugly and later remembered wanting not to embarrass her father, Addams adored her father when she was a child, as she made clear in the stories of her memoir, Twenty Years at Hull House. John Huy Addams was a businessman with large timber, cattle, and agricultural holdings, flour and timber mills. He was the president of The Second National Bank of Freeport and he remarried in 1868, when Jane was eight years old. His second wife was Anna Hostetter Haldeman, the widow of a miller in Freeport, John Addams was a founding member of the Illinois Republican Party, served as an Illinois State Senator, and supported his friend Abraham Lincoln in his candidacies, for senator and the presidency. John Addams kept a letter from Lincoln in his desk, in her teens, Addams had big dreams—to do something useful in the world. Long interested in the poor from her reading of Dickens and inspired by her mothers kindness to the Cedarville poor, she decided to become a doctor so that she could live and it was a vague idea, nurtured by literary fiction. Addamss father encouraged her to higher education but close to home. She was eager to attend the new college for women, Smith College in Massachusetts, after graduating from Rockford in 1881, with a collegiate certificate and membership in Phi Beta Kappa, she still hoped to attend Smith to earn a proper B. A. That summer, her father died unexpectedly from a case of appendicitis. That fall, Addams, her sister Alice, Alices husband Harry, Harry was already trained in medicine and did further studies at the University of Pennsylvania
23.
President of the United States
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The President of the United States is the head of state and head of government of the United States. The president directs the executive branch of the government and is the commander-in-chief of the United States Armed Forces. The president is considered to be one of the worlds most powerful political figures, the role includes being the commander-in-chief of the worlds most expensive military with the second largest nuclear arsenal and leading the nation with the largest economy by nominal GDP. The office of President holds significant hard and soft power both in the United States and abroad, Constitution vests the executive power of the United States in the president. The president is empowered to grant federal pardons and reprieves. The president is responsible for dictating the legislative agenda of the party to which the president is a member. The president also directs the foreign and domestic policy of the United States, since the office of President was established in 1789, its power has grown substantially, as has the power of the federal government as a whole. However, nine vice presidents have assumed the presidency without having elected to the office. The Twenty-second Amendment prohibits anyone from being elected president for a third term, in all,44 individuals have served 45 presidencies spanning 57 full four-year terms. On January 20,2017, Donald Trump was sworn in as the 45th, in 1776, the Thirteen Colonies, acting through the Second Continental Congress, declared political independence from Great Britain during the American Revolution. The new states, though independent of each other as nation states, desiring to avoid anything that remotely resembled a monarchy, Congress negotiated the Articles of Confederation to establish a weak alliance between the states. Out from under any monarchy, the states assigned some formerly royal prerogatives to Congress, only after all the states agreed to a resolution settling competing western land claims did the Articles take effect on March 1,1781, when Maryland became the final state to ratify them. In 1783, the Treaty of Paris secured independence for each of the former colonies, with peace at hand, the states each turned toward their own internal affairs. Prospects for the convention appeared bleak until James Madison and Edmund Randolph succeeded in securing George Washingtons attendance to Philadelphia as a delegate for Virginia. It was through the negotiations at Philadelphia that the presidency framed in the U. S. The first power the Constitution confers upon the president is the veto, the Presentment Clause requires any bill passed by Congress to be presented to the president before it can become law. Once the legislation has been presented, the president has three options, Sign the legislation, the bill becomes law. Veto the legislation and return it to Congress, expressing any objections, in this instance, the president neither signs nor vetoes the legislation
24.
Governor of California
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The position was created in 1849, the year before California became a state. The current governor is Jerry Brown, a Democrat who was inaugurated January 3,2011, in October 2013, Jerry Brown surpassed Earl Warren for the longest cumulative period of time served as governor. Governors are elected by ballot and serve terms of four years. Governors take office on the first Monday after January 1 after their election, there are two methods available to remove a governor before the expiration of the gubernatorial term of office. Impeachment and removal by the legislature The governor can be impeached for misconduct in office by the State Assembly, recall by the voters Petitions signed by California state voters equal in number to 12% of the last vote for the office of governor can launch a gubernatorial recall election. The voters can vote on whether or not to recall the incumbent governor. If a majority of the voters in the vote to recall the governor. The 2003 California recall began with a drive that successfully forced sitting Democratic Governor Gray Davis into a special recall election. It marked the first time in the history of California that a governor faced a recall election and he was subsequently voted out of office, becoming the second governor in the history of the United States to be recalled after Lynn Frazier of North Dakota in 1921. He was replaced by Republican Arnold Schwarzenegger, the Lieutenant Governor of California is separately elected during the same election, not jointly as the running mate of the gubernatorial candidate. California has had a governor and a lieutenant governor of different parties 26 of the past 31 years, the lieutenant governor is also the President of the California State Senate. In practice, there is an agreement for the Lieutenant Governor not to perform more than perfunctory duties while the Governor is away from the state. This agreement was violated when Mike Curb was in office, as he signed several executive orders at odds with the Brown administration when Brown was out of the state. Court rulings have upheld the lieutenant governors right to perform the duties, peter Burnett had the longest post-governorship,44 years. He left office in 1851 and died in 1895, excluding governors who died in office, Robert Waterman had the shortest post-governorship. He died on April 12,1891, a three months and four days after the expiration of his term. Sworn in at the age of 30, J. Neely Johnson was the youngest governor from 1856 to 1858, sworn in at the age of 72, Jerry Brown became the oldest governor in 2011. Earl Warren was the governor to serve more than two consecutive terms in office
25.
Party platform
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Plank is the term often given to the components of the political platform – the opinions and viewpoints about individual topics, as held by a party, person, or organization. The word plank depicts a component of a political platform. The metaphor can return to its origin when public speaking or debates are actually held upon a physical platform. A party platform is referred to as a manifesto or a political platform. Research on American politics suggests that platform positions offer important clues as to the policies that U. S. parties will enact, over the past 30 years, Democratic and Republican congresspeople voted in line with their respective party platforms 74% and 89% of the time, respectively. The first known use of the platform was in 1535. The word platform comes from Middle French plate-forme, literally meaning flat form, the political meaning of the word to reflect statement of party politics is from 1803, probably originally an image of a literal platform on which politicians gather, stand, and make their appeals. S
26.
Lobbying
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Lobbying is the act of attempting to influence the actions, policies, or decisions of officials in their daily life, most often legislators or members of regulatory agencies. Lobbying is done by many types of people, associations and organized groups, including individuals in the sector, corporations, fellow legislators or government officials. Lobbyists may be among a legislators constituencies, meaning a voter or bloc of voters within their district, or not, they may engage in lobbying as a business. Professional lobbyists are people whose business is trying to influence legislation, regulation, or other government decisions, actions, individuals and nonprofit organizations can also lobby as an act of volunteering or as a small part of their normal job. Governments often define and regulate organized group lobbying that has become influential, the ethics and morality of lobbying are dual-edged. Lobbying is often spoken of with contempt, when the implication is that people with inordinate socioeconomic power are corrupting the law in order to serve their own interests. The failure of government officials to serve the public interest as a consequence of lobbying by special interests who provide benefits to the official is an example of agent misdirection. One story held that the term originated at the Willard Hotel in Washington, DC, a lobbyist is a person who tries to influence legislation on behalf of a special interest or a member of a lobby. Governments often define and regulate organized group lobbying as part of laws to prevent political corruption, Lobby groups may concentrate their efforts on the legislatures, where laws are created, but may also use the judicial branch to advance their causes. The National Association for the Advancement of Colored People, for example, filed suits in state and their efforts resulted in the Supreme Court declaring such laws unconstitutional. They may use a device known as amicus curiae, literally friend of the court. Briefs are written documents filed with a court, typically by parties to a lawsuit, amici curiae briefs are briefs filed by people or groups who are not parties to a suit. These briefs are entered into the records, and give additional background on the matter being decided upon. Advocacy groups use these briefs both to share their expertise and to promote their positions, over the past twenty years lobbying in Australia has grown from a small industry of a few hundred employees to a multibillion-dollar per year industry. Lobbying has become a fact of life and is now endemic in local, state. It is not just the local councillors and state and federal politicians being lobbied, in Australia, lobbyists are expected to organise a pass to obtain access to the federal parliament. The Parliamentary Pass must be signed by two parliamentarians and it is administered by the Department of Parliamentary Services and has the enforcement of the Criminal Code Act 1995. The Pass is valid for two years, however, the Parliamentary Pass is not absolutely necessary, as some lobbyists are simply signed in on the day of their visit as guests of Senators or Members
27.
United States congressional committee
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A congressional committee is a legislative sub-organization in the United States Congress that handles a specific duty. Committee membership enables members to develop specialized knowledge of the matters under their jurisdiction, woodrow Wilson once wrote, it is not far from the truth to say that Congress in session is Congress on public exhibition, whilst Congress in its committee rooms is Congress at work. It is neither expected nor possible that a member of Congress be an expert on all matters, Congressional committees provide valuable informational services to Congress by investigating and reporting about specialized subjects. Congress divides its legislative, oversight, and internal administrative tasks among approximately 200 committees and subcommittees, of the 73 discharge petitions submitted to the full House from 1995 through 2007, only one was successful in securing a definitive yea-or-nay vote for a bill. The growing autonomy of committees has fragmented the power of each chamber as a unit. This dispersion of power has weakened the legislative branch relative to the other two branches of the federal government, the executive branch and the judiciary branch. In his often cited article History of the House of Representatives, written in 1961, galloway wrote, In practice, Congress functions not as a unified institution, but as a collection of semi-autonomous committees that seldom act in unison. Galloway went on to cite committee autonomy as a factor interfering with the adoption of a coherent legislative program, such autonomy remains a characteristic feature of the committee system in Congress today. This reform was abolished in a 1935 counterattack led by the intra-House oligarchy, thus the era of the Great Depression marks the last across-the-board change, albeit a short-lived one, in the autonomy of House standing committees. The 1946 act reduced the number of House committees from 48 to 19, jurisdictions of all committees were codified by rule in their respective chambers, which helped consolidate or eliminate many existing committees and minimize jurisdictional conflicts. There are no limits on the number of subcommittees in the U. S. Senate, Congress has convened several other temporary review committees to analyze and make recommendations on ways to reform and improve the committee system. For example, the Legislative Reorganization Act of 1970 led to further reforms to open Congress to further public visibility, strengthen its decision-making capacities, the first Senate committee was established April 7,1789, to draw up Senate rules of procedure. In those early days, the Senate operated with temporary select committees and this system provided a great deal of flexibility, as if one committee proved unresponsive, another could be established in its place. The Senate could also forgo committee referral for actions on legislation or presidential nominations and these early committees generally consisted of three members for routine business and five members for more important issues. The largest committee established during the 1st Congress had eleven members and this system proved ineffective, so in 1816 the Senate adopted a formal system of 11 standing committees with five members each. Three of those committees, the Finance, Foreign Relations and the Judiciary Committees exist largely unchanged today, with the advent of this new system, committees are able to handle long-term studies and investigations, in addition to regular legislative duties. According to the Senate Historical Office, the significance of the change from temporary to permanent committees was perhaps little realized at the time. With the growing responsibilities of the Senate, the committees gradually grew to be the key policy-making bodies of the Senate, by 1906, the Senate maintained 66 standing and select committees—eight more committees than members of the majority party
28.
Strike action
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Strike action, also called labor strike, labour strike, or simply strike, is a work stoppage caused by the mass refusal of employees to work. A strike usually takes place in response to employee grievances, Strikes became common during the Industrial Revolution, when mass labor became important in factories and mines. In most countries, strike actions were made illegal, as factory owners had far more power than workers. Most Western countries partially legalized striking in the late 19th or early 20th centuries, Strikes are sometimes used to pressure governments to change policies. Notable examples are the 1980 Gdańsk Shipyard or 1981 Warning Strike, official publications have typically used the more neutral words work stoppage or industrial dispute. The first historically certain account of action was towards the end of the 20th dynasty. The artisans of the Royal Necropolis at Deir el-Medina walked off their jobs because they had not been paid, the Egyptian authorities raised the wages. An early predecessor of the strike may have been the secessio plebis in ancient Rome. In the Outline Of History, H. G. Wells characterized this event as the strike of the plebeians, the plebeians seem to have invented the strike. The strike action became a feature of the political landscape with the onset of the Industrial Revolution. For the first time in history, large numbers of people were members of the working class, they lived in cities. By the 1830s, when the Chartist movement was at its peak, in 1842 the demands for fairer wages and conditions across many different industries finally exploded into the first modern general strike. Instead of being a spontaneous uprising of the masses, the strike was politically motivated and was driven by an agenda to win concessions. Probably as much as half of the industrial work force were on strike at its peak – over 500,000 men. The local leadership marshalled a growing working class tradition to organize their followers to mount an articulate challenge to the capitalist. Friedrich Engels, an observer in London at the time, wrote, by its numbers, this class has become the most powerful in England, the English proletarian is only just becoming aware of his power, and the fruits of this awareness were the disturbances of last summer. Karl Marx has condemned the theory of Proudhon criminalizing strike action in his work The Poverty of Philosophy, in 1937 there were 4,740 strikes in the United States. This was the greatest strike wave in American labor history, the number of major strikes and lockouts in the U. S. fell by 97% from 381 in 1970 to 187 in 1980 to only 11 in 2010
29.
Securities Commission
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Securities commission is a general term used for a government department or agency responsible for financial regulation of securities products within a particular country. Its powers and responsibilities vary greatly from country to country, but generally cover the setting of rules as well as enforcing them for financial intermediaries, as long as there have been securities there have been regulations. However, in the days this consisted primarily of self-regulated groups or societies. External government regulation has primarily been driven by financial crises or scandals, in 1720 the British Parliament passed the Bubble Act which had specific regulations for securities. However the motive of this act was more to support the ‘South Sea bubble’ than protect consumers, However this was the first time that prospectuses and disclosure in the modern sense were used. There was widespread distrust of brokers as the scams collapsed, after common feeling that investors in these areas of the country were being victimized by capitalists in the east. Some countries like the UK, created one large agency that covered all financial products, However, some countries use a different model where there are separate agencies for different financial products. Typically, securities, banking and insurance are split, but there may also be separate agencies for futures, options, with the advent of derivatives and new financial products it has not always been easy to see who has jurisdiction and what their responsibilities are. A fact, that some financial companies have used to their advantage to skirt existing regulation. Most securities commissions are semi-independent government organisations that have a board of commissioners and they are often fully or partially funded by the organisations that are regulated through charges such as registration and licensing fees. There is no name for securities commission or financial regulatory agency in each country. Naming has become complicated as some governments have consolidated or merged organisations. They sometimes contain the term securities and commission, such as the Securities and Exchange Commission of the US or Securities and Futures Commission. A number also have names based on Financial Authority, such as the Financial Services Authority of the UK or Financial Supervisory Authority or variations such as the Financial Services Agency. Most securities commissions have a mandate to protect consumers, make sure there is an orderly and stable financial market, often local stock exchanges as well as brokers are covered by the commission. Most financial regulators are members of the International Organization of Securities Commissions, the main way that securities commission cooperate is through the IOSCO Memorandum of Understanding, or through bilateral agreements between securities commissions. U. S. However, there are plans to establish a national commission, to be called the Canadian Securities Regulatory Authority
30.
Workers' compensation
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The trade-off between assured, limited coverage and lack of recourse outside the worker compensation system is known as the compensation bargain. One of the problems that the compensation bargain solved is the problem of becoming insolvent as a result of high damage awards. The system of collective liability was created to prevent that, individual immunity is the necessary corollary to collective liability. General damage for pain and suffering, and punitive damages for negligence, are generally not available in workers compensation plans. These laws were first enacted in Europe and Oceania, with the United States following shortly thereafter and these laws also provide benefits for dependents of those workers who are killed in work-related accidents or illnesses. Some laws also protect employers and fellow workers by limiting the amount an injured employee can recover from an employer, State statutes establish this framework for most employment. Federal statutes are limited to employees or those workers employed in some significant aspect of interstate commerce. As Australia experienced a relatively influential labour movement in the late 19th, each territory has its own legislation and its own governing body. A typical example is Work Safe Victoria, which manages Victorias workplace safety system, Compensation law in New South Wales has recently been overhauled by the state government. In a push to speed up the process of claims and to reduce the amount of claims and it is a public institution that aims to recognize and grant rights to its policyholders. During the first 15 days the workers salary is paid by the employer and after that by the INSS, Workers compensation was Canadas first social program to be introduced as it was favoured by both workers groups and employers hoping to avoid lawsuits. It was introduced in the provinces at different dates. Ontario was first in 1915, Manitoba in 1916, and British Columbia in 1917 and it remains a provincial responsibility and thus the rules vary from province to province. In some provinces, such as Ontarios Workplace Safety and Insurance Board, in British Columbia, the occupational health and safety mandate is legislatively assigned to the Workers Compensation Board of British Columbia WorkSafeBC. In most provinces the workers compensation board or commission remains concerned solely with insurance, the workers compensation insurance system in every province is funded by employers based on their payroll, industry sector and history of injuries in their workplace. The German workers compensation law of 6 July 1884, initiated by Chancellor Otto von Bismarck, was passed only three attempts and was the first of its kind in the world. Similar laws passed in Austria in 1887, Norway in 1894, Workers who are totally disabled get continued benefits at 67 percent after 13 weeks, paid by the accident funds, financed entirely by employers. The German compensation system has taken as a model for many nations
31.
United States Constitution
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The United States Constitution is the supreme law of the United States of America. The Constitution, originally comprising seven articles, delineates the national frame of government, Articles Four, Five and Six entrench concepts of federalism, describing the rights and responsibilities of state governments and of the states in relationship to the federal government. Article Seven establishes the procedure used by the thirteen States to ratify it. In general, the first ten amendments, known collectively as the Bill of Rights, offer specific protections of individual liberty, the majority of the seventeen later amendments expand individual civil rights protections. Others address issues related to federal authority or modify government processes and procedures, Amendments to the United States Constitution, unlike ones made to many constitutions worldwide, are appended to the document. All four pages of the original U. S, according to the United States Senate, The Constitutions first three words—We the People—affirm that the government of the United States exists to serve its citizens. From September 5,1774 to March 1,1781, the Continental Congress functioned as the government of the United States. The process of selecting the delegates for the First and Second Continental Congresses underscores the revolutionary role of the people of the colonies in establishing a governing body. The Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union was the first constitution of the United States and it was drafted by the Second Continental Congress from mid-1776 through late-1777, and ratification by all 13 states was completed by early 1781. Under the Articles of Confederation, the governments power was quite limited. The Confederation Congress could make decisions, but lacked enforcement powers, implementation of most decisions, including modifications to the Articles, required unanimous approval of all thirteen state legislatures. The Continental Congress could print money but the currency was worthless, Congress could borrow money, but couldnt pay it back. No state paid all their U. S. taxes, some paid nothing, some few paid an amount equal to interest on the national debt owed to their citizens, but no more. No interest was paid on debt owed foreign governments, by 1786, the United States would default on outstanding debts as their dates came due. Internationally, the Articles of Confederation did little to enhance the United States ability to defend its sovereignty, most of the troops in the 625-man United States Army were deployed facing – but not threatening – British forts on American soil. They had not been paid, some were deserting and others threatening mutiny, spain closed New Orleans to American commerce, U. S. officials protested, but to no effect. Barbary pirates began seizing American ships of commerce, the Treasury had no funds to pay their ransom, if any military crisis required action, the Congress had no credit or taxing power to finance a response. Domestically, the Articles of Confederation was failing to bring unity to the sentiments and interests of the various states
32.
Income tax in the United States
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In the United States, a tax is imposed on income by the federal government, most state governments, and many local governments. The income tax is determined by applying a tax rate, which may increase as income increases, Individuals and corporations are directly taxable, and estates and trusts may be taxable on undistributed income. In the United States, the payroll tax usually refers to FICA taxes that pay into Social Security and Medicare, while income tax refers to taxes that pay into state. Partnerships are not taxed, but their partners are taxed on their shares of partnership income, residents and citizens are taxed on worldwide income, while nonresidents are taxed only on income within the jurisdiction. Several types of credits reduce tax, and some types of credits may exceed tax before credits, an alternative tax applies at the federal and some state levels. Taxable income is total income less allowable deductions, Individuals may also deduct a personal allowance and certain personal expenses, including home mortgage interest, state taxes, contributions to charity, and some other items. Some deductions are subject to limits, Capital gains are taxable, and capital losses reduce taxable income to the extent of gains. Individuals currently pay a rate of tax on capital gains. Taxpayers generally must self assess income tax by filing tax returns, advance payments of tax are required in the form of withholding tax or estimated tax payments. Taxes are determined separately by each jurisdiction imposing tax, due dates and other administrative procedures vary by jurisdiction. April 15 following the tax year is the last day for individuals to file tax returns for federal and many state, Tax as determined by the taxpayer may be adjusted by the taxing jurisdiction. A tax is imposed on net income in the United States by the federal, most state. Income tax is imposed on individuals, corporations, estates, the definition of net taxable income for most sub-federal jurisdictions mostly follows the federal definition. The rate of tax at the level is graduated, that is. Some states and localities impose a tax at a graduated rate. Federal tax rates in 2013 varied from 10% to 39. 6%, Individuals are eligible for a reduced rate of federal income tax on capital gains and qualifying dividends. The tax rate and some deductions are different for individuals depending on filing status, married individuals may compute tax as a couple or separately. Single individuals may be eligible for reduced tax rates if they are head of a household in which live with a dependent
33.
United States Senate
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The United States Senate is the upper chamber of the United States Congress which, along with the House of Representatives, the lower chamber, composes the legislature of the United States. The composition and powers of the Senate are established by Article One of the United States Constitution. S. From 1789 until 1913, Senators were appointed by the legislatures of the states represented, following the ratification of the Seventeenth Amendment in 1913. The Senate chamber is located in the wing of the Capitol, in Washington. It further has the responsibility of conducting trials of those impeached by the House, in the early 20th century, the practice of majority and minority parties electing their floor leaders began, although they are not constitutional officers. This idea of having one chamber represent people equally, while the other gives equal representation to states regardless of population, was known as the Connecticut Compromise, there was also a desire to have two Houses that could act as an internal check on each other. One was intended to be a Peoples House directly elected by the people, the other was intended to represent the states to such extent as they retained their sovereignty except for the powers expressly delegated to the national government. The Senate was thus not designed to serve the people of the United States equally, the Constitution provides that the approval of both chambers is necessary for the passage of legislation. First convened in 1789, the Senate of the United States was formed on the example of the ancient Roman Senate, the name is derived from the senatus, Latin for council of elders. James Madison made the comment about the Senate, In England, at this day, if elections were open to all classes of people. An agrarian law would take place. If these observations be just, our government ought to secure the permanent interests of the country against innovation, landholders ought to have a share in the government, to support these invaluable interests, and to balance and check the other. They ought to be so constituted as to protect the minority of the opulent against the majority, the senate, therefore, ought to be this body, and to answer these purposes, the people ought to have permanency and stability. The Constitution stipulates that no constitutional amendment may be created to deprive a state of its equal suffrage in the Senate without that states consent, the District of Columbia and all other territories are not entitled to representation in either House of the Congress. The District of Columbia elects two senators, but they are officials of the D. C. city government. The United States has had 50 states since 1959, thus the Senate has had 100 senators since 1959. In 1787, Virginia had roughly ten times the population of Rhode Island, whereas today California has roughly 70 times the population of Wyoming and this means some citizens are effectively two orders of magnitude better represented in the Senate than those in other states. Seats in the House of Representatives are approximately proportionate to the population of each state, before the adoption of the Seventeenth Amendment in 1913, Senators were elected by the individual state legislatures
34.
Direct democracy
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Direct democracy is a form of democracy in which people decide policy initiatives directly. This differs from the majority of democracies, which are representative democracies. Direct democracy is similar to, but distinct from, representative democracy, two leading forms of direct democracy are participatory democracy and deliberative democracy. Semi direct democracies in which representatives administer day-to-day governance, but the citizens remain the sovereign, the first two forms—referendums and initiatives—are examples of direct legislation. Compulsory referendum subjects the legislation drafted by political elites to a popular vote. This is the most common form of direct legislation, popular referendum empowers citizens to make a petition that calls existing legislation to a citizens vote. Institutions specify the frame for a valid petition and the number of signatures required. This form of direct democracy effectively grants the voting public a veto on laws adopted by the elected legislature, initiatives may be direct or indirect, With the direct initiative, a successful proposition is placed directly on the ballot to be subject to vote. Such a form of initiative is utilized by Switzerland for constitutional amendments. Power of Recall gives the public the power to elected officials from office before the end of their term. Some of the most important modern thinkers who were inspired by the concept of democracy are Cornelius Castoriadis, Hannah Arendt. The earliest known direct democracy is said to be the Athenian democracy in the 5th century BC, although it was not a democracy, women, foreigners. There were only about 30,000 male citizens, but several thousand of them were active in each year. Modern democracies, being representative, not direct, do not resemble the Athenian system, also relevant to the history of direct democracy is the history of Ancient Rome, specifically the Roman Republic, beginning around 509 BC. Rome displayed many aspects of democracy, both direct and indirect, from the era of Roman monarchy all the way to the collapse of the Roman Empire. As to direct democracy, the ancient Roman Republic had a system of citizen lawmaking, or citizen formulation and passage of law, and a citizen veto of legislature-made law. Many historians mark the end of the Republic with the passage of a law named the Lex Titia,27 November 43 BC, modern-era citizen lawmaking began in the towns of Switzerland in the 13th century. In 1847, the Swiss added the statute referendum to their national constitution and they soon discovered that merely having the power to veto Parliaments laws was not enough
35.
Recall election
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A recall election is a procedure by which voters can remove an elected official from office through a direct vote before their term has ended. Recalls, which are initiated when sufficient voters sign a petition, have a history dating back to the ancient Athenian democracy and are a feature of several contemporary constitutions, in indirect or representative democracy peoples representatives are elected and these representatives rule for a specific period of time. But if any representative is not properly discharging their responsibilities, then they can be called back with the written request of specific number of voters, the Legislative Assembly of British Columbia enacted representative recall in 1995. In that province, voters in a provincial riding can petition to have their representative in parliament removed from office, by January 2003,22 recall efforts had been launched. No one has been recalled so far, but one representative, Paul Reitsma, Reitsma resigned during the secondary verification stage and the recall count ended. While recalls are not provided for at the level in Switzerland, six cantons allow them, Bern. 30,000 signatures are required to trigger a recall referendum, there has been one unsuccessful attempt to recall the executive in 1852. Schaffhausen, Recall of the executive and legislative is possible since 1876,1,000 signatures are required to trigger a recall referendum. There has been one attempt to recall the executive in 2000 triggered by the lawyer. Solothurn, Recall of the executive and legislative is possible since 1869,6,000 signatures are required to trigger a recall referendum. There has been one attempt to recall the executive and legislative in 1995. Three further attempts failed to collect the number of signatures. Ticino, Recall of the executive is possible since 1892,15,000 signatures are required to trigger a recall referendum. There has been one unsuccessful attempt in 1942. In addition, recall of municipal executives is possible since 2011, signatures of 30% of all adult citizens are required to trigger a recall referendum. Thurgau, Recall of the executive and legislative is possible since 1869,20,000 signatures are required to trigger a recall referendum. There have been no recall attempts, uri, Recall of the executive and legislative is possible since 1888. Since 1979600 signatures are required to trigger a recall referendum, in addition, recall of municipal executives and legislatives is possible since 2011
36.
Referendum
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A referendum is a direct vote in which an entire electorate is asked to vote on a particular proposal. This may result in the adoption of a new law, in some countries it is synonymous with a plebiscite or a vote on a ballot question. Some definitions of plebiscite suggest that it is a type of vote to change the constitution or government of a country, however, some other countries define it differently. For example, Australia defines referendum as a vote to change the constitution, the addition of the verb sum to a gerundive, denotes the idea of necessity or compulsion, that which must be done, rather than that which is fit for doing). This determines the form of the plural in English, which according to English grammar should be referendums, the use of referenda as a plural form in English is thus insupportable according to the rules of both Latin and English grammar alike. The Latin plural gerundive referenda, meaning things to be referred, compare also, Agenda those matters which must be driven forward, from ago, to drive, Memorandum, that matter which must be remembered, from memoro, to call to mind, etc. The name and use of the referendum is thought to have originated in the Swiss canton of Graubünden as early as the 16th century. Today, a referendum can also often be referred to as a plebiscite, for example, Australia defines referendum as a vote to change the constitution, and plebiscite as a vote that does not affect the constitution. In contrast, Ireland has only held one plebiscite, which was the vote to adopt its constitution. Of that which has most definitely already occurred and this is in line with Eamon De Valeras oft stated belief that the people do not have the right to do wrong which in this context means to reject his new Eire constitution. The term referendum covers a variety of different meanings, a referendum can be binding or advisory. In some countries, different names are used for two types of referendum. From a political-philosophical perspective, referendums are an expression of direct democracy, however, in the modern world, most referendums need to be understood within the context of representative democracy. Australia ranked second with dozens of referendums, a referendum usually offers the electorate a choice of accepting or rejecting a proposal, but this is not necessarily the case. In Switzerland, for example, multiple choice referendums are common and this question can be resolved by applying voting systems designed for single winner elections to a multiple-choice referendum. Swiss referendums get around this problem by offering a separate vote on each of the options as well as an additional decision about which of the multiple options should be preferred. In the Swedish case, in both referendums the winning option was chosen by the Single Member Plurality system, in other words, the winning option was deemed to be that supported by a plurality, rather than an absolute majority, of voters. In the 1977, Australian referendum, the winner was chosen by the system of preferential instant-runoff voting, the 1992 New Zealand poll, was counted under the two-round system, as were polls in Newfoundland and Guam, for example
37.
Initiative
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In political science, an initiative is a means by which a petition signed by a certain minimum number of registered voters can force a public vote. The initiative may take the form of an initiative or an indirect initiative. In a direct initiative, a measure is put directly to a vote after being submitted by a petition, in an indirect initiative, a measure is first referred to the legislature, and then put to a popular vote only if not enacted by the legislature. It is a form of direct democracy, the Canadian province of British Columbia has a citizen initiative law known as the Recall and Initiative Act. The original proposal was put to voters in a referendum held in October 1991 and was supported by over 83% of voters and it was subsequently put into force by the incoming NDP government. The first referendum was held under this legislation on September 2011 on the subject of repealing the Harmonized Sales Tax, details of its use in BC are available on the Elections BC website. The rejected Treaty establishing a Constitution for Europe included an indirect initiative right. The precise mechanism had not been agreed upon, critics underlined the weakness of this right of initiative, which did not ultimately entail any vote or referendum. A similar scheme under the name, European Citizens Initiative, has been put forward in the now ratified European Lisbon Treaty. It follows very similar rules to the ones outlined in the European Constitution and these citizens would thereby obtain the same right to request the Commission to submit a legislative proposal as the Council has had since the establishment of the European Communities in 1957. This, however, does require that the signatures come from a significant number of Member States and it is suggested that this significant number will need to be around a quarter of member states, with at least 1/500 of the citizens in those member states supporting the initiative. With the variety of languages within the European Union, this creates a significant hurdle for people to navigate. In 2013 the subjects of ongoing open initiatives of the European Citizens Initiative are e. g. about water and sanitation as a human right, unconditional Basic Income, or to End Ecocide in Europe. It remains to be if the ECI evolves into a full initiative or remains in its present state of a de facto petition. Since March 1,2012, groups of at least 50,000 Finnish citizens with suffrage have had the right to send a citizens initiative to the Parliament of Finland. A limited, indirect form of initiative was added to the French Constitution on 28 March 2003 as part of decentralization reforms. However, the only power these local referendum initiatives confer on citizens is the ability to add propositions to their local assemblys meeting agenda, the decision as to whether to submit citizen propositions to a popular vote rests with the local assembly. All German states have the right to initiative, however, there is no constitutional citizens initiative in Germany at a federal level
38.
Judicial
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The judiciary is the system of courts that interprets and applies the law in the name of the state. The judiciary also provides a mechanism for the resolution of disputes, in some nations, under doctrines of separation of powers, the judiciary generally does not make law or enforce law, but rather interprets law and applies it to the facts of each case. In other nations, the judiciary can make law, known as Common Law, by setting precedent for other judges to follow, the Judiciary is often tasked with ensuring equal justice under law. In many jurisdictions the judicial branch has the power to change laws through the process of judicial review, Judges constitute a critical force for interpretation and implementation of a constitution, thus de facto in common law countries creating the body of constitutional law. Budget of the judiciary in many transitional and developing countries is almost completely controlled by the executive, the latter undermines the separation of powers, as it creates a critical financial dependence of the judiciary. The proper national wealth distribution including the government spending on the judiciary is subject of the constitutional economics and it is important to distinguish between the two methods of corruption of the judiciary, the state, and the private. For instance, in France, the jurisprudence constante of the Court of Cassation or the Council of State is equivalent in practice with case law, in common law jurisdictions, courts interpret law, this includes constitutions, statutes, and regulations. They also make law based upon prior case law in areas where the legislature has not made law, for instance, the tort of negligence is not derived from statute law in most common law jurisdictions. The term common law refers to this kind of law, in civil law jurisdictions, courts interpret the law, but are prohibited from creating law, and thus do not issue rulings more general than the actual case to be judged. Jurisprudence plays a role to case law. State courts, which try 98% of litigation, may have different names and organization, trial courts may be called courts of common plea, appellate courts superior courts or commonwealth courts. The judicial system, whether state or federal, begins with a court of first instance, is appealed to an appellate court, and then ends at the court of last resort. In France, the authority on the interpretation of the law is the Council of State for administrative cases. In the Peoples Republic of China, the authority on the interpretation of the law is the National Peoples Congress. Other countries such as Argentina have mixed systems that include lower courts, appeals courts, a cassation court, in this system the Supreme Court is always the final authority, but criminal cases have four stages, one more than civil law does. On the court sits a total of nine justices and this number has been changed several times. Japans process for selecting judges is longer and more stringent than the process in the United States, assistant judges are appointed from those who have completed their training at the Legal Training and Research Institute located in Wako. Once appointed, assistant judges still may not qualify to sit alone until they have served for five years, Judges require ten years of experience in practical affairs, as a public prosecutor or practicing attorney
39.
Tariff
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A tariff is a tax on imports or exports. In other languages and very occasionally in English, tariff or its equivalent may also be used to any list of prices. A customs duty or due is the tax levied on the import or export of goods in international trade. In economic sense, a duty is also a kind of consumption tax, a duty levied on goods being imported is referred to as an import duty. Similarly, a duty levied on exports is called an export duty, a tariff, which is actually a list of commodities along with the leviable rate of customs duty, is popularly referred to as a customs duty. This is no longer the case, Customs duty is calculated on the determination of the assessable value in case of those items for which the duty is levied ad valorem. This is often the transaction value unless a customs officer determines assessable value in accordance with the Harmonized System, However, for certain items like petroleum and alcohol, customs duty is realized at a specific rate applied to the volume of the import or export consignments. For the purpose of assessment of duty, products are given an identification code that has come to be known as the Harmonized System code. This code was developed by the World Customs Organization based in Brussels, a Harmonized System code may be from four to ten digits. For example,17.03 is the HS code for molasses from the extraction or refining of sugar, However, within 17.03, the number 17.03.90 stands for Molasses. Introduction of Harmonized System code in 1990s has largely replaced the Standard International Trade Classification, in drawing up the national tariff, the revenue departments often specifies the rate of customs duty with reference to the HS code of the product. A Customs authority in each country is responsible for collecting taxes on the import into or export of goods out of the country, Evasion of customs duties takes place mainly in two ways. In one, the trader under-declares the value so that the value is lower than actual. In a similar vein, a trader can evade customs duty by understatement of quantity or volume of the product of trade, a trader may also evade duty by misrepresenting traded goods, categorizing goods as items which attract lower customs duties. The Evasion of customs duty may take place with or without the collaboration of customs officials, Evasion of customs duty does not necessarily constitute smuggling. Many countries allow a traveler to bring goods into the country duty-free and these goods may be bought at ports and airports or sometimes within one country without attracting the usual government taxes and then brought into another country duty-free. Some countries impose allowances which limit the number or value of items that one person can bring into the country. These restrictions often apply to tobacco, wine, spirits, cosmetics, gifts, often foreign diplomats and UN officials are entitled to duty-free goods
40.
Inland waterways of the United States
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The inland waterways of the United States include more than 25,000 mi of navigable waters. Much of the commercially important waterways of the United States consist of the Mississippi River System—the Mississippi River, the Columbia River is the only river on the West Coast that is navigable for a significant length. The Sacramento and San Joaquin Rivers, the Snake River, the steep grades and variable flows of most other West Coast rivers make them unsuitable for large boat travel. Also, most large rivers there are dammed, often in places, to supply water for hydroelectricity production. Mountainous terrain, and a shortage of water, make canals in the West unfeasible as well, most navigable rivers and canals in the United States are in the eastern half of the country, where the terrain is flatter and the climate is wetter. Louis, Chicago, St. Paul, Cincinnati, and Pittsburgh, the Mississippi River System is connected to the Illinois Waterway, which continues to the Great Lakes Waterway and then to the Saint Lawrence Seaway. Many other eastern rivers are navigable as well, including the Potomac, the Hudson, and the Atchafalaya Rivers, a principal value of the inland waterways is their ability to efficiently convey large volumes of bulk commodities moving long distances. Towboats push barges lashed together to form a tow, a tow may consist of 4 or 6 barges on smaller waterways and up to over 40 barges on the mighty Mississippi River below its confluence with the Ohio River. A 15-barge tow is common on the rivers with locks, such as the Ohio, Upper Mississippi, Illinois. Such tows are an efficient mode of transportation, moving about 22,500 tons of cargo as a single unit. A single 15-barge tow is equivalent to about 225 railroad cars or 870 tractor-trailer trucks. If the cargo transported on the inland waterways each year had to be moved by another mode, the ability to move more cargo per shipment makes barge transport both fuel efficient and environmentally advantageous. On average, a gallon of fuel allows one ton of cargo to be shipped 180–240 mi by truck (e. g. @ 6–8 mpg‑US30 ton load,450 mi by railway, and 514 mi by barge. Carbon dioxide emissions from water transportation were 10 million metric tons less in 1997 than if rail transportation had been used, barges are well suited for the movement of large quantities of bulk commodities and raw materials at relatively low cost. The inland and intracoastal waterway system handles about 630 million tons of cargo annually and these are raw materials or primary manufactured products that are typically stored for further processing or consumption, or transshipped for overseas markets. Coal is the largest commodity by volume moving on the inland waterways, the countrys electric utility industry depends on the inland waterways for more than 20 percent of the coal they consume to produce electricity. Petroleum is the next largest group, including oil, gasoline, Diesel fuel, jet fuel, heavy fuel oils. Another large group includes grain and other products, most of which moves by waterway to ports on the Lower Mississippi River or Columbia River for export overseas
41.
Trust (business)
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A trust or corporate trust is an American English term for a large business with significant market power. It is often used in a sense to refer to monopolies or near-monopolies in the United States during the Second Industrial Revolution in the 19th century. Originally, the corporate trust was a device used to consolidate power in large American corporate enterprises. Nine individuals held trust certificates and acted as the board of trustees. One of those trustees was Rockefeller himself, who held 41% of the trust certificates and this kind of arrangement became popular and soon had many imitators. An 1888 article explained the difference between trusts in the sense and the newfangled corporate trusts, A trust is. Simply the case of one person holding the title of property, whether land or chattels, for the benefit of another, nothing can be more common or more useful. But the word is now applied to a certain class, of commercial agreements and, by reason of a popular and unreasoning dread of their effect. This is unfortunate, for it is difficult to find a substitute for it, for example, the Standard Oil Trust terminated its own trust agreement in March 1892. In 1898, President William McKinley launched the era when he appointed the U. S. The report of the Commission was seized upon by Theodore Roosevelt, prominent trusts included Standard Oil, U. S. Steel, the American Tobacco Company, the International Mercantile Marine Company, and the match companies controlled by Ivar Kreuger, the Match King. De Beers had a dominant role in the supply of diamonds, other trusts were formed by several companies, such as the Motion Picture Patents Company or Edison Trust which controlled the movie patents. Patents were also important to the Bell Telephone Company, as indicated by the litigation that came to be known as The Telephone Cases. The Truth About The Trusts, A Description and Analysis of the American Trust Movement, boudreaux, Donald J. and Thomas J. Dilorenzo. The Protectionist Roots of Antitrust The Review of Austrian Economics 6, barak Orbach and Grace Campbell, The Antitrust Curse of Bigness, Southern California Law Review. Media related to Private Trust Company at Wikimedia Commons
42.
Monopoly
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A monopoly exists when a specific person or enterprise is the only supplier of a particular commodity. The verb monopolise or monopolize refers to the process by which a company gains the ability to raise prices or exclude competitors, in economics, a monopoly is a single seller. In law, a monopoly is an entity that has significant market power, that is. Although monopolies may be big businesses, size is not a characteristic of a monopoly, a small business may still have the power to raise prices in a small industry. A monopoly is distinguished from a monopsony, in there is only one buyer of a product or service. Likewise, a monopoly should be distinguished from a cartel, in which several providers act together to coordinate services, prices or sale of goods. Monopolies, monopsonies and oligopolies are all situations in one or a few entities have market power and therefore interact with their customers. Monopolies can be established by a government, form naturally, or form by integration, in many jurisdictions, competition laws restrict monopolies. A government-granted monopoly or legal monopoly, by contrast, is sanctioned by the state, patents, copyrights, and trademarks are sometimes used as examples of government-granted monopolies. The government may also reserve the venture for itself, thus forming a government monopoly, There are four basic types of market structures in traditional economic analysis, perfect competition, monopolistic competition, oligopoly and monopoly. A monopoly is a structure in which a single supplier produces, if there is a single seller in a certain market and there are no close substitutes for the product, then the market structure is that of a pure monopoly. Sometimes, there are many sellers in an industry and/or there exist many close substitutes for the goods being produced and this is termed monopolistic competition, whereas in oligopoly the companies interact strategically. Most economic textbooks follow the practice of explaining the perfect competition model. The boundaries of what constitutes a market and what does not are relevant distinctions to make in economic analysis, in a general equilibrium context, a good is a specific concept including geographical and time-related characteristics. Most studies of market structure relax a little their definition of a good, price Maker, Decides the price of the good or product to be sold, but does so by determining the quantity in order to demand the price desired by the firm. High Barriers, Other sellers are unable to enter the market of the monopoly, single seller, In a monopoly, there is one seller of the good, who produces all the output. Therefore, the market is being served by a single company, and for practical purposes. Price Discrimination, A monopolist can change the price or quantity of the product and he or she sells higher quantities at a lower price in a very elastic market, and sells lower quantities at a higher price in a less elastic market
43.
Standard Oil
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Standard Oil Co. Inc. was an American oil producing, transporting, refining, and marketing company. Established in 1870 by John D. Rockefeller as a corporation in Ohio and its controversial history as one of the worlds first and largest multinational corporations ended in 1911, when the United States Supreme Court ruled that Standard Oil was an illegal monopoly. The Standard Oil trust streamlined production and logistics, lowered costs, trust-busting critics accused Standard Oil of using aggressive pricing to destroy competitors and form a monopoly that threatened other businesses. John D. Rockefeller was a founder, chairman and major shareholder and its successors such as ExxonMobil, BP, and Chevron are still counted among the companies with the largest income worldwide. By 1882, his top aide was John Dustin Archbold, after 1896, Rockefeller disengaged from business to concentrate on his philanthropy, leaving Archbold in control. Other notable Standard Oil principals include Henry Flagler, developer of the Florida East Coast Railway and resort cities, and Henry H. Rogers, Standard Oils name came from the companys manufacturing standards, which preceded todays ASTM standards. In 1870 Rockefeller incorporated Standard Oil in Ohio, of the initial 10,000 shares, John D. In the early years, John D. Rockefeller dominated the combine and he quickly distributed power and the tasks of policy formation to a system of committees, but always remained the largest shareholder. Authority was centralized in the main office in Cleveland. In response to state trying to limit the scale of companies, Rockefeller and his associates developed innovative ways of organizing. On January 2,1882, they combined their disparate companies, spread across dozens of states and this organization proved so successful that other giant enterprises adopted this trust form. The company grew by increasing sales and also through acquisitions, after purchasing competing firms, Rockefeller shut down those he believed to be inefficient and kept the others. Smaller companies decried such deals as unfair because they were not producing enough oil to qualify for discounts, in 1872, Rockefeller joined the South Improvement Co. which would have allowed him to receive rebates for shipping and receive drawbacks on oil his competitors shipped. But when this became known, competitors convinced the Pennsylvania Legislature to revoke South Improvements charter. No oil was shipped under this arrangement. Standards actions and secret transport deals helped its kerosene price to drop from 58 to 26 cents from 1865 to 1870, competitors disliked the companys business practices, but consumers liked the lower prices. Standard Oil, being formed well before the discovery of the Spindletop oil field, the company was perceived to own and control all aspects of the trade. In 1885, Standard Oil of Ohio moved its headquarters from Cleveland to its permanent headquarters at 26 Broadway in New York City
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U.S. Steel
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The United States Steel Corporation, more commonly known as U. S. Steel, is an American integrated steel producer with major production operations in the United States, Canada, and Central Europe. The company was the worlds 15th largest steel producer in 2014, at one time, U. S. Steel was the largest steel producer and largest corporation in the world. It was capitalized at $1.4 billion, making it the worlds first billion-dollar corporation, the company headquarters was established in 1901 in the Empire Building, purchased from the estate of Orlando B. Potter for $5 million. In 1907 it bought its largest competitor, the Tennessee Coal, Iron and Railroad Company and this led to Tennessee Coals being replaced in the Dow Jones Industrial Average by the General Electric Company. The federal government attempted to use federal antitrust laws to break up U. S. Steel in 1911, in its first full year of operation, U. S. Steel made 67 percent of all the steel produced in the United States. One hundred years later, its shipments accounted for only about 8 percent of domestic consumption, the Corporation, as it was known on Wall Street, always distinguished itself to investors by virtue of its size, rather than for its efficiency or creativeness during its heyday. In 1901, it controlled two-thirds of steel production, because of heavy debts taken on at the companys formation — Carnegie insisted on being paid in gold bonds for his stake — and fears of antitrust litigation, U. S. Steel moved cautiously. Competitors often innovated faster, especially Bethlehem Steel, run by U. S, Steels former first president, Charles M. Schwab. Steels share of the expanding market slipped to 50 percent by 1911, james A. Farrell was named president in 1911 and served until 1932. U. S. Steel ranked 16th among United States corporations in the value of World War II production contracts, production peaked at more than 35 million tons in 1953. Its employment was greatest in 1943 when it had more than 340,000 employees, by 2000, however, the federal government has also intervened on other occasions to try to control U. S. Steel. President Harry S. Truman attempted to take over its steel mills in 1952 to resolve a crisis with its union, the United Steelworkers of America. The Supreme Court blocked the takeover by ruling that the president did not have the authority to seize the mills (see Youngstown Sheet & Tube Co. v. Sawyer. President John F. Kennedy was more successful in 1962 when he pressured the industry into reversing price increases that Kennedy considered dangerously inflationary. In the early days of the Reagan Administration, steel firms won substantial tax breaks in order to deal with imported goods, instead of modernizing their mills, steel companies shifted capital out of steel and into more profitable areas. In March 1982, U. S. Steel took its concessions and paid $1.4 billion in cash and $4.7 billion in loans for Marathon Oil, saving approximately $500 million in taxes through the merger. The architect of tax concessions to steel firms, Senator Arlen Specter, complained that we go out on a limb in Congress, the incident is the subject of a song by folk singer Anne Feeney. U. S. Steel finally acquired National Steels assets in 2003 after National Steel went bankrupt, as part of its diversification plan U. S. Steel acquired Marathon Oil on January 7,1982, as well as Texas Oil and Gas several years later
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