1.
United States dollar
–
The United States dollar is the official currency of the United States and its insular territories per the United States Constitution. It is divided into 100 smaller cent units, the circulating paper money consists of Federal Reserve Notes that are denominated in United States dollars. The U. S. dollar was originally commodity money of silver as enacted by the Coinage Act of 1792 which determined the dollar to be 371 4/16 grain pure or 416 grain standard silver, the currency most used in international transactions, it is the worlds primary reserve currency. Several countries use it as their currency, and in many others it is the de facto currency. Besides the United States, it is used as the sole currency in two British Overseas Territories in the Caribbean, the British Virgin Islands and Turks and Caicos Islands. A few countries use the Federal Reserve Notes for paper money, while the country mints its own coins, or also accepts U. S. coins that can be used as payment in U. S. dollars. After Nixon shock of 1971, USD became fiat currency, Article I, Section 8 of the U. S. Constitution provides that the Congress has the power To coin money, laws implementing this power are currently codified at 31 U. S. C. Section 5112 prescribes the forms in which the United States dollars should be issued and these coins are both designated in Section 5112 as legal tender in payment of debts. The Sacagawea dollar is one example of the copper alloy dollar, the pure silver dollar is known as the American Silver Eagle. Section 5112 also provides for the minting and issuance of other coins and these other coins are more fully described in Coins of the United States dollar. The Constitution provides that a regular Statement and Account of the Receipts and that provision of the Constitution is made specific by Section 331 of Title 31 of the United States Code. The sums of money reported in the Statements are currently being expressed in U. S. dollars, the U. S. dollar may therefore be described as the unit of account of the United States. The word dollar is one of the words in the first paragraph of Section 9 of Article I of the Constitution, there, dollars is a reference to the Spanish milled dollar, a coin that had a monetary value of 8 Spanish units of currency, or reales. In 1792 the U. S. Congress passed a Coinage Act, Section 20 of the act provided, That the money of account of the United States shall be expressed in dollars, or units. And that all accounts in the offices and all proceedings in the courts of the United States shall be kept and had in conformity to this regulation. In other words, this act designated the United States dollar as the unit of currency of the United States, unlike the Spanish milled dollar the U. S. dollar is based upon a decimal system of values. Both one-dollar coins and notes are produced today, although the form is significantly more common
2.
Atlantic hurricane
–
An Atlantic hurricane or tropical storm is a tropical cyclone that forms in the Atlantic Ocean, usually in the summer or fall. A hurricane differs from a cyclone or typhoon only on the basis of location, a hurricane is a storm that occurs in the Atlantic Ocean and northeastern Pacific Ocean, a typhoon occurs in the northwestern Pacific Ocean, and a cyclone occurs in the south Pacific or Indian Ocean. Tropical cyclones can be categorized by intensity, Tropical storms have one-minute maximum sustained winds of at least 39 mph, while hurricanes have one-minute maximum sustained winds exceeding 74 mph. Most North Atlantic tropical storms and hurricanes form between June 1 and November 30, in recent times, tropical disturbances that reach tropical storm intensity are named from a predetermined list. On average, in the North Atlantic basin 11.3 named storms occur each season, the climatological peak of activity is around September 11 each season. In March 2004, Catarina was the first hurricane-intensity tropical cyclone recorded in the Southern Atlantic Ocean. Tropical cyclones are steered by the flow throughout the depth of the troposphere. Specifically, air flow around high pressure systems and toward low pressure areas influence hurricane tracks, south of the subtropical ridge, surface easterly winds prevail. If the subtropical ridge is weakened by a trough, a tropical cyclone may turn poleward and then recurve. Poleward of the ridge, westerly winds prevail and generally steer tropical cyclones that reach northern latitudes toward the east. The westerlies also steer extratropical cyclones with their cold and warm fronts from west to east, generally speaking, the intensity of a tropical cyclone is determined by either the storms maximum sustained winds or lowest barometric pressure. The following table lists the most intense Atlantic hurricanes in terms of their lowest barometric pressure, in terms of wind speed, Hurricane Allen was the strongest Atlantic tropical cyclone on record, with maximum sustained winds of 190 mph. However, these measurements are suspect since instrumentation used to document wind speeds at the time would likely succumb to winds of such intensity, nonetheless, their central pressures are low enough to rank them among the strongest recorded Atlantic hurricanes. Owing to their intensity, the strongest Atlantic hurricanes have all attained Category 5 classification, Hurricane Opal, the strongest Category 4 hurricane recorded, intensified to reach a minimum pressure of 916 mbar, a pressure typical of Category 5 hurricanes. Nonetheless, the pressure remains too high to list Opal as one of the ten strongest Atlantic tropical cyclones, however, this was later superseded by Hurricane Patricia in 2015 in the east Pacific, which had a pressure reading of 872 mbar. Preceding Wilma is Hurricane Gilbert, which had held the record for most intense Atlantic hurricane for 17 years. The 1935 Labor Day hurricane, with a pressure of 892 mbar, is the third strongest Atlantic hurricane, since the measurements taken during Wilma and Gilbert were documented using dropsonde, this pressure remains the lowest measured over land. However, with a pressure of 895 mbar, Rita is the strongest tropical cyclone ever recorded in the Gulf of Mexico
3.
1918 Atlantic hurricane season
–
The 1918 Atlantic hurricane season was relatively inactive, with only six known tropical cyclones forming in the Atlantic during the summer and fall. There were four suspected tropical depressions, including one that began the season in June and one ended the season when it dissipated in October. Four storms intensified into hurricanes, one of which attained Category 3 status on the modern-day Saffir–Simpson Hurricane Wind Scale, Storm data is largely based on the Atlantic hurricane database, which underwent a thorough revision for the Atlantic hurricane season of 1918 in 2008. Most of the cyclones directly impacted land, a northward-moving hurricane killed 34 people and severely damaged Cameron, Louisiana, and the surrounding area in early August. A few weeks later, Honduras and Belize experienced hurricane-force winds, Tropical storm-force winds were also experienced along the North Carolina coastline in late August as a hurricane brushed the Outer banks of the state. In early September, the remnants of a cyclone impacted Nova Scotia. The Atlantic hurricane database recognizes six tropical cyclones from the 1918 season. Four attained hurricane status, with winds of 75 mph or greater, the first hurricane of the season was the most intense storm, with a minimum central air pressure of 955 mbar. Four weak tropical depressions developed and remained below tropical storm force, the first formed in June, the first storm to reach tropical storm intensity developed on August 1, and the final tropical storm of the year dissipated on September 14. The early 1900s lacked modern forecasting and documentation, the hurricane database from these years is sometimes found to be incomplete or incorrect, and new storms are continually being added as part of the ongoing Atlantic hurricane reanalysis. The period from 1915 through 1920 was reanalyzed in 2008, four previously unknown tropical cyclones were identified using records including historical weather maps and ship reports, and information on the known storms was amended and corrected. These storms are referred to simply by their number in chronological order, the strongest storm of the season was a Category 3 hurricane that made landfall near Cameron, Louisiana. It caused nearly $5 million in damage, with 34 fatalities reported, Hurricane Two affected the northern coast of South America and the southern Lesser Antilles with tropical storm force winds. But the hurricane-force winds affected Honduras, and Belize, Hurricane Three hit North Carolina as a tropical storm. The storm appears to have strengthened into a hurricane just before landfall and this storm seems to be the hurricane that made landfall in North Carolina in the short story The Scarlet Ibis. The Scarlet Ibis, however, has the landfall in July and this Tropical Storm was the shortest lived storm of the 1918 season. Hurricane Five hit Nova Scotia after grazing Bermuda as a weak Category 2 hurricane, in Bermuda, winds of at least 60 mph bring down trees and shatter windows, while many boats are swamped or blown aground. This Tropical Storm affected Cuba, Haiti, Dominican Republic, Puerto Rico, The Virgin Islands, the north and central Lesser Antilles, in addition to the six officially recognized tropical storms and hurricanes, four tropical depressions in the 1918 season have been identified
4.
1919 Atlantic hurricane season
–
The 1919 Atlantic hurricane season was among the least active hurricane seasons in the Atlantic on record, featuring only five tropical storms. A tropical storm in July brought minor damage to Pensacola, Florida, another two tropical depressions formed in August, the first of which brought rainfall to the Lesser Antilles. The most intense cyclone of the season was the Florida Keys hurricane. Many deaths occurred after ships capsized in Bahamas, the Florida Keys, strong winds left about $2 million in damage in Key West. After crossing the Gulf of Mexico, severe impact was reported in Texas, overall, the hurricane caused 828 fatalities and $22 million in damage, $20 million of which was inflicted in Texas alone. Three other tropical cyclones developed in September, including two tropical storms and one tropical depression, all of which left negligible impact on land, the final tropical system of the season also did not affect land and became extratropical on November 15. The seasons activity was reflected with an accumulated cyclone energy rating of 55 and it is only calculated for full advisories on tropical systems at or exceeding 39 mph, which is tropical storm strength. Historical weather maps indicate a tropical wave in the southeastern Gulf of Mexico on July 2, around 18,00 UTC, the depression strengthened into a tropical storm. Moving north-northwestward, it peaked with sustained winds winds of 65 mph. The storm remained very small in diameter at all times, at 11,00 UTC on July 4, the storm made landfall near Navarre, Florida at the same intensity. Early the next day, it weakened to a tropical depression, in Pensacola, Florida, the auxiliary schooner Nautilus of the E. E. Saunders Fish Companys fleet was destroyed, resulting in $1,500 in damage. The schooner W. D. Hossack was abandoned by the crew, though this vessel was salvaged by the schooner Bluefields. Light damage to crops was also reported, a tropical wave developed into a tropical depression on September 2, while located near Guadeloupe. Early on September 3, the became a tropical storm. It oscillated slightly in intensity during the few days, while brushing Puerto Rico. By September 5, the storm headed northward toward the southeastern Bahamas, the system crossed Mayaguana and began curving northwestward. Early on September 7, the strengthened into a Category 1 hurricane on the modern-day Saffir–Simpson hurricane wind scale, while curving just north of due west. After intensifying into a Category 2 hurricane later that day, the hurricane struck Long Island, around 12,00 UTC on September 8, the storm strengthened into a Category 3 hurricane, shortly before striking Andros
5.
1921 Atlantic hurricane season
–
The 1921 Atlantic hurricane season ran through the summer and the first half of fall in 1921. The season was average, with six tropical cyclones forming during the season. A tropical storm formed in the western Caribbean before moving across the Yucatan peninsula into the southern Gulf of Mexico, the storm recurved towards the north, strengthening into a category 1 hurricane before it struck Sargent, Texas. During the night of June 21, winds increased to 68 miles per hour at Corpus Christi, a barge with 18,000 gallons of oil sank in Port Aransas, Texas. A storm surge of 7.1 feet was measured at Pass Cavallo, as the cyclone moved inland, it passed directly over Palacios, Texas, Wharton, Texas, and Wallis, Texas. Winds gusted to 60 miles per hour at both Galveston, Texas and Houston, Texas, heavy rains accompanied the system, with 10.10 inches recorded at Matagorda, Texas. A category 1 struck Tampico, Mexico in early September after moving northwest from the Gulf of Mexico, after it dissipated on September 8, an extremely heavy rainfall event ensued across central Texas, which continued into September 11. In Williamson County, Texas, a new 18-hour rainfall record was set for the United States as 36.40 inches was recorded at Thrall, the deluge led to one of the most destructive floods in the history of San Antonio, Texas. Water rose to 7 feet deep in the city, forcing people to evacuate vertically within taller buildings, the most significant river floods occurred on the Little and San Gabriel rivers, where 159 people perished. Combined with the toll from elsewhere across the region,215 people died due to this storm. A Cape Verde-type hurricane, Three formed about 500 miles east of the island of Trinidad and it moved westward and struck the Windward Islands as a Category 1 hurricane. It tracked northward as a Category 2 hurricane and after a short lull was upgraded back to a Category 3 hurricane and it became an extratropical cyclone well off the coast of Newfoundland and accelerated before dissipating about 100 miles off the southern tip of Greenland. A category 1 formed in the Atlantic and never approached land, another notable system was a tropical storm that made a transatlantic journey from off the coast of South Carolina to just southwest of the Azores. It was later determined that it was extratropical for most of the journey, the most notable storm of the season was the Tampa Bay hurricane of 1921. It developed in the southwestern Caribbean Sea on October 20 and it tracked north-northwestward, steadily strengthening into a hurricane on October 22. The storm turned more north-northeastward, and upon reaching the Gulf of Mexico on October 24 it rapidly intensified to a 140 mph Category 4 and it weakened as it continued to the northeast, making landfall north of Clearwater on October 25 as a Category 3 hurricane. It crossed Florida, turned eastward across the Atlantic, and became extratropical on October 28 southwest of Bermuda and its small and quick nature, as well as well-executed warnings, only caused $3 million in damage, with 6 casualties. Tropical Storm Seven formed on November 19 and it made landfall in Cuba before dissipating on November 25
6.
1922 Atlantic hurricane season
–
The 1922 Atlantic hurricane season ran through the summer and the first half of fall in 1922. The season was a one, with only five tropical cyclones forming during the course of the season. The first was a storm that passed over the Yucatán Peninsula. The second was a hurricane, the strongest one of the season and it formed near Cape Verde and curved out into the Atlantic. It grazed the Leeward Islands and battered Bermuda, passing just offshore as a Category 3, the hurricane became extratropical soon after it passed Bermuda. The third was a storm that passed over Cuba and made landfall near Pensacola. The last storm of the season was a Category 2 hurricane that made landfall near Cancún, the hurricane weakened in the Bay of Campeche and dissipated just offshore. A fifth storm was found in reanalysis in 2009, observations from ships indicate that a tropical disturbance developed into to a tropical depression offshore Cabo Gracias a Dios, Nicaragua, on June 12. The depression continued northwestward without significantly intensifying, heavy rainfall was reported in the Swan Islands of Honduras on June 12 and June 13. Early on June 14, the depression made landfall in Mahahual, Quintana Roo, the cyclone entered the Gulf of Mexico late that day and began strengthening, reaching tropical storm status early on June 15. Around 18,00 UTC, the storm peaked with sustained winds of 50 mph. The system made landfall near La Pesca, Tamaulipas, at the same intensity early on June 16, after moving inland, the storm quickly weakened and dissipated by 18,00 UTC. The storm and its remnants brought rainfall to Rio Grande valley. In Texas, the river at Eagle Pass reached 45.6 ft,29.6 ft above flood stage, two bridges washed away, while businesses and homes were damaged. Further down the river, the swollen crest of the Rio Grande and San Juan rivers merged, causing significant flooding in Cameron, many towns in both county suffered severe damage. It was estimated that damage to crops alone reached about $2 million, on the Mexico side of the river, water inundated more than 30,000 acres of agricultural lands. Infrastructure such as roads, bridges, railroads, and buildings were damaged, by far the most powerful storm of the season, this hurricane formed well east of the Windward Islands and moved northwestward steadily strengthening. It grazed the Leeward Islands as a Category 2 hurricane and began to recurve shortly thereafter, during this recurvature, it strengthened into a Category 3 storm, eventually attaining winds of 120 mph
7.
Extratropical cyclone
–
Extratropical cyclones are capable of producing anything from cloudiness and mild showers to heavy gales, thunderstorms, blizzards, and tornadoes. These types of cyclones are defined as large scale low pressure systems that occur in the middle latitudes of the Earth. In contrast with tropical cyclones, extratropical cyclones produce rapid changes in temperature and dew point along broad lines, called weather fronts, the term cyclone applies to numerous types of low pressure areas, one of which is the extratropical cyclone. The descriptor extratropical signifies that this type of cyclone generally occurs outside the tropics and they are termed mid-latitude cyclones if they form within those latitudes, or post-tropical cyclones if a tropical cyclone has intruded into the mid latitudes. Weather forecasters and the public often describe them simply as depressions or lows. Terms like frontal cyclone, frontal depression, frontal low, extratropical low, non-tropical low, Extratropical cyclones are classified mainly as baroclinic, because they form along zones of temperature and dewpoint gradient known as frontal zones. They can become barotropic late in their cycle, when the distribution of heat around the cyclone becomes fairly uniform with its radius. Extratropical cyclones form anywhere within the regions of the Earth. A study of extratropical cyclones in the Southern Hemisphere shows that between the 30th and 70th parallels, there are an average of 37 cyclones in existence during any 6-hour period, a separate study in the Northern Hemisphere suggests that approximately 234 significant extratropical cyclones form each winter. Extratropical cyclones form along linear bands of temperature/dewpoint gradient with significant vertical wind shear, initially, cyclogenesis, or low pressure formation, occurs along frontal zones near a favorable quadrant of a maximum in the upper level jetstream known as a jet streak. The favorable quadrants are usually at the rear and left front quadrants. The divergence causes air to rush out from the top of the air column and this in turn forces convergence in the low-level wind field and increased upward motion within the column. The increased upward motion causes atmospheric pressure at ground level to lower and this is because the upward air motion counteracts gravity, lessening the weight of the atmosphere in that location. The lowered pressure strengthens the cyclone, as the cyclone strengthens, the cold front sweeps towards the equator and moves around the back of the cyclone. Meanwhile, its associated warm front progresses more slowly, as the air ahead of the system is denser. Later, the cyclones occlude as the portion of the cold front overtakes a section of the warm front, forcing a tongue, or trowal. Eventually, the cyclone will become cold and begin to weaken. Atmospheric pressure can fall very rapidly when there are upper level forces on the system
8.
1900 Atlantic hurricane season
–
The 1900 Atlantic hurricane season featured seven known tropical cyclones, three of which made landfall in the United States. The first system, Hurricane One, was observed on August 27. The final storm, Tropical Storm Seven, transitioned into a cyclone on October 29. These dates fall within the period with the most tropical activity in the Atlantic. Every storm of the season except Tropical Storm Seven existed simultaneously with another tropical cyclone, of the seasons seven tropical cyclones, three reached hurricane status. Furthermore, two of those three strengthened into hurricanes, which are Category 3 or higher on the modern-day Saffir–Simpson hurricane wind scale. The strongest cyclone of the season, the first hurricane, peaked at Category 4 strength with 145 mph winds. Upon striking Texas shortly after peak intensity, it produced a storm surge in the Galveston area, with nearly destroyed the city. Nicknamed the Galveston hurricane of 1900, it remains the deadliest natural disaster in the history of the United States, the hurricane also caused about $31.35 million in damage. Impact from other tropical cyclones was generally minor, though the remnants of Tropical Storm Five resulted in 1 death, Tropical cyclogenesis began with the development of the first hurricane on August 27 well west of Cape Verde. It was the strongest storm of the season, peaking as a Category 4 hurricane with sustained winds of 145 mph. This was abnormally late, as the date of development of the first tropical storm between 1944 and 1996 was July 11. In comparison, the latest date of the first tropical storm during the era was Hurricane Anita on August 29,1977. During the month of September, which is the peak of hurricane season. After the third hurricane dissipated on September 23, activity went dormant for nearly 2 weeks, as it was becoming extratropical, a sixth tropical cyclone developed in the Bay of Campeche on October 10. The final system formed in the eastern Caribbean Sea, crossed Hispaniola, by far, the storm that caused the most devastation was Hurricane One, nicknamed the Galveston hurricane. Its storm surge submerged much of Galveston Island in Texas, killing between 6,000 and 12,000 people, official estimates put the death toll at approximately 8,000. As a result, it is currently the deadliest natural disaster in the history of the United States
9.
1920 Louisiana hurricane
–
The 1920 Louisiana hurricane was a strong tropical cyclone that caused significant damage in parts of Louisiana in September 1920. The second tropical storm and hurricane of the hurricane season, it formed from an area of disturbed weather on September 16,1920. Afterwards, it weakened over land, before dissipating on September 23 over eastern Kansas. As it approached the United States Gulf Coast, the forced a estimated 4,500 people to evacuate off of Galveston Island. At landfall, the hurricane generated strong winds along a swath of the coast, uprooting trees and causing damage to homes. Heavy rainfall associated with the peaked at 11.9 in in Robertsdale. The heavy rains washed out railroads, leading to several rail accidents. Across the Gulf Coast, damage from the storm totaled to $1.45 million, in mid-September, a trough moved across the central Caribbean Sea and into the vicinity of the Colombian islands. Becoming more organized, it developed a circulation on September 16. For much of its existence the depression remained weak, with winds remaining at 35 mph. The weak disturbance later made landfall at that intensity on the Mosquito Coast near the border of Honduras, the small system gained intensity as it moved over Honduras, attaining tropical storm strength on September 19 prior to entering the Gulf of Honduras near Trujillo, Colón. The weakened tropical storm began to once in the Gulf of Mexico. On September 20 at 0600 UTC, the storm reached hurricane intensity as a modern-day Category 1 hurricane, the hurricane later made landfall at peak intensity near Houma, Louisiana at 0100 UTC later that day. Maximum winds spanned 32 mi from the center at landfall, ships offshore the Louisiana coast also reported an eye associated with the hurricane. Once over land, the system began to weaken, degenerating to tropical storm strength by 0600 UTC the same day. Continuing to accelerate towards the north-northwest, it is estimated that the cyclone dissipated on September 23 over Kansas. Additional marine warnings were issued for offshore regions that could be potentially affected by the hurricane. Onshore, freight trains on Galveston Island were moved to the mainland in preparation for the storm, interurban railways also evacuated people out of the island, with an estimated 4,500 people being evacuated
