1.
1915 in art
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May – Ambrose Heal and others found the Design and Industries Association in London. May – Publication of the first modern book illustrated with wood engravings, june 10 – The only Vorticist exhibition staged opens at the Doré Gallery in London. October 24 – Giovanni Battista Tiepolos frescos, Translation of the House of Loreto, december 19 – Kasimir Malevich stages the 0.10 Exhibition and originates Suprematism. Harpers Bazaar hires Erté to design its covers, edward McKnight Kauffer is given his first commission to design a poster for the Underground Electric Railways Company of London. Shōzaburō Watanabe originates shin-hanga collaborative woodblock printing in Japan, the first of the Etruscan terracotta warriors, forged by sculptor Alfredo Fioravanti with the Riccardi family, is purchased by the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York City. 14-year-old Alice Prin is posing for sculptors in Paris, W. R. W. L. February 11 – Mervyn Levy, Welsh artist and critic. March 10 – Harry Bertoia, Italian-born American artist and furniture designer, april 4 – Louis Archambault, Canadian sculptor
2.
1916 in art
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February 9 –6.00 p. m. – Tristan Tzara founds Dadaism. March 1 – Liljevalchs konsthall inaugurated in Stockholm, may 20 – Boy with Baby Carriage is Norman Rockwells first cover for The Saturday Evening Post. May – Muirhead Bone recruited as a war artist by the British War Propaganda Bureau, at the end of the year, his album of drawings The Western Front begins publication. June 16 – Cleveland Museum of Art opens, august 31 – Kestnergesellschaft founded in Hanover, Germany. September 19 – Edvard Munchs paintings for the Aula of Det Kongelige Frederiks Universitet, september 26 – C. R. W. Nevinsons first major single-artist exhibition opens in London. November – John Nash arrives with the Artists Rifles in France, vanessa Bells first single-artist exhibition is staged at Omega Workshops in London. Provincial Fine Arts Museum completed in Córdoba, Argentina, ezra Pound publishes Gaudier-Brzeska, A Memoir. W. R. W. Nevinson Archies The Doctor Dog-Tired French Troops Resting Matthew Smith – Fitzroy Street Nude No
3.
1917 in art
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January – A drunken Amedeo Modigliani is ejected from a party for Georges Braque, by the hostess, Marie Vassilieff. January 29 – Rodin marries his mistress, Rose Beuret, she dies two weeks later, eric Kennington, William Orpen, C. R. W. Nevinson, Paul Nash and William Rothenstein are sent as war artists to the Western Front from England. De Stijl artistic movement is established by Theo van Doesburg, the Allen Memorial Art Museum is established at Oberlin College in Ohio. The Marc Chagall illustrated version of The Magician by I. L. Peretz is published in Vilnius. Max Beckmann – Deposition Lovis Corinth – Portrait of Julius Meier-Graefe Marcel Duchamp – Fountain Jacob Epstein – An American Soldier Elsa von Freytag-Loringhoven – God J. W. S. R. W. T. C
4.
1918 in art
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February – British War Memorials Committee formed to commission artworks to create a memorial to the World War I. February 16 – Joan Mirós first solo exhibition opens at the Dalmau Gallery, March – C. R. W. Nevinson has an exhibition at the Leicester Galleries in London. May – Stanley Spencer, a serving British Army soldier, is appointed as a war artist. A similar appointment is made this year for Australian soldier Frank R. Crozier, may 3 – William Orpens exhibition War opens in London, the paintings are donated to the British government. May 11 – Paul Nashs exhibition The Void of War opens at the Leicester Galleries in London, june 18 – Pablo Picasso marries Olga Khoklova. June – Alfred Stieglitz begins nude photography of Georgia OKeeffe, October 15 – Kunsthalle Bern opened. November 3 – The Robespierre Monument, designed by Beatrice Yuryevna Sandomierz, is unveiled, December 3 – Founding of the November Group of expressionist artists in Germany. Denver Art Museum opens its first galleries, frans Masereels wordless novel 25 Images of a Mans Passion is published. 12 March – Elaine de Kooning, American abstract expressionist painter,10 April – Cornell Capa, Hungarian-American photographer and photo curator. 9 May – Kyffin Williams, Welsh landscape painter,10 May – Desmond MacNamara, Irish painter, sculptor, and author 11 July – Roy Krenkel, American illustrator. 25 July – Jane Frank, American painter, sculptor, mixed media artist,8 August – Brian Stonehouse, English painter and Special Operations Executive agent during World War II. 22 September – Cleve Gray, American Abstract expressionist painter,7 October – Mimmo Rotella, Italian artist and poet. 8 November – Hermann Zapf, German typeface designer,14 December – Jack Cole, American comic book artist. 18 December – Kali, born Hanna Gordziałkowska, Polish-born portrait painter and Resistance agent during World War II
5.
1919 in art
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April 25 – The Bauhaus architectural and design movement is founded in Weimar, Germany, by Walter Gropius. December – The National War Paintings and Other Records exhibition staged at the Royal Academy of Arts in London, seven and Five Society established in London. Piet Mondrian, in Paris, begins painting his grid-based compositions, musée Rodin opens in Paris at the Hôtel Biron and Villa des Brillants, Meudon. Chaim Soutine first visits Céret in the Pyrenees where he begins a series of landscapes, les Champs Magnétiques, the first book produced using the techniques of surrealist automatism, is written by André Breton and Philippe Soupault. Publication in England of W. Somerset Maughams novel The Moon and Sixpence, aleksandra Ekster – City at Night Jacob Epstein – Sergeanat D. F. R. W. 1859) date unknown Edmund Elisha Case, American painter
6.
1920 in art
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February 1 – National Art Gallery opens in Tblisi. November 7 – The mass action The Storming of the Winter Palace, the Cologne Dadaist group is formed by Jean Arp, Max Ernst and Alfred Grünwald. Katherine Dreier, Man Ray and Marcel Duchamp form Société Anonyme, bernard Leach and Shoji Hamada set up the Leach Pottery in St Ives, Cornwall. Heckscher Museum of Art established in Huntington, New York, latvian Museum of Foreign Art established in Riga. Art historian Daniel-Henry Kahnweiler publishes Der Weg Zum Kubismus, W. January 17 – Georges Pichard, French comics artist. January 30 – Patrick Heron, English painter, writer and designer, march 3 – Ronald Searle, English cartoonist. March 14 – Hank Ketcham, American cartoonist, march 27 – Robin Jacques, English illustrator. April 8 – Hans Coper, German-born studio potter, april 24 – Paul Wonner, American painter. May – Hans Josephsohn, German-born sculptor, may 8 Saul Bass, American graphic designer and filmmaker. Tom of Finland, Finnish fetish artist, may 10 - Erna Viitol, Estonian sculptor June 4 – Alejandro Obregón, Colombian painter, muralist, sculptor and engraver. June 24 John Coplans, painter, photographer Jimmy Ernst, American painter born in Germany, June 29 – Ray Harryhausen, stop-motion animator, sculptor. July 20 – Arthur Boyd, Australian painter and sculptor, july 21 – Constant Nieuwenhuys, Dutch painter, one of the innovators of Unitary Urbanism. August 5 – George Tooker, painter, august 15 – Judy Cassab, born Judit Kaszab, Austrian-born Australian portrait painter. August 22 – Gene Davis, American painter, august 26 Mauri Favén, Finnish painter. October 31 – Helmut Newton, photographer, november 23 – Wayne Thiebaud, American painter. December 18 – Enrique Grau, Colombian painter and sculptor, december 21 – Bob Bindig, American illustrator Elaine Hamilton, American painter
7.
1922 in art
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February 1 – Akron Art Institute opens in Ohio. February 11–18 – Modern Art Week at the Theatro Municipal, São Paulo, lady Lever Art Gallery opens in Port Sunlight, England. There are some protests by Dadaists, max Beerbohms collection of caricatures, Rossetti and His Circle, is published in London. Fernando Álvarez de Sotomayor y Zaragoza, court painter to Alfonso XIII of Spain, is appointed director of the Museo del Prado in Madrid, german psychiatrist Hans Prinzhorn publishes Bildnerei der Geisteskranken. W. Godward Contemplation Nu Sur la Plage Juan Gris – Le Pierrot Paul Klee – Twittering Machine George Washington Lambert – Anzac, january 17 – Robert De Niro, Sr. January 23 – Leon Golub, American painter March 3 – Louis Maratier, French post-impressionist artist, March 10 – Kiyoshi Yamashita, Japanese outsider artist March 27 – Jules Olitski, American abstract painter, printmaker, and sculptor. March 28 – Grace Hartigan, American Abstract Expressionist painter April 22 – Richard Diebenkorn, April 24 – Richard Hamilton, English painter and collage artist. May 7 – Joe ODonnell, American photographer, june 22 – Bill Blass, American fashion designer. July 3 – Guillaume Cornelis van Beverloo, Corneille, painter July 25 – Fred Yates, august 8 – Rudi Gernreich, Austrian American fashion designer. September 3 – Steffan Danielsen, Faroese painter, october 3 – John Craxton, English painter. September 9 – Pauline Baynes, English book illustrator, December 8 – Lucian Freud, German-born British painter and printmaker December 17 – Aart van den IJssel, Dutch sculptor. December 31 – Theodoros Stamos, Greek American abstract expressionist painter, ljubinka Jovanović, Serbian painter living and working in Paris and Belgrade
8.
1930 in art
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June–July – Christopher Wood paints in Brittany. 29 November – Première of the Surrealist film LAge dOr by Luis Buñuel at Studio 28 in Paris, theo van Doesburg produces a Manifesto of Concrete art. Vanessa Bell and Duncan Grant complete the decoration of the room for Dorothy Wellesley at Penns-in-the-Rocks, Withyham. Malvina Hoffman begins sculpting life-size figures for the Field Museums Hall of Man, great Bardfield Artists community established in England. Bernard Berenson publishes The Italian Painters of the Renaissance, milt Gross publishes his wordless novel He Done Her Wrong in the United States. Spanish postage stamps depict Goyas La maja desnuda, approximate date – Gertrud Arndt begins a series of photographic self-portraits at the Bauhaus. Archibald Prize, W B McInnes – Drum-Major Harry McClelland April – Cercle et Carré exhibition opens at Galerie 23 in the Rue La Boétie, Paris
9.
1933 in art
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January 12 – George Grosz emigrates from Nazi Germany to the United States. February/March – Käthe Kollwitz is forced by the Nazi Party in Germany to resign from the faculty of the Academy of Arts, april – Closure of the Bauhaus. July – New Midland Hotel, Morecambe, on the Lancashire coast of England, designed by Oliver Hill, is opened incorporating sculpture by Eric Gill and murals by Eric Ravilious and Edward Bawden. September/October – Henri Cartier-Bresson and an Exhibition of Anti-Graphic Photography staged at Julien Levys gallery in New York City, september – Artists Union formed in the United States as the Emergency Work Bureau Artists Group. Black Mountain College founded by John Andrew Rice, the mural, Man at the Crossroads, by Diego Rivera, is removed from the Rockefeller Center in New York because it contains a portrait of Lenin. While he has been working on it, he has joined in the United States by Frieda Kahlo who begins her painting My Dress Hangs There. Hans Bellmer produces his first Doll sculpture, barbara Hepworth and John Skeaping are divorced, Hepworth is already in a relationship with Ben Nicholson. Paul Nash and other young British artists form the group Unit One to promote modernism in Britain, kenneth Clark appointed Director of the National Gallery, London, at age 30, taking up his post in January 1934
10.
1925 in music
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This is a list of notable events in music that took place in the year 1925. January 1 - First day of broadcasting in Sweden, Gaston Borch conducts the Skandia Cinema Orchestra in the countrys first broadcast of orchestral music. February 25 - Art Gillham - The Whispering Pianist records the first electrical recordings to be released for Columbia using the Western Electric system, march 1 - Edgard Varèses Intégrales is premiered in New York City. March 21 - Maurice Ravels LEnfant et les sortilèges is premiered in Monte Carlo, april 3 - Gustav Holsts opera At the Boars Head is premiered in Manchester. June 6 - Sergei Prokofievs Symphony No.2 is premiered in Paris, november 28 - The weekly country music radio program Grand Ole Opry is first broadcast on WSM radio in Nashville, Tennessee, as the WSM Barn Dance. December 11 - Carl Nielsens Symphony No,6, the Sinfonia semplice, is premiered in Copenhagen. December 14 - Alban Bergs opera Wozzeck is given its first complete performance, in Berlin, Joseph Canteloube founds a group called La Bourrée in Paris to publicize the folklore and other attractions of the Auvergne. Blind Lemon Jeffersons recording career begins, Louis Armstrong leaves Fletcher Hendersons Orchestra, returns to Chicago, Illinois, and makes his first records under his own name, leading Louis Armstrong & His Hot Five. Adios, Mariquita Linda w. Ray Gilbert Marcos A. Jimenez m. Marcos A. Jimenez Alone at Last w. Gus Kahn m. Ted Fio Rito Always w. m, Irving Berlin Bam, Bam, Bamy Shore w. Mort Dixon m. Hoagy Carmichael & Irving Mills Brown Eyes, Why Are You Blue, W. Alfred Bryan m. George W. Meyer By the Light of the Stars w. m. Arthur Sizemore, George A. Little, & Larry Shay Bye and Bye w. Lorenz Hart m, Richard Rodgers Cecilia w. Herman Ruby m. Dave Dreyer Cheatin on Me w. Jack Yellen m. W. Billy Rose & Ballard MacDonald m. Joseph Meyer Collegiate w. m, moe Jaffe & Nat Bonx A Cup of Coffee, a Sandwich and You w. Billy Rose & Al Dubin m. Joseph Meyer Davenport Blues m. Ray Henderson Dont Wake Me Up, Let Me Dream w. L. Wolfe Gilbert m, mabel Wayne Down by the Winegar Works w. m. Don Bestor, Roger Lewis & Walter Donovan Drifting and Dreaming w. Haven Gillespie, egbert Van Alstyne, Erwin R. Schmidt & Loyal Curtis DYe Love Me. w. Otto Harbach & Oscar Hammerstein II m. Jerome Kern. Introduced by Marilyn Miller in the musical Sunny Five Foot Two Eyes of Blue w. Sam M. Lewis & Joe Young m, fred Rose & Paul Whiteman Footloose w. Hal Cochran m. Carl Rupp Freshie w. Harold Berg m. Jesse Greer Grandpas Spells m, jelly Roll Morton Headin for Louisville w. B. G. De Sylva m. Joseph Meyer Here in My Arms w. Lorenz Hart m. Richard Rodgers The Hills of Home w. Floride Calhoun m. Oscar J. Fox I Found a New Baby w. m, Jack Palmer & Spencer Williams I Lost My Heart in Heidelberg w. Fritz Löhner-Beda & Ernst Neubach m. Fred Raymond I Love My Baby w. Bud Green m. Harry Warren I Might Have Known Lucas I Miss My Swiss w. L. Wolfe Gilbert m
11.
Stanley Spencer
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Sir Stanley Spencer CBE RA was an English painter. Spencer referred to Cookham as a village in Heaven and in his biblical scenes, although his compositions became more claustrophobic and his use of colour less vivid he maintained an attention to detail in his paintings akin to that of the Pre-Raphaelites. Spencers works often express his fervent if unconventional Christian faith and this is especially evident in the scenes that he based in Cookham which show the compassion that he felt for his fellow residents and also his romantic and sexual obsessions. Spencers works originally provoked great shock and controversy, Spencers early work is regarded as a synthesis of French Post-Impressionism, exemplified for instance by Paul Gauguin, plus early Italian painting typified by Giotto. Stanley Spencer was born in Cookham, Berkshire, the surviving child of William. His father, usually known as Par, was a music teacher, stanleys younger brother, Gilbert Spencer, also became a notable artist, known principally for his landscapes. The family home, Fernlea, on Cookham High Street, had built by Spencers grandfather Julius Spencer. Stanley Spencer was educated at home by his sisters Annie and Florence, as his parents had reservations about the council school. However, Gilbert and Stanley took drawing lessons from a local artist, Par Spencer approached local landowners, Lord and Lady Boston, for advice, and Lady Boston agreed Stanley could spend time drawing with her each week. In 1907 Lady Boston arranged for Stanley to attend Maidenhead Technical Institute, from 1908 to 1912, Spencer studied at the Slade School of Fine Art at University College London, under Henry Tonks and others. His contemporaries at the Slade included Dora Carrington, Maxwell Gordon Lightfoot, Mark Gertler, Paul Nash, Edward Wadsworth, Isaac Rosenberg, so profound was his attachment to Cookham that most days he would take the train back home in time for tea. It even became his nickname, his fellow student Christopher R. W. Nevinson dubbed him Cookham, while at the Slade, Spencer allied with a, short-lived, group who called themselves the Neo-Primitives which was centred on Bomberg and William Roberts. In 1912 Spencer exhibited the painting John Donne Arriving in Heaven, in 1914 Spencer completed Zacharias and Elizabeth and The Centurions Servant. The latter painting featured not only Spencer himself as the servant, but also his brothers and he also began work on a self-portrait. Self-portrait was painted in Wisteria Cottage, a decaying Georgian house Spencer rented, from the local coalman in Cookham, apple Gatherers had been bought by the artist Henry Lamb, who promptly sold it to the art collector Edward Marsh. Marsh later bought Self-portrait and considered it to be masterly. glowing with genius, at the start of World War One Spencer was keen to enlist but his mother persuaded him, given his poor physique, to apply for ambulance duties. After thirteen months at Beaufort, the RAMC transferred Spencer to overseas duties and he left Beaufort in May 1916 and after ten weeks training at Tweseldown Camp in Hampshire, the 24-year-old Spencer was sent to Macedonia, with the 68th Field Ambulance unit. In 1917 he subsequently volunteered to be transferred to a regiment, the 7th Battalion
12.
Hilda Carline
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Hilda Anne Carline was a British painter, daughter of the artist George Francis Carline, and first wife of the artist Stanley Spencer. She studied art under the Post-Impressionist Percyval Tudor-Hart, with her brothers Sydney and Richard and she had a promising early start with her works being shown at the London Group, Royal Academy and New English Art Club. In 1925 she married fellow artist Stanley Spencer with whom she had what has been described as the most bizarre domestic soap opera in the history of British art. During the time that Carline lived with Spencer she rarely painted, Carlines physical and mental health was poor starting several years after her divorce and after 1937 she lived with family members. Spencer became obsessed with his ex-wife with whom he corresponded and painted, in her later years she made religious works with pastels. She died in 1950, having struggled for years with breast cancer. A touring exhibition of her works, The Art of Hilda Spencer, Hilda Anne Carline was born on 20 November 1889 to the artist George Francis Carline and Annie Smith Carline, who had been adopted by a relative and never knew her mother or father, John Smith. Carline was one of five born to the family. Of her brothers, Richard and Sydney became artists, and George chose another career, the family moved many times when she was a child. She lived in London until 1892 when the family moved to Oxford, after that, they lived in Switzerland, Derbyshire and returned to Oxford. George Carline taught his daughters to paint until October 1913, when she enrolled in the school that Percyval Tudor-Hart had established in Hampstead, prior to that, Tudor-Hart had a school in Paris where her brothers Sydney and Richard had studied. Now, Sydney, Richard and Hilda lived and studied together, Hilda focused on making watercolour paintings and sketching. Tudor-Hart, a Post-Impressionist who was a proponent of colour theories of Wassily Kandinsky, introduced them to avant-garde continental art that was expressive, bold, abstract. From 1916 to 1918 Hilda did farm work for the Womens Land Army near Wangford and she made Return from the Farm, in a Gauguinesque style that reflected her connection to and appreciation for the countryside. After the war she enrolled at the Slade School of Art, under Henry Tonks, Carline studied line and formalism, which was different from the instruction she received from Tudor-Hart. She was able to leverage what she learned from Tudor-Hart to make works that were nearly abstract landscapes and she earned prizes for her drawings and paintings. In the early 1920s, Hilda participated in the gatherings of artists and intellectuals - including Stanley Spencer, John, Henry Lamb called them cercle pan-artisque of Downshire Hill. She and her brothers exhibited at the London Group, Hilda in 1921 and she also exhibited at the New English Art Club and the Royal Academy
13.
Bauhaus
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The Bauhaus was founded by Walter Gropius in Weimar. Nonetheless, it was founded with the idea of creating a work of art in which all arts, including architecture. The Bauhaus style later became one of the most influential currents in modern design, Modernist architecture and art, design, the Bauhaus had a profound influence upon subsequent developments in art, architecture, graphic design, interior design, industrial design, and typography. Although the school was closed, the continued to spread its idealistic precepts as they left Germany. The changes of venue and leadership resulted in a constant shifting of focus, technique, instructors, many Germans of left-wing views were influenced by the cultural experimentation that followed the Russian Revolution, such as constructivism. Such influences can be overstated, Gropius did not share these radical views, thus, the Bauhaus style, also known as the International Style, was marked by the absence of ornamentation and by harmony between the function of an object or a building and its design. In its first seven years, the Werkbund came to be regarded as the body on questions of design in Germany. The entire movement of German architectural modernism was known as Neues Bauen, beginning in June 1907, Peter Behrens pioneering industrial design work for the German electrical company AEG successfully integrated art and mass production on a large scale. Behrens was a member of the Werkbund, and both Walter Gropius and Adolf Meyer worked for him in this period. The Bauhaus was founded at a time when the German zeitgeist had turned from emotional Expressionism to the matter-of-fact New Objectivity, beyond the Bauhaus, many other significant German-speaking architects in the 1920s responded to the same aesthetic issues and material possibilities as the school. They also responded to the promise of a minimal dwelling written into the new Weimar Constitution, ernst May, Bruno Taut, and Martin Wagner, among others, built large housing blocks in Frankfurt and Berlin. The acceptance of modernist design into everyday life was the subject of publicity campaigns, well-attended public exhibitions like the Weissenhof Estate, films, the Vkhutemas, the Russian state art and technical school founded in 1920 in Moscow, has been compared to Bauhaus. Founded a year after the Bauhaus school, Vkhutemas has close parallels to the German Bauhaus in its intent, organization, the two schools were the first to train artist-designers in a modern manner. Vkhutemas was a school than the Bauhaus, but it was less publicised outside the Soviet Union. With the internationalism of modern architecture and design, there were exchanges between the Vkhutemas and the Bauhaus. In addition, El Lissitzkys book Russia, an Architecture for World Revolution published in German in 1930 featured several illustrations of Vkhutemas/Vkhutein projects there. The school was founded by Walter Gropius in Weimar in 1919 as a merger of the Grand Ducal School of Arts and Crafts and the Weimar Academy of Fine Art. Its roots lay in the arts and crafts founded by the Grand Duke of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach in 1906
14.
Weimar
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Weimar is a city in the federal state of Thuringia, Germany. It is located between Erfurt in the west and Jena in the east, approximately 80 kilometres southwest of Leipzig,170 kilometres north of Nuremberg and 170 kilometres west of Dresden. Together with the neighbour-cities Erfurt and Jena it forms the metropolitan area of Thuringia with approximately 500,000 inhabitants. Weimar is well known because of its cultural heritage and its importance in German history. The city was a point of the German Enlightenment and home of the leading characters of the literary genre of Weimar Classicism. Until 1948, Weimar was the capital of Thuringia, today, many places in the city centre have been designated as UNESCO World Heritage sites and tourism is one of the leading economic sectors of Weimar. Relevant institutions in Weimar are the Bauhaus University, the Liszt School of Music, in 1999, Weimar was the European Capital of Culture. Archaeological finds dating back to the Thuringii epoch show that the Weimar part of the Ilm valley was settled early, the oldest records regarding Weimar date to 899. Its name changed over the centuries from Wimares through Wimari to Wimar and finally Weimar, it is derived from Old High German wīh-, another theory derives the first element from OHG win. The place was the seat of the County of Weimar, first mentioned in 949, in 1062 it was united with the County of Orlamünde to the new County of Weimar-Orlamünde, which existed until the Thuringian Counts War in 1346 and fell to the Wettins afterwards. The Weimar settlement emerged around the wooden castle and two small churches dedicated to St Peter, and to St James. In 1240, the count founded the monastery in Oberweimar. Soon after, the counts of Weimar founded the town, which was an independent parish since 1249, from 1262 the citizens used their own seal. Nevertheless, the influence of the Weimar counts was declining as the influence of the Wettins in Thuringia increased. Hence, the new town was relatively marginal in a regional context. The settlement around St James Church developed into a suburb during the 13th century, after becoming part of the Wettins territory in 1346, urban development improved. The Wettins fostered Weimar by abolishing socage and granting privileges to the citizens, now Weimar became equal to other Wettinian cities like Weißensee and grew during the 15th century, with the establishment of a town hall and the current main church. Weimar acquired woad trade privileges in 1438, the castle and the walls were finished in the 16th century, making Weimar into a full city
15.
Dessau
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Dessau is a city in Germany on the junction of the rivers Mulde and Elbe, in the Bundesland of Saxony-Anhalt. Since 1 July 2007, it is part of the new city of Dessau-Roßlau, Dessau is situated on a floodplain where the Mulde flows into the Elbe. The worst flood took place in the year 2002, when the Waldersee district was completely flooded. The south of Dessau touches a well-wooded area called Mosigkauer Heide, the highest elevation is a 110m high former rubbish dump called Scherbelberg in the southwest of Dessau. Dessau is surrounded by parks and palaces that ranks Dessau as one of the greenest towns in Germany. Dessau was first mentioned in 1213 and it became an important centre in 1570, when the Principality of Anhalt was founded. Dessau became the capital of state within the Holy Roman Empire. Anhalt was dissolved In 1603 it was split into four – later five – Anhalts, in 1863 two of the noble line died out, and became reunited. Dessau is famous for its college of architecture Bauhaus and it moved here in 1925 after it had been forced to close in Weimar. Many famous artists were lecturers in Dessau in the years, among them Walter Gropius, Paul Klee. The Nazis forced the closure of the Bauhaus in 1931, the city was almost completely destroyed by Allied air raids in World War II on March 7,1945, six weeks before American troops occupied the town. Afterwards it was rebuilt with typical GDR concrete slab architecture and became an industrial centre of East Germany. Since German reunification in 1990 many historic buildings have been restored, the composer Kurt Weill was born in Dessau. Since 1993 the city has hosted an annual Kurt Weill Festival, Dessau was also the birthplace of the philosopher Moses Mendelssohn, and Leopold I, Prince of Anhalt-Dessau, a lauded field marshal for the Kingdom of Prussia. Since January 7,2005, Dessau has gained notoriety for the death of Sierra Leonean convicted drug trafficker. According to local police, Jalloh, who was drunk and had tied to his bed because he was volatile and violent, set his own mattress on fire. A local court acquitted officers in 2008, in 2010, however, a higher federal court declared the ruling null and void, and ordered a new investigation and trial be launched. The Bauhaus College itself was constructed based on designs by Walter Adolph Georg Gropius, Dessau Hauptbahnhof has connections to Magdeburg, Berlin, Leipzig, Halle, Bitterfeld and Lutherstadt Wittenberg
16.
Art Deco
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Art Deco, sometimes simply referred to as Deco, is a style of visual arts, architecture and design that first appeared in France just before World War I. It took its name, short for Arts Decorators, from the Exposition Internationale des Arts Décoratifs et Industriels Modernes held in Paris in 1925 and it combined modernist styles with fine craftsmanship and rich materials. During its heyday, Art Deco represented luxury, glamour, exuberance, Art Deco was a pastiche of many different styles, sometimes contradictory, united by a desire to be modern. It featured rare and expensive materials such as ebony and ivory, the Chrysler Building and other skyscrapers of New York were the most visible monuments of the new style. In the 1930s, during the Great Depression, the became more subdued. New materials arrived, including chrome plating, stainless steel and plastic, a more sleek form of the style, called Streamline Moderne, appeared in the 1930s, it featured curving forms and smooth, polished surfaces. Art Deco became one of the first truly international architectural styles, with examples found in European cities, the style came to an end with the beginning of World War II. Deco was replaced as the dominant global style by the functional and unadorned styles of modernism. The term arts décoratifs was first used in France in 1858, in 1868, Le Figaro newspaper used the term art décoratifs with respect to objects for stage scenery created for the Théâtre de lOpéra. In 1875, furniture designers, textile, jewelry and glass designers and it took its present name of ENSAD in 1927. The term Art déco was then used in a 1966 newspaper article by Hillary Gelson in the Times, describing the different styles at the exhibit. Art Deco gained currency as a broadly applied stylistic label in 1968 when historian Bevis Hillier published the first major book on the style. Hillier noted that the term was already being used by art dealers and cites The Times, in 1971, Hillier organized an exhibition at the Minneapolis Institute of Arts, which he details in his book about it, The World of Art Deco. The emergence of Art Deco was closely connected with the rise in status of decorative artists, the term arts décoratifs had been invented in 1875, giving the designers of furniture, textiles, and other decoration official status. The Société des artistes décorateurs, or SAD, was founded in 1901, a similar movement developed in Italy. The first international exhibition devoted entirely to the arts, the Esposizione international dArte decorative moderna, was held in Turin in 1902. Several new magazines devoted to decorative arts were founded in Paris, including Arts et décoration, Decorative arts sections were introduced into the annual salons of the Sociéte des artistes français, and later in the Salon dautomne. French nationalism also played a part in the resurgence of decorative arts, in 1911 the SAD proposed the holding of a major new international exposition of decorative arts in 1912
17.
Le Corbusier
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Charles-Édouard Jeanneret, known as Le Corbusier, was a Swiss-French architect, designer, painter, urban planner, writer, and one of the pioneers of what is now called modern architecture. He was born in Switzerland and became a French citizen in 1930 and his career spanned five decades, he constructed buildings in Europe, Japan, India, and North and South America. Le Corbusier prepared the plan for the city of Chandigarh in India. On July 17,2016, seventeen projects by Le Corbusier in seven countries were inscribed in the list of UNESCO World Heritage sites as an Outstanding Contribution to the Modern Movement and it was an industrial town, devoted to the manufacture of watches. His father was an artisan who enameled boxes and watches, while his mother gave piano lessons and his elder brother Albert was an amateur violinist. He attended a kindergarten that used Fröbelian methods, like his contemporaries Frank Lloyd Wright and Mies van der Rohe, Le Corbusier did not have formal academic training as an architect. He was attracted to the arts and at the age of fifteen he entered the municipal art school in La-Chaux-de-Fonds which taught the applied arts connected with watchmaking. Three years later he attended the course of decoration, founded by the painter Charles LEplattenier. Le Corbusier wrote later that LEplattenier had made him a man of the woods and his father took him frequently into the mountains around the town. He wrote later, we were constantly on mountaintops, we grew accustomed to a vast horizon and his architecture teacher in the Art School was the architect René Chapallaz, who had a large influence on Le Corbusiers earliest house designs. However, he reported later that it was the art teacher LEplattenier who made him choose architecture, I had a horror of architecture and architects, he wrote. I was sixteen, I accepted the verdict and I obeyed. Le Corbusier began teaching himself by going to the library to read about architecture and philosophy, by visiting museums, by sketching buildings, located on the forested hillside near Chaux-de-fonds. It was a chalet with a steep roof in the local alpine style. The success of this led to his construction of two similar houses, the Villas Jacquemet and Stotzer, in the same area. In Florence, he visited the Florence Charterhouse in Galluzzo, which made an impression on him. I would have liked to live in one of what they called their cells and it was the solution for a unique kind of workers housing, or rather for a terrestrial paradise. In 1911, he traveled again for five months, this time he journeyed to the Balkans and visited Serbia, Bulgaria, Turkey, Greece, as well as Pompeii and Rome. Filling nearly 80 sketchbooks with renderings of what he saw—including many sketches of the Parthenon and he spoke of what he saw during this trip in many of his books, and it was the subject of his last book, Le Voyage dOrient
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Josef Albers
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Albers was born into a Roman Catholic family of craftsmen in Bottrop, Westphalia, Germany. He worked from 1908 to 1913 as a schoolteacher in his town, he also trained as an art teacher at Königliche Kunstschule in Berlin, Germany. From 1916 to 1919 he began his work as a printmaker at the Kunstgewerbschule in Essen, in 1918 he received his first public commission, Rosa mystica ora pro nobis, a stained-glass window for a church in Essen. In 1919 he went to Munich, Germany, to study at the Königliche Bayerische Akademie der Bildenden Kunst, Albers enrolled as a student in the preliminary course of Johannes Itten at the Weimar Bauhaus in 1920. In 1925, Albers was promoted to professor, the year the Bauhaus moved to Dessau, at this time, he married Anni Albers who was a student there. His work in Dessau included designing furniture and working with glass, as a younger art teacher, he was teaching at the Bauhaus among artists who included Oskar Schlemmer, Wassily Kandinsky, and Paul Klee. The so-called form master, Klee taught the formal aspects in the workshops where Albers was the crafts master. With the closure of the Bauhaus under Nazi pressure in 1933 the artists dispersed, Albers emigrated to the United States. The architect Philip Johnson, then a curator at the Museum of Modern Art, arranged for Albers to be offered a job as head of a new art school, Black Mountain College, in North Carolina. In November 1933, he joined the faculty of the college where he was the head of the program until 1949. At Black Mountain, his students included Ruth Asawa, Ray Johnson, Robert Rauschenberg, Cy Twombly and he also invited important American artists such as Willem de Kooning, to teach in the summer seminar. Albers produced many woodcuts and leaf studies at this time, in 1950, Albers left Black Mountain to head the department of design at Yale University in New Haven, Connecticut. While at Yale, Albers worked to expand the nascent graphic design program, hiring designers Alvin Eisenman, Herbert Matter, Albers worked at Yale until he retired from teaching in 1958. At Yale, Richard Anuszkiewicz, Eva Hesse, Neil Welliver, in 1962, as a fellow at Yale, he received a grant from the Graham Foundation for an exhibit and lecture on his work. Albers also collaborated with Yale professor and architect King-lui Wu in creating designs for some of Wus projects. Among these were distinctive geometric fireplaces for the Rouse and DuPont houses, the façade of Manuscript Society, one of Yales secret senior groups, also, at this time he worked on his structural constellation pieces. In 1963, he published Interaction of Color which presented his theory that colors were governed by an internal, the very rare first edition has a limited printing of only 2,000 copies and contained 150 silk screen plates. This work has been republished since and is now available as a cell phone app
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Anni Albers
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Annelise Albers was a German textile artist and printmaker. She is perhaps the best known textile artist of the 20th century, Albers was born Annelise Else Frieda Fleischmann in Berlin of Jewish descent. Her mother was from a family in the industry and her father was a furniture maker. Even in her childhood, she was intrigued by art and the visual world and she eventually decided to attend art school, even though the challenges for art students were often great and the living conditions harsh. Such a lifestyle sharply contrasted the affluent and comfortable living that she had used to. Albers attended the Kunstgewerbeschule in Hamburg for only two months in 1919, then in April 1922 began her studies at the Bauhaus at Weimar, at the Bauhaus she began her first year under Georg Muche and then Johannes Itten. With her instructor Gunta Stölzl, however, Albers soon learned to love weavings tactile construction challenges, in 1925 Anni and Josef Albers, the latter having rapidly become a Junior Master at the Bauhaus, were married. She had several of her designs published and received contracts for wall hangings, for a time Albers was a student of Paul Klee, and after Gropius left Dessau in 1928 Josef and Anni Albers moved into the teaching quarters next to both the Klees and the Kandinskys. During this time, the Albers began their lifelong habit of travelling extensively, first through Italy, Spain, and the Canary Islands. When Gunta Stölzl left the Bauhaus in 1931, Anni Albers took over her role as Head of the Weaving Workshop, the Bauhaus at Dessau was closed in 1932 under pressure from the Nazi party and moved briefly to Berlin, permanently closing a year later in August 1933. Anni and Joseph Albers were invited by Philip Johnson to teach at the experimental Black Mountain College in North Carolina, both taught at Black Mountain until 1949. During these years Anni Alberss design work, including weavings, were shown throughout the US, Albers wrote and published many articles on design. In 1949, Anni Albers became the first designer to have an exhibition at the Museum of Modern Art in New York City. Alberss design exhibition at MoMA began in the fall and then toured the US from 1951 until 1953, during these years, she also made many trips to Mexico and throughout the Americas, and became an avid collector of pre-Columbian artwork. After leaving Black Mountain in 1949, Anni moved with her husband to Connecticut, in 1963, while at the Tamarind Lithography Workshop in Los Angeles with Josef for a lecture of his, Anni Albers was invited to experiment with print media. She grew immediately fond of the technique, and thereafter gave up most of her time to lithography and screen printing. She was invited back as a fellow to Tamarind in 1964, wrote an article for Britannica in 1963 and her design work and writings on design helped establish Design History as a serious area of academic study. She continued to travel to Latin America and Europe, to design and to make prints, and to lecture until her death on May 9,1994, in Connecticut
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Frida Kahlo
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Frida Kahlo de Rivera, born Magdalena Carmen Frida Kahlo y Calderón, was a Mexican painter, who mostly painted self-portraits. Inspired by Mexican popular culture, she employed a naïve folk art style to explore questions of identity, postcolonialism, gender, class and her paintings often had strong autobiographical elements and mixed realism with fantasy. In addition to belonging to the post-revolutionary Mexicanidad movement, which sought to define a Mexican identity, born to a German father and a mestiza mother, Kahlo spent most of her childhood and adult life at her family home, La Casa Azul, in Coyoacán. She was left disabled by polio as a child, and at the age of eighteen was seriously injured in a traffic accident, prior to the accident, she had been a promising student headed for medical school, but in the aftermath had to abandon higher education. Although art had been her hobby throughout her childhood, Kahlo began to entertain the idea of becoming an artist during her long recovery and she was also interested in politics and in 1927 joined the Mexican Communist Party. Through the Party, she met the celebrated muralist Diego Rivera and they were married in 1928, and remained a couple until Kahlos death. The relationship was volatile due to both having affairs, they divorced in 1940, but remarried the following year. Kahlo spent the late 1920s and early 1930s traveling in Mexico, the exhibition was a success and was followed by another in Paris in 1939. While the French exhibition was successful, the Louvre purchased a painting from Kahlo. Throughout the 1940s, Kahlo continued to participate in exhibitions in Mexico and she also began to teach at the Escuela Nacional de Pintura, Escultura y Grabado La Esmeralda, and became a founding member of the Seminario de Cultura Mexicana. Kahlos always fragile health began to decline in the same decade. She had her first solo exhibition in Mexico in 1953, shortly before her death the year at the age of 47. Kahlo was mainly known as Riveras wife until the late 1970s, by the 1990s, she had become not only a recognized figure in art history, but also regarded as an icon for Chicanos, feminists, and the LGBTQ movement. Magdalena Carmen Frida Kahlo y Calderón was born on July 6,1907 in Coyoacán, Kahlo stated that she was born at the family home, La Casa Azul, but according to the official birth registry, the birth took place at the nearby home of her maternal grandmother. Kahlos parents were photographer Guillermo Kahlo and Matilde Calderón y González, originally from Germany, Guillermo had immigrated to Mexico in 1891, after epilepsy caused by an accident ended his university studies. Although Kahlo claimed that her father was Jewish, he was in fact a Lutheran, Matilde was born in Oaxaca to an indigenous father and a mother of Spanish descent. In addition to Kahlo, the marriage produced daughters Matilde, Adriana and she also had two half-sisters from Guillermos first marriage, María Luisa and Margarita, but they were raised in a convent. Kahlo later described the atmosphere in her home as often very, very sad
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Alfred Stieglitz
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Alfred Stieglitz was an American photographer and modern art promoter who was instrumental over his fifty-year career in making photography an accepted art form. In addition to his photography, Stieglitz was known for the New York art galleries that he ran in the part of the 20th century. He was married to painter Georgia OKeeffe, Stieglitz was born in Hoboken, New Jersey, the first son of German-Jewish immigrants Edward Stieglitz and Hedwig Ann Werner. His father was a lieutenant in the Union Army and he had five siblings, Flora, twins Julius and Leopold, Agnes and Selma. Alfred Stieglitz, seeing the relationship of the twins, wished he had a soul mate of his own during his childhood. Stieglitz attended Charlier Institute, a Christian school and the best private school in New York, the following year, his family began spending the summers at Lake George in the Adirondack Mountains, a tradition that continued into Stieglitzs adulthood. So that he would qualify for admission to the City College of New York, Stieglitz was enrolled in a school for his senior year of high school. In 1881, Edward Stieglitz sold his company for US$400,000, Alfred Stieglitz enrolled in the Realgymnasium in Karlsruhe. The next year, Stieglitz studied mechanical engineering at the Technische Hochschule in Berlin and he enrolled in a chemistry class taught by Hermann Wilhelm Vogel, a scientist and researcher, who worked on the chemical processes for developing photographs. In Vogel, Stieglitz found both the challenge he needed and an outlet for his growing artistic and cultural interests. He received an allowance of $1,200 a month, German artists Adolf von Menzel and Wilhelm Hasemann were his friends. He bought his first camera and traveled through the European countryside, taking photographs of landscapes and peasants in Germany, Italy and the Netherlands. In 1884, his parents returned to America, but 20-year-old Stieglitz remained in Germany and collected books on photography and photographers in Europe, through his self-study, he saw photography as an art form. In 1887, he wrote his very first article, A Word or Two about Amateur Photography in Germany and he then wrote articles on the technical and aesthetic aspects of photography for magazines in England and Germany. He won first place for his photography, The Last Joke, Bellagio, the next year he won both first and second prizes in the same competition, and his reputation began to spread as several German and British photographic magazines published his work. In 1890, his sister Flora died while giving birth, Stieglitz considered himself an artist, but he refused to sell his photographs. His father purchased a small business for him so that he could earn a living in his chosen profession. Because he demanded high quality images and paid his employee high wages and he regularly wrote for The American Amateur Photographer magazine
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Georgia O'Keeffe
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Georgia Totto OKeeffe was an American artist. She was best known for her paintings of enlarged flowers, New York skyscrapers, OKeeffe has been recognized as the Mother of American modernism. In 1908, unable to further education, she worked for two years as a commercial illustrator, and then spent seven years between 1911 and 1918 teaching in Virginia, Texas, and South Carolina. Alfred Stieglitz, an art dealer and photographer, held an exhibit of her works in 1916, over the next couple of years, she taught and continued her studies at the Teachers College, Columbia University. She moved to New York in 1918 at Stieglitzs request and began working seriously as an artist and they developed a professional relationship, he promoted and exhibited her works, and a personal relationship that led to their marriage in 1924. The reputation of the portrayal of sexuality was also fueled by explicit and sensuous photographs that Stieglitz had taken. After Stieglitz’s death, she lived permanently in New Mexico at Georgia OKeeffe Home and Studio in Abiquiú, in 2014, OKeeffes 1932 painting Jimson Weed sold for $44,405,000, more than three times the previous world auction record for any female artist. The Georgia OKeeffe Museum was established after her death in Santa Fe, Georgia OKeeffe was born on November 15,1887, in a farmhouse located at 2405 Hwy T in the town of Sun Prairie, Wisconsin. Her parents, Francis Calyxtus OKeeffe and Ida OKeeffe, were dairy farmers and her father was of Irish descent. Her maternal grandfather George Victor Totto, for whom OKeeffe was named, was a Hungarian count who came to the United States in 1848, OKeeffe was the second of seven children. She attended Town Hall School in Sun Prairie, by age ten she had decided to become an artist, and she and her sister received art instruction from local watercolorist Sara Mann. OKeeffe attended high school at Sacred Heart Academy in Madison, Wisconsin as a boarder between 1901 and 1902, in late 1902 the OKeeffes moved from Wisconsin to the close-knit neighborhood of Peacock Hill in Williamsburg, Virginia. OKeeffe stayed in Wisconsin with her aunt and attended Madison High School and she completed high school as a boarder at Chatham Episcopal Institute in Virginia and graduated in 1905. She was a member of the Kappa Delta sorority, when she taught and headed the art department at West Texas State Normal College, her youngest sibling, Claudia, lived with her at her mothers request to watch over her as she studied at the school. In 1917 she visited her brother, Alexis, at a camp in Texas before he shipped out for Europe during World War I. While there she created the painting, The Flag, which expressed her anxiety, OKeeffe studied and ranked at the top of her class at the School of the Art Institute of Chicago from 1905 to 1906, studying with John Vanderpoel. Due to typhoid fever, she had to take a year off from her education, in 1907, she attended the Art Students League in New York City, where she studied under William Merritt Chase, Kenyon Cox and F. In 1908, she won the Leagues William Merritt Chase still-life prize for her oil painting Dead Rabbit with Copper Pot and her prize was a scholarship to attend the Leagues outdoor summer school in Lake George, New York
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Equivalents
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Equivalents is a series of photographs of clouds taken by Alfred Stieglitz from 1925 to 1934. Stieglitz took at least 220 photographs that he called Equivalent or Equivalents, the majority of them show only the sky without any horizon, buildings or other objects in the frame, but a small number do include hills or trees. One series from 1927 prominently features poplar trees in the foreground, almost all of the photographs are printed very darkly so the sky often appears black or nearly black. The contrast between the sky and the much lighter clouds is striking in all but a few of the prints, some images include the sun either as a distinct element in the photograph or as an illuminating force behind the clouds. The multiple series Stieglitz called Equivalents combined two important aspects of his photography, the technical and the aesthetic. He was a master at both, but with Equivalents he succeeded in bringing his skills to a new level. On the technical side, Stieglitz had been fascinated by the problems of photographing clouds ever since the summer of 1887. Until the 1920s most photographic emulsions were orthochromatic, which meant they were sensitive to light on the blue end of the spectrum. This made photographing clouds particularly difficult because unless special filters were used the sky would appear very light, in 1922 Stieglitz read a commentary about his photography by Waldo Frank that suggested the strength of his imagery was in the power of the individuals he photographed. Coincidentally at this time a new panchromatic photographic emulsion was developed that allowed the full range of colors to be captured. Soon after it became available Stieglitz aimed his 8 x 10 view camera at the sky, by the next year he had created a series of ten mounted photographs he called Music, A Sequence of Ten Cloud Photographs. He told his wife Georgia OKeeffe I wanted a series that when seen by Ernest Bloch he would exclaim, how did you ever do that. Encouraged by the success of the Music series he took his smaller 4 x 5 Graflex camera and he arranged many of these photographs into distinct series he called Songs of the Sky. In late 1924 he exhibited sixty-one of his photos in a single room at the Anderson Galleries. This was the first time a museum in the U. S. acquired photographs as part of its permanent collection. Stieglitz continued photographing clouds and skies for most of the next decade, in 1925 he began referring to these photographs as Equivalents, a name he used for all such photographs taken from that year forward. In 1929 he renamed some of the original Songs of the Sky as Equivalents, dorothy Norman once recorded a conversation between Stieglitz and a man looking at one of his Equivalents prints, Stieglitz certainly knew what he had achieved in these pictures. Writing about his Equivalents to Hart Crane, he declared, I know exactly what I have photographed, nonetheless, it is difficult to look at them today and understand the impact that they had at the time
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Surrealism
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Surrealism is a cultural movement that began in the early 1920s, and is best known for its visual artworks and writings. The aim was to resolve the previously contradictory conditions of dream, leader André Breton was explicit in his assertion that Surrealism was, above all, a revolutionary movement. Surrealism developed out of the Dada activities during World War I, the word surrealist was coined by Guillaume Apollinaire and first appeared in the preface to his play Les Mamelles de Tirésias, which was written in 1903 and first performed in 1917. The Dadaists protested with anti-art gatherings, performances, writings and art works, after the war, when they returned to Paris, the Dada activities continued. Meeting the young writer Jacques Vaché, Breton felt that Vaché was the son of writer. He admired the young writers anti-social attitude and disdain for established artistic tradition, later Breton wrote, In literature, I was successively taken with Rimbaud, with Jarry, with Apollinaire, with Nouveau, with Lautréamont, but it is Jacques Vaché to whom I owe the most. Back in Paris, Breton joined in Dada activities and started the literary journal Littérature along with Louis Aragon and they began experimenting with automatic writing—spontaneously writing without censoring their thoughts—and published the writings, as well as accounts of dreams, in the magazine. Breton and Soupault delved deeper into automatism and wrote The Magnetic Fields, continuing to write, they came to believe that automatism was a better tactic for societal change than the Dada form of attack on prevailing values. They also looked to the Marxist dialectic and the work of such theorists as Walter Benjamin, freuds work with free association, dream analysis, and the unconscious was of utmost importance to the Surrealists in developing methods to liberate imagination. They embraced idiosyncrasy, while rejecting the idea of an underlying madness, as Salvador Dalí later proclaimed, There is only one difference between a madman and me. Beside the use of analysis, they emphasized that one could combine inside the same frame, elements not normally found together to produce illogical. The more the relationship between the two juxtaposed realities is distant and true, the stronger the image will be−the greater its emotional power, the group aimed to revolutionize human experience, in its personal, cultural, social, and political aspects. They wanted to people from false rationality, and restrictive customs. Breton proclaimed that the aim of Surrealism was long live the social revolution. To this goal, at various times Surrealists aligned with communism and anarchism, in 1924 two Surrealist factions declared their philosophy in two separate Surrealist Manifestos. That same year the Bureau of Surrealist Research was established, leading up to 1924, two rival surrealist groups had formed. Each group claimed to be successors of a revolution launched by Guillaume Apollinaire, the other group, led by Breton, included Louis Aragon, Robert Desnos, Paul Éluard, Jacques Baron, Jacques-André Boiffard, Jean Carrive, René Crevel and Georges Malkine, among others. Goll and Breton clashed openly, at one point literally fighting, at the Comédie des Champs-Élysées, in the end, Breton won the battle through tactical and numerical superiority
