1.
United States dollar
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The United States dollar is the official currency of the United States and its insular territories per the United States Constitution. It is divided into 100 smaller cent units, the circulating paper money consists of Federal Reserve Notes that are denominated in United States dollars. The U. S. dollar was originally commodity money of silver as enacted by the Coinage Act of 1792 which determined the dollar to be 371 4/16 grain pure or 416 grain standard silver, the currency most used in international transactions, it is the worlds primary reserve currency. Several countries use it as their currency, and in many others it is the de facto currency. Besides the United States, it is used as the sole currency in two British Overseas Territories in the Caribbean, the British Virgin Islands and Turks and Caicos Islands. A few countries use the Federal Reserve Notes for paper money, while the country mints its own coins, or also accepts U. S. coins that can be used as payment in U. S. dollars. After Nixon shock of 1971, USD became fiat currency, Article I, Section 8 of the U. S. Constitution provides that the Congress has the power To coin money, laws implementing this power are currently codified at 31 U. S. C. Section 5112 prescribes the forms in which the United States dollars should be issued and these coins are both designated in Section 5112 as legal tender in payment of debts. The Sacagawea dollar is one example of the copper alloy dollar, the pure silver dollar is known as the American Silver Eagle. Section 5112 also provides for the minting and issuance of other coins and these other coins are more fully described in Coins of the United States dollar. The Constitution provides that a regular Statement and Account of the Receipts and that provision of the Constitution is made specific by Section 331 of Title 31 of the United States Code. The sums of money reported in the Statements are currently being expressed in U. S. dollars, the U. S. dollar may therefore be described as the unit of account of the United States. The word dollar is one of the words in the first paragraph of Section 9 of Article I of the Constitution, there, dollars is a reference to the Spanish milled dollar, a coin that had a monetary value of 8 Spanish units of currency, or reales. In 1792 the U. S. Congress passed a Coinage Act, Section 20 of the act provided, That the money of account of the United States shall be expressed in dollars, or units. And that all accounts in the offices and all proceedings in the courts of the United States shall be kept and had in conformity to this regulation. In other words, this act designated the United States dollar as the unit of currency of the United States, unlike the Spanish milled dollar the U. S. dollar is based upon a decimal system of values. Both one-dollar coins and notes are produced today, although the form is significantly more common
2.
Atlantic hurricane
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An Atlantic hurricane or tropical storm is a tropical cyclone that forms in the Atlantic Ocean, usually in the summer or fall. A hurricane differs from a cyclone or typhoon only on the basis of location, a hurricane is a storm that occurs in the Atlantic Ocean and northeastern Pacific Ocean, a typhoon occurs in the northwestern Pacific Ocean, and a cyclone occurs in the south Pacific or Indian Ocean. Tropical cyclones can be categorized by intensity, Tropical storms have one-minute maximum sustained winds of at least 39 mph, while hurricanes have one-minute maximum sustained winds exceeding 74 mph. Most North Atlantic tropical storms and hurricanes form between June 1 and November 30, in recent times, tropical disturbances that reach tropical storm intensity are named from a predetermined list. On average, in the North Atlantic basin 11.3 named storms occur each season, the climatological peak of activity is around September 11 each season. In March 2004, Catarina was the first hurricane-intensity tropical cyclone recorded in the Southern Atlantic Ocean. Tropical cyclones are steered by the flow throughout the depth of the troposphere. Specifically, air flow around high pressure systems and toward low pressure areas influence hurricane tracks, south of the subtropical ridge, surface easterly winds prevail. If the subtropical ridge is weakened by a trough, a tropical cyclone may turn poleward and then recurve. Poleward of the ridge, westerly winds prevail and generally steer tropical cyclones that reach northern latitudes toward the east. The westerlies also steer extratropical cyclones with their cold and warm fronts from west to east, generally speaking, the intensity of a tropical cyclone is determined by either the storms maximum sustained winds or lowest barometric pressure. The following table lists the most intense Atlantic hurricanes in terms of their lowest barometric pressure, in terms of wind speed, Hurricane Allen was the strongest Atlantic tropical cyclone on record, with maximum sustained winds of 190 mph. However, these measurements are suspect since instrumentation used to document wind speeds at the time would likely succumb to winds of such intensity, nonetheless, their central pressures are low enough to rank them among the strongest recorded Atlantic hurricanes. Owing to their intensity, the strongest Atlantic hurricanes have all attained Category 5 classification, Hurricane Opal, the strongest Category 4 hurricane recorded, intensified to reach a minimum pressure of 916 mbar, a pressure typical of Category 5 hurricanes. Nonetheless, the pressure remains too high to list Opal as one of the ten strongest Atlantic tropical cyclones, however, this was later superseded by Hurricane Patricia in 2015 in the east Pacific, which had a pressure reading of 872 mbar. Preceding Wilma is Hurricane Gilbert, which had held the record for most intense Atlantic hurricane for 17 years. The 1935 Labor Day hurricane, with a pressure of 892 mbar, is the third strongest Atlantic hurricane, since the measurements taken during Wilma and Gilbert were documented using dropsonde, this pressure remains the lowest measured over land. However, with a pressure of 895 mbar, Rita is the strongest tropical cyclone ever recorded in the Gulf of Mexico
3.
1918 Atlantic hurricane season
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The 1918 Atlantic hurricane season was relatively inactive, with only six known tropical cyclones forming in the Atlantic during the summer and fall. There were four suspected tropical depressions, including one that began the season in June and one ended the season when it dissipated in October. Four storms intensified into hurricanes, one of which attained Category 3 status on the modern-day Saffir–Simpson Hurricane Wind Scale, Storm data is largely based on the Atlantic hurricane database, which underwent a thorough revision for the Atlantic hurricane season of 1918 in 2008. Most of the cyclones directly impacted land, a northward-moving hurricane killed 34 people and severely damaged Cameron, Louisiana, and the surrounding area in early August. A few weeks later, Honduras and Belize experienced hurricane-force winds, Tropical storm-force winds were also experienced along the North Carolina coastline in late August as a hurricane brushed the Outer banks of the state. In early September, the remnants of a cyclone impacted Nova Scotia. The Atlantic hurricane database recognizes six tropical cyclones from the 1918 season. Four attained hurricane status, with winds of 75 mph or greater, the first hurricane of the season was the most intense storm, with a minimum central air pressure of 955 mbar. Four weak tropical depressions developed and remained below tropical storm force, the first formed in June, the first storm to reach tropical storm intensity developed on August 1, and the final tropical storm of the year dissipated on September 14. The early 1900s lacked modern forecasting and documentation, the hurricane database from these years is sometimes found to be incomplete or incorrect, and new storms are continually being added as part of the ongoing Atlantic hurricane reanalysis. The period from 1915 through 1920 was reanalyzed in 2008, four previously unknown tropical cyclones were identified using records including historical weather maps and ship reports, and information on the known storms was amended and corrected. These storms are referred to simply by their number in chronological order, the strongest storm of the season was a Category 3 hurricane that made landfall near Cameron, Louisiana. It caused nearly $5 million in damage, with 34 fatalities reported, Hurricane Two affected the northern coast of South America and the southern Lesser Antilles with tropical storm force winds. But the hurricane-force winds affected Honduras, and Belize, Hurricane Three hit North Carolina as a tropical storm. The storm appears to have strengthened into a hurricane just before landfall and this storm seems to be the hurricane that made landfall in North Carolina in the short story The Scarlet Ibis. The Scarlet Ibis, however, has the landfall in July and this Tropical Storm was the shortest lived storm of the 1918 season. Hurricane Five hit Nova Scotia after grazing Bermuda as a weak Category 2 hurricane, in Bermuda, winds of at least 60 mph bring down trees and shatter windows, while many boats are swamped or blown aground. This Tropical Storm affected Cuba, Haiti, Dominican Republic, Puerto Rico, The Virgin Islands, the north and central Lesser Antilles, in addition to the six officially recognized tropical storms and hurricanes, four tropical depressions in the 1918 season have been identified
4.
1919 Atlantic hurricane season
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The 1919 Atlantic hurricane season was among the least active hurricane seasons in the Atlantic on record, featuring only five tropical storms. A tropical storm in July brought minor damage to Pensacola, Florida, another two tropical depressions formed in August, the first of which brought rainfall to the Lesser Antilles. The most intense cyclone of the season was the Florida Keys hurricane. Many deaths occurred after ships capsized in Bahamas, the Florida Keys, strong winds left about $2 million in damage in Key West. After crossing the Gulf of Mexico, severe impact was reported in Texas, overall, the hurricane caused 828 fatalities and $22 million in damage, $20 million of which was inflicted in Texas alone. Three other tropical cyclones developed in September, including two tropical storms and one tropical depression, all of which left negligible impact on land, the final tropical system of the season also did not affect land and became extratropical on November 15. The seasons activity was reflected with an accumulated cyclone energy rating of 55 and it is only calculated for full advisories on tropical systems at or exceeding 39 mph, which is tropical storm strength. Historical weather maps indicate a tropical wave in the southeastern Gulf of Mexico on July 2, around 18,00 UTC, the depression strengthened into a tropical storm. Moving north-northwestward, it peaked with sustained winds winds of 65 mph. The storm remained very small in diameter at all times, at 11,00 UTC on July 4, the storm made landfall near Navarre, Florida at the same intensity. Early the next day, it weakened to a tropical depression, in Pensacola, Florida, the auxiliary schooner Nautilus of the E. E. Saunders Fish Companys fleet was destroyed, resulting in $1,500 in damage. The schooner W. D. Hossack was abandoned by the crew, though this vessel was salvaged by the schooner Bluefields. Light damage to crops was also reported, a tropical wave developed into a tropical depression on September 2, while located near Guadeloupe. Early on September 3, the became a tropical storm. It oscillated slightly in intensity during the few days, while brushing Puerto Rico. By September 5, the storm headed northward toward the southeastern Bahamas, the system crossed Mayaguana and began curving northwestward. Early on September 7, the strengthened into a Category 1 hurricane on the modern-day Saffir–Simpson hurricane wind scale, while curving just north of due west. After intensifying into a Category 2 hurricane later that day, the hurricane struck Long Island, around 12,00 UTC on September 8, the storm strengthened into a Category 3 hurricane, shortly before striking Andros
5.
1921 Atlantic hurricane season
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The 1921 Atlantic hurricane season ran through the summer and the first half of fall in 1921. The season was average, with six tropical cyclones forming during the season. A tropical storm formed in the western Caribbean before moving across the Yucatan peninsula into the southern Gulf of Mexico, the storm recurved towards the north, strengthening into a category 1 hurricane before it struck Sargent, Texas. During the night of June 21, winds increased to 68 miles per hour at Corpus Christi, a barge with 18,000 gallons of oil sank in Port Aransas, Texas. A storm surge of 7.1 feet was measured at Pass Cavallo, as the cyclone moved inland, it passed directly over Palacios, Texas, Wharton, Texas, and Wallis, Texas. Winds gusted to 60 miles per hour at both Galveston, Texas and Houston, Texas, heavy rains accompanied the system, with 10.10 inches recorded at Matagorda, Texas. A category 1 struck Tampico, Mexico in early September after moving northwest from the Gulf of Mexico, after it dissipated on September 8, an extremely heavy rainfall event ensued across central Texas, which continued into September 11. In Williamson County, Texas, a new 18-hour rainfall record was set for the United States as 36.40 inches was recorded at Thrall, the deluge led to one of the most destructive floods in the history of San Antonio, Texas. Water rose to 7 feet deep in the city, forcing people to evacuate vertically within taller buildings, the most significant river floods occurred on the Little and San Gabriel rivers, where 159 people perished. Combined with the toll from elsewhere across the region,215 people died due to this storm. A Cape Verde-type hurricane, Three formed about 500 miles east of the island of Trinidad and it moved westward and struck the Windward Islands as a Category 1 hurricane. It tracked northward as a Category 2 hurricane and after a short lull was upgraded back to a Category 3 hurricane and it became an extratropical cyclone well off the coast of Newfoundland and accelerated before dissipating about 100 miles off the southern tip of Greenland. A category 1 formed in the Atlantic and never approached land, another notable system was a tropical storm that made a transatlantic journey from off the coast of South Carolina to just southwest of the Azores. It was later determined that it was extratropical for most of the journey, the most notable storm of the season was the Tampa Bay hurricane of 1921. It developed in the southwestern Caribbean Sea on October 20 and it tracked north-northwestward, steadily strengthening into a hurricane on October 22. The storm turned more north-northeastward, and upon reaching the Gulf of Mexico on October 24 it rapidly intensified to a 140 mph Category 4 and it weakened as it continued to the northeast, making landfall north of Clearwater on October 25 as a Category 3 hurricane. It crossed Florida, turned eastward across the Atlantic, and became extratropical on October 28 southwest of Bermuda and its small and quick nature, as well as well-executed warnings, only caused $3 million in damage, with 6 casualties. Tropical Storm Seven formed on November 19 and it made landfall in Cuba before dissipating on November 25
6.
1922 Atlantic hurricane season
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The 1922 Atlantic hurricane season ran through the summer and the first half of fall in 1922. The season was a one, with only five tropical cyclones forming during the course of the season. The first was a storm that passed over the Yucatán Peninsula. The second was a hurricane, the strongest one of the season and it formed near Cape Verde and curved out into the Atlantic. It grazed the Leeward Islands and battered Bermuda, passing just offshore as a Category 3, the hurricane became extratropical soon after it passed Bermuda. The third was a storm that passed over Cuba and made landfall near Pensacola. The last storm of the season was a Category 2 hurricane that made landfall near Cancún, the hurricane weakened in the Bay of Campeche and dissipated just offshore. A fifth storm was found in reanalysis in 2009, observations from ships indicate that a tropical disturbance developed into to a tropical depression offshore Cabo Gracias a Dios, Nicaragua, on June 12. The depression continued northwestward without significantly intensifying, heavy rainfall was reported in the Swan Islands of Honduras on June 12 and June 13. Early on June 14, the depression made landfall in Mahahual, Quintana Roo, the cyclone entered the Gulf of Mexico late that day and began strengthening, reaching tropical storm status early on June 15. Around 18,00 UTC, the storm peaked with sustained winds of 50 mph. The system made landfall near La Pesca, Tamaulipas, at the same intensity early on June 16, after moving inland, the storm quickly weakened and dissipated by 18,00 UTC. The storm and its remnants brought rainfall to Rio Grande valley. In Texas, the river at Eagle Pass reached 45.6 ft,29.6 ft above flood stage, two bridges washed away, while businesses and homes were damaged. Further down the river, the swollen crest of the Rio Grande and San Juan rivers merged, causing significant flooding in Cameron, many towns in both county suffered severe damage. It was estimated that damage to crops alone reached about $2 million, on the Mexico side of the river, water inundated more than 30,000 acres of agricultural lands. Infrastructure such as roads, bridges, railroads, and buildings were damaged, by far the most powerful storm of the season, this hurricane formed well east of the Windward Islands and moved northwestward steadily strengthening. It grazed the Leeward Islands as a Category 2 hurricane and began to recurve shortly thereafter, during this recurvature, it strengthened into a Category 3 storm, eventually attaining winds of 120 mph
7.
Extratropical cyclone
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Extratropical cyclones are capable of producing anything from cloudiness and mild showers to heavy gales, thunderstorms, blizzards, and tornadoes. These types of cyclones are defined as large scale low pressure systems that occur in the middle latitudes of the Earth. In contrast with tropical cyclones, extratropical cyclones produce rapid changes in temperature and dew point along broad lines, called weather fronts, the term cyclone applies to numerous types of low pressure areas, one of which is the extratropical cyclone. The descriptor extratropical signifies that this type of cyclone generally occurs outside the tropics and they are termed mid-latitude cyclones if they form within those latitudes, or post-tropical cyclones if a tropical cyclone has intruded into the mid latitudes. Weather forecasters and the public often describe them simply as depressions or lows. Terms like frontal cyclone, frontal depression, frontal low, extratropical low, non-tropical low, Extratropical cyclones are classified mainly as baroclinic, because they form along zones of temperature and dewpoint gradient known as frontal zones. They can become barotropic late in their cycle, when the distribution of heat around the cyclone becomes fairly uniform with its radius. Extratropical cyclones form anywhere within the regions of the Earth. A study of extratropical cyclones in the Southern Hemisphere shows that between the 30th and 70th parallels, there are an average of 37 cyclones in existence during any 6-hour period, a separate study in the Northern Hemisphere suggests that approximately 234 significant extratropical cyclones form each winter. Extratropical cyclones form along linear bands of temperature/dewpoint gradient with significant vertical wind shear, initially, cyclogenesis, or low pressure formation, occurs along frontal zones near a favorable quadrant of a maximum in the upper level jetstream known as a jet streak. The favorable quadrants are usually at the rear and left front quadrants. The divergence causes air to rush out from the top of the air column and this in turn forces convergence in the low-level wind field and increased upward motion within the column. The increased upward motion causes atmospheric pressure at ground level to lower and this is because the upward air motion counteracts gravity, lessening the weight of the atmosphere in that location. The lowered pressure strengthens the cyclone, as the cyclone strengthens, the cold front sweeps towards the equator and moves around the back of the cyclone. Meanwhile, its associated warm front progresses more slowly, as the air ahead of the system is denser. Later, the cyclones occlude as the portion of the cold front overtakes a section of the warm front, forcing a tongue, or trowal. Eventually, the cyclone will become cold and begin to weaken. Atmospheric pressure can fall very rapidly when there are upper level forces on the system
8.
1900 Atlantic hurricane season
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The 1900 Atlantic hurricane season featured seven known tropical cyclones, three of which made landfall in the United States. The first system, Hurricane One, was observed on August 27. The final storm, Tropical Storm Seven, transitioned into a cyclone on October 29. These dates fall within the period with the most tropical activity in the Atlantic. Every storm of the season except Tropical Storm Seven existed simultaneously with another tropical cyclone, of the seasons seven tropical cyclones, three reached hurricane status. Furthermore, two of those three strengthened into hurricanes, which are Category 3 or higher on the modern-day Saffir–Simpson hurricane wind scale. The strongest cyclone of the season, the first hurricane, peaked at Category 4 strength with 145 mph winds. Upon striking Texas shortly after peak intensity, it produced a storm surge in the Galveston area, with nearly destroyed the city. Nicknamed the Galveston hurricane of 1900, it remains the deadliest natural disaster in the history of the United States, the hurricane also caused about $31.35 million in damage. Impact from other tropical cyclones was generally minor, though the remnants of Tropical Storm Five resulted in 1 death, Tropical cyclogenesis began with the development of the first hurricane on August 27 well west of Cape Verde. It was the strongest storm of the season, peaking as a Category 4 hurricane with sustained winds of 145 mph. This was abnormally late, as the date of development of the first tropical storm between 1944 and 1996 was July 11. In comparison, the latest date of the first tropical storm during the era was Hurricane Anita on August 29,1977. During the month of September, which is the peak of hurricane season. After the third hurricane dissipated on September 23, activity went dormant for nearly 2 weeks, as it was becoming extratropical, a sixth tropical cyclone developed in the Bay of Campeche on October 10. The final system formed in the eastern Caribbean Sea, crossed Hispaniola, by far, the storm that caused the most devastation was Hurricane One, nicknamed the Galveston hurricane. Its storm surge submerged much of Galveston Island in Texas, killing between 6,000 and 12,000 people, official estimates put the death toll at approximately 8,000. As a result, it is currently the deadliest natural disaster in the history of the United States
9.
1920 Louisiana hurricane
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The 1920 Louisiana hurricane was a strong tropical cyclone that caused significant damage in parts of Louisiana in September 1920. The second tropical storm and hurricane of the hurricane season, it formed from an area of disturbed weather on September 16,1920. Afterwards, it weakened over land, before dissipating on September 23 over eastern Kansas. As it approached the United States Gulf Coast, the forced a estimated 4,500 people to evacuate off of Galveston Island. At landfall, the hurricane generated strong winds along a swath of the coast, uprooting trees and causing damage to homes. Heavy rainfall associated with the peaked at 11.9 in in Robertsdale. The heavy rains washed out railroads, leading to several rail accidents. Across the Gulf Coast, damage from the storm totaled to $1.45 million, in mid-September, a trough moved across the central Caribbean Sea and into the vicinity of the Colombian islands. Becoming more organized, it developed a circulation on September 16. For much of its existence the depression remained weak, with winds remaining at 35 mph. The weak disturbance later made landfall at that intensity on the Mosquito Coast near the border of Honduras, the small system gained intensity as it moved over Honduras, attaining tropical storm strength on September 19 prior to entering the Gulf of Honduras near Trujillo, Colón. The weakened tropical storm began to once in the Gulf of Mexico. On September 20 at 0600 UTC, the storm reached hurricane intensity as a modern-day Category 1 hurricane, the hurricane later made landfall at peak intensity near Houma, Louisiana at 0100 UTC later that day. Maximum winds spanned 32 mi from the center at landfall, ships offshore the Louisiana coast also reported an eye associated with the hurricane. Once over land, the system began to weaken, degenerating to tropical storm strength by 0600 UTC the same day. Continuing to accelerate towards the north-northwest, it is estimated that the cyclone dissipated on September 23 over Kansas. Additional marine warnings were issued for offshore regions that could be potentially affected by the hurricane. Onshore, freight trains on Galveston Island were moved to the mainland in preparation for the storm, interurban railways also evacuated people out of the island, with an estimated 4,500 people being evacuated
10.
Louisiana
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Louisiana is a state located in the southern region of the United States. Louisiana is the 31st most extensive and the 25th most populous of the 50 United States and its capital is Baton Rouge and largest city is New Orleans. Louisiana is the state in the U. S. with political subdivisions termed parishes. The largest parish by population is East Baton Rouge Parish, Louisiana is bordered by Arkansas to the north, Mississippi to the east, Texas to the west, and the Gulf of Mexico to the south. Much of the lands were formed from sediment washed down the Mississippi River, leaving enormous deltas and vast areas of coastal marsh. These contain a rich southern biota, typical examples include birds such as ibis, there are also many species of tree frogs, and fish such as sturgeon and paddlefish. In more elevated areas, fire is a process in the landscape. These support a large number of plant species, including many species of orchids. Louisiana has more Native American tribes than any other state, including four that are federally recognized, ten that are state recognized. Before the American purchase of the territory in 1803, the current Louisiana State had been both a French colony and for a period, a Spanish one. In addition, colonists imported numerous African people as slaves in the 18th century, many came from peoples of the same region of West Africa, thus concentrating their culture. Louisiana was named after Louis XIV, King of France from 1643 to 1715, when René-Robert Cavelier, Sieur de La Salle claimed the territory drained by the Mississippi River for France, he named it La Louisiane. The suffix -ana is a Latin suffix that can refer to information relating to an individual, subject. Thus, roughly, Louis + ana carries the idea of related to Louis, the Gulf of Mexico did not exist 250 million years ago when there was but one supercontinent, Pangea. As Pangea split apart, the Atlantic Ocean and Gulf of Mexico opened, Louisiana slowly developed, over millions of years, from water into land, and from north to south. The oldest rocks are exposed in the north, in such as the Kisatchie National Forest. The oldest rocks date back to the early Tertiary Era, some 60 million years ago, the history of the formation of these rocks can be found in D. Spearings Roadside Geology of Louisiana. The sediments were carried north to south by the Mississippi River
11.
North Carolina
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North Carolina is a state in the southeastern region of the United States. The state borders South Carolina and Georgia to the south, Tennessee to the west, Virginia to the north, North Carolina is the 28th most extensive and the 9th most populous of the U. S. states. The state is divided into 100 counties, the most populous municipality is Charlotte, which is the second largest banking center in the United States after New York City. The state has a range of elevations, from sea level on the coast to 6,684 feet at Mount Mitchell. The climate of the plains is strongly influenced by the Atlantic Ocean. Most of the falls in the humid subtropical climate zone. More than 300 miles from the coast, the western, mountainous part of the state has a highland climate. North Carolina is bordered by South Carolina on the south, Georgia on the southwest, Tennessee on the west, Virginia on the north, the United States Census Bureau places North Carolina in the South Atlantic division of the southern region. So many ships have been lost off Cape Hatteras that the area is known as the Graveyard of the Atlantic, the most famous of these is the Queen Annes Revenge, which went aground in Beaufort Inlet in 1718. The coastal plain transitions to the Piedmont region along the Atlantic Seaboard fall line, the Piedmont region of central North Carolina is the states most populous region, containing the six largest cities in the state by population. It consists of rolling countryside frequently broken by hills or low mountain ridges. The Piedmont ranges from about 300 feet in elevation in the east to about 1,500 feet in the west, the western section of the state is part of the Appalachian Mountain range. Among the subranges of the Appalachians located in the state are the Great Smoky Mountains, Blue Ridge Mountains, the Black Mountains are the highest in the eastern United States, and culminate in Mount Mitchell at 6,684 feet, the highest point east of the Mississippi River. North Carolina has 17 major river basins, the five basins west of the Blue Ridge Mountains flow to the Gulf of Mexico, while the remainder flow to the Atlantic Ocean. Of the 17 basins,11 originate within the state of North Carolina, but only four are contained entirely within the states border – the Cape Fear, the Neuse, the White Oak, and the Tar-Pamlico basin. Elevation above sea level is most responsible for temperature change across the state, the climate is also influenced by the Atlantic Ocean and the Gulf Stream, especially in the coastal plain. These influences tend to cause warmer winter temperatures along the coast, the coastal plain averages around 1 inch of snow or ice annually, and in many years, there may be no snow or ice at all. North Carolina experiences severe weather in summer and winter, with summer bringing threat of hurricanes, tropical storms, heavy rain
12.
Florida
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Florida /ˈflɒrᵻdə/ is a state located in the southeastern region of the United States. It is bordered to the west by the Gulf of Mexico, to the north by Alabama and Georgia, to the east by the Atlantic Ocean, Florida is the 22nd-most extensive, the 3rd-most populous, and the 8th-most densely populated of the U. S. states. Jacksonville is the most populous municipality in the state and is the largest city by area in the contiguous United States, the Miami metropolitan area is Floridas most populous urban area. The city of Tallahassee is the state capital, much of the state is at or near sea level and is characterized by sedimentary soil. The climate varies from subtropical in the north to tropical in the south, the American alligator, American crocodile, Florida panther, and manatee can be found in the Everglades National Park. It was a location of the Seminole Wars against the Native Americans. Today, Florida is distinctive for its large Cuban expatriate community and high population growth, the states economy relies mainly on tourism, agriculture, and transportation, which developed in the late 19th century. Florida is also renowned for amusement parks, orange crops, the Kennedy Space Center, Florida has attracted many writers such as Marjorie Kinnan Rawlings, Ernest Hemingway and Tennessee Williams, and continues to attract celebrities and athletes. It is internationally known for golf, tennis, auto racing, by the 16th century, the earliest time for which there is a historical record, major Native American groups included the Apalachee, the Timucua, the Ais, the Tocobaga, the Calusa and the Tequesta. Florida was the first part of the continental United States to be visited and settled by Europeans, the earliest known European explorers came with the Spanish conquistador Juan Ponce de León. Ponce de León spotted and landed on the peninsula on April 2,1513 and he named the region La Florida. The story that he was searching for the Fountain of Youth is a myth, in May 1539, Conquistador Hernando de Soto skirted the coast of Florida, searching for a deep harbor to land. He described seeing a wall of red mangroves spread mile after mile, some reaching as high as 70 feet. Very soon, many smokes appeared along the whole coast, billowing against the sky, the Spanish introduced Christianity, cattle, horses, sheep, the Spanish language, and more to Florida. Both the Spanish and French established settlements in Florida, with varying degrees of success, in 1559, Don Tristán de Luna y Arellano established a settlement at present-day Pensacola, making it the first attempted settlement in Florida, but it was abandoned by 1561. Spain maintained tenuous control over the region by converting the tribes to Christianity. The area of Spanish Florida diminished with the establishment of English settlements to the north, the English attacked St. Augustine, burning the city and its cathedral to the ground several times. Florida attracted numerous Africans and African-Americans from adjacent British colonies who sought freedom from slavery, in 1738, Governor Manuel de Montiano established Fort Gracia Real de Santa Teresa de Mose near St
13.
Accumulated cyclone energy
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It uses an approximation of the wind energy used by a tropical system over its lifetime and is calculated every six-hour period. The ACE of a season is the sum of the ACEs for each storm and takes account the number, strength. In recorded history, the highest ACE worldwide for a storm is 82. The ACE of a season is calculated by summing the squares of the maximum sustained velocity of every active tropical storm. Since the calculation is sensitive to the point of the six-hour intervals, the convention is to use 0000,0600,1200. If any storms of a season happen to cross years, the storms ACE counts for the previous year, the numbers are usually divided by 10,000 to make them more manageable. The unit of ACE is 104 kn2, and for use as an index the unit is assumed, thus, ACE =10 −4 ∑ v max 2 where vmax is estimated sustained wind speed in knots. Kinetic energy is proportional to the square of velocity, and by adding together the energy per some interval of time, the accumulated energy is found. As the duration of a storm increases, more values are summed, although ACE is a value proportional to the energy of the system, it is not a direct calculation of energy. A related quantity is hurricane destruction potential, which is ACE, ACE focuses upon the most intense winds concentrated in a storms center. Whereas, the destructive power of a storm depends upon the total area impacted with damaging winds, waves. The metric Integrated Kinetic Energy, developed in 2007, more accurately reflects the destructive potential and it examines the kinetic energy that forces a storm surge and creates high waves as well as the horizontal wind loads over the full storm. This metric yields a specific value for a storm and doesnt account for the destruction caused by a storm over its entire life. Therefore, in 2013 the researchers at the University of Florida created a metric called Track Integrated Kinetic Energy, TIKE expands the concept by accumulating IKE over the lifespan of an individual tropical cyclone and a total value for all named tropical cyclones in the season. A seasons ACE is used by NOAA and others to categorize the hurricane season into 3 groups by its activity, measured over the period 1951–2000 for the Atlantic basin, the median annual index was 87.5 and the mean annual index was 93.2. The term hyperactive is used by Goldenberg et al. based on a different weighting algorithm which places more weight on major hurricanes, the highest ever ACE estimated for a single storm in the Atlantic is 73.6, for Hurricane San Ciriaco in 1899. This single storm had an ACE higher than many whole Atlantic storm seasons, the following table shows those storms in the Atlantic basin from 1950-2016 that have had the highest ACE. The highest ACE of a Category 1 hurricane was Hurricane Nadine of 2012, the highest ACE of a tropical storm was Tropical Storm Alice of 1953, which attained an ACE of 9.6
14.
Bar (unit)
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The bar is a metric unit of pressure, but is not approved as part of the International System of Units. It is defined as equal to 100000 Pa, which is slightly less than the current average atmospheric pressure on Earth at sea level. The bar and the millibar were introduced by the Norwegian meteorologist Vilhelm Bjerknes, use of the bar is deprecated by some professional bodies in some fields. The International Astronomical Union also lists it under Non-SI units and symbols whose continued use is deprecated, as of 2004, the bar is legally recognized in countries of the European Union. Units derived from the bar include the megabar, kilobar, decibar, centibar, the notation bar, though deprecated by various bodies, represents gauge pressure, i. e. pressure in bars above ambient or atmospheric pressure. The bar is defined using the SI derived unit, pascal,1 bar ≡100000 Pa. Thus,1 bar is equal to,100 kPa 1×105 N/m21000000 Ba, notes,1 millibar =1 one-thousandth bar, or 1×10−3 bar 1 millibar =1 hectopascal. The word bar has its origin in the Greek word βάρος, the units official symbol is bar, the earlier symbol b is now deprecated and conflicts with the use of b denoting the unit barn, but it is still encountered, especially as mb to denote the millibar. Between 1793 and 1795, the bar was used for a unit of weight in an early version of the metric system. Atmospheric air pressure is given in millibars where standard sea level pressure is defined as 1013 mbar,101.3,1.013 bar. Despite the millibar not being an SI unit, meteorologists and weather reporters worldwide have long measured air pressure in millibars as the values are convenient, for example, the weather office of Environment Canada uses kilopascals and hectopascals on their weather maps. In contrast, Americans are familiar with the use of the millibar in US reports of hurricanes, in fresh water, there is an approximate numerical equivalence between the change in pressure in decibars and the change in depth from the water surface in metres. Specifically, an increase of 1 decibar occurs for every 1.019716 m increase in depth, in sea water with respect to the gravity variation, the latitude and the geopotential anomaly the pressure can be converted into meters depth according to an empirical formula. As a result, decibars are commonly used in oceanography, many engineers worldwide use the bar as a unit of pressure because, in much of their work, using pascals would involve using very large numbers. In the automotive field, turbocharger boost is often described in bars outside the USA), unicode has characters for mb and bar, but they exist only for compatibility with legacy Asian encodings and are not intended to be used in new documents. The kilobar, equivalent to 100 MPa, is used in geological systems. Bar and bara are sometimes used to indicate absolute pressures and bar and this usage is deprecated and fuller descriptions such as gauge pressure of 2 bar or 2 bar gauge are recommended.0 Unported License but not under the GFDL. Non-SI units accepted for use with the SI
15.
Pascal (unit)
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The pascal is the SI derived unit of pressure used to quantify internal pressure, stress, Youngs modulus and ultimate tensile strength. It is defined as one newton per square meter and it is named after the French polymath Blaise Pascal. Common multiple units of the pascal are the hectopascal which is equal to one millibar, the unit of measurement called standard atmosphere is defined as 101,325 Pa and approximates to the average pressure at sea-level at the latitude 45° N. Meteorological reports typically state atmospheric pressure in hectopascals, the unit is named after Blaise Pascal, noted for his contributions to hydrodynamics and hydrostatics, and experiments with a barometer. The name pascal was adopted for the SI unit newton per square metre by the 14th General Conference on Weights, one pascal is the pressure exerted by a force of magnitude one newton perpendicularly upon an area of one square metre. The unit of measurement called atmosphere or standard atmosphere is 101325 Pa and this value is often used as a reference pressure and specified as such in some national and international standards, such as ISO2787, ISO2533 and ISO5024. In contrast, IUPAC recommends the use of 100 kPa as a standard pressure when reporting the properties of substances, geophysicists use the gigapascal in measuring or calculating tectonic stresses and pressures within the Earth. Medical elastography measures tissue stiffness non-invasively with ultrasound or magnetic resonance imaging, in materials science and engineering, the pascal measures the stiffness, tensile strength and compressive strength of materials. In engineering use, because the pascal represents a small quantity. The pascal is also equivalent to the SI unit of energy density and this applies not only to the thermodynamics of pressurised gases, but also to the energy density of electric, magnetic, and gravitational fields. In measurements of sound pressure, or loudness of sound, one pascal is equal to 94 decibels SPL, the quietest sound a human can hear, known as the threshold of hearing, is 0 dB SPL, or 20 µPa. The airtightness of buildings is measured at 50 Pa, the units of atmospheric pressure commonly used in meteorology were formerly the bar, which was close to the average air pressure on Earth, and the millibar. Since the introduction of SI units, meteorologists generally measure pressures in hectopascals unit, exceptions include Canada and Portugal, which use kilopascals. In many other fields of science, the SI is preferred, many countries also use the millibar or hectopascal to give aviation altimeter settings. In practically all fields, the kilopascal is used instead. Centimetre of water Metric prefix Orders of magnitude Pascals law
16.
Coordinated Universal Time
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Coordinated Universal Time, abbreviated to UTC, is the primary time standard by which the world regulates clocks and time. It is within about 1 second of mean time at 0° longitude. It is one of closely related successors to Greenwich Mean Time. For most purposes, UTC is considered interchangeable with GMT, the first Coordinated Universal Time was informally adopted on 1 January 1960. This change also adopted leap seconds to simplify future adjustments, a number of proposals have been made to replace UTC with a new system that would eliminate leap seconds, but no consensus has yet been reached. Leap seconds are inserted as necessary to keep UTC within 0.9 seconds of universal time, see the Current number of leap seconds section for the number of leap seconds inserted to date. The official abbreviation for Coordinated Universal Time is UTC and this abbreviation arose from a desire by the International Telecommunication Union and the International Astronomical Union to use the same abbreviation in all languages. English speakers originally proposed CUT, while French speakers proposed TUC, the compromise that emerged was UTC, which conforms to the pattern for the abbreviations of the variants of Universal Time. Time zones around the world are expressed using positive or negative offsets from UTC, the westernmost time zone uses UTC−12, being twelve hours behind UTC, the easternmost time zone, theoretically, uses UTC+12, being twelve hours ahead of UTC. In 1995, the nation of Kiribati moved those of its atolls in the Line Islands from UTC-10 to UTC+14 so that the country would all be on the same day. UTC is used in internet and World Wide Web standards. The Network Time Protocol, designed to synchronise the clocks of computers over the internet, computer servers, online services and other entities that rely on having a universally accepted time use UTC as it is more specific than GMT. If only limited precision is needed, clients can obtain the current UTC from a number of official internet UTC servers, for sub-microsecond precision, clients can obtain the time from satellite signals. UTC is also the standard used in aviation, e. g. for flight plans. Weather forecasts and maps all use UTC to avoid confusion about time zones, the International Space Station also uses UTC as a time standard. Amateur radio operators often schedule their radio contacts in UTC, because transmissions on some frequencies can be picked up by many time zones, UTC is also used in digital tachographs used on large goods vehicles under EU and AETR rules. UTC divides time into days, hours, minutes and seconds, days are conventionally identified using the Gregorian calendar, but Julian day numbers can also be used. Each day contains 24 hours and each hour contains 60 minutes, the number of seconds in a minute is usually 60, but with an occasional leap second, it may be 61 or 59 instead
17.
Azores
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Its main industries are agriculture, dairy farming, livestock, fishing, and tourism, which is becoming the major service activity in the region. In addition, the government of the Azores employs a large percentage of the population directly or indirectly in the service, the main settlement of the Azores is Ponta Delgada. There are nine major Azorean islands and a cluster, in three main groups. These are Flores and Corvo, to the west, Graciosa, Terceira, São Jorge, Pico, and Faial in the centre, and São Miguel, Santa Maria, and they extend for more than 600 km and lie in a northwest-southeast direction. All the islands have volcanic origins, although some, such as Santa Maria, have had no recorded activity since the islands were settled, mount Pico, on the island of Pico, is the highest point in Portugal, at 2,351 m. The Azores are actually some of the tallest mountains on the planet, measured from their base at the bottom of the ocean to their peaks, which thrust high above the surface of the Atlantic. The climate of the Azores is very mild for such a location, being influenced by its distance to continents. Due to the influence, temperatures remain mild year-round. Daytime temperatures normally fluctuate between 16 °C and 25 °C depending on season, temperatures above 30 °C or below 3 °C are unknown in the major population centres. It is also generally wet and cloudy, the culture, dialect, cuisine, and traditions of the Azorean islands vary considerably, because these once-uninhabited and remote islands were settled sporadically over a span of two centuries. However, these kinds of structures have always used in the Azores to store cereals. Detailed examination and dating to authenticate the validity of these speculations is lacking and it is unclear whether these structures are natural or man-made and whether they predate the 15th-century Portuguese colonization of the Azores. Solid confirmation of a human presence in the archipelago has not yet been published. The islands were known in the century and parts of them appear in the Atlas Catalan. In 1427, a captain sailing for Henry the Navigator, possibly Gonçalo Velho, rediscovered the Azores, but this is not certain. In Thomas Ashes 1813 work, A History of the Azores, the author identified a Fleming, Joshua Vander Berg of Bruges and he stated that the Portuguese explored the area and claimed it for Portugal. Other stories note the discovery of the first islands by sailors in the service of Henry the Navigator, although there are few documents to support the claims. Although it is said that the archipelago received its name from the goshawk
18.
Colombia
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Colombia, officially the Republic of Colombia, is a transcontinental country largely situated in the northwest of South America, with territories in Central America. Colombia shares a border to the northwest with Panama, to the east with Venezuela and Brazil and to the south with Ecuador and it shares its maritime limits with Costa Rica, Nicaragua, Honduras, Jamaica, Haiti and the Dominican Republic. It is a unitary, constitutional republic comprising thirty-two departments, the territory of what is now Colombia was originally inhabited by indigenous peoples including the Muisca, the Quimbaya and the Tairona. The Spanish arrived in 1499 and initiated a period of conquest and colonization ultimately creating the Viceroyalty of New Granada, independence from Spain was won in 1819, but by 1830 the Gran Colombia Federation was dissolved. What is now Colombia and Panama emerged as the Republic of New Granada, the new nation experimented with federalism as the Granadine Confederation, and then the United States of Colombia, before the Republic of Colombia was finally declared in 1886. Since the 1960s the country has suffered from an asymmetric low-intensity armed conflict, Colombia is one of the most ethnically and linguistically diverse countries in the world, and thereby possesses a rich cultural heritage. Cultural diversity has also influenced by Colombias varied geography. The urban centres are located in the highlands of the Andes mountains. Colombian territory also encompasses Amazon rainforest, tropical grassland and both Caribbean and Pacific coastlines, ecologically, it is one of the worlds 17 megadiverse countries, and the most densely biodiverse of these per square kilometer. Colombia is a power and a regional actor with the fourth-largest economy in Latin America, is part of the CIVETS group of six leading emerging markets and is an accessing member to the OECD. Colombia has an economy with macroeconomic stability and favorable growth prospects in the long run. The name Colombia is derived from the last name of Christopher Columbus and it was conceived by the Venezuelan revolutionary Francisco de Miranda as a reference to all the New World, but especially to those portions under Spanish and Portuguese rule. The name was adopted by the Republic of Colombia of 1819. When Venezuela, Ecuador and Cundinamarca came to exist as independent states, New Granada officially changed its name in 1858 to the Granadine Confederation. In 1863 the name was changed, this time to United States of Colombia. To refer to country, the Colombian government uses the terms Colombia. Owing to its location, the present territory of Colombia was a corridor of early human migration from Mesoamerica, the oldest archaeological finds are from the Pubenza and El Totumo sites in the Magdalena Valley 100 km southwest of Bogotá. These sites date from the Paleoindian period, at Puerto Hormiga and other sites, traces from the Archaic Period have been found
19.
Nicaragua
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Nicaragua, officially the Republic of Nicaragua, is the largest country in the Central American isthmus. Nicaraguas capital, Managua, is the countrys largest city and the third-largest city in Central America, the multi-ethnic population of six million includes indigenous peoples, Europeans, Africans, and Asians. Native tribes on the eastern coast speak their own languages, the Spanish Empire conquered the region in the 16th century. Nicaragua gained independence from Spain in 1821, since its independence, Nicaragua has undergone periods of political unrest, dictatorship, and fiscal crisis—the most notable causes that led to the Nicaraguan Revolution of the 1960s and 1970s. Nicaragua is a democratic republic. The biological diversity, warm climate and active volcanoes make Nicaragua an increasingly popular tourist destination. The name Nicaragua was coined by Spanish colonists based on the name Nicarao, when Spaniard Gil González Dávila came to Nicaragua in 1521 he found in the areas between Rivas and San Jorge the first pre-Columbian natives of Nicaragua. At the time the city was called Quauhcapolca and the cacique leaders name was Macuilmiquiztli. The Pipil migrated to Nicaragua from central Mexico after 500 BC, meanwhile, the Caribbean coast of Nicaragua was inhabited by other peoples, mostly Chibcha language groups. They had coalesced in Central America and migrated also to present-day northern Colombia and they lived a life based primarily on hunting and gathering. In 1502, Christopher Columbus became the first European known to have reached what is now Nicaragua as he sailed southeast toward the Isthmus of Panama, on his fourth voyage, Columbus explored the Miskito Coast on the Atlantic side of Nicaragua. The Spanish attempted to convert all three tribes to Christianity, Nicaragua and Nicarao and their people converted, but Dirangen, however, did not, the first attempt to conquer what is now known as Nicaragua was by Gil González Dávila, who arrived in Panama in January 1520. The first Spanish permanent settlements were founded in 1524, conquistador Francisco Hernández de Córdoba founded two of Nicaraguas principal towns in 1524, Granada on Lake Nicaragua was the first settlement, followed by León at a location west of Lake Managua. Córdoba soon built defenses for the cities and fought against incursions by other conquistadors, Córdoba was later publicly beheaded following a power struggle with Pedro Arias Dávila. His tomb and remains were discovered in 2000 in the ruins of León Viejo, the clashes among Spanish forces did not impede their destruction of the indigenous people and their culture. The series of battles came to be known as the War of the Captains, Pedro Arias Dávila was a winner, although he had lost control of Panama, he moved to Nicaragua and successfully established his base in León. Through adroit diplomatic machinations, he became the first governor of the colony, many indigenous people died as a result of new infectious diseases, compounded by neglect by the Spaniards, who controlled their subsistence. In 1610, the Momotombo volcano erupted, destroying the capital and it was rebuilt northwest of what is now known as the ruins of Old León
20.
Gulf of Honduras
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The Gulf or Bay of Honduras is a large inlet of the Caribbean Sea, indenting the coasts of Belize, Guatemala, and Honduras. From north to south, it runs for approximately 200 km from Dangriga, Belize, to La Ceiba, Honduras. The inner Gulf of Honduras is lined by the Belize Barrier Reef which forms the part of the 900 km long Mesoamerican Barrier Reef System. The Belize Barrier Reef includes a number of islands, called cays. The gulf receives the runoff from the watersheds of 12 rivers with a discharge of 1232 m³ s−1. These rivers include the Moho, Sarstún, Río Dulce, Motagua, increased volumes of sediments drained in the Gulf of Honduras pose a threat to its marine ecosystem. Many American anglers visit the Gulf of Honduras to catch the marlin that abound there, tourists are often taken on boat trips to the Pelican Cays, notably Caye Caulker and Ambergris Caye. In 1961 Hurricane Hattie swept across the Gulf of Honduras, destroying buildings in Belize, the infamous pirate Blackbeard spent the winter of 1717-1718 harassing shipping boats sailing to and from the port of Vera Cruz, Mexico and traversing the Bay of Honduras. In April 1718, at Turneffe Atoll, Blackbeard captured the logwood cutting sloop Adventure and forced its captain, David Herriot, Blackbeard then made Israel Hands captain of the Adventure and began sailing for North Carolina. When Blackbeard Scourged the Seas, History. org
21.
Gulf of Mexico
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The Gulf of Mexico is an ocean basin largely surrounded by the North American continent. It is bounded on the northeast, north and northwest by the Gulf Coast of the United States, on the southwest and south by Mexico, and on the southeast by Cuba. The U. S. states of Alabama, Florida, Louisiana, Mississippi and Texas border the Gulf on the north, Atlantic and Pacific coasts, or sometimes the south coast, in juxtaposition to the Great Lakes region being the north coast. One of the seven main areas is the Gulf of Mexico basin. The Gulf of Mexico formed approximately 300 million years ago as a result of plate tectonics, the Gulfs basin is roughly oval and is approximately 810 nautical miles wide and floored by sedimentary rocks and recent sediments. It is connected to part of the Atlantic Ocean through the Florida Straits between the U. S. and Cuba, and with the Caribbean Sea via the Yucatan Channel between Mexico and Cuba, with the narrow connection to the Atlantic, the Gulf experiences very small tidal ranges. The size of the Gulf basin is approximately 1.6 million km2, almost half of the basin is shallow continental shelf waters. The basin contains a volume of roughly 2,500 quadrillion liters, the consensus among geologists who have studied the geology of the Gulf of Mexico, is that prior to the Late Triassic, the Gulf of Mexico did not exist. It was created by the collision of plates that formed Pangea. As interpreted by Roy Van Arsdale and Randel T. Cox, geologists and other Earth scientists agree in general that the present Gulf of Mexico basin originated in Late Triassic time as the result of rifting within Pangea. The rifting was associated with zones of weakness within Pangea, including sutures where the Laurentia, South American, first, there was a Late Triassic-Early Jurassic phase of rifting during which rift valleys formed and filled with continental red beds. Second, as rifting progressed through Early and Middle Jurassic time and it was at this time that tectonics first created a connection to the Pacific Ocean across central Mexico and later eastward to the Atlantic Ocean. This flooded the basin created by rifting and crustal thinning to create the Gulf of Mexico. While the Gulf of Mexico was a basin, the subsiding transitional crust was blanketed by the widespread deposition of Louann Salt. Initially, during the Late Jurassic, continued rifting widened the Gulf of Mexico and progressed to the point that sea-floor spreading, at this point, sufficient circulation with the Atlantic Ocean was established that the deposition of Louann Salt ceased. During the Late Jurassic through Early Cretaceous, the occupied by the Gulf of Mexico experienced a period of cooling. The subsidence was the result of a combination of stretching, cooling. Initially, the combination of stretching and cooling caused about 5–7 km of tectonic subsidence of the central thin transitional
22.
Houma, Louisiana
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Houma is the only city in and the parish seat of Terrebonne Parish, Louisiana, and the largest principal city of the Houma–Bayou Cane–Thibodaux Metropolitan Statistical Area. The citys powers of government have been absorbed by the parish, the population was 33,727 at the 2010 census, an increase of 1,334 over the 2000 tabulation of 32,393. Many unincorporated areas are adjacent to the city of Houma, the largest and it is not included in the citys census counts, and is a separate census-designated place. If the populations of the urbanized census-designated places were included with that of the city of Houma, the city was named after the historic Native American tribe of Houma people, believed to be related to the Choctaw. The United Houma Nation Tribe is recognized by the state of Louisiana, Houma was rated as an Affordable city by Demographias International Housing Survey. Houma was founded by European Americans in 1834 at a settlement of the Houma people. The city was named after them, the city of Houma was incorporated in 1848. The United Houma Nation and two other Houma tribes have been recognized by the state, Houma is also rated as a medium size city. The area was developed for plantations in the years, which were worked primarily by enslaved African Americans. Since the late 19th century, the area has become industrialized and developed for trade. In 1862, four Union soldiers en route by wagon from New Orleans to Houma were ambushed by armed citizens. Two of the Union men were killed, and the two were seriously wounded. In retaliation, Union officers brought 400 troops into Houma, where began a wholesale arrest of residents. In his 1963 book, the historian John D, winters describes the events, The investigation of the murders lasted several days but failed to reveal the guilty parties. To frighten the citizens, the home of a Doctor Jennings was burned, the soldiers next began to seize sheep, cattle, mules, wagons, and saddle horses. Negroes began to desert their masters and to flock to the protection of the troops, the frightened citizens had no means of resistance, and many found it hard to stand by and see their country despoiled by a few hundred troops. Houma is located at 29°35′15″N 90°42′58″W and has an elevation of 10 feet. BY SQ According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has an area of 14.2 square miles
23.
Kansas
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Kansas /ˈkænzəs/ is a U. S. state located in the Midwestern United States. Its capital is Topeka and its largest city is Wichita, Kansas is named after the Kansa Native American tribe, which inhabited the area. The tribes name is said to mean people of the wind or people of the south wind. For thousands of years, what is now Kansas was home to numerous, tribes in the eastern part of the state generally lived in villages along the river valleys. Tribes in the part of the state were semi-nomadic and hunted large herds of bison. When it was opened to settlement by the U. S. Thus, the area was a hotbed of violence and chaos in its early days as these forces collided. The abolitionists eventually prevailed, and on January 29,1861, after the Civil War, the population of Kansas grew rapidly when waves of immigrants turned the prairie into farmland. By 2015, Kansas was one of the most productive agricultural states, producing high yields of wheat, corn, sorghum, and soybeans. Kansas, which has an area of 82,278 square miles is the 15th largest state by area and is the 34th most populous of the 50 United States with a population of 2,911,641, residents of Kansas are called Kansans, officially. Mount Sunflower is Kansass highest point at 4,041 feet, for a millennia, the land that is currently Kansas was inhabited by Native Americans. The first European to set foot in present-day Kansas was Francisco Vázquez de Coronado, in 1803, most of modern Kansas was secured by the United States as part of the Louisiana Purchase. Southwest Kansas, however, was still a part of Spain, Mexico, from 1812 to 1821, Kansas was part of the Missouri Territory. The Santa Fe Trail traversed Kansas from 1821 to 1880, transporting manufactured goods from Missouri and silver and furs from Santa Fe, wagon ruts from the trail are still visible in the prairie today. In 1827, Fort Leavenworth became the first permanent settlement of white Americans in the future state, the Kansas–Nebraska Act became law on May 30,1854, establishing the U. S. territories of Nebraska and Kansas, and opening the area to broader settlement by whites. Kansas Territory stretched all the way to the Continental Divide and included the sites of present-day Denver, Colorado Springs, Missouri and Arkansas sent settlers into Kansas all along its eastern border. These settlers attempted to sway votes in favor of slavery, the secondary settlement of Americans in Kansas Territory were abolitionists from Massachusetts and other Free-Staters, who attempted to stop the spread of slavery from neighboring Missouri. Directly presaging the American Civil War, these forces collided, entering into skirmishes that earned the territory the name of Bleeding Kansas, Kansas was admitted to the United States as a free state on January 29,1861, making it the 34th state to enter the Union. He was roundly condemned by both the conventional Confederate military and the partisan rangers commissioned by the Missouri legislature and his application to that body for a commission was flatly rejected due to his pre-war criminal record
24.
Gulf Coast of the United States
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The Gulf Coast of the United States is the coastline along which the Southern United States meets the Gulf of Mexico. The coastal states that have a shoreline on the Gulf of Mexico are Texas, Louisiana, Mississippi, Alabama, and Florida, the economy of the Gulf Coast area is dominated by industries related to energy, petrochemicals, fishing, aerospace, agriculture, and tourism. The Gulf Coast is made of many inlets, bays, the coast is also intersected by numerous rivers, the largest of which is the Mississippi River. Much of the land along the Gulf Coast is, or was and these landforms protect numerous bays and inlets providing as a barrier to oncoming waves. The central part of the Gulf Coast, from eastern Texas through Louisiana, the eastern part of the Gulf Coast, predominantly Florida, is dotted with many bays and inlets. The Gulf Coast climate is humid subtropical for the most part, although the tip of Florida. Much of the year is warm to hot along the Gulf Coast, while the 3 winters months bring periods of cool, the area is vulnerable to hurricanes as well as floods and severe thunderstorms. Tornadoes are infrequent at the coast but do occur, however the frequency at which they occur in inland portions of Gulf Coast states is much greater. Earthquakes are extremely rare to the area, but a surprising 6.0 earthquake in the Gulf of Mexico on September 10,2006, the Gulf Coast is a major center of economic activity. The marshlands along the Louisiana and Texas coasts provide breeding grounds, the Port of South Louisiana and the Port of Houston are two of the ten busiest ports in the world by cargo volume. As of 2004, seven of the top ten busiest ports in the U. S. are on the Gulf Coast. The discovery of oil and gas deposits along the coast and offshore, the coast contains nearly 4,000 oil platforms. S. Before Europeans arrived in the region, the region was home to several kingdoms that had extensive trade networks with empires such as the Aztecs. Shark and alligator teeth and shells from the Gulf have been found as far north as Ohio, the first Europeans to settle the Gulf Coast were primarily the French and the Spanish. The Louisiana Purchase and the Texas Revolution made the Gulf Coast a part of the United States during the first half of the 19th century. As the U. S. population continued to expand its frontiers westward, the development of sugar and cotton production allowed the South to prosper. Two major events were turning points in the history of the Gulf Coast region. The first was the American Civil War, which caused damage to some economic sectors in the South
25.
Galveston Island
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Galveston Island is a barrier island on the Texas Gulf Coast in the United States, about 50 miles southeast of Houston. The entire island, with the exception of Jamaica Beach, is within the city limits of the City of Galveston in Galveston County, the island is about 27 miles long and no more than 3 miles wide at its widest point. The island is oriented generally northeast-southwest, with the Gulf of Mexico on the east and south, West Bay on the west, the islands main access point from the mainland is the Interstate Highway 45 causeway that crosses West Bay on the northeast side of the island. The far north end of the island is separated from the Bolivar Peninsula by Galveston Harbor, the entrance to Galveston Bay, ferry service is available between Galveston Island and the Bolivar Peninsula. The southern end of the island is separated from the mainland by San Luis Pass, the San Luis Pass-Vacek Toll Bridge connects the San Luis Pass Road on Galveston Island with the Bluewater Highway that leads south into the town of Surfside Beach. The residents of the island classify themselves in two ways, born on the island and islander by choice, “BOI” is cited in print from at least 1956 and “IBC” is cited in print from 1975. All residents are zoned to Ball High School, earlier cultures likely used it as well for seasonal fishing and hunting. Historians believe the island is where Álvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca and his party made a brief stopover in November 1528, during his lengthy. Jao de la Porta, along with his brother Morin, financed the first settlement by ethnic Europeans on Galveston Island in 1816, jao de la Porta was born in Portugal of Jewish parentage, he became a trader in Texas. The privateer Jean Lafitte brought his men and followers from Louisiana to the island, for a few years, the island and the bay were their base for piracy and smuggling in slaves after the United States had ended its international slave trade in 1808. After attacking an American ship, Lafitte was forced in 1821 to leave by the US Navy, with the advent of Mexican independence in 1821, and the Texas revolution soon after in 1836, the Anglo-American population in the Republic of Texas began to grow rapidly. The island quickly became Texas primary port and a destination for immigration, following Texas annexation by the United States in 1845, the islands population soon surpassed the population of San Antonio. It became the major population center, a title it would hold until nearly the end of the 19th century. Galveston for a time before the American Civil War was the largest cotton shipping port in the world, in the mid-19th century, it was a major port of entry for the many Germans who entered the state. During the Civil War, the Union army seized control of the island from the South for a few months during early 1863, confederate forces commanded by John B. Magruder expelled them from the island, and the Confederates controlled it for the remainder of the war, on September 8,1900, the greatest natural disaster to ever strike the United States occurred at Galveston. In the early evening hours of September 8, the Galveston hurricane of 1900 came ashore, bringing with it a storm surge that inundated most of Galveston Island. As a result, much of the city was destroyed, isaac M. Cline, the meteorologist in charge of the local Weather Bureau, lived on Galveston Island
26.
Infrastructure
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Infrastructure refers to the fundamental facilities and systems serving a country, city, or area, including the services and facilities necessary for its economy to function. The word was imported from French, where it means subgrade, the word is a combination of the Latin prefix infra, meaning below, and structure. The military use of the term achieved currency in the United States after the formation of NATO in the 1940s and this crisis discussion contributed to an increase in infrastructure asset management and maintenance planning in the US. Public-policy discussions have been hampered by lack of a definition for infrastructure. A1987 US National Research Council panel adopted the public works infrastructure. The OECD also classifies communications as a part of infrastructure, the American Society of Civil Engineers has not defined the term, though issuing a US Infrastructure Report Card every 2-4 years. Hard infrastructure refers to the physical networks necessary for the functioning of an industrial nation. The term critical infrastructure distinguishes those infrastructure elements that, if damaged or destroyed. Similarly, a booking system might be critical infrastructure for an airline. These elements of infrastructure are the focus of efforts in the aftermath of natural disasters. The term infrastructure may be confused with the following overlapping or related concepts, service connections to municipal service and public utility networks would also be considered land improvements, not infrastructure. The term public works includes government-owned and operated infrastructure as well as buildings, such as schools. Public works generally refers to physical assets needed to deliver public services, public services include both infrastructure and services generally provided by government. Infrastructure may be owned and managed by governments or by private companies, generally, most roads, major ports and airports, water distribution systems and sewage networks are publicly owned, whereas most energy and telecommunications networks are privately owned. Publicly owned infrastructure may be paid for taxes, tolls, or metered user fees. Major investment projects are financed by the issuance of long-term bonds. Government owned and operated infrastructure may be developed and operated in the sector or in public-private partnerships. As of 2008 in the United States for example, public spending on infrastructure has varied between 2. 3% and 3. 6% of GDP since 1950, many financial institutions invest in infrastructure
27.
Robertsdale, Alabama
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Robertsdale is a city in Baldwin County, Alabama, United States. At the 2010 census the population was 5,276 and it is part of the Daphne–Fairhope–Foley Micropolitan Statistical Area. Robertsdale is located in southern Baldwin County at 30°3316.034 North, U. S. Route 90 passes through the city, leading west 24 miles to Mobile and east 35 miles to Pensacola, Florida. According to the U. S. Census Bureau, the city has an area of 5.5 square miles, of which 0.012 square miles. As of the census of 2010, there were 5,276 people,1,951 households, the population density was 968 people per square mile. There were 1,573 housing units at a density of 357.3 per square mile. The racial makeup of the city was 85. 3% White,5. 4% Black or African American,0. 8% Native American,0. 5% Asian,6. 1% from other races,9. 2% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race. 23. 7% of all households were made up of individuals and 10. 2% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older, the average household size was 2.64 and the average family size was 3.10. In the city, the population was 27. 3% under the age of 18,9. 0% from 18 to 24,28. 7% from 25 to 44,20. 9% from 45 to 64, the median age was 33.8 years. For every 100 females there were 89.7 males, for every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 93.9 males. The median income for a household in the city was $41,750, males had a median income of $41,822 versus $26,239 for females. The per capita income for the city was $20,696, about 8. 1% of families and 10. 1% of the population were below the poverty line, including 12. 2% of those under age 18 and 9. 7% of those age 65 or over. Robertsdale is a part of the Baldwin County Public Schools system, three elementary schools, a middle school, and a high school serve Robertsdale. A vocational school is located in Robertsdale. Central Christian School St. Patrick Catholic School The city of Robertsdale hosts the Baldwin County Fair every fall for at least four days, the city of Robertsdale hold a parade every December 7. Joe Childress, former NFL running back Tim Cook, CEO of Apple Inc, obie Trotter, basketball player Central Baldwin City of Robertsdale official website
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Rail transport
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Rail transport is a means of conveyance of passengers and goods on wheeled vehicles running on rails, also known as tracks. It is also referred to as train transport. In contrast to road transport, where vehicles run on a flat surface. Tracks usually consist of rails, installed on ties and ballast, on which the rolling stock, usually fitted with metal wheels. Other variations are possible, such as slab track, where the rails are fastened to a concrete foundation resting on a prepared subsurface. Rolling stock in a transport system generally encounters lower frictional resistance than road vehicles, so passenger. The operation is carried out by a company, providing transport between train stations or freight customer facilities. Power is provided by locomotives which either draw electric power from a railway system or produce their own power. Most tracks are accompanied by a signalling system, Railways are a safe land transport system when compared to other forms of transport. The oldest, man-hauled railways date back to the 6th century BC, with Periander, one of the Seven Sages of Greece, Rail transport blossomed after the British development of the steam locomotive as a viable source of power in the 19th centuries. With steam engines, one could construct mainline railways, which were a key component of the Industrial Revolution, also, railways reduced the costs of shipping, and allowed for fewer lost goods, compared with water transport, which faced occasional sinking of ships. The change from canals to railways allowed for markets in which prices varied very little from city to city. In the 1880s, electrified trains were introduced, and also the first tramways, starting during the 1940s, the non-electrified railways in most countries had their steam locomotives replaced by diesel-electric locomotives, with the process being almost complete by 2000. During the 1960s, electrified high-speed railway systems were introduced in Japan, other forms of guided ground transport outside the traditional railway definitions, such as monorail or maglev, have been tried but have seen limited use. The history of the growth, decline and restoration to use of transport can be divided up into several discrete periods defined by the principal means of motive power used. The earliest evidence of a railway was a 6-kilometre Diolkos wagonway, trucks pushed by slaves ran in grooves in limestone, which provided the track element. The Diolkos operated for over 600 years, Railways began reappearing in Europe after the Dark Ages. The earliest known record of a railway in Europe from this period is a window in the Minster of Freiburg im Breisgau in Germany
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Awendaw, South Carolina
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Awendaw is a small fishing town in Charleston County, South Carolina, United States. The population was 1,294 at the 2010 census, Awendaw is part of the Charleston, South Carolina metropolitan area. Awendaw was named by the Sewee tribe and it is also home to an oyster shell mound created by the Sewee tribe. It is the northernmost shell ring in a group that stretches south to the tip of Florida, most of the mound is still intact. The rest of it was destroyed to construct roads and homes for the citizens of Awendaw, Awendaw was settled in 1696 as Wappetaw by settlers from Salem, Massachusetts, who had left after the Salem Witch Trials. The town was damaged by Hurricane Hugo in September 1989. In 1992, the town of Awendaw was first incorporated and elected Willam H. Alston as the first Mayor, Alston served as Mayor until 2009. The Sewee Mound was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1970, Awendaw is located in northeastern Charleston County, along U. S. Route 17 at 32°59′11″N 79°38′36″W. US17 leads southwest 28 miles to Charleston and northeast 32 miles to Georgetown. According to the United States Census Bureau, Awendaw has an area of 9.7 square miles, of which 9.5 square miles is land and 0.2 square miles. As of the census of 2000, there were 1,195 people,400 households, the population density was 144.3 people per square mile. There were 443 housing units at a density of 53.5 per square mile. The racial makeup of the town was 64. 60% African American,34. 39% White,0. 08% Asian,0. 59% from other races, hispanic or Latino of any race were 0. 92% of the population. 20. 3% of all households were made up of individuals and 7. 3% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older, the average household size was 2.97 and the average family size was 3.47. In the town, the population was out with 29. 5% under the age of 18,7. 5% from 18 to 24,27. 8% from 25 to 44,23. 8% from 45 to 64. The median age was 36 years, for every 100 females there were 91.2 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 87.8 males, the median income for a household in the town was $35,250, and the median income for a family was $42,917. Males had an income of $31,696 versus $21,422 for females
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Cape Fear (headland)
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Cape Fear is a prominent headland jutting into the Atlantic Ocean from Bald Head Island on the coast of North Carolina in the southeastern United States. It is largely formed of barrier beaches and the silty outwash of the Cape Fear River as it drains the southeast coast of North Carolina through an estuary south of Wilmington, the Cape Fear estuary drains the largest watershed in North Carolina, containing 27% of the states population. Giovanni da Verrazzano, the Italian explorer sailing for France, made landfall after crossing the Atlantic at or near Cape Fear on March 1,1524, the name comes from the 1585 expedition of Sir Richard Grenville. Sailing to Roanoke Island, his ship became embayed behind the cape, some of the crew were afraid they would wreck, giving rise to the name Cape Fear. It is the fifth-oldest surviving English place name in the U. S, Cape Fear was the landing place of General Sir Henry Clinton during the American Revolutionary War on May 3,1775. The 1962 film Cape Fear and its 1991 remake were set at Cape Fear
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Virginia
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Virginia is a state located in the Mid-Atlantic region of the United States, as well as in the historic Southeast. The geography and climate of the Commonwealth are shaped by the Blue Ridge Mountains and the Chesapeake Bay, the capital of the Commonwealth is Richmond, Virginia Beach is the most populous city, and Fairfax County is the most populous political subdivision. The Commonwealths estimated population as of 2014 is over 8.3 million, the areas history begins with several indigenous groups, including the Powhatan. In 1607 the London Company established the Colony of Virginia as the first permanent New World English colony, slave labor and the land acquired from displaced Native American tribes each played a significant role in the colonys early politics and plantation economy. Although the Commonwealth was under one-party rule for nearly a century following Reconstruction, the Virginia General Assembly is the oldest continuous law-making body in the New World. The state government was ranked most effective by the Pew Center on the States in both 2005 and 2008 and it is unique in how it treats cities and counties equally, manages local roads, and prohibits its governors from serving consecutive terms. Virginias economy changed from agricultural to industrial during the 1960s and 1970s. Virginia has an area of 42,774.2 square miles, including 3,180.13 square miles of water. Virginias boundary with Maryland and Washington, D. C. extends to the mark of the south shore of the Potomac River. The southern border is defined as the 36° 30′ parallel north, the border with Tennessee was not settled until 1893, when their dispute was brought to the U. S. Supreme Court. The Chesapeake Bay separates the portion of the Commonwealth from the two-county peninsula of Virginias Eastern Shore. The bay was formed from the river valleys of the Susquehanna River. Many of Virginias rivers flow into the Chesapeake Bay, including the Potomac, Rappahannock, York, and James, the Tidewater is a coastal plain between the Atlantic coast and the fall line. It includes the Eastern Shore and major estuaries of Chesapeake Bay, the Piedmont is a series of sedimentary and igneous rock-based foothills east of the mountains which were formed in the Mesozoic era. The region, known for its clay soil, includes the Southwest Mountains around Charlottesville. The Blue Ridge Mountains are a province of the Appalachian Mountains with the highest points in the state. The Ridge and Valley region is west of the mountains and includes the Great Appalachian Valley, the region is carbonate rock based and includes Massanutten Mountain. The Cumberland Plateau and the Cumberland Mountains are in the southwest corner of Virginia, in this region, rivers flow northwest, with a dendritic drainage system, into the Ohio River basin
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Bald Head Island, North Carolina
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Bald Head Island, historically Smith Island, is a village located on the east side of the Cape Fear River in Brunswick County, North Carolina, United States. Compared to the city of Wilmington to the north, the village of Bald Head Island is small and it is only accessible by ferry from the nearby town of Southport. There are few cars on the island, instead, residents drive modified electric golf carts, Bald Head Island is nationally recognized for its sea turtle nesting activity. The population of the village was 158 at the 2010 census, the village is part of the Wilmington metropolitan area. The village is revered for its nature and is a popular location for vacationing. It was the filming location for the successful film Weekend at Bernies in 1989. Old Baldy, its out-of-service lighthouse, is the oldest still standing in the state, Bald Head Island is tiny but has played a part in two American wars. During the American Revolution, it was home to Fort George, during the Civil War, the same redoubts served as Fort Holmes, a Confederate base of importance to shipping and smuggling. In this area, large sand bars seasonally emerge from and subsequently retreat into the sea and these topographical transformations are often as rapid as they are drastic. The consensus view is that Bald Head Island emerged from one such sandbar, stabilized by a succession of plant life, author David Stick surmises that Native Americans used Bald Head Island in much the same way that it is used now, as a seasonal retreat. Bald Head Islands creek estuaries and its abundance of shellfish were probably as attractive to Native American fishermen as they are to modern fishermen, throughout the early European history of the Cape Fear region, Bald Head Island underwent several settlement attempts and went by many names. Unlike the specific landmarks which were renamed by settler, the region was always known by the well-earned name. Quexos sponsor, Lucas Vázquez de Ayllón, visited the region himself in 1526, when Ayllón lost a ship to the treacherous shoals he abandoned his exploration efforts. Over one hundred years after Quexos, William Hilton initiated an expedition called the Adventures about Cape Fayre by English Puritan dissidents in the 1660s, the effort was abandoned due to difficulties farming the sandy barren soil. Hilton returned in 1667 with the support of backers from Barbados, the Barbados Adventurers, aboard a ship and his efforts were again foiled by barren soil. In 1664, John Vassal founded Charles Town with the aid of Barbadian backers on the west bank of what is now the Cape Fear River and his efforts failed due to his agitation of the native population. He was further dissuaded when his efforts to become governor of the region, Clarendon County, were subverted, after the settlers abandoned Charles Town, Yeamans nearly lost his life when his boat sank in a maze of sand bars in the mouth of the Charles River. Instead of trying to revive the colony, Yeamans established Charles Town farther south in what is now Charleston, Charleston rapidly became a center of economic importance in the colonies
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Wilmington, North Carolina
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Wilmington is a port city and the county seat of New Hanover County in coastal southeastern North Carolina, United States. The population is 112,067, according to the 2010 Census it is the eighth most populous city in the state, Wilmington was settled by European Americans along the Cape Fear River. Its historic downtown has a one-mile-long Riverwalk, originally developed as a tourist attraction and it is minutes away from nearby beaches. The National Trust for Historic Preservation named Wilmington, North Carolina, in 2003 the city was designated by the US Congress as a Coast Guard City. It is the port for the USCGC Diligence, a United States Coast Guard medium endurance cutter. The World War II battleship USS North Carolina is held as a war memorial, located across from the port area. Other attractions include the Cape Fear Museum, the Wilmington Hammerheads United Soccer Leagues soccer team, Wilmington is the home of EUE Screen Gems Studios, the largest domestic television and movie production facility outside of California. Dream Stage 10, the facilitys newest sound stage, is the third-largest in the US and it houses the largest special-effects water tank in North America. After the studios opening in 1984, Wilmington became a center of American film. Numerous movies in a range of genres and several series, including Iron Man 3, Foxs Sleepy Hollow, One Tree Hill, Dawsons Creek. In recent years, however, the end of tax credits to the industry has severely impacted filmmaking in the entire area. The area had long inhabited by various cultures of indigenous peoples, at the time of European encounter. The ethnic European and African history of Wilmington spans more than two and a half centuries, giovanni da Verrazano is reportedly the first European to observe the area, including the citys present site, in the early 16th century. The first permanent European settlement in the area came in the 1720s when English colonists began settling the area, in September 1732, a community was founded on land owned by John Watson on the Cape Fear River, at the confluence of its northwest and northeast branches. The settlement, founded by the first royal governor, George Burrington, was called New Carthage, governor Gabriel Johnston soon after established his government there for the North Carolina colony. In 1739 or 1740, the town was incorporated with a new name, Wilmington, in honor of Spencer Compton, many of the settlers were indentured servants, mainly from the British Isles and northern Europe. As the indentured servants gained their freedom, the colonists imported a number of African slaves as laborers into the port city. By 1767, slaves accounted for more than 62% of the population of the Lower Cape Fear region, many worked in the port as laborers, and some in ship-related trades
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Pitt County, North Carolina
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Pitt County is a county located in the U. S. state of North Carolina. As of the 2010 census, the population was 168,148, Pitt County comprises the Greenville, NC Metropolitan Statistical Area. As one of the fastest growing centers in the state, the county has seen a boom since 1990. The county was formed in 1760 from Beaufort County, though the act that created it did not become effective until January 1,1761. It was named for William Pitt the Elder, who was then Secretary of State for the Southern Department, William Pitt was an English statesman and orator, born in London, England. He studied at Oxford University and in 1731 joined the army, Pitt led the young Patriot Whigs and in 1756 became secretary of state, where he was a pro-freedom speaker in British Colonial government. According to the U. S. Census Bureau, the county has an area of 655 square miles. The population density was 205 people per square mile, there were 58,408 housing units at an average density of 90 per square mile. 3. 15% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race,28. 30% of all households were made up of individuals and 7. 30% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.43 and the family size was 3.02. In the county, the population was out with 23. 60% under the age of 18,17. 50% from 18 to 24,29. 90% from 25 to 44,19. 40% from 45 to 64. The median age was 30 years, for every 100 females there were 90.20 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 86.40 males, the median income for a household in the county was $32,868, and the median income for a family was $43,971. Males had an income of $31,962 versus $25,290 for females. The per capita income for the county was $18,243, about 13. 50% of families and 20. 30% of the population were below the poverty line, including 21. 60% of those under age 18 and 20. 20% of those age 65 or over. As of the census of 2010, there were 168,148 people residing in Pitt County, females made up 52. 8% of the population. From the period of 2005 to 2009, the number of people living in the county was at 4%. 7% in the county during the same period of time. In 2009, the household income in Pitt County was $36,339, over $7,000 less than the North Carolina number
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Cedar Key, Florida
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Cedar Key is a city in Levy County, Florida, United States. The population was 702 at the 2010 census, the Cedar Keys are a cluster of islands near the mainland. Most of the area of the city has been on Way Key since the end of the 19th century. The Cedar Keys are named for the red cedar, Juniperus virginiana. While evidence suggests human occupation as far back as 500 BC, the first maps of the date to 1542. An archaeological dig at Shell Mound,9 miles north of Cedar Key, the only ancient burial found in Cedar Key was a 2, 000-year-old skeleton found in 1999. Arrow heads and spear points dating from the Paleo period were collected by Cedar Key historian St. Clair Whitman and are displayed at the Cedar Key Museum State Park. Followers of William Augustus Bowles, self-declared Director General of the State of Muskogee, the tower was destroyed by a Spanish force in 1802. In the period leading up to the First Seminole War, the British subjects Alexander Arbuthnot, the Cedar Keys may have been a refuge for escaped slaves in the early 1820s, and an entry point for the illegal slave trade later that decade. During the Second Seminole War, the United States Army established Fort No.4 on the adjacent to the Cedar Keys. In 1840, General Zachary Taylor requested the Cedar Keys be reserved for use for the duration of the war. In 1840, General Walker Keith Armistead, who had succeeded Zachary Taylor as commander of United States troops in the war, Depot Key was the headquarters for the Army in Florida, but Fishburne states headquarters was not in a fixed place, but wherever the commander was. A hurricane with a 27-foot storm surge struck the Cedar Keys on October 4,1842, destroying Cantonment Morgan, some Seminole leaders had been meeting with Army officers at Depot Key to negotiate their surrender or a retreat to a reservation in the Everglades. After the hurricane, the Seminoles refused to return to the area, colonel William J. Worth had declared the war to be over in August 1842, and Depot Key was abandoned by the Army after the hurricane. With the abandonment of the Army base on Depot Key, the Cedar Keys became available for settlement under the act, under the terms of the act, several people received permits for settlement on Depot Key, Way Key, and Scale Key. Augustus Steele, US Customs House Officer for Hillsborough County, Florida, and postmaster for Tampa Bay, received the permit for Depot Key, in 1843, he bought the buildings on the island, and built some cottages for wealthy guests. In 1844, he became the Collector of Customs for the port of Cedar Key, a post office named Cedar Key was established on Atsena Otie Key in 1845. The Florida legislature chartered the City of Atseena Otie in 1859, Cedar Key became an important port, shipping lumber and naval stores harvested on the mainland
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Storm surge
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Most casualties during tropical cyclones occur as the result of storm surges. The deadliest storm surge on record was the 1970 Bhola cyclone, the low-lying coast of the Bay of Bengal is particularly vulnerable to surges caused by tropical cyclones. The deadliest storm surge in the twenty-first century was caused by the Cyclone Nargis, the next deadliest in this century was caused by the Typhoon Haiyan, which killed more than 6,000 people in the central Philippines in 2013 and resulted in economic losses estimated at $14 billion. Louis, Diamondhead and Pass Christian in Mississippi, a high storm surge occurred in New York City from Hurricane Sandy in October 2012, with a high tide of 14 ft. The pressure effects of a tropical cyclone will cause the level in the open ocean to rise in regions of low atmospheric pressure. The rising water level will counteract the low pressure such that the total pressure at some plane beneath the water surface remains constant. This effect is estimated at a 10 mm increase in sea level for every millibar drop in atmospheric pressure, strong surface winds cause surface currents at a 45° angle to the wind direction, by an effect known as the Ekman Spiral. Wind stresses cause a phenomenon referred to as wind set-up, which is the tendency for water levels to increase at the downwind shore, intuitively, this is caused by the storm simply blowing the water towards one side of the basin in the direction of its winds. Because the Ekman Spiral effects spread vertically through the water, the effect is proportional to depth. The pressure effect and the wind set-up on an open coast will be driven into bays in the way as the astronomical tide. The Earths rotation causes the Coriolis effect, which bends currents to the right in the Northern Hemisphere and to the left in the Southern Hemisphere. When this bend brings the currents into more contact with the shore it can amplify the surge. The effect of waves, while powered by the wind, is distinct from a storms wind-powered currents. Powerful wind whips up large, strong waves in the direction of its movement, although these surface waves are responsible for very little water transport in open water, they may be responsible for significant transport near the shore. When waves are breaking on a more or less parallel to the beach. The rainfall effect is experienced predominantly in estuaries, Hurricanes may dump as much as 12 in of rainfall in 24 hours over large areas, and higher rainfall densities in localized areas. As a result, watersheds can quickly surge water into the rivers that drain them and this can increase the water level near the head of tidal estuaries as storm-driven waters surging in from the ocean meet rainfall flowing from the estuary. This situation well exemplified by the southeast coast of Florida
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St. Petersburg, Florida
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St. Petersburg is a city in Pinellas County, Florida, United States. As of the 2015 census estimate, the population was 257,083, making it the fifth-most populous city in Florida, St. Petersburg is the second-largest city in the Tampa Bay Area, after Tampa. Together with Clearwater, these comprise the Tampa–St. Petersburg–Clearwater Metropolitan Statistical Area, the second-largest in Florida with a population of around 2.8 million, St. Petersburg is located on a peninsula between Tampa Bay and the Gulf of Mexico, and is connected to mainland Florida to the north. St. Petersburg was founded in 1888 by John C, Williams, who purchased the land, and by Peter Demens, who brought the railroad industry into the area. St. Petersburg was incorporated as a town on February 29,1892, the city is often referred to by locals as St. Pete. Neighboring St. Pete Beach formally shortened its name in 1994 after a vote by its residents, St. Petersburg is governed by a mayor and city council. With an average of some 361 days of each year. Due to its weather and low cost of living, the city has long been a popular retirement destination. American Style magazine ranked St. Petersburg its top mid-size city in 2011, the city was co-founded by John C. Williams, formerly of Detroit, who purchased the land in 1875, the first major newspaper to debut in Tampa Bay was the St. Petersburg Times which established in 1884. St. Petersburg was incorporated as a town on February 29,1892, a local legend says that John C. Williams and Peter Demens flipped a coin to see who would have the honor of naming the city. The Detroit Hotel still exists downtown, but has turned into a condominium. The oldest running hotels are the historic Pier Hotel, built in 1921, formally Hotel Cordova and The Heritage Hotel, Philadelphia publisher F. A. Davis turned on St. Petersburgs first electrical service in 1897 and its first trolley service in 1904. Within a year, Hibbs Fish Company was shipping more than 1,000 pounds of fish each day, St. Petersburg was incorporated into a city in June 1903. With this transition, the development of the waterfront had dredging of a deeper shipping channel from 1906 to 1908 which opened St. Petersburg to larger shipping. Further dredging improved the facilities through the 1910s. By then the population had quadrupled to a population of 4,127 citizens
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Tropical wave
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All tropical waves form in the easterly flow along the equatorward side of the subtropical ridge or belt of high pressure which lies north and south of the Intertropical Convergence Zone. Tropical waves are carried westward by the prevailing easterly winds along the tropics and subtropics near the equator. They can lead to the formation of cyclones in the north Atlantic. Tropical wave study is aided by Hovmöller diagrams, a graph of meteorological data, a tropical wave normally follows an area of sinking, intensely dry air, blowing from the northeast. After the passage of the line, the wind veers southeast, the humidity abruptly rises. This yields widespread showers and thunderstorms, sometimes severe, as the wave moves westward, the showers gradually diminish. An exception to this rain is in the Atlantic, sometimes, a surge of dry air called the Saharan Air Layer follows a tropical wave, leaving cloudless skies, as convection is capped by the dry layer inversion. Also, any dust in the SAL reflects sunlight, cooling the air below it, Tropical waves in the Atlantic basin develop from disturbances which develop as far east as Sudan in east Africa and drift over the continent into the Atlantic ocean. These are generated or enhanced by the African Easterly Jet, approximately 60% of Atlantic tropical cyclones originate from tropical waves, while approximately 85% of intense Atlantic hurricanes develop from tropical waves. Tropical cyclones can sometimes degenerate back into a tropical wave and this normally occurs if upper-level wind shear is too strong. The storm can redevelop if the upper level shear abates, if a tropical wave is moving quickly, it can have strong winds of over tropical storm force, but is not considered a tropical storm unless it has a closed circulation. An example of this was Hurricane Claudette in 2003, where the wave had winds of 45 mph before developing a circulation. It has been suggested that some eastern Pacific Ocean tropical cyclones are formed out of tropical waves that originate in North Africa as well. A screaming eagle is a wave whose convective pattern loosely resembles the head of an eagle. This phenomenon is caused by shearing from either westerly winds aloft or strong winds at the surface. These systems are located within 25 degrees latitude of the equator. Rain showers and surface winds gusting to 29 mph are associated with these waves and they move across the ocean at a rate of 15 mph. Strong thunderstorm activity can be associated with the features when located east of an upper tropospheric trough
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Barbuda
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Barbuda is an island in the Eastern Caribbean, and forms part of the state of Antigua and Barbuda. It has a population of about 1,638, most of live in the town of Codrington. Barbuda is located north of Antigua, in the middle of the Leeward Islands, to the south are the islands of Montserrat and Guadeloupe, and to the west and north west are Nevis, St. Kitts, St. Barts, and St. Martin. The Ciboney were the first to inhabit the island of Barbuda in 2400 BC, early settlements by the Spanish and French were succeeded by the English, who formed a colony in 1666. In 1685 Barbuda was leased to brothers Christopher and John Codrington, the Codrington family produced food on their land in Barbuda, and also transported slaves as labour for their sugarcane plantations on Antigua. There was more than one slave rebellion at Codrington during the 1740s, all the slaves were freed in 1834. Despite a common belief, even by Barbudans themselves, the island was never used as a farm for slave-breeding experiments. At most, the Codringtons considered using Barbuda as a nursery, where children would be fed and cared for to then work on Antiguan plantations. In 1719, Codrington and the island of Barbuda had its first census, the first map of Barbuda was made in the second half of the 18th century. The map shows eight catching pens for holding captured runaway slaves, there were several defensive cannon gun battery units around the island perimeter. There was a plantation in the Meadow and Guava area. On November 1,1981, the island gained its independence as an part of Antigua and Barbuda. In a 1989 election the Barbuda Independence Movement received too few votes to qualify for a seat in the national parliament, Barbuda is home to the Frigate Bird Sanctuary, which is located in the Codrington Lagoon. Other points of interest include Highland House and the Indian Cave, barbudas climate and geography is conducive to tourism. Many tourists are attracted by the islands beaches, activities include a bird sanctuary, swimming, snorkeling, fishing, and caving. Only two operating resorts are located on the island, the rest are abandoned after poor management, difficult infrastructure, the total land area is 160.56 km2. The capital and largest city is Codrington, with a population of 1,000. The island is mostly limestone with little topographical variation
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National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
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The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration is an American scientific agency within the United States Department of Commerce focused on the conditions of the oceans and the atmosphere. NOAA warns of dangerous weather, charts seas, guides the use and protection of ocean and coastal resources, and conducts research to improve understanding and stewardship of the environment. In addition to its employees, over 11,000 as of 2015, NOAA research. NOAA plays several roles in society, the benefits of which extend beyond the U. S. economy and into the larger global community. NOAA supplies information to its customers and partners pertaining to the state of the oceans and this is clearly manifest in the production of weather warnings and forecasts through the National Weather Service, but NOAAs information products extend to climate, ecosystems, and commerce as well. A Provider of Environmental Stewardship Services, NOAA is also the steward of U. S. coastal and marine environments. A Leader in Applied Scientific Research, the five fundamental activities are, Monitoring and observing Earth systems with instruments and data collection networks. Understanding and describing Earth systems through research and analysis of that data, assessing and predicting the changes of these systems over time. Engaging, advising, and informing the public and partner organizations with important information, managing resources for the betterment of society, economy and environment. NOAA formed a conglomeration of several existing agencies that were among the oldest in the federal government, NOAA was established within the Department of Commerce via the Reorganization Plan No.4 of 1970. In 2007 NOAA celebrated 200 years of service with its ties to the United States Coast, the NOAA Commissioned Officer Corps is a uniformed service of men and women who operate NOAA ships and aircraft, and serve in scientific and administrative posts. And in addition more than a dozen staff offices, including the Office of the Federal Coordinator for Meteorology, the NOAA Central Library and this is done through a collection of national and regional centers,13 river forecast centers, and more than 120 local weather forecast offices. They are charged with issuing weather and river forecasts, advisories, watches and they issue more than 734,000 weather and 850,000 river forecasts, and more than 45,000 severe weather warnings annually. NOAA data is relevant to the issues of global warming. The NWS operates NEXRAD, a network of Doppler weather radars which can detect precipitation. Many of their products are broadcast on NOAA Weather Radio, a network of transmitters that broadcasts weather forecasts, severe weather statements, watches. The National Ocean Service focuses on ensuring that ocean and coastal areas are safe, healthy, in 1960 TIROS-1, NOAAs first owned and operated geostationary satellite was launched. Since 1966 NESDIS has managed polar orbiting satellites and since 1974 it has operated geosynchronous satellites, in 1979 NOAAs first polar-orbiting environmental satellite was launched
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National Climatic Data Center
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The United States National Climatic Data Center, previously known as the National Weather Records Center, in Asheville, North Carolina was the worlds largest active archive of weather data. Starting as a unit in New Orleans, Louisiana in 1934. It was later renamed the National Climatic Data Center, with relocation occurring in 1993, in 2015, it was merged with the National Geophysical Data Center and the National Oceanic Data Center into the National Centers for Environmental Information. In 1934, a unit was established in New Orleans. Climate records and upper air observations were punched onto cards in 1936 and this organization was transferred to Asheville, North Carolina in 1951, where the National Weather Records Center was established. It was housed in the Grove Arcade Building in Asheville, North Carolina and this name was maintained by the agency through 1967. The NCDC was then housed at the Veach-Baley Federal Complex in downtown Asheville where it moved after the completion in 1995. In 2015, NCDC merged with the National Geophysical Data Center, the Center provided historical perspectives on climate which were vital to studies on global climate change, the greenhouse effect, and other environmental issues. The Center stored information essential to industry, agriculture, science, hydrology, transportation, recreation and these services are still provided by the NCEI. The NCDC stated, Evidence is mounting that global climate is changing, the extent to which man is responsible is still under study. Regardless of the causes, it is essential that a baseline of long-term climate data be compiled, therefore, global data must be acquired, quality controlled, NCDC provides the historical perspective on climate. Through the use of over a years of weather observations. From this knowledge the clientele of NCDC can learn from the past to prepare for a better tomorrow, wise use of our most valuable natural resource, climate, is the goal of climate researchers, state and regional climate centers, business, and commerce. NCDC also maintained World Data Center for Meteorology, Asheville, the four World Centers have created a free and open situation in which data and dialogue are exchanged. NCDC maintained the US Climate Reference Network datasets amongst a vast number of climate monitoring products. Climate Prediction Center Environmental data rescue National Severe Storms Laboratory State of the Climate Storm Prediction Center
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National Weather Service
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It is a part of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration branch of the Department of Commerce, and is headquartered in Silver Spring, Maryland. The agency was known as the United States Weather Bureau from 1890 until it adopted its current name in 1970, the NWS performs its primary task through a collection of national and regional centers, and 122 local weather forecast offices. As the NWS is a government agency, most of its products are in the public domain, the agency was placed under the Secretary of War as Congress felt military discipline would probably secure the greatest promptness, regularity, and accuracy in the required observations. Within the Department of War, it was assigned to the U. S. Army Signal Service under Brigadier General Albert J. Myer, General Myer gave the National Weather Service its first name, The Division of Telegrams and Reports for the Benefit of Commerce. The agency first became an enterprise in 1890, when it became part of the Department of Agriculture. The first Weather Bureau radiosonde was launched in Massachusetts in 1937, the Bureau would later be moved to the Department of Commerce in 1940. On July 12,1950, bureau chief Francis W, the Weather Bureau became part of the Environmental Science Services Administration when that agency was formed in August 1966. The Environmental Science Services Administration was renamed the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration on October 1,1970, at this time, the Weather Bureau became the National Weather Service. NEXRAD, a system of Doppler radars deployed to improve the detection and warning time of local storms, replaced the WSR-57. Bob Glahn has written a history of the first hundred years of the National Weather Service. The NWS, through a variety of sub-organizations, issues different forecast products to users, although, throughout history, text forecasts have been the means of product dissemination, the NWS has been using more forecast products of a digital, gridded, image or other modern format. Each of the 122 Weather Forecast Offices send their graphical forecasts to a server to be compiled in the National Digital Forecast Database. The NDFD is a collection of weather observations used by organizations and the public, including precipitation amount, temperature. Specific points in the database can be accessed using an XML SOAP service. The National Weather Service issues many products relating to wildfires daily, for example, a Fire Weather Forecast, which have a forecast period covering up to seven days, is issued by local Weather Forecast Offices daily, with updates as needed. The forecasts contain weather information relevant to fire control and smoke management for the next 12 to 48 hours, such as direction and speed. The appropriate crews use this information to plan for staffing and equipment levels, the ability to conduct scheduled controlled burns, and assess the daily fire danger. Once per day, NWS meteorologists issue a coded fire weather forecast for specific United States Forest Service observation sites that are input into the National Fire Danger Rating System
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Portable Document Format
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The Portable Document Format is a file format used to present documents in a manner independent of application software, hardware, and operating systems. Each PDF file encapsulates a complete description of a fixed-layout flat document, including the text, fonts, graphics, PDF was developed in the early 1990s as a way to share computer documents, including text formatting and inline images. It was among a number of competing formats such as DjVu, Envoy, Common Ground Digital Paper, Farallon Replica, in those early years before the rise of the World Wide Web and HTML documents, PDF was popular mainly in desktop publishing workflows. Adobe Systems made the PDF specification available free of charge in 1993 and these proprietary technologies are not standardized and their specification is published only on Adobe’s website. Many of them are not supported by popular third-party implementations of PDF. So when organizations publish PDFs which use proprietary technologies, they present accessibility issues for some users. In 2014, ISO TC171 voted to deprecate XFA for ISO 32000-2, on January 9,2017, the final draft for ISO 32000-2 was published, thus reaching the approval stage. The PDF combines three technologies, A subset of the PostScript page description programming language, for generating the layout, a font-embedding/replacement system to allow fonts to travel with the documents. A structured storage system to bundle these elements and any associated content into a single file, PostScript is a page description language run in an interpreter to generate an image, a process requiring many resources. It can handle graphics and standard features of programming such as if. PDF is largely based on PostScript but simplified to remove flow control features like these, often, the PostScript-like PDF code is generated from a source PostScript file. The graphics commands that are output by the PostScript code are collected and tokenized, any files, graphics, or fonts to which the document refers also are collected. Then, everything is compressed to a single file, therefore, the entire PostScript world remains intact. PDF supports graphic transparency, PostScript does not, PostScript is an interpreted programming language with an implicit global state, so instructions accompanying the description of one page can affect the appearance of any following page. Therefore, all preceding pages in a PostScript document must be processed to determine the appearance of a given page. A PDF file is a 7-bit ASCII file, except for elements that may have binary content. A PDF file starts with a header containing the magic number, the format is a subset of a COS format. A COS tree file consists primarily of objects, of which there are eight types, Boolean values, representing true or false Numbers Strings, enclosed within parentheses, objects may be either direct or indirect
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Atlantic hurricane season
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The Atlantic hurricane season is the period in a year when hurricanes usually form in the Atlantic Ocean. Tropical cyclones in the North Atlantic are called hurricanes, tropical storms, in addition, there have been several storms over the years that have not been fully tropical and are categorized as subtropical depressions and subtropical storms. Worldwide, tropical cyclone activity peaks in summer, when the difference between temperatures aloft and sea surface temperatures is the greatest. However, each basin has its own seasonal patterns. On a worldwide scale, May is the least active month, Tropical disturbances that reach tropical storm intensity are named from a pre-determined list. On average,10.1 named storms occur each season, the most active season was 2005, during which 28 tropical cyclones formed, of which a record 15 became hurricanes. The least active season was 1914, with one known tropical cyclone developing during that year. The Atlantic hurricane season is a time when most tropical cyclones are expected to develop across the northern Atlantic Ocean and it is currently defined as the time frame from June 1 through November 30, though in the past the season was defined as a shorter time frame. The basic concept of a hurricane season began during 1935, when dedicated wire circuits known as hurricane circuits began to be set up along the Gulf and Atlantic coasts, a process completed by 1955. It was originally the time frame when the tropics were monitored routinely for tropical cyclone activity, over the years, the beginning date was shifted back to June 1, while the end date was shifted to November 15, before settling at November 30 by 1965. Since regular satellite surveillance began, hurricane hunter aircraft fly only into areas which are first spotted by satellite imagery. If systems occur outside the hurricane season, special Tropical Weather Outlooks will be issued. Possible tropical cyclones are depicted with a closed isobar, while systems with less certainty to develop are depicted as spot lows with no isobar surrounding them. The original database of positions and intensities were put together in the 1960s in support of the Apollo space program to help provide statistical track forecast guidance. HURDAT was not designed with all of these uses in mind when it was first put together, HURDAT contains numerous systematic as well as some random errors in the database. Additionally, analysis techniques have changed over the years at NHC as their understanding of tropical cyclones has developed, another difficulty in applying the hurricane database to studies concerned with landfalling events is the lack of exact location, time and intensity at hurricane landfall. HURDAT is regularly updated annually to reflect the seasons activity. The older portion of the database has been revised since 2001
