1.
1921 Tampa Bay hurricane
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The Tampa Bay hurricane of 1921 was the third hurricane, second major hurricane, and final storm of an inactive 1921 Atlantic hurricane season. The storm took a path for an October Atlantic hurricane, brushing past Cuba before hitting near Tampa, Florida. The hurricane was also the most destructive storm of the season, causing around $10 million and it is the last major hurricane to strike the Tampa Bay area to date. The storm was observed on October 20 while several hundred miles southwest of Jamaica and its origin is unknown, though it possibly developed from a low pressure area over Panama a day earlier. A high pressure system over Bermuda caused a north-northwest motion, allowing for the storm to intensify over favorable conditions, on October 22, the storm attained hurricane status shortly after passing 10 miles east of the Swan Islands. As it turned to the north in the Gulf of Mexico, the hurricane quickly crossed Central Florida before entering the Atlantic, weakening to a minimal hurricane over land. It accelerated to the southeast before recurving to the east-northeast and it transformed into an extratropical cyclone on October 30 while centered southeast of Bermuda. In Cuba, heavy rainfall in Pinar del Río Province caused rivers, however, only minimal damage was reported. The hurricane passed to the west of the Florida Keys as a Category 4 hurricane and its large wind field caused tropical storm force winds to the islands, with the highest wind report being 48 mph in Key West. Rainfall from the outer bands was intermittent, and storm tides of 5 feet were reported. Further north, Captiva and Sanibel islands were inundated with water. In Punta Rassa, the majority of homes were extensively damaged or washed away. Most highways leading out of Fort Myers were left due to high water. Damage to railroad tracks resulted in a suspension of service for three days, on Estero Island, a number of buildings were damaged, including the casinos, cottages, and Crescent Beach resort. The storm also destroyed the mausoleum of Dr. Cyrus Teed, along the Myakka River near Boca Grande, the railroad bridge washed away, while the storm also destroyed two vehicular bridges over the Charlotte Harbor Bay. The streets of Punta Gorda were inundated, where a tide of 7 ft above normal was recorded, egmont Key and Sanibel Island were both practically covered by water. The hurricane brought a surge of 10–12 ft to Tampa Bay. The highest rainfall total in Tampa was at 8.53 in, however, the observer noted that winds probably blew water out of the gauge
2.
Bar (unit)
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The bar is a metric unit of pressure, but is not approved as part of the International System of Units. It is defined as equal to 100000 Pa, which is slightly less than the current average atmospheric pressure on Earth at sea level. The bar and the millibar were introduced by the Norwegian meteorologist Vilhelm Bjerknes, use of the bar is deprecated by some professional bodies in some fields. The International Astronomical Union also lists it under Non-SI units and symbols whose continued use is deprecated, as of 2004, the bar is legally recognized in countries of the European Union. Units derived from the bar include the megabar, kilobar, decibar, centibar, the notation bar, though deprecated by various bodies, represents gauge pressure, i. e. pressure in bars above ambient or atmospheric pressure. The bar is defined using the SI derived unit, pascal,1 bar ≡100000 Pa. Thus,1 bar is equal to,100 kPa 1×105 N/m21000000 Ba, notes,1 millibar =1 one-thousandth bar, or 1×10−3 bar 1 millibar =1 hectopascal. The word bar has its origin in the Greek word βάρος, the units official symbol is bar, the earlier symbol b is now deprecated and conflicts with the use of b denoting the unit barn, but it is still encountered, especially as mb to denote the millibar. Between 1793 and 1795, the bar was used for a unit of weight in an early version of the metric system. Atmospheric air pressure is given in millibars where standard sea level pressure is defined as 1013 mbar,101.3,1.013 bar. Despite the millibar not being an SI unit, meteorologists and weather reporters worldwide have long measured air pressure in millibars as the values are convenient, for example, the weather office of Environment Canada uses kilopascals and hectopascals on their weather maps. In contrast, Americans are familiar with the use of the millibar in US reports of hurricanes, in fresh water, there is an approximate numerical equivalence between the change in pressure in decibars and the change in depth from the water surface in metres. Specifically, an increase of 1 decibar occurs for every 1.019716 m increase in depth, in sea water with respect to the gravity variation, the latitude and the geopotential anomaly the pressure can be converted into meters depth according to an empirical formula. As a result, decibars are commonly used in oceanography, many engineers worldwide use the bar as a unit of pressure because, in much of their work, using pascals would involve using very large numbers. In the automotive field, turbocharger boost is often described in bars outside the USA), unicode has characters for mb and bar, but they exist only for compatibility with legacy Asian encodings and are not intended to be used in new documents. The kilobar, equivalent to 100 MPa, is used in geological systems. Bar and bara are sometimes used to indicate absolute pressures and bar and this usage is deprecated and fuller descriptions such as gauge pressure of 2 bar or 2 bar gauge are recommended.0 Unported License but not under the GFDL. Non-SI units accepted for use with the SI
3.
Pascal (unit)
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The pascal is the SI derived unit of pressure used to quantify internal pressure, stress, Youngs modulus and ultimate tensile strength. It is defined as one newton per square meter and it is named after the French polymath Blaise Pascal. Common multiple units of the pascal are the hectopascal which is equal to one millibar, the unit of measurement called standard atmosphere is defined as 101,325 Pa and approximates to the average pressure at sea-level at the latitude 45° N. Meteorological reports typically state atmospheric pressure in hectopascals, the unit is named after Blaise Pascal, noted for his contributions to hydrodynamics and hydrostatics, and experiments with a barometer. The name pascal was adopted for the SI unit newton per square metre by the 14th General Conference on Weights, one pascal is the pressure exerted by a force of magnitude one newton perpendicularly upon an area of one square metre. The unit of measurement called atmosphere or standard atmosphere is 101325 Pa and this value is often used as a reference pressure and specified as such in some national and international standards, such as ISO2787, ISO2533 and ISO5024. In contrast, IUPAC recommends the use of 100 kPa as a standard pressure when reporting the properties of substances, geophysicists use the gigapascal in measuring or calculating tectonic stresses and pressures within the Earth. Medical elastography measures tissue stiffness non-invasively with ultrasound or magnetic resonance imaging, in materials science and engineering, the pascal measures the stiffness, tensile strength and compressive strength of materials. In engineering use, because the pascal represents a small quantity. The pascal is also equivalent to the SI unit of energy density and this applies not only to the thermodynamics of pressurised gases, but also to the energy density of electric, magnetic, and gravitational fields. In measurements of sound pressure, or loudness of sound, one pascal is equal to 94 decibels SPL, the quietest sound a human can hear, known as the threshold of hearing, is 0 dB SPL, or 20 µPa. The airtightness of buildings is measured at 50 Pa, the units of atmospheric pressure commonly used in meteorology were formerly the bar, which was close to the average air pressure on Earth, and the millibar. Since the introduction of SI units, meteorologists generally measure pressures in hectopascals unit, exceptions include Canada and Portugal, which use kilopascals. In many other fields of science, the SI is preferred, many countries also use the millibar or hectopascal to give aviation altimeter settings. In practically all fields, the kilopascal is used instead. Centimetre of water Metric prefix Orders of magnitude Pascals law
4.
United States dollar
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The United States dollar is the official currency of the United States and its insular territories per the United States Constitution. It is divided into 100 smaller cent units, the circulating paper money consists of Federal Reserve Notes that are denominated in United States dollars. The U. S. dollar was originally commodity money of silver as enacted by the Coinage Act of 1792 which determined the dollar to be 371 4/16 grain pure or 416 grain standard silver, the currency most used in international transactions, it is the worlds primary reserve currency. Several countries use it as their currency, and in many others it is the de facto currency. Besides the United States, it is used as the sole currency in two British Overseas Territories in the Caribbean, the British Virgin Islands and Turks and Caicos Islands. A few countries use the Federal Reserve Notes for paper money, while the country mints its own coins, or also accepts U. S. coins that can be used as payment in U. S. dollars. After Nixon shock of 1971, USD became fiat currency, Article I, Section 8 of the U. S. Constitution provides that the Congress has the power To coin money, laws implementing this power are currently codified at 31 U. S. C. Section 5112 prescribes the forms in which the United States dollars should be issued and these coins are both designated in Section 5112 as legal tender in payment of debts. The Sacagawea dollar is one example of the copper alloy dollar, the pure silver dollar is known as the American Silver Eagle. Section 5112 also provides for the minting and issuance of other coins and these other coins are more fully described in Coins of the United States dollar. The Constitution provides that a regular Statement and Account of the Receipts and that provision of the Constitution is made specific by Section 331 of Title 31 of the United States Code. The sums of money reported in the Statements are currently being expressed in U. S. dollars, the U. S. dollar may therefore be described as the unit of account of the United States. The word dollar is one of the words in the first paragraph of Section 9 of Article I of the Constitution, there, dollars is a reference to the Spanish milled dollar, a coin that had a monetary value of 8 Spanish units of currency, or reales. In 1792 the U. S. Congress passed a Coinage Act, Section 20 of the act provided, That the money of account of the United States shall be expressed in dollars, or units. And that all accounts in the offices and all proceedings in the courts of the United States shall be kept and had in conformity to this regulation. In other words, this act designated the United States dollar as the unit of currency of the United States, unlike the Spanish milled dollar the U. S. dollar is based upon a decimal system of values. Both one-dollar coins and notes are produced today, although the form is significantly more common
5.
Atlantic hurricane
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An Atlantic hurricane or tropical storm is a tropical cyclone that forms in the Atlantic Ocean, usually in the summer or fall. A hurricane differs from a cyclone or typhoon only on the basis of location, a hurricane is a storm that occurs in the Atlantic Ocean and northeastern Pacific Ocean, a typhoon occurs in the northwestern Pacific Ocean, and a cyclone occurs in the south Pacific or Indian Ocean. Tropical cyclones can be categorized by intensity, Tropical storms have one-minute maximum sustained winds of at least 39 mph, while hurricanes have one-minute maximum sustained winds exceeding 74 mph. Most North Atlantic tropical storms and hurricanes form between June 1 and November 30, in recent times, tropical disturbances that reach tropical storm intensity are named from a predetermined list. On average, in the North Atlantic basin 11.3 named storms occur each season, the climatological peak of activity is around September 11 each season. In March 2004, Catarina was the first hurricane-intensity tropical cyclone recorded in the Southern Atlantic Ocean. Tropical cyclones are steered by the flow throughout the depth of the troposphere. Specifically, air flow around high pressure systems and toward low pressure areas influence hurricane tracks, south of the subtropical ridge, surface easterly winds prevail. If the subtropical ridge is weakened by a trough, a tropical cyclone may turn poleward and then recurve. Poleward of the ridge, westerly winds prevail and generally steer tropical cyclones that reach northern latitudes toward the east. The westerlies also steer extratropical cyclones with their cold and warm fronts from west to east, generally speaking, the intensity of a tropical cyclone is determined by either the storms maximum sustained winds or lowest barometric pressure. The following table lists the most intense Atlantic hurricanes in terms of their lowest barometric pressure, in terms of wind speed, Hurricane Allen was the strongest Atlantic tropical cyclone on record, with maximum sustained winds of 190 mph. However, these measurements are suspect since instrumentation used to document wind speeds at the time would likely succumb to winds of such intensity, nonetheless, their central pressures are low enough to rank them among the strongest recorded Atlantic hurricanes. Owing to their intensity, the strongest Atlantic hurricanes have all attained Category 5 classification, Hurricane Opal, the strongest Category 4 hurricane recorded, intensified to reach a minimum pressure of 916 mbar, a pressure typical of Category 5 hurricanes. Nonetheless, the pressure remains too high to list Opal as one of the ten strongest Atlantic tropical cyclones, however, this was later superseded by Hurricane Patricia in 2015 in the east Pacific, which had a pressure reading of 872 mbar. Preceding Wilma is Hurricane Gilbert, which had held the record for most intense Atlantic hurricane for 17 years. The 1935 Labor Day hurricane, with a pressure of 892 mbar, is the third strongest Atlantic hurricane, since the measurements taken during Wilma and Gilbert were documented using dropsonde, this pressure remains the lowest measured over land. However, with a pressure of 895 mbar, Rita is the strongest tropical cyclone ever recorded in the Gulf of Mexico
6.
1919 Atlantic hurricane season
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The 1919 Atlantic hurricane season was among the least active hurricane seasons in the Atlantic on record, featuring only five tropical storms. A tropical storm in July brought minor damage to Pensacola, Florida, another two tropical depressions formed in August, the first of which brought rainfall to the Lesser Antilles. The most intense cyclone of the season was the Florida Keys hurricane. Many deaths occurred after ships capsized in Bahamas, the Florida Keys, strong winds left about $2 million in damage in Key West. After crossing the Gulf of Mexico, severe impact was reported in Texas, overall, the hurricane caused 828 fatalities and $22 million in damage, $20 million of which was inflicted in Texas alone. Three other tropical cyclones developed in September, including two tropical storms and one tropical depression, all of which left negligible impact on land, the final tropical system of the season also did not affect land and became extratropical on November 15. The seasons activity was reflected with an accumulated cyclone energy rating of 55 and it is only calculated for full advisories on tropical systems at or exceeding 39 mph, which is tropical storm strength. Historical weather maps indicate a tropical wave in the southeastern Gulf of Mexico on July 2, around 18,00 UTC, the depression strengthened into a tropical storm. Moving north-northwestward, it peaked with sustained winds winds of 65 mph. The storm remained very small in diameter at all times, at 11,00 UTC on July 4, the storm made landfall near Navarre, Florida at the same intensity. Early the next day, it weakened to a tropical depression, in Pensacola, Florida, the auxiliary schooner Nautilus of the E. E. Saunders Fish Companys fleet was destroyed, resulting in $1,500 in damage. The schooner W. D. Hossack was abandoned by the crew, though this vessel was salvaged by the schooner Bluefields. Light damage to crops was also reported, a tropical wave developed into a tropical depression on September 2, while located near Guadeloupe. Early on September 3, the became a tropical storm. It oscillated slightly in intensity during the few days, while brushing Puerto Rico. By September 5, the storm headed northward toward the southeastern Bahamas, the system crossed Mayaguana and began curving northwestward. Early on September 7, the strengthened into a Category 1 hurricane on the modern-day Saffir–Simpson hurricane wind scale, while curving just north of due west. After intensifying into a Category 2 hurricane later that day, the hurricane struck Long Island, around 12,00 UTC on September 8, the storm strengthened into a Category 3 hurricane, shortly before striking Andros
7.
1920 Atlantic hurricane season
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The 1920 Atlantic hurricane season featured tropical storms and hurricanes only in the month of September. Although no hurricane season was defined at the time, the delineation of such is June 1 to November 30. The first system, a hurricane, developed on September 7 while the last, of note, four of the six cyclones co-existed with another tropical cyclone during the season. Of the seasons six tropical cyclones, five tropical storms. Furthermore, none of these strengthened into a major hurricane—Category 3 or higher on the modern-day Saffir–Simpson hurricane wind scale—marking the seventh such occurrence since 1900, the strongest hurricane of the season peaked as only as a strong Category 2 with winds of 110 mph. The second hurricane caused one death and $1.45 million in damage in Louisiana, the left one fatality in North Carolina. The seasons activity was reflected with an accumulated cyclone energy rating of 30 and it is only calculated for full advisories on tropical systems at or exceeding 39 mph, which is tropical storm strength. The first known storm of the season was identified on September 7 as a 40 mph tropical storm over Atlantic Ocean. Traveling towards the northwest, the storm intensified, attaining hurricane-status late on September 9. The following day, a ship in the vicinity of the recorded a pressure of 985 mbar. Around 1200 UTC, the hurricane turned towards the north and intensified into a modern-day Category 2 hurricane on the Saffir-Simpson Hurricane Scale early on September 11, the storm continued to intensify through September 12 when it reached its peak intensity with winds of 110 mph. After maintaining this intensity for 18 hours, the hurricane began to weaken as it turned towards the northwest, by 0000 UTC on September 14, the storm weakened to a Category 1 hurricane. The system began to undergo a transition, completing the process early the next day. The system tracked nearly due east before dissipating on September 16 to the north of the Azores islands, an area of disturbed weather developed into a tropical depression northwest of Colombia on September 16. Afterwards, it weakened over land, before dissipating on September 23 over eastern Kansas. As it approached the United States Gulf Coast, the forced a estimated 4,500 people to evacuate off of Galveston Island. At landfall, the hurricane generated strong winds along a swath of the coast, uprooting trees and causing damage to homes. Heavy rainfall associated with the peaked at 11.9 in in Robertsdale
8.
1922 Atlantic hurricane season
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The 1922 Atlantic hurricane season ran through the summer and the first half of fall in 1922. The season was a one, with only five tropical cyclones forming during the course of the season. The first was a storm that passed over the Yucatán Peninsula. The second was a hurricane, the strongest one of the season and it formed near Cape Verde and curved out into the Atlantic. It grazed the Leeward Islands and battered Bermuda, passing just offshore as a Category 3, the hurricane became extratropical soon after it passed Bermuda. The third was a storm that passed over Cuba and made landfall near Pensacola. The last storm of the season was a Category 2 hurricane that made landfall near Cancún, the hurricane weakened in the Bay of Campeche and dissipated just offshore. A fifth storm was found in reanalysis in 2009, observations from ships indicate that a tropical disturbance developed into to a tropical depression offshore Cabo Gracias a Dios, Nicaragua, on June 12. The depression continued northwestward without significantly intensifying, heavy rainfall was reported in the Swan Islands of Honduras on June 12 and June 13. Early on June 14, the depression made landfall in Mahahual, Quintana Roo, the cyclone entered the Gulf of Mexico late that day and began strengthening, reaching tropical storm status early on June 15. Around 18,00 UTC, the storm peaked with sustained winds of 50 mph. The system made landfall near La Pesca, Tamaulipas, at the same intensity early on June 16, after moving inland, the storm quickly weakened and dissipated by 18,00 UTC. The storm and its remnants brought rainfall to Rio Grande valley. In Texas, the river at Eagle Pass reached 45.6 ft,29.6 ft above flood stage, two bridges washed away, while businesses and homes were damaged. Further down the river, the swollen crest of the Rio Grande and San Juan rivers merged, causing significant flooding in Cameron, many towns in both county suffered severe damage. It was estimated that damage to crops alone reached about $2 million, on the Mexico side of the river, water inundated more than 30,000 acres of agricultural lands. Infrastructure such as roads, bridges, railroads, and buildings were damaged, by far the most powerful storm of the season, this hurricane formed well east of the Windward Islands and moved northwestward steadily strengthening. It grazed the Leeward Islands as a Category 2 hurricane and began to recurve shortly thereafter, during this recurvature, it strengthened into a Category 3 storm, eventually attaining winds of 120 mph
9.
1923 Atlantic hurricane season
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The 1923 Atlantic hurricane season ran its course from Summer through Fall of 1923. The season was slightly below average with 9 tropical storms, of which 4 became hurricanes, on June 19 a weak tropical depression formed from the tail end of a dying cold front, north of Western Bahamas and east of Florida. The tropical depression moved north after its formation. Failing to intensify further it was absorbed by a cold front sweeping down the East Coast on June 22. The peak winds from this system were 25 knts from ship observations on June 19, the lowest pressure was 1012 millibars. Due to the nature of this system and lack of gale winds it was evaluated as a tropical depression and was not included in HURDAT. In 2009 this tropical depression was first detected from Historical Weather Maps when Landsea, early on June 22, a broad area of low pressure was observed in the Bay of Campeche where it intensified into a tropical depression later that day. It remained at that intensity for the three days while drifting slowly northeastward, while its pressure continued to gradually fall. By late June 25, it had begun to become better organized, the storm clipped the southeastern Louisiana and made landfall as a minimal tropical storm over extreme southern Mississippi and Alabama on June 26. Excessive rains fell in the vicinity of the cyclone and further up the East Coast of the United States, the system weakened into a tropical depression while over southeastern Alabama late on June 26. The cyclone turned in a easterly direction under the influence of an extratropical low. On June 27, it regained tropical storm intensity as it reached the Atlantic Ocean off the Georgia–South Carolina coast, on June 28, the cyclone reached a peak intensity of 60 mph and a peripheral pressure of 999 mbar. At this time, the low to the northwest began to affect this tropical storm more heavily. This storm was first introduced to HURDAT in a 2009 reanalysis of the basin, the season began late with a tropical storm observed northeast of Turks and Caicos on August 30. The cyclone turned north and then northeast, very close to Bermuda, after passing Bermuda and reaching hurricane strength, the storm turned north and slowed down. For two days, the storm drifted northward across the Atlantic, reaching a peak intensity of 105 mph. On September 8, the weakened to a Category 1 hurricane. The storm became extratropical shortly before striking Newfoundland, on the evening of September 9 and this tropical storm formed near the coast of Africa on September 7, however it was short lived and never approached land
10.
Corpus Christi, Texas
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Corpus Christi, colloquially Corpus, is a coastal city in the South Texas region of the U. S. state of Texas. The county seat of Nueces County, it extends into Aransas, Kleberg. It is 130 miles southeast of San Antonio and its political boundaries encompass Nueces Bay and Corpus Christi Bay. Its zoned boundaries include small land parcels or water inlets of three neighboring counties, the citys population was estimated to be 320,434 in 2014, making it the eighth-most populous city in Texas. The Corpus Christi metropolitan area had an population of 442,600. It is also the hub of the six-county Corpus Christi-Kingsville-Alice Combined Statistical Area, the Port of Corpus Christi is the fifth-largest in the United States. The region is served by the Corpus Christi International Airport, the citys name means Body of Christ in Latin. The name was given to the settlement and surrounding bay by Spanish explorer Alonso Álvarez de Pineda in 1519, the citys nickname is Sparkling City by the Sea, particularly featured in tourist literature. Corpus Christi was founded in 1839 by Colonel Henry Lawrence Kinney and William P. Aubrey as Kinneys Trading Post and it was a small trading post that sold supplies to a Mexican revolutionary army camped about 25 mi west. In July 1845, U. S. troops commanded by General Zachary Taylor set up there in preparation for war with Mexico. About a year later, the settlement was named Corpus Christi and was incorporated on 9 September 1852, the Battle of Corpus Christi was fought between August 12 and August 18,1862, during the American Civil War. United States Navy forces blockading Texas fought a land and sea engagement with Confederate forces in and around Corpus Christi Bay. Union forces defeated Confederate States Navy ships operating in the area, the Port of Corpus Christi was opened in 1926, and the Corpus Christi Naval Air Station was commissioned in 1941. The 1919 Storm devastated the city, killing hundreds on September 14, only three structures survived the storm on North Beach. To protect the city, the seawall was built, the city also suffered damage from Hurricane Celia in 1970 and Hurricane Allen in 1980, but little damage from Hurricane Ike in 2008. In November 1873, seven Mexican shepherds were lynched by a mob near the city, in February 1929, the League of United Latin American Citizens was founded in Corpus Christi. This organization was created to battle racial discrimination against Hispanic people in the United States, since its founding, LULAC has grown and now has a national headquarters in Washington, D. C. In March 1949, the American GI Forum was founded in Corpus Christi, currently, AGIF focuses on veterans issues, education, and civil rights issues
11.
Port Aransas, Texas
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Port Aransas is a city in Nueces County, Texas. This city is one hundred and eighty miles southeast of San Antonio, the population was 3,480 at the 2010 census. Port Aransas is the established town on Mustang Island. It is located north of Padre Island and is one of the longest barrier islands along the Texas coast, Corpus Christi Bay, the Gulf of Mexico, the Lydia Ann Ship Channel and the Corpus Christi Ship Channel make up the surrounding waters. Karankawa Indians played a key role in the development of the Texas Gulf Coast. The Karankawa Indians inhabited the Gulf Coast of Texas from Galveston Bay all the way to Corpus Christi Bay, the Karankawa Indians led a nomadic existence, migrating from the mainland to the coast. One of the places they lived in on the coast was a fishing village known as Sand Point on what Europeans called Wild Horse Island. They were living that nomadic existence when Spaniards, led by Alonso Álvarez de Pineda, Governor Francisco de Garay of Jamaica had commissioned him to explore the Gulf Coast from Florida to Vera Cruz. In 1720 the French explorer Pierre-Jean de Béranger was commissioned to explore St. Bernard Bay Matagorda Bay to establish a colony for France along its shores. Jean took an old Spanish ship that had captured in Florida during the war with Spain, christened it St. Joseph. In 1739, Governor Prudencio de Orobio y Basterra named the pass Aránzazu Pass on his map of 1739, the name was altered to Aransas on the map of a Captain Monroe of the ship Amos Wright in 1833. Port Aransas was a location of pirates in the early 19th century, from about 1800 to the early 1820s, the Gulf Coast was a haunt of pirate ships searching for riches. Jean Lafitte and his buccaneers spent time on the Texas coast, Galveston owed its start to him, jean Lafitte used Mustang Island as a place to make camp and, according to legend, a place to hide their treasure. Local lore tells of pirate treasure buried in Port Aransas, the treasure chest is supposedly marked by a Spanish silver dagger. It is believed the dagger is laid on its side with silver spike driven through the hilt, the first recorded permanent settler in Port Aransas was Capt. Robert Ainsworth Mercer of Lancaster, England. He established a sheep and cattle ranch known as El Mar Rancho in 1853 or 1855, herds of wild horse mustangs rambled over plush rangelands of the island when Mercer first settled there. By 1854, the Texas Senate sanctioned a seven-mile channel from Corpus Christi to the Aransas Pass bar to serve the Port of Corpus Christ. Also in the 1850s, a steamship service route for cargo
12.
Storm surge
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Most casualties during tropical cyclones occur as the result of storm surges. The deadliest storm surge on record was the 1970 Bhola cyclone, the low-lying coast of the Bay of Bengal is particularly vulnerable to surges caused by tropical cyclones. The deadliest storm surge in the twenty-first century was caused by the Cyclone Nargis, the next deadliest in this century was caused by the Typhoon Haiyan, which killed more than 6,000 people in the central Philippines in 2013 and resulted in economic losses estimated at $14 billion. Louis, Diamondhead and Pass Christian in Mississippi, a high storm surge occurred in New York City from Hurricane Sandy in October 2012, with a high tide of 14 ft. The pressure effects of a tropical cyclone will cause the level in the open ocean to rise in regions of low atmospheric pressure. The rising water level will counteract the low pressure such that the total pressure at some plane beneath the water surface remains constant. This effect is estimated at a 10 mm increase in sea level for every millibar drop in atmospheric pressure, strong surface winds cause surface currents at a 45° angle to the wind direction, by an effect known as the Ekman Spiral. Wind stresses cause a phenomenon referred to as wind set-up, which is the tendency for water levels to increase at the downwind shore, intuitively, this is caused by the storm simply blowing the water towards one side of the basin in the direction of its winds. Because the Ekman Spiral effects spread vertically through the water, the effect is proportional to depth. The pressure effect and the wind set-up on an open coast will be driven into bays in the way as the astronomical tide. The Earths rotation causes the Coriolis effect, which bends currents to the right in the Northern Hemisphere and to the left in the Southern Hemisphere. When this bend brings the currents into more contact with the shore it can amplify the surge. The effect of waves, while powered by the wind, is distinct from a storms wind-powered currents. Powerful wind whips up large, strong waves in the direction of its movement, although these surface waves are responsible for very little water transport in open water, they may be responsible for significant transport near the shore. When waves are breaking on a more or less parallel to the beach. The rainfall effect is experienced predominantly in estuaries, Hurricanes may dump as much as 12 in of rainfall in 24 hours over large areas, and higher rainfall densities in localized areas. As a result, watersheds can quickly surge water into the rivers that drain them and this can increase the water level near the head of tidal estuaries as storm-driven waters surging in from the ocean meet rainfall flowing from the estuary. This situation well exemplified by the southeast coast of Florida
13.
Cyclone
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In meteorology, a cyclone is a large scale air mass that rotates around a strong center of low atmospheric pressure. A cyclone differs from a hurricane or typhoon only on the basis of location, a hurricane is a storm that occurs in the Atlantic Ocean and northeastern Pacific Ocean, a typhoon occurs in the northwestern Pacific Ocean, and a cyclone occurs in the south Pacific or Indian Ocean. Cyclones are characterized by inward spiraling winds that rotate about a zone of low pressure, the largest low-pressure systems are polar vortices and extratropical cyclones of the largest scale. Warm-core cyclones such as cyclones and subtropical cyclones also lie within the synoptic scale. Mesocyclones, tornadoes and dust devils lie within the smaller mesoscale, Upper level cyclones can exist without the presence of a surface low, and can pinch off from the base of the Tropical Upper Tropospheric Trough during the summer months in the Northern Hemisphere. Cyclones have also seen on extraterrestrial planets, such as Mars. Cyclogenesis describes the process of formation and intensification. Extratropical cyclones begin as waves in large regions of enhanced mid-latitude temperature contrasts called baroclinic zones and these zones contract and form weather fronts as the cyclonic circulation closes and intensifies. Later in their cycle, extratropical cyclones occlude as cold air masses undercut the warmer air. A cyclones track is guided over the course of its 2 to 6 day life cycle by the flow of the subtropical jet stream. Weather fronts mark the boundary between two masses of air of different temperature, humidity, and densities, and are associated with the most prominent meteorological phenomena. Strong cold fronts typically feature narrow bands of thunderstorms and severe weather, such fronts form west of the circulation center and generally move from west to east, warm fronts form east of the cyclone center and are usually preceded by stratiform precipitation and fog. Warm fronts move poleward ahead of the cyclone path, occluded fronts form late in the cyclone life cycle near the center of the cyclone and often wrap around the storm center. Tropical cyclogenesis describes the process of development of tropical cyclones, Tropical cyclones form due to latent heat driven by significant thunderstorm activity, and are warm core. Cyclones can transition between extratropical, subtropical, and tropical phases, mesocyclones form as warm core cyclones over land, and can lead to tornado formation. Waterspouts can also form from mesocyclones, but more often develop from environments of high instability, henry Piddington published almost 40 papers dealing with tropical storms from Calcutta between 1835 and 1855 in The Journal of the Asiatic Society. He also coined the term cyclone, meaning the coil of a snake, in 1842, he published his landmark thesis, Laws of the Storms. There are a number of characteristics common to all cyclones
14.
Palacios, Texas
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Palacios is a city in Matagorda County, Texas, United States. The population was 5,153 at the 2000 census, popular local legend states that the area was named Tres Palacios several centuries ago by shipwrecked Spanish sailors who claimed they saw a vision of three palaces on the bay. Historians believe it was likely named for José Félix Trespalacios. The town was originally called Trespalacios, but shortened its name due to a nearby post office using the longer version. The native inhabitants of the region were the Karankawa people, whose contact with Europeans came in the 16th century when Spanish expeditions first traversed their territory. In 1685, the area was explored by René-Robert Cavelier, Sieur de La Salle, in the 1820s, English-speaking settlers arrived and came into frequent conflict with the Karankawa, who were eventually driven out of the area. The future site of Palacios was ranch land until 1901, when it was put up for sale by the estate of the former owner and it was first settled as a community in 1903. In 1926, Camp Hulen was opened as a center for the 36th Infantry of the Texas National Guard. The population of Palacios boomed during this period, and the city hosted visiting stars such as Rita Hayworth, after the war, Camp Hulen was closed and the local population declined. The town was hit by Hurricane Carla in 1961, causing major damage, since then, the population has grown again, with the settlement of Vietnamese immigrants and other newcomers from all over the United States. In 1991, a pavilion was rebuilt on the waterfront, and in 1995 the La Belle shipwreck was rediscovered at the bottom of the bay, in 2009, the city marked its centennial with celebrations and other events. Palacios is located on the Gulf Coast about halfway between Houston and Corpus Christi and it is connected to both cities by State Highway 35. According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has an area of 5.3 square miles. It is located on the shores of Tres Palacios Bay, an arm of Matagorda Bay, the Palacios area is known among birders for its wide diversity of bird life. On December 19,2005, a record 250 species were observed, Palacios experiences a humid subtropical climate. Average daytime high temperatures range from 62 °F in January to 90 °F in August, average nighttime lows range from 44 °F in winter to 77 °F in summer. As of the census of 2000,5,153 people,1,661 households, the population density was 1,021.4 people per square mile. There were 1,976 housing units at a density of 391.7 per square mile
15.
Wharton, Texas
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Wharton is a city in Wharton County, Texas, United States. This city is sixty miles southwest of Houston, the population was 8,832 at the 2010 census. It is the county seat of Wharton County and is located on the Colorado River of Texas just south of U. S. Highway 59, Wharton is located at 29°19′1″N 96°5′49″W. According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has an area of 7.2 square miles. U. S. Route 59 passes through the west side of Wharton, to the northeast on US59 is Rosenberg in Fort Bend County while El Campo in Wharton County is to the southwest. State Highway 60 passes through Wharton, heading south to Bay City, FM102 starts on SH60 in Wharton and goes northwest to Eagle Lake in Colorado County. FM1301 also begins at SH60 in Wharton and goes southeast to Boling-Iago, the Colorado River flows toward Wharton from the northwest and after passing through the city, the rivers direction is more to the south. The climate in this area is characterized by hot, humid summers, according to the Köppen Climate Classification system, Wharton has a humid subtropical climate, abbreviated Cfa on climate maps. As of the census of 2000, there were 9,237 people,3,539 households, the population density was 1,278.3 people per square mile. There were 4,000 housing units at a density of 553.6 per square mile. The racial makeup of the city was 56. 33% White,26. 43% African American,0. 41% Native American,0. 71% Asian,0. 16% Pacific Islander,14. 18% from other races, and 1. 78% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 31. 08% of the population,31. 8% of all households were made up of individuals and 15. 3% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.51 and the family size was 3.21. In the city, the population was out with 27. 2% under the age of 18,11. 1% from 18 to 24,25. 3% from 25 to 44,20. 3% from 45 to 64. The median age was 34 years, for every 100 females there were 89.3 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 83.1 males, the median income for a household in the city was $26,704, and the median income for a family was $34,543. Males had an income of $30,423 versus $20,460 for females. The per capita income for the city was $13,993, about 17. 3% of families and 22. 2% of the population were below the poverty line, including 22. 3% of those under age 18 and 21. 7% of those age 65 or over
16.
Wallis, Texas
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Wallis is a city in far southeastern Austin County, Texas, United States. The city is located along State Highway 36 and the BNSF Railway between Rosenberg and Sealy, the citys population was 1,252 at the 2010 census. Wallis is located at 29°37′50″N 96°3′46″W, SH36 heads northwest from Wallis to Sealy in Austin County and east-southeast from Wallis to Rosenberg in Fort Bend County. The BNSF Railway runs parallel with SH36 on the side of the highway. State Highway 60 starts in the west part of Wallis and goes south to East Bernard, farm to Market Road 1093 continues northeast to Simonton in Fort Bend County and west-southwest to Eagle Lake in Colorado County. Farm to Market Road 1952 begins in the east part of Wallis and goes south, the Google Maps service shows one Catholic, two Lutheran and one Baptist churches in Wallis. A number of businesses operate in the city including Wallis State Bank, according to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 1.5 square miles, of which 0.015 square miles, or 0. 92%, is water. In 1830 the first Anglo-Americans made their homes in the area between the Brazos and San Bernard rivers, when the settlement got a post office in 1873, its name was Bovine Bend. Sometime after 1880, the Gulf, Colorado and Santa Fe Railway was constructed through the community from Galveston to Brenham, at that time, the town was renamed Wallis Station after J. E. Wallis, the director of the railroad. In 1887 the San Antonio and Aransas Pass Railway, being built east toward Houston, starting in about 1890, Czech immigrants began moving into the area. By 1904 there were 631 souls living in Wallis, in 1911, the town dropped Station from its name to become Wallis. Seven years later its school had 100 students, between 1925 and 1943 the population grew from 800 to 900. By the latter year the town boasted 39 businesses, after declining to 690 in 1949, the number of inhabitants increased to 1,075 by 1966. A decade later, the city claimed to have a bank, library, in 1991 there were 1,411 people and 15 commercial establishments. The population declined to 1,311 in 2000 and to 1,252 in 2010, in 2013 the BNSF Railway still operated along the one-time Gulf, Colorado and Santa Fe Railway right-of-way, while the east-west railroad line no longer existed. As of the census of 2000, there were 1,172 people,422 households, the population density was 767.7 people per square mile. There were 455 housing units at a density of 298. 0/sq mi. The racial makeup of the city was 71. 50% White,13. 74% African American,0. 43% Native American,0. 09% Pacific Islander,10. 92% from other races, hispanic or Latino of any race were 23. 38% of the population
17.
Galveston, Texas
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Galveston is a coastal resort city on Galveston Island and Pelican Island in the U. S. state of Texas. The community of 209.3 square miles, with a population of 50,180 in 2015, is the county seat. It is within Houston–The Woodlands–Sugar Land metropolitan area, the Port of Galveston was established in 1825 by the Congress of Mexico following its independence from Spain. The city was the port for the Texas Navy during the Texas Revolution. During the 19th century, Galveston became a major U. S. commercial center and it was devastated by the 1900 Galveston Hurricane, whose effects included flooding and a storm surge. The natural disaster on the barrier island is still ranked as the deadliest in United States history. Much of Galvestons economy is centered in the tourism, health care, shipping, the 84-acre University of Texas Medical Branch campus with an enrollment of more than 2,500 students is a major economic force of the city. Galveston Island was originally inhabited by members of the Karankawa and Akokisa tribes who called the island Auia, the Spanish explorer Cabeza de Vaca and his crew were shipwrecked on the island or nearby in November 1528, calling it Isla de Malhado. They began their trek to a Spanish settlement in Mexico City. During his charting of the Gulf Coast in 1785, the Spanish explorer José de Evia named the island Villa Gálvez or Gálveztown in honor of Bernardo de Gálvez y Madrid, Count of Gálvez. The islands first permanent European settlements were constructed around 1816 by the pirate Louis-Michel Aury to support Mexicos rebellion against Spain, in 1817, Aury returned from an unsuccessful raid against Spain to find Galveston occupied by the pirate Jean Lafitte. Lafitte organized Galveston into a kingdom he called Campeche, anointing himself the islands head of government. Lafitte remained in Galveston until 1821, when the United States Navy forced him, in 1825 the Congress of Mexico established the Port of Galveston and in 1830 erected a customs house. Galveston served as the capital of the Republic of Texas when in 1836 the interim president David G. Burnet relocated his government there. In 1836, the French-Canadian Michel Branamour Menard and several associates purchased 4,605 acres of land for $50,000 to found the town that would become the city of Galveston. As Anglo-Americans migrated to the city, they brought along or purchased enslaved African-Americans, some of whom worked domestically or on the waterfront, in 1839, the City of Galveston adopted a charter and was incorporated by the Congress of the Republic of Texas. The city was by then a port of entry and attracted many new residents in the 1840s and later among the flood of German immigrants to Texas. Together with ethnic Mexican residents, these tended to oppose slavery, support the Union during the Civil War
18.
Houston
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Houston is the most populous city in the state of Texas and the fourth-most populous city in the United States. With a census-estimated 2014 population of 2.239 million within an area of 667 square miles, it also is the largest city in the southern United States and the seat of Harris County. Located in Southeast Texas near the Gulf of Mexico, it is the city of Houston–The Woodlands–Sugar Land. Houston was founded on August 28,1836, near the banks of Buffalo Bayou and incorporated as a city on June 5,1837. The city was named after former General Sam Houston, who was president of the Republic of Texas and had commanded, the burgeoning port and railroad industry, combined with oil discovery in 1901, has induced continual surges in the citys population. Houstons economy has an industrial base in energy, manufacturing, aeronautics. Leading in health care sectors and building equipment, Houston has more Fortune 500 headquarters within its city limits than any city except for New York City. The Port of Houston ranks first in the United States in international waterborne tonnage handled, the city has a population from various ethnic and religious backgrounds and a large and growing international community. Houston is the most diverse city in Texas and has described as the most diverse in the United States. It is home to cultural institutions and exhibits, which attract more than 7 million visitors a year to the Museum District. Houston has a visual and performing arts scene in the Theater District. In August 1836, two real estate entrepreneurs from New York, Augustus Chapman Allen and John Kirby Allen, purchased 6,642 acres of land along Buffalo Bayou with the intent of founding a city. The Allen brothers decided to name the city after Sam Houston, the general at the Battle of San Jacinto. The great majority of slaves in Texas came with their owners from the slave states. Sizable numbers, however, came through the slave trade. New Orleans was the center of trade in the Deep South. Thousands of enslaved African Americans lived near the city before the Civil War, many of them near the city worked on sugar and cotton plantations, while most of those in the city limits had domestic and artisan jobs. Houston was granted incorporation on June 5,1837, with James S. Holman becoming its first mayor, in the same year, Houston became the county seat of Harrisburg County and the temporary capital of the Republic of Texas
19.
Matagorda, Texas
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Matagorda is a township in Matagorda County, located near the mouth of the Colorado River on the Upper Texas coast in the United States. In 2010, the population was 503, Matagorda is primarily a tourist town with commercial and recreational fishing being the top industries. There are 23 miles of beach accessible by vehicle and 35 additional miles accessible only by boat, Matagorda is at the end of State Highway 60 and beginning of Farm to Market Road 2031, which runs over the Intracoastal Waterway and south to the Gulf of Mexico. Matagorda is the 3rd oldest town in Texas and it was established in 1827 when Stephen F. Austin obtained permission from the Mexican government to build a town to protect incoming settlers. Elias R. Wightman, who was one of Stephen F. Austin’s early surveyors, there are 24 historical markers in the Township of Matagorda. The most popular activity in Matagorda is visiting the beach, Matagorda is a fishing hot spot on the Texas coast. It provides access to both East and West Matagorda Bays, Matagorda Beach, and the Gulf of Mexico, Matagorda is known as one of the best kayaking and kayak fishing destinations on the Texas coast due to miles of shallow marsh area only accessible by kayak. There are miles of designated paddling trails in the Matagorda area, Matagorda County has been #1 in the nation since 1997 in the North American Audubon Christmas Bird Count with 234 different species spotted. Among the more species which have been reported are the Prairie warbler, Common poorwill, Broad-winged hawk, MacGillivrays warbler
20.
September 1921 San Antonio floods
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In early September 1921, the remnants of a Category 1 hurricane brought damaging floods to areas of Mexico and the U. S. state of Texas, particularly in the San Antonio region. On September 4, a tropical cyclone developed in the southwestern Gulf of Mexico near the Bay of Campeche, moving slowly in a general westward direction, the disturbance reached hurricane intensity on September 7 prior to making landfall south of Tampico, Mexico the following day. The storm weakened over land, and lost cyclonic characteristics later that day, however, a nearby high-pressure area forced the remnants of the system northward into Texas. Due to an orthographic lifting effect, the remnants were able to produce torrential, similarly, an observation of 36.40 in elsewhere in Williamson County, Texas ranked as the sixth-highest tropical cyclone-related rainfall total for the state. The high precipitation totals set nationwide records which would stand for several years, in early September, a trough of low-pressure persisted in the southwestern Gulf of Mexico, near the Bay of Campeche. The area of disturbed weather gradually organized, and was analyzed to have become a depression by 1200 UTC on September 4. In its initial stages after tropical cyclogenesis, the disturbance moved very slowly and its lack of organization resulted in its estimated misplacement inland over Mexico in the Signal Corpss weather map for September 5. At the time, the storm was estimated to have a minimum pressure of at least 1010 mbar. The system remained a depression until 0000 UTC on September 6. Despite the analyzed intensification, the updated Signal Corps weather maps for the cyclone that day indicated that the system had degenerated back into an open trough. Continuing to intensify throughout the day, the storm was estimated to have reached hurricane intensity by the following day. Shortly after, the hurricane made landfall south of Tampico, Mexico near La Leja at 0300 UTC on September 27, at the time, the cyclone had maximum sustained winds of 80 mph, making it a Category 1 on the modern-day Saffir–Simpson hurricane wind scale. The storms minimum pressure at landfall was 985 mbar, this would be the lowest pressure estimated in association with the storm. Just prior to landfall at 0100 UTC, a ship had reported winds of 80 mph from the southeast, upon landfall, a barometer in Tampico reported a minimum pressure of 1003 mbar. Once inland, the hurricane weakened, and made a curve before degenerating into a remnant low after 0600 UTC on September 8. The remnant low progressed northward, and moved into Texas from the border with Mexico near Webb County. In Texas, moisture associated with the system and other contributing forces produced excessive rainfall over Central Texas, despite making landfall on Tamaulipas, its impact in Mexico, if any, remains unknown. The area of high-pressure was an extension of the Bermuda High
21.
Bay of Campeche
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The Bay of Campeche, or Campeche Sound, is a bight in the southern area of the Gulf of Mexico. It is surrounded on three sides by the Mexican states of Campeche, Tabasco and Veracruz, the area of the bay is 6,000 square miles and maximum depth of the bay is approximately 180 feet. It was named by Francisco Hernández de Córdoba and Antón de Alaminos during their expedition in 1517, the Cantarell Complex of five oil fields lies beneath the Bay of Campeche. In 2003 it was the second most productive oil field in the world, during the months of June and July, the Bay of Campeche is considered one of the hot breeding spots for Atlantic hurricanes. The bay is considered the eastern border on the main migration routes for birds in the Americas. Where do hurricanes form and where do they strike, archived from the original on 2005-11-20. Archived from the original on 17 April 2006
22.
Tampico
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Tampico is a city and port in the southeastern part of the state of Tamaulipas, Mexico. It is located on the bank of the Pánuco River, about 10 kilometres inland from the Gulf of Mexico. Tampico is the fifth-largest city in Tamaulipas, with a population of 297,284 in the city proper and 859,419 in the metropolitan area, the first oil well in Mexico was drilled near Tampico in 1901 at Ébano. In 1923, the oil field dried up, leading to an exodus of jobs and investment. The city is also an exporter of silver, copper, and lumber, as well as wool, hemp. Containerized cargo is handled by the neighboring ocean port of Altamira. The name Tampico is of Huastec origin, tam-piko meaning place of otters, the city is surrounded by rivers and lagoons of the delta of the Pánuco River, which was the habitat of a large population of otters. There have been human settlements in the area for centuries. The region had several early Huastec settlements, among them the important site at Las Flores, in 1532, during the Spanish colonial period, the Franciscan priest Andrés de Olmos established a mission and monastery in the area, building over a former Aztec village. At his request, Spanish officials founded a settlement named San Luis de Tampico in 1554 and this site was abandoned in 1684 and the population relocated to the south of the Pánuco River because of frequent attacks by European and American pirates. The area was abandoned for nearly 150 years, the present Mexican city was founded on April 13,1823 on the north bank of the Pánuco River about 10 kilometres from the Gulf, after Mexico achieved independence from Spain. Tampico built its economy on the exportation of silver, business development was mostly as a trading center, the town also became a common waypoint for the re-routing of African slaves to be illegally smuggled into the Southern United States, which had outlawed the international slave trade in 1807. The first oil well in Mexico was drilled near Tampico at Ébano S. L. P. in 1901, by Californian Edward Doheny, who founded Mexican Petroleum Corporation. In the early 20th century, there was extensive U. S. investment in oil development in Tampico, with the outbreak of the Mexican Revolution, which lasted roughly from 1910 to 1920, the U. S. monitored the situation to protect its citizens and investments. Doheny sold some of his businesses to the Standard Oil Company which operated its monopoly here, the oil-producing area was so productive it was called the Golden Belt. The oil fields known as Ébano, Pánuco, Huasteca, Oil was often shipped on barges along the rivers. To improve transportation of oil to the port, the government built the Chijol Canal and it is 1.8 m deep and 7.6 m wide and runs 120 km southward through the oil fields to Túxpan. General Victoriano Huertas forces in the city were threatened by different groups from north and south
23.
Tamaulipas
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Tamaulipas, officially the Free and Sovereign State of Tamaulipas, is one of the 31 states which, with Mexico City, comprise the 32 Federal Entities of Mexico. It is divided into 43 municipalities and its capital city is Ciudad Victoria, the capital city was named after Guadalupe Victoria, the first President of Mexico. It is located in Northeastern Mexico and it is bordered by the states of Veracruz to the southeast, San Luis Potosí to the southwest and Nuevo León to the west. To the north, it has a 370 km stretch of the U. S. –Mexico border along the state of Texas and this state is known to be both a territorial struggle for the Gulf Cartel and the Los Zetas. The name Tamaulipas is derived from Tamaholipa, a Huastec term in which the tam- prefix signifies place, there is no scholarly agreement on the meaning of holipa, but high hills is a common interpretation. Another explanation of the name is that it is derived from Ta ma holipam. In addition to the city, Ciudad Victoria, the states largest cities include Reynosa, Matamoros, Nuevo Laredo. The area known as Tamaulipas has been inhabited for at least 8,000 years, several different cultures have come and gone during that period. Tamaulipas was originally populated by the Olmec people and later by Chichimec and Huastec tribes, between 1445 and 1466, Mexica armies commanded by Moctezuma I Ilhuicamina conquered much of the territory and transformed it into a tributary region for the Mexica empire. However, the Aztecs never fully conquered certain mostly nomadic indigenous groups in the area, although Hernán Cortés conquered the Aztecs rather quickly, it took a gradual process for Spain to subjugate the inhabitants of Tamaulipas in the 16th and 17th centuries. The first permanent Spanish settlement in the area was Tampico in 1554, further settlement was done by Franciscan missionaries, widespread cattle and sheep ranching by the Spanish bolstered the area’s economy while forcing native populations from their original lands. Repeated indigenous rebellions kept the area unstable and weakened colonial interest in the region, what is now Tamaulipas was first incorporated as a separate province of New Spain in 1746 with the name Nuevo Santander. The local government capital during this time moved from Santander to San Carlos, the territory of this time spanned from the San Antonio river to the north east to the Gulf of Mexico, then south to the Panuco River near Tampico and west to the Sierra Madre Mountains. The area became a haven for rebellious Indians who fled there after increased Spanish settlements in Nuevo León, one of these groups was known as Lipan. By 1790 Europeans turned their attention from the groups and focused on containing the Apache invaders. In northeastern Coahuila and adjacent Texas, Spanish and Apache displacements created an ethnic mix. Here the local Indians mixed with displaced groups from Coahuila and Chihuahua, some groups, to escape the pressure, combined and migrated north into the Central Texas highlands. In 1824, after the Mexican War of Independence from Spain, during the fights between centralists and federalists that soon followed, the successful Texas Revolution led to the creation of the Republic of Texas in 1836
24.
Williamson County, Texas
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Williamson County is a county in the U. S. state of Texas. As of the 2016 census estimate, the population was 545,412, the county is named for Robert McAlpin Williamson, a community leader and veteran of the Battle of San Jacinto. Williamson County is part of the Austin-Round Rock, TX Metropolitan Statistical Area, the two areas are roughly bisected by Interstate 35. Much of Williamson County has been the site of habitation for at least 11,200 years. The earliest known inhabitants of the area lived during the late Pleistocene, one of the most important discoveries in recent times is that of the ancient skeletal remains dubbed The Leanderthal Lady because of its age and proximity to Leander, Texas. It was discovered by accident by the Texas Department of Transportation workers while drilling core samples for a new highway, the site has been extensively studied for many years and samples from this site carbon date to the Pleistocene period at approximately 10,500 years ago. Such evidence of Archaic Period inhabitants is often in the form of relics, many such sites were inundated when the San Gabriel River was dammed to create Lake Granger. During the eighteenth century made the transition to a horse culture. After they were crowded out by white settlement, the Comanches continued to raid settlements in the county until the 1860s. There also appear to have small numbers of Kiowa, Yojuane, Tawakoni. On September 9 and 10,1921, the remnants of a hurricane moved over Williamson County, the center of the storm became stationary over Thrall, a small farming town in eastern Williamson County, dropping a storm total of 39.7 inches of rain in 36 hours. The 24-hour rainfall total ending 7 am on September 10,1921 at a U. S. Weather Bureau station in Thrall remains the national official 24-hour rainfall record. Thralls rainfall was 23.4 in during 6 hours,31.8 in during 12 hours, eighty-seven people drowned in and near Taylor, and 93 in Williamson County. This storm caused the most deadly floods in Texas, with a total of 215 fatalities, on May 27,1997, Williamson County was hit by the worst tornado outbreak in county history. The 1997 Central Texas Tornado Outbreak caused 20 tornadoes including an F-5, the F-5 tornado killed 27 people and completely destroyed the Double Creek Estates neighborhood in the city of Jarrell, Texas, Texas, located in far northern Williamson County. Another strong tornado, an F-3, struck the City of Cedar Park, two F-2 tornadoes also struck Williamson County. The outbreak cost the county over $190 million USD in damage, Williamson Countys fast growth rate is due in large part to its location immediately north of Austin coupled with Austins rapid expansion northward. Austins city limits cross into Williamson County making Austin the largest city in Williamson County and this has transformed Williamson county over recent years into a dynamic self-sustaining community with less dependency on Austin
25.
San Antonio
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San Antonio, officially the City of San Antonio, is the seventh-most populated city in the United States and the second-most populous city in the state of Texas, with a population of 1,409,019. It was the fastest growing of the top 10 largest cities in the United States from 2000 to 2010, the city straddles South Texas and Central Texas and is on the southwestern corner of an urban megaregion known as the Texas Triangle. San Antonio serves as the seat of Bexar County, recent annexations have extended the citys boundaries into Medina County and, though for only a very tiny area near the city of Garden Ridge, into Comal County. Due to its placement, the city has characteristics of other urban centers in which there are sparsely populated areas. San Antonio is the center of the San Antonio–New Braunfels Metropolitan Statistical Area, growth along the Interstate 35 and Interstate 10 corridors to the north, west and east make it likely that the metropolitan area will continue to expand. San Antonio was named for Saint Anthony of Padua, whose feast day is on June 13, the city contains five 18th-century Spanish frontier missions, including The Alamo and San Antonio Missions National Historical Park, which were designated UNESCO World Heritage Sites in 2015. Other notable attractions include the River Walk, the Tower of the Americas, the Alamo Bowl, the city is home to the five-time NBA champion San Antonio Spurs and hosts the annual San Antonio Stock Show & Rodeo, one of the largest such events in the country. The U. S. Kelly Air Force Base operated out of San Antonio until 2001, the remaining portions of the base were developed as Port San Antonio, an industrial/business park and aerospace complex. San Antonio is home to six Fortune 500 companies and the South Texas Medical Center, at the time of European encounter, Payaya Indians lived near the San Antonio River Valley in the San Pedro Springs area, calling the vicinity Yanaguana, meaning refreshing waters. In 1691, a group of Spanish Catholic explorers and missionaries came upon the river and Payaya settlement on June 13 and they named the place and river San Antonio in his honor. It was years before any Spanish settlement took place, father Antonio de Olivares visited the site in 1709, and he was determined to found a mission and civilian settlement there. He directed Martin de Alarcón, the governor of Coahuila and Texas, differences between Alarcón and Olivares resulted in delays, and construction did not start until 1718. The families who clustered around the presidio and mission formed the beginnings of Villa de Béjar, on May 1, the governor transferred ownership of the Mission San Antonio de Valero to Fray Antonio de Olivares. On May 5,1718 he commissioned the Presidio San Antonio de Béxar on the west side of the San Antonio River, one-fourth league from the mission. On February 14,1719, the Marquis of San Miguel de Aguayo proposed to the king of Spain that 400 families be transported from the Canary Islands, Galicia, or Havana to populate the province of Texas. By June 1730,25 families had reached Cuba, and 10 families had sent to Veracruz before orders from Spain came to stop the re-settlement. Under the leadership of Juan Leal Goraz, the group marched overland from Veracruz to the Presidio San Antonio de Béxar, due to marriages along the way, the party now included 15 families, a total of 56 persons. They joined the community established in 1718
26.
San Gabriel River (Texas)
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The San Gabriel River is a river that flows through central Texas. The San Gabriel River is formed in Georgetown, Texas by the confluence of the North Fork San Gabriel, there are two major impoundments of the river, Lake Georgetown along the North Fork, and Granger Lake, about 25 miles below the confluence. Both are U. S. Army Corps of Engineers impoundments, the San Gabriel River joins the Little River five miles south of Cameron when then meets the Brazos River northwest of College Station. There is a city park in Georgetown at the confluence of the North and South Forks, recreational activities include canoeing, kayaking, and fishing. Typical fish species found in the river are catfish, largemouth bass, sunfish, carp, longnose gar, however, many game fish and introduced species are found in the impoundments at Lake Georgetown and Granger Lake. The river runs through the Apache Pass Amphitheater and Festival Grounds near Thorndale, Apache Pass features a cantilevered stage that projects out over the river and is used for major concerts and other events
27.
Trinidad
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Trinidad is the larger and more populous of the two major islands and numerous landforms which make up the island nation of Trinidad and Tobago. The island lies 11 km off the northeastern coast of Venezuela, though geographically part of the South American continent, from a socio-economic standpoint it is often referred to as the southernmost island in the Caribbean. With an area of 4,768 km2, it is also the sixth largest in the West Indies, many believe the original name for the island in the Arawaks language was Iëre which meant Land of the Hummingbird. Some believe that Iere was actually a mispronunciation or corruption by early colonists of the Arawak word Kairi which simply means Island, Christopher Columbus renamed it La Isla de la Trinidad, fulfilling a vow he had made before setting out on his third voyage of exploration. Caribs and Arawaks lived in Trinidad long before Christopher Columbus encountered the islands on his voyage in 1498. Tobago changed hands between the British, French, Dutch and Courlanders, but eventually ended up in British hands, Trinidad remained Spanish until 1797, but it was largely settled by French colonists from the French Caribbean, especially Martinique. In 1889 the two became a single British Crown colony. Trinidad and Tobago obtained self-governance in 1958 and independence from the United Kingdom in 1962, major landforms include the hills of the Northern, Central and Southern Ranges, the Caroni, Nariva and Oropouche Swamps, and the Caroni and Naparima Plains. Major river systems include the Caroni, North and South Oropouche, there are many other natural landforms such as beaches and waterfalls. Trinidad has two seasons per year, the rainy season and the dry season. El Cerro del Aripo, at 940 metres, is the highest point in Trinidad and it is part of the Aripo Massif and is located in the Northern Range on the island, northeast of the town of Arima. Diversity is the status quo in Trinidad and it is sometimes known as a rainbow island or more fondly a callaloo. There is a range of ethnicity, religion, and culture. As of the 2011 Trinidad and Tobago Census, the population was 34. 22% East Indian,35. 43% African,7. 66% Mixed - African and East Indian, and 15. 16% Mixed - Other. Venezuela has also had a impact on Trinidads culture, such as introducing the music style parang to the island. Many of these groups overlap heavily due to admixture, for example Dougla is a term used to describe a person who is of African and East Indian descent. Trinidad religion primarily centers round Roman Catholic, Anglican, other Christian denominations, Hindu, catholicism constitutes the largest religious denomination of the country. There are also multiple festivals featuring the music of the Caribbean and the steelpan and these festivals include the world-famous Carnival, Jouvert, and Panorama, the national steel pan competition
28.
Windward Islands
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The Windward Islands are the southern, generally larger islands of the Lesser Antilles, within the West Indies. They lie south of the Leeward Islands, between latitudes 12° and 16° N and longitudes 60° and 62° W in one definition, as a group they start from Dominica and reach southward to the North of Trinidad & Tobago. The trans-Atlantic currents and winds that provided the fastest route across the ocean brought these ships to the dividing line between the Windward and Leeward islands. Dominica is the line between the Windward and Leeward islands. Guadeloupe and the islands to the south were designated Windward Islands, later on, all islands north of Martinique became known as the Leeward Islands. The chain of Windward Islands forms a part of the easternmost boundary of the Caribbean Sea, most of the present Windward Islands were once colonial island territories of France, also known as the French Antilles
29.
Dominican Republic
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The Dominican Republic is a sovereign state occupying the eastern two-thirds of the island of Hispaniola, in the Greater Antilles archipelago in the Caribbean region. The western one-third of the island is occupied by the nation of Haiti, christopher Columbus landed on the Western part of Hispaniola, in what is now Haiti, on December 6,1492. The island became the first seat of the Spanish colonial rule in the New World, the Dominican people declared independence in November 1821 but were forcefully annexed by their more powerful neighbor Haiti in February 1822. After the 1844 victory in the Dominican War of Independence against Haitian rule the country again under Spanish colonial rule until the Dominican War of Restoration of 1865. The Dominican Republic experienced mostly internal strife until 1916, a civil war in 1965, the countrys last, was ended by another U. S. military occupation and was followed by the authoritarian rule of Joaquín Balaguer, 1966–1978. Since then, the Dominican Republic has moved toward representative democracy and has been led by Leonel Fernández for most of the time since 1996. Danilo Medina, the Dominican Republics current president, succeeded Fernandez in 2012, the Dominican Republic has the ninth-largest economy in Latin America and is the largest economy in the Caribbean and Central American region. Though long known for agriculture and mining, the economy is now dominated by services. Over the last two decades, the Dominican Republic have been standing out as one of the economies in the Americas – with an average real GDP growth rate of 5. 4% between 1992 and 2014. GDP growth in 2014 and 2015 reached 7.3 and 7. 0%, respectively, in the first half of 2016 the Dominican economy grew 7. 4% continuing its trend of rapid economic growth. Recent growth has been driven by construction, manufacturing and tourism, private consumption has been strong, as a result of low inflation, job creation, as well as high level of remittances. The Dominican Republic has a market, Bolsa de Valores de la Republica Dominicana. and advanced telecommunication system. Nevertheless, unemployment, government corruption, and inconsistent electric service remain major Dominican problems, the country also has marked income inequality. International migration affects the Dominican Republic greatly, as it receives, mass illegal Haitian immigration and the integration of Dominicans of Haitian descent are major issues. A large Dominican diaspora exists, mostly in the United States, contributes to development, the Dominican Republic is the most visited destination in the Caribbean. The year-round golf courses are major attractions, the island has an average temperature of 26 °C and great climatic and biological diversity. The country is also the site of the first cathedral, castle, monastery, and fortress built in all of the Americas, located in Santo Domingos Colonial Zone, a World Heritage Site. Music and sport are of importance in the Dominican culture, with Merengue and Bachata as the national dance and music
30.
Boca de Yuma
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Boca de Yuma is a village in the province of La Altagracia, in the Dominican Republic. It is situated west of the mouth of the Rio Yuma, the word Yuma is an indigenous Taíno name. The village has a pleasant climate, a few miles west of the village is the Del Este National Park, one of the largest national parks in the country, with an area of 310 square kilometers. The bay of Boca de Yuma is used for fishing and boat trips, the first families that settled the village of Boca de Yuma came from various regions of the Spanish colonial Captaincy General of Santo Domingo on Hispaniola. Perhaps one of the first persons to settle here was Pedro Sifuentes and he has also been referred to as the Dominican Robinson Crusoe due the many years of living alone here after the sinking of his ship in adjacent Yuma Bay. Boca de Yuma had a Spanish colonial fort overlooking the Yuma Bay, the fort held a highly defensible position, with the cannons as the main defense. In 1877 an expedition organized by the baecista of Curaçao found cannons left underwater in Yuma Bay and they were placed as monuments on an ocean cliff where the community park and the historic lighthouse are located. Other guns and battleships remain on the Playa Blanca, one of the great pirates of those times, who defended the poor, was a man named Roberto Cofresi Ramirez de Arellano, born in the coastal town of Red Cape. Deep below the mouth there is a cave, where according to tradition the pirate ship Cofresi sank. In 1824, Roberto Cofresí engaged with a U. S, commander in a fierce battle, after which Cofresí and his crew were captured. His death sentence took place on the morning of March 29,1825, on the fields of Castillo San Felipe del Morro in Old San Juan, Boca de Yuma was originally known as the Port of Higüey. Juan Ponce de León had his ship anchored in the Port of Higüey, in 1513 he left in search of the fountain of eternal youth, and instead made the discovery for subsequent colonization of Spanish Florida. Boca de Yuma was an important port in the victory over the English in 1655, the Battle of Sabana Real on January 21,1691, and those were great military confrontations that changed the eventual history of the Dominican Republic. The material, which has had been embarked in a Brigantine, there were also two hundred volunteers, the majority emigrants from Puerto Rico. On March 4,1919 the landing began of American sailors to the port of Boca de Yuma from San Pedro de Macoris in the goélette Maria Consuelo and they settled where the first school was, close to the boat launch beach. Later they built the first concrete school here, named after John F. Kennedy in honor of the Thirty-Fifth President of the United States, in 1966, The Incorporated Club Nautical of Santo Domingo installed an extension of the team games recreation area on the coast. It was initiated by Don Alberto Bonetti Burgos, who traveled frequently to Boca De Yuma for fishing and hunting doves, in 2008 the population was about 2,400 people. This hidden paradise remains a village surrounded by beautiful beaches
31.
Bermuda
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Bermuda is a British Overseas Territory in the North Atlantic Ocean. It is approximately 1,070 km east-southeast of Cape Hatteras, North Carolina,1,236 km south of Cape Sable Island, Nova Scotia, Bermuda is an associate member of Caribbean Community. The first person known to have reached Bermuda was the Spanish sea captain Juan de Bermúdez in 1503 and he claimed the islands for the Spanish Empire. Bermúdez never landed on the islands, but made two visits to the archipelago, of which he created a recognisable map, shipwrecked Portuguese mariners are now thought to have been responsible for the 1543 inscription on Portuguese Rock. Subsequent Spanish or other European parties are believed to have released pigs there, the island was administered as an extension of Virginia by the Company until 1614. Its spin-off, the Somers Isles Company, took over in 1615, at that time, the companys charter was revoked, and the English Crown took over administration. The islands became a British colony following the 1707 unification of the parliaments of Scotland and England, after 1949, when Newfoundland became part of Canada, Bermuda became the oldest remaining British Overseas Territory. Since the return of Hong Kong to China in 1997, it is the most populous Territory and its first capital, St. Georges, was established in 1612 and is the oldest continuously inhabited English town in the New World. Bermudas economy is based on insurance and reinsurance, and tourism. Bermuda had one of the worlds highest GDP per capita for most of the 20th century, recently, its economic status has been affected by the global recession. The island is in the belt and prone to severe weather. However, it is protected from the full force of a hurricane by the coral reef that surrounds the island. It is 898 nautical miles northeast of Miami, Florida, and 667 nautical miles from Cape Sable Island, in Nova Scotia, Canada. The islands lie due east of Fripp Island, South Carolina, west-northwest of Cape Verde, southeast of New York City, New York, north-northwest of Brazil and north of San Juan, Puerto Rico. The archipelago is formed by points on the rim of the caldera of a submarine volcano that forms a seamount. The volcano is one part of a range that was formed as part of the process that formed the floor of the Atlantic. It has 103 km of coastline, the two incorporated municipalities in Bermuda are the City of Hamilton and the Town of St George. Bermuda is divided into nine parishes, which have some localities called villages, such as Flatts Village, although usually referred to in the singular, the territory consists of 181 islands, with a total area of 53.3 square kilometres
32.
Extratropical cyclone
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Extratropical cyclones are capable of producing anything from cloudiness and mild showers to heavy gales, thunderstorms, blizzards, and tornadoes. These types of cyclones are defined as large scale low pressure systems that occur in the middle latitudes of the Earth. In contrast with tropical cyclones, extratropical cyclones produce rapid changes in temperature and dew point along broad lines, called weather fronts, the term cyclone applies to numerous types of low pressure areas, one of which is the extratropical cyclone. The descriptor extratropical signifies that this type of cyclone generally occurs outside the tropics and they are termed mid-latitude cyclones if they form within those latitudes, or post-tropical cyclones if a tropical cyclone has intruded into the mid latitudes. Weather forecasters and the public often describe them simply as depressions or lows. Terms like frontal cyclone, frontal depression, frontal low, extratropical low, non-tropical low, Extratropical cyclones are classified mainly as baroclinic, because they form along zones of temperature and dewpoint gradient known as frontal zones. They can become barotropic late in their cycle, when the distribution of heat around the cyclone becomes fairly uniform with its radius. Extratropical cyclones form anywhere within the regions of the Earth. A study of extratropical cyclones in the Southern Hemisphere shows that between the 30th and 70th parallels, there are an average of 37 cyclones in existence during any 6-hour period, a separate study in the Northern Hemisphere suggests that approximately 234 significant extratropical cyclones form each winter. Extratropical cyclones form along linear bands of temperature/dewpoint gradient with significant vertical wind shear, initially, cyclogenesis, or low pressure formation, occurs along frontal zones near a favorable quadrant of a maximum in the upper level jetstream known as a jet streak. The favorable quadrants are usually at the rear and left front quadrants. The divergence causes air to rush out from the top of the air column and this in turn forces convergence in the low-level wind field and increased upward motion within the column. The increased upward motion causes atmospheric pressure at ground level to lower and this is because the upward air motion counteracts gravity, lessening the weight of the atmosphere in that location. The lowered pressure strengthens the cyclone, as the cyclone strengthens, the cold front sweeps towards the equator and moves around the back of the cyclone. Meanwhile, its associated warm front progresses more slowly, as the air ahead of the system is denser. Later, the cyclones occlude as the portion of the cold front overtakes a section of the warm front, forcing a tongue, or trowal. Eventually, the cyclone will become cold and begin to weaken. Atmospheric pressure can fall very rapidly when there are upper level forces on the system
33.
Newfoundland (island)
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Newfoundland is a large Canadian island off the east coast of the North American mainland, and the most populous part of the Canadian province of Newfoundland and Labrador. It has 29 percent of the land area. The island is separated from the Labrador Peninsula by the Strait of Belle Isle and it blocks the mouth of the Saint Lawrence River, creating the Gulf of Saint Lawrence, the worlds largest estuary. Newfoundlands nearest neighbour is the French overseas community of Saint-Pierre and Miquelon, with an area of 108,860 square kilometres, Newfoundland is the worlds 16th-largest island, Canadas fourth-largest island, and the largest Canadian island outside the North. The provincial capital, St. Johns, is located on the southeastern coast of the island, Cape Spear, just south of the capital, is the easternmost point of North America, excluding Greenland. It is common to consider all directly neighbouring islands such as New World, Twillingate, Fogo, by that classification, Newfoundland and its associated small islands have a total area of 111,390 square kilometres. Additionally 6. 1% claimed at least one parent of French ancestry, the islands total population as of the 2006 census was 479,105. Long settled by peoples of the Dorset culture, the island was visited by the Icelandic Viking Leif Eriksson in the 11th century. The next European visitors to Newfoundland were Portuguese, Basque, Spanish, French, the island was visited by the Genoese navigator John Cabot, working under contract to King Henry VII of England on his expedition from Bristol in 1497. In 1501, Portuguese explorers Gaspar Corte-Real and his brother Miguel Corte-Real charted part of the coast of Newfoundland in a attempt to find the Northwest Passage. Newfoundland is considered Britains oldest colony, at the time of English settlement, the Beothuk inhabited the island. While there is evidence of ancient indigenous peoples on the island. LAnse aux Meadows was a Norse settlement near the northernmost tip of Newfoundland, the site is considered the only undisputed evidence of Pre-Columbian contact between the Old and New Worlds, if the Norse-Inuit contact on Greenland is not counted. There is a second suspected Norse site in Point Rosee, the island is a likely location of Vinland, mentioned in the Viking Chronicles, although this has been disputed. The indigenous people on the island at the time of European settlement were the Beothuk, later immigrants developed a variety of dialects associated with settlement on the island, Newfoundland English, Newfoundland French. In the 19th century, it also had a dialect of Irish known as Newfoundland Irish, Scottish Gaelic was spoken on the island during the 19th and early 20th centuries, particularly in the Codroy Valley area, chiefly by settlers from Cape Breton Island, Nova Scotia. The Gaelic names reflected the association with fishing, in Scottish Gaelic, it was called Eilean a Trosg, or literally, similarly, the Irish Gaelic name Talamh an Éisc means Land of the Fish. The first inhabitants of Newfoundland were the Paleo-Eskimo, who have no link to other groups in Newfoundland history
34.
Grenada
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Grenada is an island country consisting of Grenada itself and six smaller islands at the southern end of the Grenadines in the southeastern Caribbean Sea. Grenada is located northwest of Trinidad and Tobago, northeast of Venezuela, and southwest of Saint Vincent, Grenada is also known as the Island of Spice because of the production of nutmeg and mace crops, of which it is one of the worlds largest exporters. Its size is 344 square kilometres, with a population of 110,000. The national bird of Grenada is the critically endangered Grenada dove, before the arrival of Europeans, Grenada was inhabited by indigenous Arawaks and, subsequently, Island Caribs. Christopher Columbus sighted Grenada in 1498 during his voyage to the Americas. Although it was deemed the property of the King of Spain, French settlement and colonisation began in 1650 and continued for the next century. On 10 February 1763 Grenada was ceded to the British under the Treaty of Paris, British rule continued, except for a period of French rule between 1779 and 1783, until 1974. From 1958 to 1962 Grenada was part of the Federation of the West Indies, on March 3,1967, Grenada was granted full autonomy over its internal affairs as an Associated State. Herbert Blaize was the first Premier of the Associated State of Grenada from March to August 1967, Eric Gairy served as Premier from August 1967 until February 1974. Independence was granted on February 7,1974, under the leadership of Eric Gairy, Bishop was later freed by popular demonstration and attempted to resume power, but was captured and executed by soldiers. On October 25,1983, combined forces from the United States, the invasion was highly criticised by the governments of Britain, Trinidad and Tobago, and Canada, along with the United Nations General Assembly. Elections were held in December 1984 and were won by the Grenada National Party under Herbert Blaize who served as minister until his death in December 1989. On September 7,2004, after being hurricane-free for 49 years, the island was hit by Hurricane Ivan. On July 14,2005, Hurricane Emily struck the northern part of the island, the origin of the name Grenada is obscure, but it is likely that Spanish sailors renamed the island for the city of Granada. By the beginning of the 18th century, the name Grenada, on his third voyage to the region in 1498, Christopher Columbus sighted Grenada and named it La Concepción in honour of the Virgin Mary. It is said that he may have named it Assumpción. However, history has accepted that it was Tobago he named Assumpción, in 1499, the Italian explorer Amerigo Vespucci travelled through the region with the Spanish explorer Alonso de Ojeda and mapmaker Juan de la Cosa. Vespucci is reported to have renamed the island Mayo, which is how it appeared on maps for around the next 20 years, in the 1520s the Spanish named the islands to the north of Mayo as Los Granadillos, presumably after the mainland Spanish town
35.
Saint Vincent (Antilles)
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Saint Vincent is a volcanic island in the Caribbean. It is the largest island of the country Saint Vincent and the Grenadines and it is located in the Caribbean Sea, between Saint Lucia and Grenada. It is composed of partially submerged volcanic mountains and its largest volcano and the countrys highest peak, La Soufrière, is active, having last erupted in 1979. The territory was disputed between France and the United Kingdom in the 18th century, before being ceded to the British in 1763 and it gained independence on October 27,1979. Approximately 100,000 people live on the island, the rest of the population is dispersed along the coastal strip, which includes the other five main towns of Layou, Barrouallie, Chateaubelair, Georgetown, and Calliaqua. The people of Saint Vincent and the Grenadines are called Vincentians, the population of the island in 2012 was about 100,000. The main religions are Anglican, Methodist, Roman Catholic, other Protestant denominations such as Seventh-day Adventist, adult literacy was 88. 1% in 2004. Infant mortality in 2006 was 17 per 1,000 live births and life expectancy for men stood at 69 years, the active workforce in 2006 was 57,695 and unemployment in 2004 was 12%. Before 1498, the island had been called Hairouna by the Caribs, columbus named the island Saint Vincent, since it is said to have been discovered on 22 January, the feast day of the patron saint of Lisbon and Valencia, Vincent of Saragossa. Columbus and the Spanish conquistadors largely ignored St. Vincent and the smaller Grenadine islands nearby, Carib Indians aggressively prevented European settlement on St. Vincent until the 18th century. African slaves, whether shipwrecked or escaped from St. Lucia or Grenada and seeking refuge in St. Vincent, intermarried with the Caribs, now those of mixed African-Carib ancestry are known as Garifuna. The first Europeans to occupy St. Vincent were the French, however, following a series of wars and peace treaties, these islands were eventually ceded to the British. The French settlers cultivated coffee, tobacco, indigo, corn, St. Vincent was ceded to Britain by the Treaty of Paris, after which friction between the British and the Caribs led to the First Carib War. On taking control of the island in 1763, the British laid the foundations of Fort Charlotte, the island was restored to French rule in 1779 and regained by the British under the Treaty of Versailles. Between 1795 and 1796, with French support from Martinique, the Black Caribs, led by their chief, Joseph Chatoyer, fought a series of battles against the British. Their uprising was put down, however, resulting in almost 5,000 Black Caribs being exiled to the tiny island of Baliceaux off the coast of Bequia. Conflict between the British and the black Caribs continued until 1796, when General Abercrombie crushed a revolt fomented by the French radical Victor Hugues, the British deported more than 5,000 black Caribs to Roatán, an island off the coast of Honduras. Fort Charlotte was completed by 1806, like the French before them, the British also used African slaves to work plantations of sugar, coffee, indigo, tobacco, cotton and cocoa until full emancipation in 1838
36.
Port of Spain
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Port of Spain is the capital city of the Republic of Trinidad and Tobago and the countrys third-largest municipality, after Chaguanas and San Fernando. The city has a population of 37,074, a metropolitan population of 128,026. The city serves primarily as a retail and administrative centre and it has been the capital of the island since 1757 and it is also an important financial services centre for the Caribbean and is home to two of the largest banks in the region. Port of Spain was also the de facto capital of the short-lived West Indies Federation, caricom was established in Chaguaramas, west of Port of Spain. The city is home to the largest container port on the island and is one of several shipping hubs of the Caribbean. Bauxite from Guyana is trans-shipped via facilities at Chaguaramas, about 8 kilometres west of the city, the pre-lenten Carnival is the citys main annual cultural festival and tourist attraction. Today, Port of Spain is a city in the Caribbean region. Trinidad and Tobago hosted the Fifth Summit of the Americas in 2009 whose guests included US President Barack Obama, Port of Spain is also home to the biggest and most successful stock exchange in the Caribbean, the Trinidad and Tobago Stock Exchange. The iconic Nicholas Tower, as well as skyscrapers, are well known throughout the region. These buildings dominate the citys skyline, some of the tallest skyscrapers in the Caribbean are located in Port of Spain. The Port of Spain was founded near the site of the Amerindian fishing village of Cumucurapo, located in the today known as Mucurapo. In 1560, a Spanish garrison was posted near the foot of the Laventille Hills, the part of todays downtown Port of Spain closest to the sea was once an area of tidal mudflats covered by mangroves. The first Spanish buildings here, in the 16th and 17th centuries, were open mud-plastered ajoupas, the fort was a mud-walled enclosure with a shack inside, a flagpole, two or three cannon, and few Spanish soldiers. This was captured during Walter Raleighs expedition in April 1595, the Caribs were transient, travelling to the mainland and up the Orinoco River. The French naval commander Comte DEstrées visited in 1680, and reported there was no Port of Spain. The last Spanish Governor of Trinidad, Don José Maria Chacón and he compelled the islands Cabildo to move to Port of Spain, and he limited its powers to the municipality. The 1783 Cedula of Population, which encouraged the settlement of French Catholics in the island, led to a increase in the towns population. Along the sea shore was the Plaza del Marina, a parade ground, by 1786, the town had a population of about 3,000
37.
San Fernando, Trinidad and Tobago
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San Fernando, officially the City Corporation of San Fernando, is the most populous city in Trinidad and Tobago. It occupies 18 km² and is located in the part of the island of Trinidad. It is bounded to the north by the Guaracara River, the south by the Oropouche River, the east by the Sir Solomon Hochoy Highway, the former borough was elevated to the status of a city corporation on November 18,1988. The motto of San Fernando is, Sanitas Fortis - In a Healthy Environment We Will Find Strength, many local Trinidadians refer to the city with the shortened name Sando. The Amerindians called the area Anaparima, which has been translated as either single hill or without water, a single hill, San Fernando Hill, rises from the centre of the city. A town named San Fernando de Naparima was established by Spanish Governor Don José Maria Chacón in 1784, with time, the de Naparima was dropped. Following the 1783 Cedula of Population, many plantations were established in the Naparima Plains surrounding San Fernando. The town grew as part of the country came to dominate sugar production. This growth continued throughout the century as consolidation in the sugar industry led to the construction of what was then the largest sugar refinery in the world. Madeline factory a few miles east of the town, the development of cacao cultivation and the petroleum industry helped San Fernando grow since the town served as the gateway to these areas. The growth of the town placed severe strains on the supply of water, the nearby oil refinery at Pointe-à-Pierre played an important role in San Fernandos development between World War II and the 1980s. The refinery was constructed by Trinidad Leaseholds Limited during World War II, the oil boom of the 1970s and 80s led to the growth of the suburbs of San Fernando, especially Marabella and Gasparillo of the Pointe-à-Pierre refinery. In 1991 the boundaries of the city were extended, bringing the refinery immediately adjacent to the Citys northern boundary, the extended City now includes the suburbs of Marabella, Bel Air, Gulf View and Cocoyea. The administration of San Fernando is done by San Fernando City Corporation and it is a corporate body, and the staff is instrumental in the exercise of the powers of the Corporation through the Council. Functions of this Corporation are delegated by the Central Government, Local government administration started in 1845, when the Town Council was established and the Municipality of San Fernando came into being. Circa 1853, San Fernando was elevated to a Borough, the first Mayor was Robert Johnstone, from the simple start of a fishing village, San Fernando blossomed financially, and became the Industrial Capital of Trinidad and Tobago. This crest incorporates the City motto, the sea, the hill, the sea and boat represent the beginnings as a fishing village. The sugar cane stalk represents the sugar industry, the oil tank represents productivity and the oil industry
38.
Puerto Rico
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Puerto Rico, officially the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico and briefly called Porto Rico, is an unincorporated territory of the United States located in the northeast Caribbean Sea. It is an archipelago that includes the island of Puerto Rico and a number of smaller ones such as Mona, Culebra. The capital and most populous city is San Juan and its official languages are Spanish and English, though Spanish predominates. The islands population is approximately 3.4 million, Puerto Ricos rich history, tropical climate, diverse natural scenery, renowned traditional cuisine, and attractive tax incentives make it a popular destination for travelers from around the world. Four centuries of Spanish colonial government transformed the ethnic, cultural and physical landscapes primarily with waves of African captives, and Canarian. In the Spanish imperial imagination, Puerto Rico played a secondary, in 1898, following the Spanish–American War, the United States appropriated Puerto Rico together with most former Spanish colonies under the terms of the Treaty of Paris. Puerto Ricans are natural-born citizens of the United States, however, Puerto Rico does not have a vote in the United States Congress, which governs the territory with full jurisdiction under the Puerto Rico Federal Relations Act of 1950. As a U. S. territory, American citizens residing on the island are disenfranchised at the level and may not vote for president. However, Congress approved a constitution, allowing U. S. citizens on the territory to elect a governor. A fifth referendum will be held in June 2017, with only Statehood, in early 2017, the Puerto Rican government-debt crisis posed serious problems for the government. The outstanding bond debt that had climbed to $70 billion or $12,000 per capita at a time with 12. 4% unemployment, the debt had been increasing during a decade long recession. Puerto Ricans often call the island Borinquen – a derivation of Borikén, its indigenous Taíno name, the terms boricua and borincano derive from Borikén and Borinquen respectively, and are commonly used to identify someone of Puerto Rican heritage. The island is also known in Spanish as la isla del encanto. Columbus named the island San Juan Bautista, in honor of Saint John the Baptist, eventually traders and other maritime visitors came to refer to the entire island as Puerto Rico, while San Juan became the name used for the main trading/shipping port and the capital city. The islands name was changed to Porto Rico by the United States after the Treaty of Paris of 1898, the anglicized name was used by the US government and private enterprises. The name was changed back to Puerto Rico by a joint resolution in Congress introduced by Félix Córdova Dávila in 1931, the ancient history of the archipelago known today as Puerto Rico is not well known. The scarce archaeological findings and early Spanish scholarly accounts from the colonial era constitute the basis of knowledge about them. The first comprehensive book on the history of Puerto Rico was written by Fray Íñigo Abbad y Lasierra in 1786, the first settlers were the Ortoiroid people, an Archaic Period culture of Amerindian hunters and fishermen who migrated from the South American mainland
39.
Florida Keys
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The Florida Keys are a coral cay archipelago located off the southern coast of Florida, forming the southernmost portion of the continental United States. The islands lie along the Florida Straits, dividing the Atlantic Ocean to the east from the Gulf of Mexico to the northwest, at the nearest point, the southern part of Key West is just 90 miles from Cuba. The Florida Keys are between about 23.5 and 25.5 degrees North latitude, the climate of the Keys is defined as tropical savanna according to Köppen climate classification. More than 95 percent of the area lies in Monroe County. The total land area is 137.3 square miles, the US Census population estimate for 2014 is 77,136. The city of Key West is the county seat of Monroe County, the county consists of a section on the mainland which is almost entirely in Everglades National Park, and the Keys islands from Key Largo to the Dry Tortugas. The Keys were originally inhabited by Calusa and Tequesta Native Americans, de León named the islands Los Martires, as they looked like suffering men from a distance. Key is derived from the Spanish word cayo, meaning small island, for many years, Key West was the largest town in Florida, and it grew prosperous on wrecking revenues. The isolated outpost was located for trade with Cuba and the Bahamas. Improved navigation led to shipwrecks, and Key West went into a decline in the late nineteenth century. The Keys were long accessible only by water and this changed with the completion of Henry Flaglers Overseas Railway in the early 1910s. Flagler, a developer of Floridas Atlantic coast, extended his Florida East Coast Railway down to Key West with an ambitious series of over-sea railroad trestles. Three hurricanes disrupted the project in 1906,1909, and 1910, one of the worst hurricanes to strike the U. S. made landfall near Islamorada in the Upper Keys on Labor Day, Monday, September 2. Winds were estimated to have gusted to 200 mph, raising a storm more than 17.5 feet above sea level that washed over the islands. More than 400 people were killed, though some place the number of deaths at more than 600. The Labor Day Hurricane is one of three hurricanes to make landfall at Category 5 strength on the U. S. coast since reliable weather records began. The other storms were Hurricane Camille and Hurricane Andrew, in 1935, new bridges were under construction to connect a highway through the entire Keys. Hundreds of World War I veterans working on the roadway as part of a government relief program were housed in non-reinforced buildings in three camps in the Upper Keys
40.
Cape Coral, Florida
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Cape Coral /ˈkɔːrəl/ is a city located in Lee County, Florida, United States, on the Gulf of Mexico. Founded in 1957 and developed as a master-planned, pre-planned community, the citys population estimate was 165,831 for 2013 and 181,211 for 2015. With an area of 120 square miles, Cape Coral is the largest city between Tampa and Miami and it is a principal city in the Cape Coral – Fort Myers, Florida Metropolitan Statistical Area. The population estimate for the area was 679,513 for 2014. The city is known as a Waterfront Wonderland, with over 400 mi of navigable waterways, Cape Coral was founded as Redfish point. The Gulf American Land Corporation, was formed to develop the area, canals were dug, streets paved, houses and businesses built. Cape Coral was promoted like no other Florida development, celebrities were brought in to tout the benefits of the Cape, as it is known locally. The first building was the Rosens company headquarters, at the corner of Coronado, Cape Corals first permanent resident was Kenny Schwartz, the Rosens general manager. Cape Corals first four homes were completed in May 1958, on Riverside, Development continued through the early 1960s, mostly on Redfish Point, south of Cape Coral Parkway. By 1963, the population was 2,850,1,300 buildings had been finished or were under construction,80 mi of road had been built, the public yacht club, a golf course, medical clinic and shopping center were up and running. A major addition for Cape Coral was the construction of the 3,400 feet long Cape Coral Bridge across the Caloosahatchee River, before the bridge, a trip to Fort Myers was more than 20 mi via Del Prado Boulevard and over the Edison Bridge to cross the river. There was a lot of hype, promotion and advertising, celebrities like Bob Hope, Anita Bryant, and Hugh Downs were brought in. A movie with Phyllis Diller, The Fat Spy, was filmed in Cape Coral, the first building in Cape Coral, even before any houses were constructed, was the Rosens sales office. It was built right on the spot where Georges Auto now stands, at Cape Coral, Cape Coral is a large peninsula and is bordered in the south and east by the Caloosahatchee River and in the west by Matlacha Pass. The city of Fort Myers lies across the Caloosahatchee River to the east, Matlacha Pass is home to Matlacha Pass National Wildlife Refuge and the states Matlacha Pass Aquatic Preserve. The city has over 400 miles of canals, more than any city in the world. Most of the canals are navigable and some have access to the Gulf of Mexico, Cape Corals canal system is so extensive that local ecology and tides have been affected. Cape Coral features a climate on the border between a subtropical and a tropical monsoon climate under the Köppen climate classification system
41.
Cape Canaveral
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Cape Canaveral, from the Spanish Cabo Cañaveral, is a cape in Brevard County, Florida, United States, near the center of the states Atlantic coast. Known as Cape Kennedy from 1963 to 1973, it lies east of Merritt Island and it was discovered by the Spanish conquistador Juan Ponce de León in 1513. It is part of a known as the Space Coast. Since many U. S. spacecraft have been launched both the station and the Kennedy Space Center on adjacent Merritt Island, the two are sometimes conflated with each other. In homage to its heritage, the Florida Public Service Commission allocated area code 321 to the Cape Canaveral area. Other features of the include the Cape Canaveral lighthouse and Port Canaveral. The city of Cape Canaveral lies just south of the Port Canaveral District, mosquito Lagoon, the Indian River, Merritt Island National Wildlife Refuge and Canaveral National Seashore are also features of this area. Humans have occupied the area for at least 12,000 years, during the middle Archaic period, from 5000 BC to 2000 BC, the Mount Taylor period culture region covered northeast Florida, including the area around Cape Canaveral. Late in the Archaic period, from 2000 BC to 500 BC, the Mount Taylor culture was succeeded by the Orange culture, the Orange culture was followed by the St. Johns culture, from 500 BC until after European contact. The area around the Indian River was in the Indian River variant of the St. Johns culture, the Surruque were allied with the Ais, but it is not clear whether the Surruque spoke a Timucua language, or a language related to the Ais language. In the early 16th century Cape Canaveral was noted on maps and it was named by Spanish explorers in the first half of the 16th century as Cabo Cañareal. The name Canaveral is the third oldest surviving European place name in the US, the first application of the name, according to the Smithsonian Institution, was from the 1521–1525 explorations of Spanish explorer Francisco Gordillo. A point of land jutting out into an area of the Atlantic Ocean with swift currents, an early alternative name was Cape of Currents. By at least 1564, the name appeared on maps, english privateer John Hawkins and his journalist John Sparke gave an account of their landing at Cape Canaveral in the 16th century. A Presbyterian missionary was wrecked here and lived among the Indians, other histories tell of French survivors from Jean Ribaults colony at Fort Caroline, whose ship the Trinité wrecked on the shores of Cape Canaveral in 1565, and built a fort from its timbers. In December 1571 Pedro Menéndez was wrecked off the Coast of Cape Canaveral, from 1605 to 1606, the Spanish Governor of Florida Pedro de Ibarra sent Alvaro Mexia on a diplomatic mission to the Ais Indian nation. The mission was a success, diplomatic ties were made and an agreement for the Ais to receive ransoms for all the sailors they returned. The first Cape Canaveral Lighthouse was built and completed in January 1848 to warn ships of the shoals off the coast
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Sable Island
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Sable Island is a small island situated 300 km southeast of Halifax, Nova Scotia, and about 175 km southeast of the closest point of mainland Nova Scotia in the Atlantic Ocean. It is a home to approximately five people, with summer numbers swelled by tourists, scientists. Notable for the Sable Island horse, the island is protected and managed by Parks Canada, permission must first be granted by it before anyone may visit. Sable Island is part of District 7 of the Halifax Regional Municipality in Nova Scotia, the island is also a protected National Park Reserve. The expedition of Portuguese explorer João Álvares Fagundes explored this region in 1520–1521 and were among the first Europeans to encounter the island and it is likely that he named the island Fagunda after himself. On the other hand, 16th century Portuguese sources describe a colony founded by the navigator in the Cape Breton Island. It is also possible that Fagundes sighted the island while heading southwest, reaching the Bay of Fundy, as the 1558 map of Diogo Homem and later Samuel de Champlain suggested, a brief attempt at French colonization at the end of the 16th century using convicts failed. The island was inhabited sporadically by sealers, shipwreck survivors, a series of life-saving stations was established on Sable Island by the governor of Nova Scotia, John Wentworth, in 1801. The rescue station began the continuous presence on the island which continues today. Wentworth appointed James Morris, a Nova Scotian veteran of the British Royal Navy as the first superintendent of the island, Morris settled on the island in October 1801 with his family. By the time Morris died on the island in 1809, he had built up the settlement to include a central station. Until the advent of modern navigation, Sable Island was home to the families of the life-saving crews. In the early 20th century, the Marconi Company established a station on the island. Several generations of staff were born and raised families of their own on the island. Only two people have been born on Sable Island since 1920, improvements in navigation led to a dramatic drop in shipwrecks by the mid 20th century. The rescue station on Sable was reduced and eventually closed in 1958, the Canadian Coast Guard first automated and eventually decommissioned the light stations. However, during this period, the role in science grew. In addition to studies, research on the island expanded to a range of ecological
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Trough (meteorology)
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A trough is an elongated region of relatively low atmospheric pressure, often associated with fronts. Unlike fronts, there is not a symbol for a trough on a weather chart. The weather charts in countries or regions mark troughs by a line. In the United States, a trough may be marked as a dashed line. In the UK, Hong Kong and Fiji, it is represented by a line extended from a low pressure center or between two low pressure centers, in Macau and Australia, it is a dashed line. If they are not marked, troughs may still be identified as an extension of isobars away from a low pressure center, sometimes the region between two high pressure centers may assume the character of a trough when there is a detectable wind shift noted at the surface. In the absence of a shift, the region is designated a col. If a trough forms in the mid-latitudes, a difference between two sides of the trough usually exists in the form of a weather front. A weather front is less convective than a trough in the tropics or subtropics. Sometimes collapsed frontal systems will degenerate into troughs, convective cells may develop in the vicinity of troughs and give birth to a tropical cyclone. Some tropical or subtropical regions such as the Philippines or south China are greatly affected by convection cells along a trough, in the mid-latitude westerlies, troughs and ridges often alternate, especially when upper-level winds are in a high-amplitude pattern. Tropical waves are a type of trough in easterly currents, a cyclonic northward deflection of the trade winds, troughs may be at the surface, or aloft, or both under various conditions. Most troughs bring clouds, showers, and a wind shift and this results from convergence or squeezing which forces lifting of moist air behind the trough line. In addition to standard troughs, some may be described further with a term indicating a specific or a set of characteristics. An inverted trough is a trough which is oriented opposite to most troughs of the mid-latitudes. Most inverted troughs are tropical waves, the situation is opposite in the Southern Hemisphere. Inverted troughs in both hemispheres move to the west from the east, while mid-latitude troughs generally move with the westerlies toward the east
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Tarpon Springs, Florida
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Tarpon Springs is a city in Pinellas County, Florida, United States. The population was 23,484 at the 2010 census, Tarpon Springs has the highest percentage of Greek Americans of any city in the US. Downtown Tarpon has long been a point and is currently undergoing beautification. The region, with a series of bayous feeding into the Gulf of Mexico, was first settled by white and black farmers, some of the newly arrived visitors spotted tarpon jumping out of the waters and so named the location Tarpon Springs. In 1882, Hamilton Disston, who in the year had purchased the land where the city of Tarpon Springs now stands. On February 12,1887, Tarpon Springs became the first incorporated city in what is now Pinellas County. Less than a year later on January 13,1888, the Orange Belt Railway, during this time the area was developed as a wintering spot for wealthy northerners. In the 1880s, John Cheyney founded the first local sponge business, the industry continued to grow in the 1890s, and many blacks and whites from Key West and the Bahamas settled in Tarpon Springs to harvest and process sponges. A few Greek immigrants arrived in city during the 1890s to work in the sponge industry. In 1905, John Cocoris introduced the technique of sponge diving to Tarpon Springs and recruited divers, the first divers came from the Saronic Gulf islands of Aegina and Hydra, but they were soon outnumbered by those from the Dodecanese islands of Kalymnos, Symi and Halki. The sponge industry soon became one of the maritime industries in Florida. The 1953 film Beneath the 12-Mile Reef, depicting the sponge industry, eventually, the sponges recovered, allowing for a smaller but consistent sponge industry today. In the 1980s, the business experienced a boom due to a sponge disease that killed the Mediterranean sponges. Today there is still a small active sponge industry, visitors can often view sponge fishermen working at the Sponge Docks on Dodecanese Boulevard. In addition, visitors can enjoy shops, restaurants, and museum exhibits that detail Tarpon Springs Greek heritage, Tarpon Springs climate borders on humid subtropical and tropical savanna, with warm temperatures year-round, although winters nights are cool. Annual precipitation is around 50 inches, winters are warm, with daytime highs of 72 °F to 80 °F, and nightly lows of 45 °F to 60 °F. The record low temperature of 19 °F was observed on four different dates, December 1,1962, December 13,1962, December 14,1962, and January 13,1985. Summers are hot and very humid, causing frequent afternoon thunderstorms that can produce hail
