1.
Norway
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The Antarctic Peter I Island and the sub-Antarctic Bouvet Island are dependent territories and thus not considered part of the Kingdom. Norway also lays claim to a section of Antarctica known as Queen Maud Land, until 1814, the kingdom included the Faroe Islands, Greenland, and Iceland. It also included Isle of Man until 1266, Shetland and Orkney until 1468, Norway has a total area of 385,252 square kilometres and a population of 5,258,317. The country shares a long border with Sweden. Norway is bordered by Finland and Russia to the north-east, Norway has an extensive coastline, facing the North Atlantic Ocean and the Barents Sea. King Harald V of the Dano-German House of Glücksburg is the current King of Norway, erna Solberg became Prime Minister in 2013, replacing Jens Stoltenberg. A constitutional monarchy, Norway divides state power between the Parliament, the Cabinet and the Supreme Court, as determined by the 1814 Constitution, the kingdom is established as a merger of several petty kingdoms. By the traditional count from the year 872, the kingdom has existed continuously for 1,144 years, Norway has both administrative and political subdivisions on two levels, counties and municipalities. The Sámi people have an amount of self-determination and influence over traditional territories through the Sámi Parliament. Norway maintains close ties with the European Union and the United States, the country maintains a combination of market economy and a Nordic welfare model with universal health care and a comprehensive social security system. Norway has extensive reserves of petroleum, natural gas, minerals, lumber, seafood, the petroleum industry accounts for around a quarter of the countrys gross domestic product. On a per-capita basis, Norway is the worlds largest producer of oil, the country has the fourth-highest per capita income in the world on the World Bank and IMF lists. On the CIAs GDP per capita list which includes territories and some regions, from 2001 to 2006, and then again from 2009 to 2017, Norway had the highest Human Development Index ranking in the world. It also has the highest inequality-adjusted ranking, Norway ranks first on the World Happiness Report, the OECD Better Life Index, the Index of Public Integrity and the Democracy Index. Norway has two names, Noreg in Nynorsk and Norge in Bokmål. The name Norway comes from the Old English word Norðrveg mentioned in 880, meaning way or way leading to the north. In contrasting with suðrvegar southern way for Germany, and austrvegr eastern way for the Baltic, the Anglo-Saxon of Britain also referred to the kingdom of Norway in 880 as Norðmanna land. This was the area of Harald Fairhair, the first king of Norway, and because of him
2.
Monarchy of Norway
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The Norwegian monarch is the monarchical head of state of Norway, which is a constitutional and hereditary monarchy with a parliamentary system. The present monarch is King Harald V, who has reigned since 17 January 1991, succeeding his father, the heir apparent is his only son, Crown Prince Haakon. The crown prince undertakes various public functions, as does the kings wife. The crown prince also acts as regent in the kings absence, there are several other members of the Royal Family, including the kings daughter, grandchildren and siblings. Whilst the Constitution of Norway grants important executive powers to the King, formally the King appoints the government according to his own judgement, but parliamentary practice has been in place since 1884. Constitutional practice has replaced the meaning of the word King in most articles of the constitution from the king personally to the elected government. The powers vested in the monarch are significant, but are treated only as reserve powers, the King does not, by convention, have direct participation in government. He ratifies laws and royal resolutions, receives and sends envoys from and to foreign countries and he has a more tangible influence as the symbol of national unity. The annual New Years Eve speech is one occasion when the King traditionally raises negative issues, the King is also Supreme Commander of the Norwegian Armed Forces and Grand Master of the Royal Norwegian Order of St. Olav and of the Royal Norwegian Order of Merit. The King has no role in the Church of Norway. The position of King of Norway has been in existence since the unification of Norway in 872. In recent years members of the Socialist Left party have proposed the abolition of the monarchy during each new session of parliament and this gives the Norwegian monarchy the unique status of being a popularly elected royal family and receiving regular formal confirmations of support from the Storting. Prior to and in the phase of the Viking Age Norway was divided into several smaller kingdoms. Harald Fairhair was the first king of Norway, the boundaries of Fairhairs kingdom were not identical to those of present-day Norway, and upon his death the kingship was shared among his sons. Some historians emphasise the actual control over the country and assert that Olaf II, alias Saint Olaf. Olaf is generally held to have been the force behind Norways final conversion to Christianity. In the 12th and 13th centuries the Norwegian kingdom was at its geographical and cultural peak, the kingdom included Norway, Iceland, the Faroe Islands, Greenland, Shetland, Orkney and other smaller areas in the British Isles. The king had diplomatic relations with most of the European kingdoms and formed alliances with Scotland and Castile, large castles such as Haakons Hall and cathedrals, the foremost being Nidaros Cathedral, were built
3.
Long track speed skating
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Speed skating is an Olympic sport where competitors are timed while crossing a set distance. It is also a sport for leisure, sports such as short track speedskating, inline speedskating, and quad speed skating are also called speed skating. Speed skaters attain maximum speeds of 60 km/h, organized races on ice skates first developed in the 19th century. Norwegian clubs hosted competitions from 1863, with races in the town of Christiania drawing five-digit crowds, in 1884, the Norwegian Axel Paulsen was named Amateur Champion Skater of the World after winning competitions in the United States. The Nederlandse Schaatsrijderbond was founded in 1882 and organised the championships of 1890 and 1891. Skaters started in pairs, each to their own lane, competitions were exclusively for amateur skaters. Peter Sinnerud was disqualified for professionalism in 1904 and lost his world title, World records were registered since 1891 and improved rapidly, Jaap Eden lowered the world 5000-metre record by half a minute during the Hamar European Championships in 1894. The record stood for 17 years, and it took 50 years to lower it further by half a minute, the Elfstedentocht was organised as a competition in 1909 and has been held at irregular intervals whenever the ice on the course is deemed good enough. Other outdoor races developed later, with Noord-Holland hosting a race in 1917, since artificial ice became common in the Netherlands, Dutch speed skaters have been among the top long track speed skaters and marathon skaters in the world. Another solution to still be able to skate marathons on natural ice became the Alternative Elfstedentocht, at the 1914 Olympic Congress, the delegates agreed to include long track speed skating in the 1916 Olympics, after figure skating had featured in the 1908 Olympics. Charles Jewtraw from Lake Placid, New York, won the first Olympic gold medal, Finland won the remaining four gold medals at the 1924 Games, with Clas Thunberg winning 1,500 metres,5,000 metres, and allround. It was the time an allround Olympic gold medal has been awarded in speed skating. Norwegian and Finnish skaters won all the medals in World Championships between the world wars, with Latvians and Austrians visiting the podium in the European Championships. At the time, North American races were usually conducted packstyle, similar to the races in the Netherlands. The ISU approved the suggestion that the 1932 Olympic speed skating competitions should be held as packstyle races, Canada won five medals, all silver and bronze, while defending World Champion Clas Thunberg stayed at home, protesting against this form of racing. At the World Championships held immediately after the Games, without the American champions, Norwegian racers won all four distances, in the 1930s, women began to be accepted in ISU speed skating competitions. Although womens races had been held in North America for some time and competed at the 1932 Winter Olympics in a demonstration event, however, Zofia Nehringowa set the first official world record in 1929. The womens long track speed skating was dominated by East Germany and later reunified Germany
4.
Football player
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A football player, footballer, or soccer player is a sportsperson who plays one of the different types of football. The main types of football are association football, American football, Canadian football, Australian rules football, Gaelic football, rugby league and it has been estimated that there are 250 million association football players in the world, and many play the other forms of football. Jean-Pierre Papin has described football as a universal language, footballers generally begin as amateurs and the best players progress to become professional players. Normally they start at a team and from there, based on skill and talent. Once signed, some learn to play football and a few advance to the senior or professional teams. Wages in some top leagues may be significantly higher to other jobs. Players in the Premier League earn average wages of about $1 million per year, in the wealthiest clubs in European football leagues, players can even earn an average wage up to $6 to $8 million per year. The best players of those clubs can earn up to $70 million per year, however, only a fraction of professional football players play at this level. Wages may be more moderate in other divisions and leagues. For example, the annual salary for soccer players in the Major League Soccer for the 2013 season was $148,693 per year. Soccer players in lower levels in European football leagues may only earn an average of $2.5 million per year, average salaries in womens teams are far lower, both in American clubs and in Europe. For example, players in the National Womens Soccer League earn, a minority of retired footballers continue working full-time within football, for instance as football managers. A1979 study reported that former first-team ballplayers were over-represented as top ranking executives in their companies and had greater mobility than second teamers. However, some chronic health issues, see below. Footballers perform more poorly when playing for a team than a home team. In science, causes for this phenomenon have been proposed but never confirmed, an Irish 2002 study of association and Gaelic football players characterised players as lean and muscular with a reasonably high level of capacity in all areas of physical performance. The opposite is the case for American football, where obesity could be the cause of health problems. A2000 study documented injuries sustained by Czech football players at all levels, Trauma was the cause of 81. 5% of the injuries, joint sprains predominated, followed by fractures, muscle strains, ligament ruptures, meniscal tears and contusions, and other injuries
5.
Nazi Germany
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Nazi Germany is the common English name for the period in German history from 1933 to 1945, when Germany was governed by a dictatorship under the control of Adolf Hitler and the Nazi Party. Under Hitlers rule, Germany was transformed into a fascist state in which the Nazi Party took totalitarian control over all aspects of life. The official name of the state was Deutsches Reich from 1933 to 1943, the period is also known under the names the Third Reich and the National Socialist Period. The Nazi regime came to an end after the Allied Powers defeated Germany in May 1945, Hitler was appointed Chancellor of Germany by the President of the Weimar Republic Paul von Hindenburg on 30 January 1933. The Nazi Party then began to eliminate all opposition and consolidate its power. Hindenburg died on 2 August 1934, and Hitler became dictator of Germany by merging the powers and offices of the Chancellery, a national referendum held 19 August 1934 confirmed Hitler as sole Führer of Germany. All power was centralised in Hitlers person, and his word became above all laws, the government was not a coordinated, co-operating body, but a collection of factions struggling for power and Hitlers favour. In the midst of the Great Depression, the Nazis restored economic stability and ended mass unemployment using heavy military spending, extensive public works were undertaken, including the construction of Autobahnen. The return to economic stability boosted the regimes popularity, racism, especially antisemitism, was a central feature of the regime. The Germanic peoples were considered by the Nazis to be the purest branch of the Aryan race, millions of Jews and other peoples deemed undesirable by the state were murdered in the Holocaust. Opposition to Hitlers rule was ruthlessly suppressed, members of the liberal, socialist, and communist opposition were killed, imprisoned, or exiled. The Christian churches were also oppressed, with many leaders imprisoned, education focused on racial biology, population policy, and fitness for military service. Career and educational opportunities for women were curtailed, recreation and tourism were organised via the Strength Through Joy program, and the 1936 Summer Olympics showcased the Third Reich on the international stage. Propaganda minister Joseph Goebbels made effective use of film, mass rallies, the government controlled artistic expression, promoting specific art forms and banning or discouraging others. Beginning in the late 1930s, Nazi Germany made increasingly aggressive territorial demands and it seized Austria and Czechoslovakia in 1938 and 1939. Hitler made a pact with Joseph Stalin and invaded Poland in September 1939. In alliance with Italy and smaller Axis powers, Germany conquered most of Europe by 1940, reichskommissariats took control of conquered areas, and a German administration was established in what was left of Poland. Jews and others deemed undesirable were imprisoned, murdered in Nazi concentration camps and extermination camps, following the German invasion of the Soviet Union in 1941, the tide gradually turned against the Nazis, who suffered major military defeats in 1943
6.
Waffen-SS
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The Waffen-SS was the armed wing of the Nazi Partys SS organisation. Its formations included men from Nazi Germany, along with volunteers, the Waffen-SS grew from three regiments to over 38 divisions during World War II, and served alongside the Heer, Ordnungspolizei and other security units. Prior to the war, it was under the control of the SS Führungshauptamt beneath Reichsführer-SS Heinrich Himmler, initially, in keeping with the racial policy of Nazi Germany, membership was only open to people of Germanic origin. The rules were relaxed in 1940, and later the formation of units composed largely or solely of foreign volunteers. These SS units were made up of men mainly from among the nationals of Nazi-occupied Europe, despite relaxation of the rules, the Waffen-SS was still based on the racist ideology of Nazism, and ethnic Poles were barred specifically from the formations. At the post-war Nuremberg trials the Waffen-SS was judged to be a criminal organisation due to its connection to the Nazi Party, former Waffen-SS members were denied many of the rights afforded to the military veterans. An exception was made for Waffen-SS conscripts, who were exempted because they were not volunteers, about a third of the total membership were conscripts. The origins of the Waffen-SS can be traced back to the selection of a group of 120 SS men in March 1933 by Sepp Dietrich to form the Sonderkommando Berlin. By November 1933 the formation had 800 men, and at a ceremony in Munich for the tenth anniversary of the failed Munich Putsch the regiment swore allegiance to Adolf Hitler. The oaths pledged were Pledging loyalty to him alone and Obedience unto death, the formation was given the title Leibstandarte Adolf Hitler. On 13 April 1934, by order of Himmler, the regiment became known as the Leibstandarte SS Adolf Hitler, led by one of Hitlers oldest comrades, Ernst Röhm, the SA was seen as a threat by Hitler to his newly gained political power. Hitler also wanted to conciliate leaders of the Reichswehr and conservatives of the country, when Hitler decided to act against the SA, the SS was put in charge of eliminating Röhm and the other high-ranking SA officers. The Night of the Long Knives occurred between 30 June and 2 July 1934 and saw the killing of up to 200 people and this included almost the entire SA leadership, effectively ending its power. This action was carried out by SS personnel, and the Gestapo. In September 1934, Hitler authorized the formation of the wing of the Nazi Party and approved the formation of the SS-Verfügungstruppe. The SS was given the lowest priority for recruits, at the same time Himmler established the SS-Junkerschule Bad Tölz and SS-Junkerschule Braunschweig for military training of SS officers. Both schools used regular army training methods and mainly used former army officers as instructors, Himmler initially in 1934 set stringent requirements for recruits. They were to be German nationals who could prove their Aryan ancestry back to 1800, unmarried, a four-year commitment was required for the SS-VT and LSSAH
7.
Haakon VII of Norway
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Haakon VII, known as Prince Carl of Denmark until 1905, was a Danish prince who became the first king of Norway after the 1905 dissolution of the union with Sweden. He reigned from November 1905 until his death in September 1957, as one of the few elected monarchs, Haakon quickly won the respect and affection of his people. He played a role in uniting the Norwegian nation in its resistance to the Nazi invasion. He became King of Norway before his father and older brother became kings of Denmark, during his reign, he saw his father, his brother and his nephew, Frederick IX, ascend the throne of Denmark, respectively in 1906,1912 and 1947. He died at the age of 85 on 21 September 1957 and he was succeeded by his only son, Olav V. Prince Carl of Denmark was the son of King Frederik VIII of Denmark. Furthermore, he was a brother of Christian X, a paternal grandson of King Christian IX of Denmark. Prince Carl was born at Charlottenlund Palace near Copenhagen and he belonged to the Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Glücksburg branch of the House of Oldenburg. The House of Oldenburg had been the Danish royal family since 1448, the house was originally from northern Germany, where the Glucksburg branch held their small fief. The family had permanent links with Norway beginning from the late Middle Ages, several of his paternal ancestors had been kings of independent Norway. Christian Frederick, who was King of Norway briefly in 1814, Prince Carl was raised in the royal household in Copenhagen and educated at the Royal Danish Naval Academy. Their son, Prince Alexander, the future Crown Prince Olav, was born on 2 July 1903, gradually, Prince Carl became the leading candidate, largely because he was descended from independent Norwegian kings. The new royal family of Norway left Denmark on the Danish royal yacht Dannebrog, at Oscarsborg Fortress, they boarded the Norwegian naval ship Heimdal. After a three-day journey, they arrived in Kristiania early on the morning of 25 November 1905, two days later, Haakon took the oath as Norways first independent king in 518 years. The coronation of Haakon and Maud took place in Nidaros Cathedral in Trondheim on 22 June 1906, King Haakon gained much sympathy from the Norwegian people. Although the Constitution of Norway vests the King with considerable executive powers, Haakon confined himself to non-partisan roles without interfering in politics, a practice continued by his son and grandson. However, his long rule gave him moral authority as a symbol of the countrys unity. Haakon, Maud and Crown Prince Olav became interested in skiing and this sport is often viewed as typically Norwegian
8.
General strike
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A general strike is a strike action in which a substantial proportion of the total labour force in a city, region, or country participates. General strikes are characterised by the participation of workers in a multitude of workplaces, General strikes first occurred in the mid-19th century, and have characterised many historically important strikes. An early predecessor of the strike may have been the secessio plebis in ancient Rome. In the Outline Of History, H. G. Wells recorded the general strike of the plebeians, the plebeians seem to have invented the strike, which now makes its first appearance in history. Wells noted that he made a mean use of their political advantages to grow rich through the national conquests at the expense not only of the defeated enemy. The plebeians, who were expected to obey the laws, but were not allowed to know the laws, were successful, in 450 BC. in a concession resulting from the rebellion of the plebeians, the laws of Rome were written for all to peruse. The general strike action became a feature of the political landscape with the onset of the Industrial Revolution. For the first time in history, large numbers of people were members of the working class, they lived in cities. By the 1830s, when the Chartist movement was at its peak, the first theorist to formulate and popularise the idea of a general strike for the purpose of political reform was the radical pamphleteer William Benbow. On 28 January 1832 Benbow published a pamphlet entitled Grand National Holiday, Benbow began to advocate direct and even violent action for political reform, in particular he advanced his idea for a national holiday and national convention. The striking workers were to support themselves with savings and confiscated parish funds, benbows idea of a Grand National Holiday was adopted by the Chartist Congress of 1839, Benbow having spent time in Manchester during 1838-9 promoting his the cause and his pamphlet. In 1842 the demands for wages and conditions across many different industries finally exploded into the first modern general strike. Instead of being a spontaneous uprising of the masses, the strike was politically motivated and was driven by a hard-headed agenda to win concessions. Probably as much as half of the industrial work force were on strike at its peak - over 500,000 men. The local leadership marshaled a growing working class tradition to politically organise their followers to mount a challenge to the capitalist. The mass abandonment of plantations by black slaves and poor whites during the American Civil War has, controversially, in his classic history Black Reconstruction in America, W. E. B. The trickling streams of fugitives swelled to a flood, once begun, the general strike of black and white went madly and relentlessly on like some great saga. The next large scale strike took place over half a century later in Belgium
9.
1922 in Norway
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Events in the year 1922 in Norway. Monarch - Haakon VII8 January - The Social Democratic Youth League of Norway is founded,30 November - The establishment of Norwegian government-owned alcoholic beverage retailer Vinmonopolet. Fridtjof Nansen is awarded the Nobel Peace Prize for his work as a League of Nations High Commissioner, municipal and county elections are held throughout the country
10.
Dovre Line
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The Dovre Line is the name of a Norwegian railway line with at least three different meanings. Dovre Line is the current name of the 548 km main line of the Norwegian railway system between Oslo and Trondheim, used by Jernbaneverket and NSB, Dovre Line is since 2008 the 484 km main line between Eidsvoll and Trondheim, used by Jernbaneverket. Dovre Line was until 2008 the name of the 209 km main line between Dombås and Trondheim, the most inclusive of these meanings of Dovre Line thus includes the other two. To complicate the pattern even more, the first use of the Dovre Line was on the section between Dombås and Støren, completed in 1921, when talking about construction of railways in Norway, Dovre Line is the 158,1 km long Dombås - Støren section. The section south of Eidsvoll was until 1998 Norways first public railway, Hovedbanen, the present line between Oslo and Eidsvoll is the 4 km shorter Gardermoen Line, the only high-speed line in the country. Hovedbanen is still in service for trains, but is not considered as a part of Dovre Line. The entire line from Oslo to Trondheim is 548 km today and it is a more heavily traveled line than the older Røros Line and electrification was completed 1 November 1970. Between 1935 and 1958, the Dovre Line was served by some of Norways largest steam locomotives, there is one branch line, the Rauma Line which leaves the Dovre Line at Dombås. The Norwegian State Railways is the operator of passenger services on the Dovre Line. There is also an afternoon train and a night train with sleeper cars. In addition there is a service from Dombås to Oslo. At Dombås there is correspondence with Møre og Romsdal via the Rauma Line, the southern part of the line has hourly departures with InterCity Express trains from Lillehammer to Oslo. In the northern end, the Dovre Line is served by the Trøndelag Commuter Rail, the original Dovre Line was completed and officially opened on 17 September 1921. The inauguration ended on a note when the train returning from the celebrations collided just after leaving Trondheim in the Nidareid train disaster the next day. There were approximately 800 people on the two trains, there are also plans for new crossing sections and expand existing crossing sections to at least 600 meters. For a later introduction there are plans of double track all the way between Eidsvold and Lillehammer, the government has an ambition too do so by 2030. Dovre Line NSB Jernbaneverkets list of stations on the Dovre line Bjerke, T. & Holom, hamar/Oslo, Norsk Jernbanemuseum & Norsk Jernbaneklubb
11.
Nidareid train disaster
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The Nidareid train disaster was a train collision on 18 September 1921 on the Trondhjem–Støren Line railway line, between the stations of Marienborg and Skansen in Trondheim, Norway. The accident occurred the day after the inauguration of the new line to Trondheim, Dovre Line, six people were killed in the crash, the first serious passenger train accident in Norway. The inaugural train had on 17 September transported King Haakon VII, the official opening had taken place at Hjerkinn Station which was the highest station on the line. Between there and Trondheim the inaugural train stopped at every station to give the king an opportunity to visitors and well-wishers. The train pulled into Trondheim that evening amidst great celebrations, although the king would spend a few days in Trondheim, most of the participants at the festivities had business and duties to attend to in Kristiania. An extra night train called Litra D was arranged for them, the local rail district wanted to schedule this train to depart Trondheim at midnight, just after a scheduled day train was set to arrive after a journey on the Røros Line. In order to get the guests home a few minutes earlier. The extra train consisted of six sleeping cars, sandwiched between a car at the front and the conductors car at the end. These had also used in the inaugural train and had doubled as wardrobes for the guests at the lines inauguration. The train was hauled by two NSB Class 30b engines,364 and 365, a total of 96 passengers were on board this train. The train left Trondheim at 23,54, a few minutes behind schedule and it received an all clear signal as the train passed through Skansen station on its way back to Kristiania. The northbound train no.361 was on a short hop from Støren to Trondheim and it was carrying passengers who had arrived on the 1,067 mm narrow-gauge Røros Line and changed trains for the final,1,435 mm standard gauge, leg into Trondheim. This train was pulled by engine 182, an NSB Class 21a engine, at the front, the crew of no.361 had boarded at Tynset and been given briefings to inform them of trains which the northbound trains would be meeting en route during the coming week. Among these was a train, scheduled for night to Monday the 19th, which all the crew assumed meant Monday night, that is. Moving all the passengers over to the train had delayed no. 361, and it was 20 minutes behind schedule when it pulled out of Støren, by the time the train reached Selsbak, where they were scheduled to meet southbound train no. As the train continued northwards the driver kept a lookout for signals on the left side, Marienborg Station was little more than a short stretch of double track to allow trains to pass each other. The only building at the location was a cabin where the man in charge was to set the points and signal the trains in
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