1.
1926 Miami hurricane
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As a result of the destruction in Florida, the hurricane represented an early start to the Great Depression in the aftermath of the states 1920s land boom. The tropical cyclone is believed to have formed in the central Atlantic Ocean on September 11, steadily strengthening as it tracked west-northwestward, the tropical storm reached hurricane intensity the next day. Strengthening continued up until the day, when the storm reached peak intensity with a strength equivalent to a Category 4 hurricane. This intensity was maintained as the storm tracked across the Turks and Caicos, the cyclone caused immense destruction throughout the islands and across southern Florida. The storm destroyed hundreds of structures in its path over the islands, at least 17 deaths occurred on the islands, though many others—some related only indirectly to the storm—were reported in the aftermath. Upon striking South Florida, the cyclone generated hurricane-force winds over a swath of the region, causing widespread. Most of the deaths occurred near Lake Okeechobee, when a storm surge breached muck dikes. The hurricane quickly traversed the Florida peninsula before emerging into the Gulf of Mexico near Fort Myers, the storm flooded surrounding communities and barrier islands, while strong winds downed trees and disrupted electrical service. The storm later made two landfalls with weaker intensities on Alabama and Mississippi on September 20 and 21, respectively, the storm caused additional but less severe damage in those states, primarily from heavy rains and storm surge. Land interaction caused the cyclone to deteriorate and later dissipate on September 22, due to the sparseness of available observations in the central Atlantic, the specific origins of the 1926 Miami hurricane remain unclear. Operationally, the United States Weather Bureau in Washington, D. C. did not begin issuing advisories on the cyclone until September 14, tracking west-northwestward, the storm gradually intensified and reached hurricane intensity on September 12 while still east of the Lesser Antilles. The observation of low pressures and winds suggesting cyclonic rotation at Saint Kitts on the evening of September 14 was the first to suggest that a hurricane had developed. The following day, the steamship Matura encountered the tropical cyclone. By 06,00 UTC on September 15, the storm had strengthened further to hurricane intensity north of the Virgin Islands. Strengthening continued into September 16 as the hurricane reached an equivalent to that of a Category 4 on the modern-day Saffir–Simpson hurricane wind scale. Shortly afterward, the struck the Bahamian island of Mayaguana at its peak intensity. After passing the island, the hurricane slightly weakened but maintained formidable strength as it accelerated through the southern Bahamas, the storm then made a second landfall on Andros Island in the Mangrove Cay district early on September 18. Thereafter, the hurricane crossed Andros Island and passed over the Gulf Stream en route to Florida
2.
Bar (unit)
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The bar is a metric unit of pressure, but is not approved as part of the International System of Units. It is defined as equal to 100000 Pa, which is slightly less than the current average atmospheric pressure on Earth at sea level. The bar and the millibar were introduced by the Norwegian meteorologist Vilhelm Bjerknes, use of the bar is deprecated by some professional bodies in some fields. The International Astronomical Union also lists it under Non-SI units and symbols whose continued use is deprecated, as of 2004, the bar is legally recognized in countries of the European Union. Units derived from the bar include the megabar, kilobar, decibar, centibar, the notation bar, though deprecated by various bodies, represents gauge pressure, i. e. pressure in bars above ambient or atmospheric pressure. The bar is defined using the SI derived unit, pascal,1 bar ≡100000 Pa. Thus,1 bar is equal to,100 kPa 1×105 N/m21000000 Ba, notes,1 millibar =1 one-thousandth bar, or 1×10−3 bar 1 millibar =1 hectopascal. The word bar has its origin in the Greek word βάρος, the units official symbol is bar, the earlier symbol b is now deprecated and conflicts with the use of b denoting the unit barn, but it is still encountered, especially as mb to denote the millibar. Between 1793 and 1795, the bar was used for a unit of weight in an early version of the metric system. Atmospheric air pressure is given in millibars where standard sea level pressure is defined as 1013 mbar,101.3,1.013 bar. Despite the millibar not being an SI unit, meteorologists and weather reporters worldwide have long measured air pressure in millibars as the values are convenient, for example, the weather office of Environment Canada uses kilopascals and hectopascals on their weather maps. In contrast, Americans are familiar with the use of the millibar in US reports of hurricanes, in fresh water, there is an approximate numerical equivalence between the change in pressure in decibars and the change in depth from the water surface in metres. Specifically, an increase of 1 decibar occurs for every 1.019716 m increase in depth, in sea water with respect to the gravity variation, the latitude and the geopotential anomaly the pressure can be converted into meters depth according to an empirical formula. As a result, decibars are commonly used in oceanography, many engineers worldwide use the bar as a unit of pressure because, in much of their work, using pascals would involve using very large numbers. In the automotive field, turbocharger boost is often described in bars outside the USA), unicode has characters for mb and bar, but they exist only for compatibility with legacy Asian encodings and are not intended to be used in new documents. The kilobar, equivalent to 100 MPa, is used in geological systems. Bar and bara are sometimes used to indicate absolute pressures and bar and this usage is deprecated and fuller descriptions such as gauge pressure of 2 bar or 2 bar gauge are recommended.0 Unported License but not under the GFDL. Non-SI units accepted for use with the SI
3.
Pascal (unit)
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The pascal is the SI derived unit of pressure used to quantify internal pressure, stress, Youngs modulus and ultimate tensile strength. It is defined as one newton per square meter and it is named after the French polymath Blaise Pascal. Common multiple units of the pascal are the hectopascal which is equal to one millibar, the unit of measurement called standard atmosphere is defined as 101,325 Pa and approximates to the average pressure at sea-level at the latitude 45° N. Meteorological reports typically state atmospheric pressure in hectopascals, the unit is named after Blaise Pascal, noted for his contributions to hydrodynamics and hydrostatics, and experiments with a barometer. The name pascal was adopted for the SI unit newton per square metre by the 14th General Conference on Weights, one pascal is the pressure exerted by a force of magnitude one newton perpendicularly upon an area of one square metre. The unit of measurement called atmosphere or standard atmosphere is 101325 Pa and this value is often used as a reference pressure and specified as such in some national and international standards, such as ISO2787, ISO2533 and ISO5024. In contrast, IUPAC recommends the use of 100 kPa as a standard pressure when reporting the properties of substances, geophysicists use the gigapascal in measuring or calculating tectonic stresses and pressures within the Earth. Medical elastography measures tissue stiffness non-invasively with ultrasound or magnetic resonance imaging, in materials science and engineering, the pascal measures the stiffness, tensile strength and compressive strength of materials. In engineering use, because the pascal represents a small quantity. The pascal is also equivalent to the SI unit of energy density and this applies not only to the thermodynamics of pressurised gases, but also to the energy density of electric, magnetic, and gravitational fields. In measurements of sound pressure, or loudness of sound, one pascal is equal to 94 decibels SPL, the quietest sound a human can hear, known as the threshold of hearing, is 0 dB SPL, or 20 µPa. The airtightness of buildings is measured at 50 Pa, the units of atmospheric pressure commonly used in meteorology were formerly the bar, which was close to the average air pressure on Earth, and the millibar. Since the introduction of SI units, meteorologists generally measure pressures in hectopascals unit, exceptions include Canada and Portugal, which use kilopascals. In many other fields of science, the SI is preferred, many countries also use the millibar or hectopascal to give aviation altimeter settings. In practically all fields, the kilopascal is used instead. Centimetre of water Metric prefix Orders of magnitude Pascals law
4.
United States dollar
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The United States dollar is the official currency of the United States and its insular territories per the United States Constitution. It is divided into 100 smaller cent units, the circulating paper money consists of Federal Reserve Notes that are denominated in United States dollars. The U. S. dollar was originally commodity money of silver as enacted by the Coinage Act of 1792 which determined the dollar to be 371 4/16 grain pure or 416 grain standard silver, the currency most used in international transactions, it is the worlds primary reserve currency. Several countries use it as their currency, and in many others it is the de facto currency. Besides the United States, it is used as the sole currency in two British Overseas Territories in the Caribbean, the British Virgin Islands and Turks and Caicos Islands. A few countries use the Federal Reserve Notes for paper money, while the country mints its own coins, or also accepts U. S. coins that can be used as payment in U. S. dollars. After Nixon shock of 1971, USD became fiat currency, Article I, Section 8 of the U. S. Constitution provides that the Congress has the power To coin money, laws implementing this power are currently codified at 31 U. S. C. Section 5112 prescribes the forms in which the United States dollars should be issued and these coins are both designated in Section 5112 as legal tender in payment of debts. The Sacagawea dollar is one example of the copper alloy dollar, the pure silver dollar is known as the American Silver Eagle. Section 5112 also provides for the minting and issuance of other coins and these other coins are more fully described in Coins of the United States dollar. The Constitution provides that a regular Statement and Account of the Receipts and that provision of the Constitution is made specific by Section 331 of Title 31 of the United States Code. The sums of money reported in the Statements are currently being expressed in U. S. dollars, the U. S. dollar may therefore be described as the unit of account of the United States. The word dollar is one of the words in the first paragraph of Section 9 of Article I of the Constitution, there, dollars is a reference to the Spanish milled dollar, a coin that had a monetary value of 8 Spanish units of currency, or reales. In 1792 the U. S. Congress passed a Coinage Act, Section 20 of the act provided, That the money of account of the United States shall be expressed in dollars, or units. And that all accounts in the offices and all proceedings in the courts of the United States shall be kept and had in conformity to this regulation. In other words, this act designated the United States dollar as the unit of currency of the United States, unlike the Spanish milled dollar the U. S. dollar is based upon a decimal system of values. Both one-dollar coins and notes are produced today, although the form is significantly more common
5.
Atlantic hurricane
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An Atlantic hurricane or tropical storm is a tropical cyclone that forms in the Atlantic Ocean, usually in the summer or fall. A hurricane differs from a cyclone or typhoon only on the basis of location, a hurricane is a storm that occurs in the Atlantic Ocean and northeastern Pacific Ocean, a typhoon occurs in the northwestern Pacific Ocean, and a cyclone occurs in the south Pacific or Indian Ocean. Tropical cyclones can be categorized by intensity, Tropical storms have one-minute maximum sustained winds of at least 39 mph, while hurricanes have one-minute maximum sustained winds exceeding 74 mph. Most North Atlantic tropical storms and hurricanes form between June 1 and November 30, in recent times, tropical disturbances that reach tropical storm intensity are named from a predetermined list. On average, in the North Atlantic basin 11.3 named storms occur each season, the climatological peak of activity is around September 11 each season. In March 2004, Catarina was the first hurricane-intensity tropical cyclone recorded in the Southern Atlantic Ocean. Tropical cyclones are steered by the flow throughout the depth of the troposphere. Specifically, air flow around high pressure systems and toward low pressure areas influence hurricane tracks, south of the subtropical ridge, surface easterly winds prevail. If the subtropical ridge is weakened by a trough, a tropical cyclone may turn poleward and then recurve. Poleward of the ridge, westerly winds prevail and generally steer tropical cyclones that reach northern latitudes toward the east. The westerlies also steer extratropical cyclones with their cold and warm fronts from west to east, generally speaking, the intensity of a tropical cyclone is determined by either the storms maximum sustained winds or lowest barometric pressure. The following table lists the most intense Atlantic hurricanes in terms of their lowest barometric pressure, in terms of wind speed, Hurricane Allen was the strongest Atlantic tropical cyclone on record, with maximum sustained winds of 190 mph. However, these measurements are suspect since instrumentation used to document wind speeds at the time would likely succumb to winds of such intensity, nonetheless, their central pressures are low enough to rank them among the strongest recorded Atlantic hurricanes. Owing to their intensity, the strongest Atlantic hurricanes have all attained Category 5 classification, Hurricane Opal, the strongest Category 4 hurricane recorded, intensified to reach a minimum pressure of 916 mbar, a pressure typical of Category 5 hurricanes. Nonetheless, the pressure remains too high to list Opal as one of the ten strongest Atlantic tropical cyclones, however, this was later superseded by Hurricane Patricia in 2015 in the east Pacific, which had a pressure reading of 872 mbar. Preceding Wilma is Hurricane Gilbert, which had held the record for most intense Atlantic hurricane for 17 years. The 1935 Labor Day hurricane, with a pressure of 892 mbar, is the third strongest Atlantic hurricane, since the measurements taken during Wilma and Gilbert were documented using dropsonde, this pressure remains the lowest measured over land. However, with a pressure of 895 mbar, Rita is the strongest tropical cyclone ever recorded in the Gulf of Mexico
6.
1924 Atlantic hurricane season
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The 1924 Atlantic hurricane season featured the earliest known Category 5 hurricane – a tropical cyclone with maximum sustained winds exceeding 155 mph. The first system, Tropical Storm One, was first detected in the northwestern Caribbean Sea on June 18, the final system, an unnumbered tropical depression, dissipated on November 24. These dates fall within the period with the most tropical activity in the Atlantic. Of the 13 tropical cyclones of the season, six existed simultaneously, the season was average with 11 tropical storms, three of which strengthened into hurricanes. Further, two of those three intensified into hurricanes, which are Category 3 or higher on the Saffir–Simpson hurricane wind scale. The most significant storm of the season was Hurricane Ten, nicknamed the 1924 Cuba hurricane and it struck western Cuba as a Category 5 hurricane, before weakening and making landfall in Florida as a Category 1 hurricane. Severe damage and 90 fatalities were reported at both locations. Another system, Hurricane Four, brought winds and flooding to the Leeward Islands. The storm left 59 deaths,30 of which were on Montserrat alone, several other tropical cyclones had minor impacts on land, including Tropical Storms One, Eight, and Ten, as well as Hurricanes Three and Five. Overall, the storms of the 1924 Atlantic hurricane season caused at least 150 fatalities. The seasons activity was reflected with a low accumulated cyclone energy rating of 100, ACE is only calculated for full advisories on tropical systems at or exceeding 34 knots or tropical storm strength. A tropical storm was detected 75 miles southeast of Chetumal, Quintana Roo on June 18 and it made landfall on northern Belize with estimated winds near 45 mph. Pressures were progressively decreasing over the days in the northwestern Caribbean Sea. The tropical system crossed the Yucatán Peninsula, emerging over the Bay of Campeche on June 19 with 40 mph winds and it re-strengthened over water and re-attained winds of 45 mph. Early on June 21, the storm made landfall 115 miles south of Tampico, the cyclone was classified as a weak disturbance, and strong winds were not recorded throughout the life span of the storm. Squalls affected the Texas coast, prompting advisories for small watercraft, heavy rainfall was reported in Mexico. Toward the end of July, a cold front off the east coast of Florida resulted in the formation of a tropical storm. The storm tracked northeast, steadily intensifying to reach winds of 65 mph as it passed near the Outer Banks of North Carolina
7.
1925 Atlantic hurricane season
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The 1925 Atlantic hurricane season was an inactive Atlantic hurricane season during which four tropical cyclones formed. Only one of them was a hurricane, the first storm developed on August 18, and the last dissipated on December 1. The season began at a date, more than two months after the season began. The official start of the season is considered to be June 1 with the end being October 31, however. Due to increased activity over the decades, the official end of the hurricane season was shifted to November 30. The final two storms of the season impacted several areas, with the storm affecting areas from Cuba to Rhode Island. The third storm caused little or no damage along the Texas coastline with winds being recorded only along the coast. The last storm caused damage along the beaches of the Florida Peninsula. At least $600,000 was lost in damages dealt to the citrus industry, the first indications of a tropical cyclone developing were on August 17. A ship in the vicinity of the system reported winds of 40 mph over 78 °F waters. Around 0000 UTC the next day, the system was classified as a tropical depression with sustained winds estimated at 30 mph. Roughly 18 hours later, the strengthened into a tropical storm. Gradual intensification took place throughout most of the life as it traveled towards the northeast until becoming a hurricane around 0600 UTC on August 20. About 30 minutes later, a ship recorded winds of 45 mph and a pressure of 993.6 mbar, shortly after, the storm reached its peak intensity with winds of 80 mph. Increasing in forward motion, the storm became extratropical early on August 21 after turning towards the north, the second storm of the season was first identified on August 25 to the east of Florida as a tropical depression. Around this time, several ships were reporting winds up to 25 mph in the vicinity of the system, traveling towards the northeast, the storm gradually intensified, attainting tropical storm status around 0600 UTC the next day. Several hours later, a recorded a pressure of 1010 mbar while located in the vicinity of the system. The storm turned towards the west-northwest later that day and forward motion began to increase, early on August 27, the storm weakened below tropical storm status and transitioned into an extratropical cyclone while moving over cooler waters
8.
1927 Atlantic hurricane season
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The 1927 Atlantic hurricane season featured no hurricane landfalls in the United States, in contrast to the four hurricanes that struck the United States in the previous season. Overall, the season was inactive, with eight tropical storms. One of these became a hurricane, which is Category 3 or higher on the modern day Saffir–Simpson hurricane wind scale. The first system, a depression, developed on August 13, while the final cyclone. The most significant storm of the season was Hurricane One, nicknamed the Nova Scotia hurricane, the sole major hurricane, this storm resulted in between 173 and 192 deaths in Atlantic Canada, mostly from capsized and missing ships offshore. On land, the left about $1.7 million in damage. Additionally, the fourth, fifth, and sixth tropical storms brought minor impact to Bermuda, South Carolina, the seasons activity was reflected with an accumulated cyclone energy rating of 56. It is only calculated for full advisories on tropical systems at or exceeding 39 mph, a low pressure area formerly associated with a weakening frontal boundary developed into a tropical depression on August 13. The depression moved rapidly east-northeastward and was absorbed by the frontal boundary. A tropical storm developed from a wave over the deep tropics of the Atlantic Ocean on August 18. Moving west-northwestward, it intensified into a Category 1 hurricane on the modern day Saffir–Simpson hurricane wind scale by August 19. The storm deepened significantly over the few days, and by August 22, it peaked as a Category 3 hurricane with sustained winds of 125 mph. The latter was observed by the S. S. Maraval, around that time, the system began curving northwestward and later northward. By August 23, it turned to the north-northeast and then began weakening on August 24, thereafter, the storm accelerated toward Atlantic Canada. Late on August 24, the hurricane struck near Yarmouth, Nova Scotia, as a Category 2 hurricane, the remnants continued northeastward, striking Newfoundland and later Iceland, before dissipating near Jan Mayen on August 29. In New England, the storm brought rainfall, peaking at 2.09 inches in Portland. Minor street flooding was reported in Maine, Massachusetts, and Rhode Island, with flooding in the Providence area damaging pavement, along the coast of Massachusetts, rough seas disrupted shipping in Boston and beached a ship at Cape Cod. Of the 173-192 fatalities in Canada, most of them occurred due to damaged or missing ships, on land, heavy rainfall in Nova Scotia washed out 20–25 percent of the rail lines, which disrupted rail service
9.
1928 Atlantic hurricane season
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The 1928 Atlantic hurricane season featured the Okeechobee hurricane, which was second deadliest tropical cyclone in the history of the United States. Only eight tropical cyclones developed during the season, of these eight tropical systems, seven of them intensified into a tropical storm and four further strengthened into hurricanes. One hurricane deepened into a hurricane, which is Category 3 or higher on the modern-day Saffir–Simpson hurricane wind scale. The first system, the Fort Pierce hurricane, developed near the Lesser Antilles on August 3, the storm crossed the Bahamas and made landfall in Florida. Two fatalities and approximately $235,000 in damage was reported, a few days after the first storm developed, the Haiti hurricane, formed near the southern Windward Islands on August 7. The storm went on to strike Haiti, Cuba, and Florida and this storm left about $2 million in damage and at least 210 deaths. Impacts from the system are unknown. The most significant storm of the season was Hurricane Four, nicknamed the Okeechobee hurricane, becoming a Category 5 hurricane, the hurricane struck Puerto Rico at that intensity. Several islands of the Greater and Lesser Antilles suffered great destruction, especially Guadeloupe, the storm then crossed the Bahamas as a Category 4 hurricane, leaving deaths and severe damage on some islands. Also as a Category 4, the cyclone struck West Palm Beach, Florida, overall, this storm caused at least $100 million in damage and 4,079 deaths. The three remaining systems did not impact land, collectively, the storms of this season left over $102 million in damage and at least 4,289 fatalities. The seasons activity was reflected with an accumulated cyclone energy rating of 83 and it is only calculated for full advisories on tropical systems at or exceeding 39 mph, which is tropical storm strength. This storm developed from a tropical wave north of the Virgin Islands on August 3, the system paralleled the Greater Antilles throughout much of its early existence. On August 6, the storm strengthened to the equivalent of a Category 1 hurricane while positioned over the Bahamas. The hurricane continued to intensify, and after reaching Category 2 hurricane strength, shortly thereafter, the hurricane made landfall as a slightly weaker storm near Fort Pierce, Florida, at 07,00 UTC on August 8. Weakening as it moved across Florida over the course of the next day and it made a second landfall on the Florida Panhandle on August 10 as a tropical storm. Once inland, the continued to weaken, degenerating to tropical depression strength before transitioning into an extratropical storm later that day. The extratropical remnants progressed outwards into the Atlantic Ocean before dissipating on August 14, in its early developmental stages north of the Greater Antilles, the storm disrupted shipping routes through the Bahamas and generated rough seas offshore Cuba
10.
1926 Nassau hurricane
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The 1926 Nassau hurricane, known as the San Liborio hurricane in Puerto Rico, was a destructive Category 4 hurricane that affected the Bahamas at peak intensity. The storm also delivered flooding rains and loss of crops to the southeastern United States, the system was first spotted east of the Lesser Antilles as a weak tropical storm on July 22. Moving northwest, the storm passed near Dominica with winds of 70 miles per hour before entering the eastern Caribbean. It reached hurricane status at 06,00 UTC on July 23, the cyclone attained its first peak of 105 mph before hitting Cabo Rojo early on July 24. San Juan recorded maximum winds of around 66 mph and a low pressure of 1,005 millibars as the eye of the hurricane passed near the extreme southwest corner of Puerto Rico. The storm continued northwest and tracked just east of Hispaniola, losing some intensity to land interaction, however, the storm began rapid re-intensification as it moved over the Turks and Caicos Islands early on July 25. The storm continued strengthening, attaining the equivalence of major hurricane status by 12,00 UTC that day, by the time it reached the central Bahamas at 00,00 UTC on July 26, it reached winds of 140 mph. After 12,00 UTC, while moving northwest, the cyclone made landfall on New Providence and crossed over Nassau. Reducing its forward speed, the storm weakened considerably after passing New Providence, as the storm neared the Florida coast, it curved somewhat to the north-northwest and passed just east of Cape Canaveral early on July 28. It made landfall at 10,00 UTC near present-day Edgewater, near the Canaveral National Seashore just south of New Smyrna Beach, prior to reanalysis in 2010, the storm was estimated to have made landfall farther south, near Cocoa Beach. In Florida, the storms lowest known pressure of 967 mb was estimated. After landfall, the storm curved northwestward and weakened rapidly as it moved inland, on July 29, it moved across Georgia as a weakening tropical storm and entered Alabama as a tropical depression. It finally dissipated the day as it moved northeastward over Lake Ontario. On its path, the storm killed more than 287 people in Puerto Rico, the Dominican Republic, Bahamas, in the Bahamas, the storm caused over 100 deaths, but the exact total varies from 106 to 146. Combined with two storms in September and October, the entire hurricane season killed more than 300 people in the Bahamas. The storm initially caused little damage until it passed near Puerto Rico, strong winds affected the entire island, and all rivers in the southern half of the island overflowed their banks. Heavy rainfall of around 6.18 in occurred on the island, about 25 people drowned when heavy floods resulted from rapid rise of rivers. Total losses in Puerto Rico were estimated at $2.350 million, the storm is known as the San Liborio hurricane for its effects in Puerto Rico
11.
Lesser Antilles
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The Lesser Antilles are a group of islands in the Caribbean Sea. Most form a long, partly volcanic island arc between the Greater Antilles to the north-west and the continent of South America, the islands form the eastern boundary of the Caribbean Sea with the Atlantic Ocean. Together, the Lesser Antilles and the Greater Antilles compose the Antilles, when combined with the Lucayan Archipelago, all three are known as the West Indies. The islands of the Lesser Antilles are divided into three groups, the Windward Islands in the south, the Leeward Islands in the north, and the Leeward Antilles in the west. The Windward Islands are so called because they were more windward to sailing ships arriving in the New World than the Leeward Islands, the trans-Atlantic currents and winds that provided the fastest route across the ocean brought these ships to the rough dividing line between the Windward and Leeward Islands. The Leeward Antilles consist of the Dutch ABC islands just off the coast of Venezuela, the Lesser Antilles more or less coincide with the outer edge of the Caribbean Plate. Many of the islands were formed as a result of the subduction of oceanic crust of the South American Plate under the Caribbean Plate in the Lesser Antilles subduction zone. This process is ongoing and is not only for many of the islands. The Lesser Antilles are divided into eight independent nations and numerous dependent, over one third of the total area and population of the Lesser Antilles lies within Trinidad and Tobago, a sovereign nation comprising the two southernmost islands of the Windward Island chain. Several islands along the north coast of Venezuela and politically part of country are also occasionally considered part of the Lesser Antilles. These are listed in the section below, the main Lesser Antilles are, Virgin Islands St. Thomas St. John St. They are the most southern islands of the Caribbean region, a Brief History of the Caribbean. New York, Facts on File,1992, the dictionary definition of Lesser Antilles at Wiktionary
12.
Greater Antilles
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The Greater Antilles is a grouping of the larger islands in the Caribbean Sea, Cuba, Hispaniola, Puerto Rico, Jamaica, and the Cayman Islands. The Greater Antilles constitute nearly 90% of the mass of the entire West Indies. The remainder of the land belongs to the archipelago of the Lesser Antilles, the Lucayan Archipelago is not considered to be a part of the Antilles archipelagoes but rather of the North Atlantic. Cohen, S. Groene, J. Werner, L. Vladimir, hiller, H. L. Caribbean, The Greater Antilles, Bermuda, Bahamas. Anolis Lizards of the Caribbean, Ecology, Evolution, and Plate Tectonics, Ecology, Evolution, oxford Series in Ecology and Evolution. A Brief History of the Caribbean, new York, Facts on File,1992. Media related to Greater Antilles at Wikimedia Commons
13.
The Maritimes
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The Maritimes, also called the Maritime provinces or the Canadian Maritimes, is a region of Eastern Canada consisting of three provinces, New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, and Prince Edward Island. The Maritimes had a population of 1,813,606 in 2016, the Maritimes, along with a fourth province – Canadas easternmost province, Newfoundland and Labrador – make up Atlantic Canada. Located along the Atlantic coast, various aquatic sub-basins are located in the Maritimes, such as the Gulf of Maine, the region is located northeast of New England, southeast of Quebecs Gaspé Peninsula, and southwest of the island of Newfoundland. All three provinces are entirely south of the southernmost extremity of Western Canada, and are the provinces of Canada without large. The Mikmaq, Maliseet and Passamaquoddy people are indigenous to the Maritimes, while Acadian, the word maritime is an adjective that simply means of the sea, thus any land associated with the sea can be considered a maritime state or province. Nonetheless, the term Maritimes has historically been applied to New Brunswick, Nova Scotia and Prince Edward Island. The Middle Period, starting 6,000 years ago, and this is also when what is called the Laurentian tradition started among Archaic Indians, existing First Nations peoples of the time. Evidence of Archaic Indian burial mounds and other ceremonial sites existing in the Saint John River valley has been uncovered, the primarily agrarian Maliseet Nation settled throughout the Saint John River and Allagash River valleys of present-day New Brunswick and Maine. The Passamaquoddy Nation inhabited the coastal regions of the present-day Bay of Fundy. The Maritimes were the area in Canada to be settled by Europeans. Both Giovanni Caboto and Giovanni da Verrazzano are reported to have sailed in or near Maritime waters during their voyages of discovery for England, several Portuguese explorers/cartographers have also documented various parts of the Maritimes, namely Diogo Homem. However, it was French explorer Jacques Cartier who made the first detailed reconnaissance of the region for a European power, and in so doing, claimed the region for the King of France. Champlain went on to fame as the founder of New Frances province of Canada which comprises much of the present-day lower St. Lawrence River valley in the province of Quebec. Most Acadian fishing activities were overshadowed by the comparatively enormous seasonal European fishing fleets based out of Newfoundland which took advantage of proximity to the Grand Banks. In 1613, Virginian raiders captured Port-Royal, and in 1621 Acadia was ceded to Scotlands Sir William Alexander who renamed it Nova Scotia. By 1632, Acadia was returned from Scotland to France under the Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye, colonial administration by France throughout the history of Acadia was contemptuous at best. Frances priorities were in settling and strengthening its claim on New France and the exploration and settlement of interior North America, over 74 years there were six colonial wars, which involved continuous warfare between New England and Acadia. Throughout these wars, New England was allied with the Iroquois Confederacy, in the first war, King Williams War, natives from the Maritime region participated in numerous attacks with the French on the Acadia/ New England border in southern Maine
14.
Canada
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Canada is a country in the northern half of North America. Canadas border with the United States is the worlds longest binational land border, the majority of the country has a cold or severely cold winter climate, but southerly areas are warm in summer. Canada is sparsely populated, the majority of its territory being dominated by forest and tundra. It is highly urbanized with 82 per cent of the 35.15 million people concentrated in large and medium-sized cities, One third of the population lives in the three largest cities, Toronto, Montreal and Vancouver. Its capital is Ottawa, and other urban areas include Calgary, Edmonton, Quebec City, Winnipeg. Various aboriginal peoples had inhabited what is now Canada for thousands of years prior to European colonization. Pursuant to the British North America Act, on July 1,1867, the colonies of Canada, New Brunswick and this began an accretion of provinces and territories to the mostly self-governing Dominion to the present ten provinces and three territories forming modern Canada. With the Constitution Act 1982, Canada took over authority, removing the last remaining ties of legal dependence on the Parliament of the United Kingdom. Canada is a parliamentary democracy and a constitutional monarchy, with Queen Elizabeth II being the head of state. The country is officially bilingual at the federal level and it is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, the product of large-scale immigration from many other countries. Its advanced economy is the eleventh largest in the world, relying chiefly upon its abundant natural resources, Canadas long and complex relationship with the United States has had a significant impact on its economy and culture. Canada is a country and has the tenth highest nominal per capita income globally as well as the ninth highest ranking in the Human Development Index. It ranks among the highest in international measurements of government transparency, civil liberties, quality of life, economic freedom, Canada is an influential nation in the world, primarily due to its inclusive values, years of prosperity and stability, stable economy, and efficient military. While a variety of theories have been postulated for the origins of Canada. In 1535, indigenous inhabitants of the present-day Quebec City region used the word to direct French explorer Jacques Cartier to the village of Stadacona, from the 16th to the early 18th century Canada referred to the part of New France that lay along the St. Lawrence River. In 1791, the area became two British colonies called Upper Canada and Lower Canada collectively named The Canadas, until their union as the British Province of Canada in 1841. Upon Confederation in 1867, Canada was adopted as the name for the new country at the London Conference. The transition away from the use of Dominion was formally reflected in 1982 with the passage of the Canada Act, later that year, the name of national holiday was changed from Dominion Day to Canada Day
15.
1926 Louisiana hurricane
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The 1926 Louisiana hurricane caused widespread devastation to the United States Gulf Coast, particularly in Louisiana. The third tropical cyclone and hurricane of the 1926 Atlantic hurricane season, moving to the northwest, the storm slowly intensified, reaching tropical storm strength on August 21 and subsequently attaining hurricane strength after passing through the Yucatán Channel. The hurricane steadily intensified as it recurved northwards in the Gulf of Mexico, before reaching peak intensity just prior to landfall near Houma, after moving inland, the tropical cyclone moved to the west and quickly weakened, before dissipating on August 27. The hurricanes strong storm surge at landfall caused extensive damage to coastal regions, strong winds caused severe infrastructural and crop damage, destroying homes and disrupting communications. Heavy rainfall, peaking at 14.5 in in Donaldsonville, Louisiana, widespread power outages also occurred in areas along the Gulf Coast. 25 deaths were reported as a result of the hurricane, with estimates totaling $6 million. A tropical depression first formed on August 20 in the central Caribbean Sea from an area of low pressure, based on weather reports from weather stations. Moving steadily to the west-northwest towards the western Caribbean, the disturbance slowly intensified, prior to the Atlantic hurricane reanalysis project, however, the system was analyzed to be an open trough up until August 22. The tropical storm began to move more towards the west in the Gulf of Mexico after clipping the Guanahacabibes Peninsula—the westernmost region of Cuba—late on August 22. Once in the Gulf of Mexico on August 22, the storm continued to intensify. A ship in the vicinity reported a barometric pressure of 994 mbar. Beginning on August 24, the system began to curve northwards towards the Louisiana coast in response to a cold front. The hurricane continued to intensify as it moved northwards, reaching Category 2 hurricane intensity the same day, a ship reported an eye associated with the system, observing 100 mph winds with a pressure of 959 mbar at 2100 UTC that day. Maximum sustained winds extended 23 mi from the hurricanes center, once over land, however, the hurricane rapidly weakened. By 1200 UTC on August 26, the system had degenerated to a tropical storm. In preparation for the hurricane, the weather forecast office in New Orleans began to issue tropical cyclone warnings. A storm warning was placed for areas east of Mobile to Apalachicola. After the hurricane weakened over land, warnings and advisories from the New Orleans weather office related to the storm were discontinued by 9,00 p. m. on August 25
16.
Louisiana
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Louisiana is a state located in the southern region of the United States. Louisiana is the 31st most extensive and the 25th most populous of the 50 United States and its capital is Baton Rouge and largest city is New Orleans. Louisiana is the state in the U. S. with political subdivisions termed parishes. The largest parish by population is East Baton Rouge Parish, Louisiana is bordered by Arkansas to the north, Mississippi to the east, Texas to the west, and the Gulf of Mexico to the south. Much of the lands were formed from sediment washed down the Mississippi River, leaving enormous deltas and vast areas of coastal marsh. These contain a rich southern biota, typical examples include birds such as ibis, there are also many species of tree frogs, and fish such as sturgeon and paddlefish. In more elevated areas, fire is a process in the landscape. These support a large number of plant species, including many species of orchids. Louisiana has more Native American tribes than any other state, including four that are federally recognized, ten that are state recognized. Before the American purchase of the territory in 1803, the current Louisiana State had been both a French colony and for a period, a Spanish one. In addition, colonists imported numerous African people as slaves in the 18th century, many came from peoples of the same region of West Africa, thus concentrating their culture. Louisiana was named after Louis XIV, King of France from 1643 to 1715, when René-Robert Cavelier, Sieur de La Salle claimed the territory drained by the Mississippi River for France, he named it La Louisiane. The suffix -ana is a Latin suffix that can refer to information relating to an individual, subject. Thus, roughly, Louis + ana carries the idea of related to Louis, the Gulf of Mexico did not exist 250 million years ago when there was but one supercontinent, Pangea. As Pangea split apart, the Atlantic Ocean and Gulf of Mexico opened, Louisiana slowly developed, over millions of years, from water into land, and from north to south. The oldest rocks are exposed in the north, in such as the Kisatchie National Forest. The oldest rocks date back to the early Tertiary Era, some 60 million years ago, the history of the formation of these rocks can be found in D. Spearings Roadside Geology of Louisiana. The sediments were carried north to south by the Mississippi River
17.
Miami metropolitan area
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The Miami metropolitan area, also known as the Greater Miami Area or South Florida, is the 67th largest metropolitan area in the world and the eighth-largest metropolitan area in the United States. It is entirely located in the portion of the U. S. State of Florida. Its land area is 6,137 sq. mi, the three counties together have principal cities including Miami, Fort Lauderdale, Pompano Beach, West Palm Beach, and Boca Raton. Besides its association with the South Florida region, is also synonymous with an area known collectively as the Gold Coast. This includes the four counties of Martin, St. Lucie, Indian River. The Miami metropolitan statistical area is longer than any other urbanized area in the United States except for the New York metropolitan area and it was the eighth most densely populated urbanized area in the United States in the 2000 census. As of the 2000 census, the area had a land area of 1,116 square miles, with a population of 4,919,036. Miami and Hialeah had population densities of more than 10,000 per square mile, the Miami Urbanized Area was the fourth largest urbanized area in the United States in the 2010 census. The Miami metropolitan area includes several urban clusters as of the 2000 Census which are not part of the Miami Urbanized Area. The following is a list of the twenty largest cities in the Miami metropolitan area as ranked by population, the Miami area is a very diverse community with a large proportion of foreign-born residents, in large part due to its proximity to Latin America and the Caribbean. Another large factor are residents who were former snowbirds from the Northeast and, to a lesser extent, politically speaking, the region is heavily Democratic. Broward County is the second most reliably Democratic county in the state, as of the 2005 American Community Survey,5,334,685 people lived in the metropolis. The Miami area has a very large Jewish community,10. 2% of the population was Jewish in the 2000 Census, There is also a sizable Muslim community numbering at 70,000. Population, As of the 2010 U. S. Census,2.8 million were females and 2.6 million were males. The median age was 38.6 years, 24% of the population were under 18 years and 15% were 65 years and older. There were 2,097,626 households, and 1,378,108 families residing in the Miami metropolitan area, among people at least five years old living in the region in 2005, 52% spoke English at home while 48% spoke some other language at home. Of those speaking a language other than English at home, 78% spoke Spanish, households and families, There were 2,338,450 households, The average household size was 2.6 people. Families made up 65% of the households in the Miami area and this figure includes both married-couple families and other families
18.
Lake Okeechobee
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Lake Okeechobee, locally referred to as The Lake, Floridas Inland Sea, or The Big O, is the largest freshwater lake in the state of Florida. It is the seventh largest freshwater lake in the United States, however, it is the largest freshwater lake completely within a single one of the lower 48 states. Okeechobee covers 730 square miles, approximately half the size of the state of Rhode Island, the lake is divided between Glades, Okeechobee, Martin, Palm Beach, and Hendry counties. All five counties meet at one point near the center of the lake, the name Okeechobee comes from the Hitchiti words oki and chubi. The oldest known name for the lake was Mayaimi, reported by Hernando de Escalante Fontaneda in the 16th century, slightly later in the 16th century René Goulaine de Laudonnière reported hearing about a large freshwater lake in southern Florida called Serrope. By the 18th century the largely mythical lake was known to British mapmakers and chroniclers by the Spanish name Laguna de Espiritu Santo, the modern Port Mayaca on the east side of the lake preserves that name. The lake was also called Lake Macaco in the early 19th century, on the southern rim of Lake Okeechobee, three islands—Kreamer, Ritta, and Torey—were once settled by early pioneers. These settlements had a store, post office, school. The fertile land was challenging to farm because of the muddy muck, over the first half of the twentieth century, farmers used agricultural tools—including tractors—to farm in the muck. By the 1960s, all of these settlements were abandoned, in 1926 the Great Miami Hurricane hit the Lake Okeechobee area, killing approximately 300 people. Two years later in 1928, the Okeechobee Hurricane crossed over the lake, the Red Cross reported 1,836 deaths which the National Weather Service initially accepted, but in 2003, the number was revised to at least 2,500. In both cases the catastrophe was caused by flooding from a storm surge when strong winds drove water over the 6. 6-foot mud dike that circled the lake at the time, after the two hurricanes, the Florida State Legislature created the Okeechobee Flood Control District. The organization was authorized to cooperate with the U. S. Army Corps of Engineers in actions to prevent similar disasters. U. S. President Herbert Hoover visited the area personally, and afterward the Corps designed a plan incorporating the construction of channels, gates, and levees. The Okeechobee Waterway was officially opened on 23 March 1937 by a procession of boats which left Fort Myers, Florida on 22 March and arrived at Stuart, the dike was then named the Herbert Hoover Dike in honor of the president. The 1947 Fort Lauderdale Hurricane sent a larger storm surge to the crest of the new dike. Three recent hurricanes - Frances, Jeanne, and Wilma – had no adverse effects on communities surrounding Lake Okeechobee. Tropical Storm Ernesto increased water levels by 1 foot in 2006, however, the lakes level began dropping soon after and by July 2007, it had dropped more than 4 feet to its all-time low of 8.82 feet
19.
Clewiston, Florida
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Clewiston is a city in Hendry County, Florida, United States. The population was 6,460 at the 2000 census, according to the US Census estimates of 2005, the city had a population of 7,173. Clewiston is home to the Ah-Tah-Thi-Ki Museum and the Clewiston Museum, the area beside Lake Okeechobee was once used as a fishing camp by the Seminole Indians. The first permanent settlement began in 1920, when John OBrien of Philadelphia and they commissioned a town plan and built the Moore Haven & Clewiston Railroad to connect the community to the Atlantic Coast Line Railroad at Moore Haven. Incorporated as a city in 1925, Clewiston would become noted for its sport fishing, large sugar plantations were established around Lake Okeechobee. By the 1950s and 1960s, the cultivation of citrus, vegetables, US Sugar Corporation, however, remained the dominant manufacturer in Clewiston, which became known as Americas Sweetest Town. On June 24,2008, Governor Charlie Crist announced that the State of Florida had arranged to buy for $1.75 billion the companys 187,000 acres, including the refinery in Clewiston. On November 11, the plan was scaled back to $1.34 billion for 181,000 acres of farmland, no longer including the mill, citrus processing facilities and other assets. This would allow the company to remain in business and leave open the possibility of preserving its 1,700 jobs, over the next seven crop cycles, the farmland would be leased back from the state to US Sugar for $60 million. It would then be converted into reservoirs and water-filtering areas as part of the restoration of the Everglades ecosystem. Clewiston is located at 26°45′12″N 80°56′01″W, according to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 4.7 square miles, of which 4.7 square miles is land and 0.04 square miles is water. Located in the Florida Heartland, Clewiston is on the shore of Lake Okeechobee. The city is traversed by U. S. Route 27, as of the census of 2000, there were 6,460 people,2,174 households, and 1,632 families residing in the city. The population density was 1,381.0 people per square mile, there were 2,434 housing units at an average density of 520.3 per square mile. The racial makeup of the city was 75. 79% White,10. 93% African American,0. 39% Native American,1. 18% Asian,9. 64% from other races, hispanic or Latino of any race were 40. 94% of the population. 18. 9% of all households were made up of individuals and 7. 2% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older, the average household size was 2.93 and the average family size was 3.32. In the city, the population was out with 29. 7% under the age of 18,10. 3% from 18 to 24,28. 3% from 25 to 44,20. 8% from 45 to 64. The median age was 32 years, for every 100 females there were 103.9 males
20.
Moore Haven, Florida
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Moore Haven is a city in, and the county seat of, Glades County, Florida, United States. The population was 1,680 at the 2010 census, Moore Haven is located on the southwest shoreline of Lake Okeechobee. The community was named after James A. Moore, its founder, in its early days, Moore Haven was often called Little Chicago, reflecting its status as a significant boom town. It was ideally located at the apex of Lake Okeechobee and the Caloosahatchee Canal, the Great Miami Hurricane of 1926 dramatically altered the landscape of the area. The storm surge from the lake caused widespread death and destruction, the town might have recovered, but it was hit not long after by the 1928 Okeechobee Hurricane. This decimated areas that had escaped damage in 1926, today Moore Haven is a small, sleepy town that has little industry and infrastructure. Moore Haven is home to the Annual Chalo Nitka Festival, which is held the first weekend in March, a large bridge that crosses the Caloosahatchee River was completed in the last 10 years. There are two points to the Lake Okeechobee Scenic Trail, which passes through the town and around Lake Okeechobee. Moore Haven is located at 26°50′N 81°6′W, according to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 1.1 square miles, of which 1.1 square miles is land and 0.1 square miles is water. As of the census of 2000, there were 1,635 people,572 households, the population density was 1,508.8 people per square mile. There were 792 housing units at a density of 730.9 per square mile. The racial makeup of the city was 61. 28% White,22. 32% African American,0. 80% Native American,0. 43% Asian,14. 56% from other races, hispanic or Latino of any race were 28. 01% of the population. 22. 0% of all households were made up of individuals and 10. 1% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older, the average household size was 2.81 and the average family size was 3.23. In the city, the population was out with 31. 8% under the age of 18,8. 1% from 18 to 24,25. 5% from 25 to 44,19. 8% from 45 to 64. The median age was 33 years, for every 100 females there were 107.8 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 109.2 males, the median income for a household in the city was $26,801, and the median income for a family was $28,542. Males had an income of $26,615 versus $20,250 for females. The per capita income for the city was $12,183, about 19. 0% of families and 23. 8% of the population were below the poverty line, including 30. 0% of those under age 18 and 16. 8% of those age 65 or over
21.
Hurricane Katrina
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Hurricane Katrina was the costliest natural disaster and one of the five deadliest hurricanes in the history of the United States. The storm is ranked as the third most intense United States landfalling tropical cyclone. Overall, at least 1,245 people died in the hurricane and subsequent floods, total property damage was estimated at $108 billion, roughly four times the damage wrought by Hurricane Andrew in 1992 in the United States. Early the following day, the new depression intensified into Tropical Storm Katrina, the cyclone headed generally westward toward Florida and strengthened into a hurricane only two hours before making landfall at Hallandale Beach and Aventura on August 25. After very briefly weakening to a storm, Katrina emerged into the Gulf of Mexico on August 26. The storm caused severe destruction along the Gulf coast from central Florida to Texas, much of it due to the storm surge, severe property damage occurred in coastal areas, such as Mississippi beachfront towns, over 90 percent of these were flooded. Boats and casino barges rammed buildings, pushing cars and houses inland, over fifty breaches in New Orleanss hurricane surge protection were the cause of the majority of the death and destruction during Katrina on August 29,2005. Eventually 80% of the city and large tracts of neighboring parishes became flooded, according to a modeling exercise conducted by the U. S. Army Corps of Engineers, two-thirds of the deaths in Greater New Orleans were due to levee and floodwall failure. All of the studies concluded that the USACE, the designers and builders of the levee system as mandated by the Flood Control Act of 1965, is responsible. This is mainly due to a decision to use shorter steel sheet pilings in an effort to save money, exactly ten years after Katrina, J. Many other government officials were criticized for their responses, especially New Orleans Mayor Ray Nagin, Louisiana Governor Kathleen Blanco, several agencies including the United States Coast Guard, National Hurricane Center, and National Weather Service were commended for their actions. They provided accurate hurricane weather tracking forecasts with sufficient lead time, Hurricane Katrina formed as Tropical Depression Twelve over the southeastern Bahamas on August 23,2005, as the result of an interaction of a tropical wave and the remains of Tropical Depression Ten. It strengthened into Tropical Storm Katrina on the morning of August 24, the tropical storm moved towards Florida, and became a hurricane only two hours before making landfall between Hallandale Beach and Aventura on the morning of August 25. The storm weakened over land, but it regained hurricane status about one hour after entering the Gulf of Mexico, on August 27, the storm reached Category 3 intensity on the Saffir-Simpson hurricane wind scale, becoming the third major hurricane of the season. An eyewall replacement cycle disrupted the intensification, but caused the storm to nearly double in size, the storm rapidly intensified after entering the Gulf, growing from a Category 3 hurricane to a Category 5 hurricane in just nine hours. This rapid growth was due to the movement over the unusually warm waters of the Loop Current. Katrina attained Category 5 status on the morning of August 28 and reached its peak strength at 1800 UTC that day, with sustained winds of 175 mph. However, this record was broken by Hurricane Rita
22.
2005 Atlantic hurricane season
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The 2005 Atlantic hurricane season was the most active Atlantic hurricane season in recorded history, shattering numerous records. The impact of the season was widespread and ruinous with an estimated 3,913 deaths, of the storms that made landfall, five of the seasons seven major hurricanes—Dennis, Emily, Katrina, Rita, and Wilma—were responsible for most of the destruction. Furthermore, Hurricane Stan combined with a system to cause deadly mudslides across Central America. The 2005 season was the first to observe more tropical cyclones in the Atlantic than the West Pacific, on average, the season officially began on June 1,2005, and lasted until November 30, although it effectively persisted into January 2006 due to continued storm activity. A record twenty-eight tropical and subtropical storms formed, of which a record fifteen became hurricanes, among these Category 5 storms were hurricanes Katrina and Wilma, respectively the costliest and the most intense Atlantic hurricanes on record. This year was notable because the list of storm names was used up. Governments National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, prior to and during the 2005 season, Gray issued four forecasts, each time increasing the predicted level of activity. The NOAA issued two forecasts, one shortly before the season and one two months into the season, drastically increasing the level of activity in the second release. Nonetheless, all forecasts fell far short of the activity of the season. On December 3,2004, Grays team issued its first extended-range forecast for the 2005 season, additionally, the team predicted a greatly increased chance of a major hurricane striking the East Coast of the United States and the Florida peninsula. Though the forecast predicted above-average activity, the level predicted was significantly less than the 2004 season, in addition, the chance of a storm impacting the United States was raised slightly. On May 16,2005,16 days before the season began, NOAA issued its outlook for the 2005 season, the accumulated cyclone energy value for the season was predicted to be 120–190% of the median ACE of 87.5 ×104 kt2. Shortly thereafter, on May 31, the day before the season began, Grays team revised its April forecast upwards to 15 named storms,8 hurricanes. The ACE value was now forecast to be 180 to 270% of the median, the NOAA also noted a higher than normal confidence in the forecast of above-normal activity. On August 5,2005, Gray and his associates followed suit and issued their updated forecast, although neither the NOAA nor Gray had ever forecast such high levels of activity, even the midseason outlooks fell far short of the actual level of activity. The actual ACE would prove to be 248 ×104 kt2 — 277% of the median, Arlene caused only moderate damage, although one swimmer was caught in a riptide and drowned in Miami Beach, Florida. Tropical Storm Bret formed in the Bay of Campeche on June 28, the storm damaged hundreds of homes and caused flooding which killed two people. Hurricane Cindy formed in the Gulf of Mexico on July 4, Cindy was upgraded to a hurricane in the post-storm analysis
23.
Bermuda
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Bermuda is a British Overseas Territory in the North Atlantic Ocean. It is approximately 1,070 km east-southeast of Cape Hatteras, North Carolina,1,236 km south of Cape Sable Island, Nova Scotia, Bermuda is an associate member of Caribbean Community. The first person known to have reached Bermuda was the Spanish sea captain Juan de Bermúdez in 1503 and he claimed the islands for the Spanish Empire. Bermúdez never landed on the islands, but made two visits to the archipelago, of which he created a recognisable map, shipwrecked Portuguese mariners are now thought to have been responsible for the 1543 inscription on Portuguese Rock. Subsequent Spanish or other European parties are believed to have released pigs there, the island was administered as an extension of Virginia by the Company until 1614. Its spin-off, the Somers Isles Company, took over in 1615, at that time, the companys charter was revoked, and the English Crown took over administration. The islands became a British colony following the 1707 unification of the parliaments of Scotland and England, after 1949, when Newfoundland became part of Canada, Bermuda became the oldest remaining British Overseas Territory. Since the return of Hong Kong to China in 1997, it is the most populous Territory and its first capital, St. Georges, was established in 1612 and is the oldest continuously inhabited English town in the New World. Bermudas economy is based on insurance and reinsurance, and tourism. Bermuda had one of the worlds highest GDP per capita for most of the 20th century, recently, its economic status has been affected by the global recession. The island is in the belt and prone to severe weather. However, it is protected from the full force of a hurricane by the coral reef that surrounds the island. It is 898 nautical miles northeast of Miami, Florida, and 667 nautical miles from Cape Sable Island, in Nova Scotia, Canada. The islands lie due east of Fripp Island, South Carolina, west-northwest of Cape Verde, southeast of New York City, New York, north-northwest of Brazil and north of San Juan, Puerto Rico. The archipelago is formed by points on the rim of the caldera of a submarine volcano that forms a seamount. The volcano is one part of a range that was formed as part of the process that formed the floor of the Atlantic. It has 103 km of coastline, the two incorporated municipalities in Bermuda are the City of Hamilton and the Town of St George. Bermuda is divided into nine parishes, which have some localities called villages, such as Flatts Village, although usually referred to in the singular, the territory consists of 181 islands, with a total area of 53.3 square kilometres
24.
1933 Atlantic hurricane season
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The 1933 Atlantic hurricane season was the second most active Atlantic hurricane season on record, with 20 storms forming in the northwest Atlantic Ocean. The season ran through the summer and the first half of fall in 1933, with activity as early as May, a tropical cyclone was active for all but 13 days from June 28 to October 7. The year was surpassed in number of tropical cyclones by the 2005 season. Tropical cyclones that did not approach populated areas or shipping lanes, especially if they were weak and of short duration. Because technologies such as satellite monitoring were not available until the 1960s, compensating for the lack of comprehensive observation, one hurricane researcher estimates the season could have produced 24 tropical cyclones. Of the 20 storms during the season,11 attained hurricane status, six of those were major hurricanes, with sustained winds of over 111 mph. Two of the hurricanes reached winds of 160 mph, which is a Category 5–the highest of 5– on the modern Saffir-Simpson Hurricane Scale, the season produced several deadly storms, with eight storms killing more than 20 people. All but 3 of the 20 known storms affected land at some point during their durations, the 1933 season was the most active of its time, surpassing the previous record-holder of 19 storms in 1887. Fifteen of the storms made landfall as tropical cyclones. Seven tropical storms, including four hurricanes, hit Mexico, two of which caused damage in the Tampico area. The season was active, with six storms forming during the month of August alone. At the time, many storms received the distinction of being the earliest nth storm to form, most of the records were broken in later years. The deadliest storm of the season was a hurricane that struck Tampico, Mexico, the costliest hurricane was the Chesapeake–Potomac hurricane, which caused $27 million in damage from North Carolina to New Jersey. The hurricane produced rainfall that resulted in crop damage in Maryland. In addition to the 20 tropical storms, there were tropical depressions of lesser intensity. The first developed on June 1 in the northwest Caribbean and dissipated a few days later, another depression developed on July 11 over Panama and also quickly dissipated. Originally, there was a storm in the database in the Caribbean in the middle of August. Similarly, there was a storm in the database in late September
25.
1950 Atlantic hurricane season
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The 1950 Atlantic hurricane season was the first year in the Atlantic hurricane database that storms were given names in the Atlantic basin. Names were taken from the Joint Army/Navy Phonetic Alphabet, with the first named storm being designated Able, the second Baker and it was an active season with sixteen tropical storms, with eleven of them developing into hurricanes. One storm, the twelfth of the season, was unnamed and was excluded from the yearly summary. However, later examination by researchers determined that several storms in the 1950 season were weaker than thought, the tropical cyclones of the season produced a total of 88 fatalities and $38.5 million in property damage. The first officially named Atlantic hurricane was Hurricane Able, which formed on August 12, brushed the North Carolina coastline, and later moved across Atlantic Canada. The strongest hurricane of the season, Hurricane Dog, reached the equivalent of a Category 4 hurricane on the Saffir–Simpson scale, and caused extensive damage to the Leeward Islands. The two major landfalls made the 1945–1950 period the only five-year period to five major hurricane landfalls in the United States—a record that held until tied in 2000–2005. The last storm of the year, a tropical storm. The season officially began on June 15 and ended on November 15 and this season was the first time that the United States Weather Bureau operated with radar technology to observe hurricanes 200 mi away from land. Although the season began on June 15, tropical activity typically does not begin before August, the tropics remained tranquil through early August, and the U. S. Weather Bureau noted that the season had been remarkably quiet. The inactive period ended on August 12, when the first tropical storm developed east of the Lesser Antilles and this storm received the name Able as part of the Joint Army/Navy Phonetic Alphabet. Before the end of August, four hurricanes had formed in the Atlantic, in contrast to the busy August, only three named storms developed in September—although three of the August hurricanes lasted into September. It was among the most severe hurricanes on record in Antigua, eight tropical storms or hurricanes formed in October, which is greater than in any other year. In total, there were sixteen tropical storms during the season, overall, six major hurricanes occurred during the year. The Hurricane Hunters made about 300 flights into hurricanes during the season, the number of storms was above average, in a typical year, eleven tropical storms, six hurricanes, and between two and three major hurricanes take place. With the numerous major hurricanes, the season produced an accumulated cyclone energy of 211. At one point, the 1950 total was the highest on record and this value is an approximation of the combined kinetic energy used by all tropical cyclones throughout the season. The beginning of the season was inactive, with the formation of no tropical cyclones during June or July
26.
1961 Atlantic hurricane season
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The 1961 Atlantic hurricane season featured the highest number of major hurricanes – Category 3 or higher on the modern-day Saffir–Simpson hurricane wind scale – until being tied by 2005. The season officially began on June 15, and lasted until November 15 and these dates conventionally delimit the period of each year when most tropical cyclones form in the Atlantic basin. It was an average season in terms of tropical storms. The first system, Hurricane Anna, developed in the eastern Caribbean Sea near the Windward Islands on July 20 and it brought minor damage to the islands, as well as wind and flood impacts to Central America after striking Belize as a hurricane. Anna caused one death and about $300,000 in damage, activity went dormant for nearly a month and a half, until Hurricane Betsy developed on September 2. Betsy peaked as a Category 4 hurricane, but remained at sea, one of the most significant storms of the season was Hurricane Carla, which peaked as a Category 5 hurricane, before weakening slightly and striking Texas. Carla caused 43 deaths and approximately $325.74 million in damage, Hurricane Debbie was a Category 3 storm that existed in the eastern Atlantic Ocean. Early in its duration, unsettled weather from Debbie in Cape Verde resulted in a crash that killed 60 people. Debbie then brushed Ireland as either a Category 1 hurricane or shortly after becoming extratropical, the next storm, Hurricane Esther, threatened to strike New England as a major hurricane, but rapidly weakened and made landfall in Massachusetts as only a tropical storm. Impact was generally minor, with about $6 million in damage and seven deaths, an unnamed tropical storm and Hurricane Frances caused minimal impact on land. In mid-October, Tropical Storm Gerda brought flooding to Jamaica and eastern Cuba, another significant storm was Hurricane Hattie, a late-season Category 5 hurricane that struck Belize. Hattie caused 319 confirmed fatalities and about $60.3 million in damage, destruction was so severe in Belize that the government had to relocate inland to a new city, Belmopan. The remnants of Hattie may have contributed to the development of Tropical Storm Simone in the eastern Pacific Ocean, in early November, the depression that would later strengthen into Hurricane Jenny brought light rainfall to Puerto Rico. The final storm, Tropical Storm Inga, dissipated on November 8, on September 11, three hurricanes existed simultaneously – Betsy, Carla, and Debbie – the most on a single day in the Atlantic basin since 1893 and until 1998. Collectively, the storms of the 1961 Atlantic hurricane season caused about $391 million in damage, the Atlantic hurricane season officially began on June 15. It was an average season in which eleven tropical storms formed. Eight of these reached hurricane status, also above of the 1950–2000 average of 5.9, furthermore, seven storms reached major hurricane status, thus,1961 had the most major hurricanes, until being tied by 2005. Of the seven, two became Category 5 hurricanes, four hurricanes and two tropical storms made landfall during the season, causing 348 deaths and $391.6 million in damage
27.
Tropical cyclogenesis
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Tropical cyclogenesis is the development and strengthening of a tropical cyclone in the atmosphere. The mechanisms through which tropical cyclogenesis occurs are distinctly different from those through which mid-latitude cyclogenesis occurs, tropical cyclogenesis involves the development of a warm-core cyclone, due to significant convection in a favorable atmospheric environment. Tropical cyclones tend to develop during the summer, but have been noted in every month in most basins. Climate cycles such as ENSO and the Madden–Julian oscillation modulate the timing, there is a limit on tropical cyclone intensity which is strongly related to the water temperatures along its path. An average of 86 tropical cyclones of tropical storm intensity form annually worldwide, of those,47 reach hurricane/typhoon strength, and 20 become intense tropical cyclones. While these conditions are necessary for tropical cyclone formation, they do not guarantee that a tropical cyclone will form. Normally, a temperature of 26.5 °C spanning through at least a 50-metre depth is considered the minimum to maintain the special mesocyclone that is the tropical cyclone. These warm waters are needed to maintain the core that fuels tropical systems. This value is well above 16.1 °C, the average surface temperature of the oceans. Tropical cyclones are known to even when normal conditions are not met. In a moist atmosphere, this rate is 6.5 °C/km, while in an atmosphere with less than 100% relative humidity. Under a cold cyclone,500 hPa temperatures can fall as low as −30 °C and this also explains why moisture in the mid-levels of the troposphere, roughly at the 500 hPa level, is normally a requirement for development. However, when dry air is found at the same height, at heights near the tropopause, the 30-year average temperature was −77 °C. A recent example of a cyclone that maintained itself over cooler waters was Epsilon of the 2005 Atlantic hurricane season. Emanuels model is called the maximum intensity, or MPI. Maps created from this equation show regions where tropical storm and hurricane formation is possible and this does not take into account vertical wind shear. A minimum distance of 500 km from the equator is normally needed for tropical cyclogenesis, the Coriolis force imparts rotation on the flow and arises as winds begin to flow in toward the lower pressure created by the pre-existing disturbance. The existence of a significant Coriolis force allows the developing vortex to achieve gradient wind balance, even with perfect upper level conditions and the required atmospheric instability, the lack of a surface focus will prevent the development of organized convection and a surface low
28.
Atmospheric pressure
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Atmospheric pressure, sometimes also called barometric pressure, is the pressure exerted by the weight of air in the atmosphere of Earth. In most circumstances atmospheric pressure is approximated by the hydrostatic pressure caused by the weight of air above the measurement point. As elevation increases, there is less overlying atmospheric mass, so that atmospheric pressure decreases with increasing elevation. On average, a column of air one square centimetre in cross-section, measured from sea level to the top of the atmosphere, has a mass of about 1.03 kilograms and that force is a pressure of 10.1 N/cm2 or 101 kN/m2. A column 1 square inch in cross-section would have a weight of about 14.7 lb or about 65.4 N and it is modified by the planetary rotation and local effects such as wind velocity, density variations due to temperature and variations in composition. The standard atmosphere is a unit of pressure defined as 101325 Pa, the mean sea level pressure is the average atmospheric pressure at sea level. This is the pressure normally given in weather reports on radio, television. When barometers in the home are set to match the weather reports, they measure pressure adjusted to sea level. The altimeter setting in aviation, is an atmospheric pressure adjustment, average sea-level pressure is 1013.25 mbar. In aviation weather reports, QNH is transmitted around the world in millibars or hectopascals, except in the United States, Canada, however, in Canadas public weather reports, sea level pressure is instead reported in kilopascals. The highest sea-level pressure on Earth occurs in Siberia, where the Siberian High often attains a sea-level pressure above 1050 mbar, the lowest measurable sea-level pressure is found at the centers of tropical cyclones and tornadoes, with a record low of 870 mbar. Pressure varies smoothly from the Earths surface to the top of the mesosphere, although the pressure changes with the weather, NASA has averaged the conditions for all parts of the earth year-round. As altitude increases, atmospheric pressure decreases, one can calculate the atmospheric pressure at a given altitude. Temperature and humidity affect the atmospheric pressure, and it is necessary to know these to compute an accurate figure. The graph at right was developed for a temperature of 15 °C, at low altitudes above the sea level, the pressure decreases by about 1.2 kPa for every 100 meters. See pressure system for the effects of air pressure variations on weather, Atmospheric pressure shows a diurnal or semidiurnal cycle caused by global atmospheric tides. This effect is strongest in tropical zones, with an amplitude of a few millibars and these variations have two superimposed cycles, a circadian cycle and semi-circadian cycle. The highest adjusted-to-sea level barometric pressure recorded on Earth was 1085.7 hPa measured in Tosontsengel
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Accumulated cyclone energy
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It uses an approximation of the wind energy used by a tropical system over its lifetime and is calculated every six-hour period. The ACE of a season is the sum of the ACEs for each storm and takes account the number, strength. In recorded history, the highest ACE worldwide for a storm is 82. The ACE of a season is calculated by summing the squares of the maximum sustained velocity of every active tropical storm. Since the calculation is sensitive to the point of the six-hour intervals, the convention is to use 0000,0600,1200. If any storms of a season happen to cross years, the storms ACE counts for the previous year, the numbers are usually divided by 10,000 to make them more manageable. The unit of ACE is 104 kn2, and for use as an index the unit is assumed, thus, ACE =10 −4 ∑ v max 2 where vmax is estimated sustained wind speed in knots. Kinetic energy is proportional to the square of velocity, and by adding together the energy per some interval of time, the accumulated energy is found. As the duration of a storm increases, more values are summed, although ACE is a value proportional to the energy of the system, it is not a direct calculation of energy. A related quantity is hurricane destruction potential, which is ACE, ACE focuses upon the most intense winds concentrated in a storms center. Whereas, the destructive power of a storm depends upon the total area impacted with damaging winds, waves. The metric Integrated Kinetic Energy, developed in 2007, more accurately reflects the destructive potential and it examines the kinetic energy that forces a storm surge and creates high waves as well as the horizontal wind loads over the full storm. This metric yields a specific value for a storm and doesnt account for the destruction caused by a storm over its entire life. Therefore, in 2013 the researchers at the University of Florida created a metric called Track Integrated Kinetic Energy, TIKE expands the concept by accumulating IKE over the lifespan of an individual tropical cyclone and a total value for all named tropical cyclones in the season. A seasons ACE is used by NOAA and others to categorize the hurricane season into 3 groups by its activity, measured over the period 1951–2000 for the Atlantic basin, the median annual index was 87.5 and the mean annual index was 93.2. The term hyperactive is used by Goldenberg et al. based on a different weighting algorithm which places more weight on major hurricanes, the highest ever ACE estimated for a single storm in the Atlantic is 73.6, for Hurricane San Ciriaco in 1899. This single storm had an ACE higher than many whole Atlantic storm seasons, the following table shows those storms in the Atlantic basin from 1950-2016 that have had the highest ACE. The highest ACE of a Category 1 hurricane was Hurricane Nadine of 2012, the highest ACE of a tropical storm was Tropical Storm Alice of 1953, which attained an ACE of 9.6
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1893 Atlantic hurricane season
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The 1893 Atlantic hurricane season ran through the summer and the first half of fall in 1893. The 1893 season was active, with 12 tropical storms forming,10 of which became hurricanes. Of those,5 became major hurricanes and this season proved to be a very deadly season, with two different hurricanes each causing over two thousand deaths in the United States, at the time, the season was the deadliest in U. S. history. The season was one of two on the record, along with the 1998 Atlantic hurricane season, when 4 Atlantic hurricanes were active on the same day, the season began early with its 1st storm forming on June 12 in the Bay of Campeche. The storm moved northeastward throughout its life, and hit the Florida Panhandle on June 16 as a tropical storm. After weakening over the Southeastern United States, the storm emerged over the Atlantic Ocean near Norfolk, after briefly strengthening to a hurricane, the storm succumbed to cold water and shear and became extratropical on June 20. July continued the activity, with a tropical storm forming in the western Caribbean Sea north of Panama on July 4. The 2nd storm of the season intensified to a 95 mph hurricane before hitting the northeast coast of Honduras and it mainly retained its strength until it hit the northeastern coast of Belize on July 6. Afterwards, it weakened over the Yucatán Peninsula and dissipated on July 7. The storm sank several ships and reportedly caused a loss of life. It has been traced in sediment near Gales Point. The 3rd storm of the season, known as the San Roque Hurricane and it steadily strengthened to a hurricane while moving over the Leeward Islands. While approaching Puerto Rico on August 16, its winds increased to hurricane status before landfall at Patillas. It crossed the island and exited near Isabela, there were heavy rains over the island of Puerto Rico and damages to the agricultural crops, especially coffee. In San Juan 2.36 inches of rain were reported, the eye remained over Puerto Rico for a period of seven hours. The lowest barometric pressure reading recorded in San Juan was 29.17 inches and this was the first hurricane in Puerto Rico where flags were used to alert the public about the danger of an approaching hurricane, they were flown from government buildings. Although landfall weakened the storm, the storm regained hurricane status as it approached the Bahamas. It then re curved northward and hit Halifax, Nova Scotia as a non-tropical category 1 and this hurricane was one of four active hurricanes on August 22
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Barbados
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Barbados is a sovereign island country in the Lesser Antilles, in the Americas. It is 34 kilometres in length and up to 23 km in width, Barbados is outside of the principal Atlantic hurricane belt. Inhabited by Kalinago people since the 13th century, and prior to that by other Amerindians, Barbados was visited by Spanish navigators in the late 15th century and it first appeared in a Spanish map in 1511. The Portuguese visited the island in 1536, but they left it unclaimed, an English ship, the Olive Blossom, arrived in Barbados in 1625, its men took possession of it in the name of King James I. In 1627, the first permanent settlers arrived from England, and it became an English, in 1966, Barbados became an independent state and Commonwealth realm with the British Monarch as hereditary head of state. It has a population of 280,121 people, predominantly of African descent, despite being classified as an Atlantic island, Barbados is considered to be a part of the Caribbean, where it is ranked as a leading tourist destination. Forty percent of the come from the UK, with the US. In 2014, Transparency Internationals Corruption Perceptions Index ranked Barbados joint second in the Americas, the name Barbados is either the Portuguese word Barbados or the Spanish equivalent los Barbados, both meaning the bearded ones. In 1519, a map produced by the Genoese mapmaker Visconte Maggiolo showed and named Barbados in its correct position, furthermore, the island of Barbuda in the Leewards is very similar in name and was once named Las Barbudas by the Spanish. It is uncertain which European nation arrived first in Barbados, one lesser known source points to earlier-revealed works predating contemporary sources indicating it could have been the Spanish. Others believe the Portuguese, en route to Brazil, were the first Europeans to come upon the island, colloquially Barbadians refer to their home island as Bim or other nicknames associated with Barbados includes Bimshire. The origin is uncertain but several theories exist, the name could have arisen due to the relatively large percentage of enslaved Igbo people from modern-day southeastern Nigeria arriving in Barbados in the 18th century. The words Bim and Bimshire are recorded in the Oxford English Dictionary, another possible source for Bim is reported to be in the Agricultural Reporter of 25 April 1868, where the Rev. N. Greenidge suggested the listing of Bimshire as a county of England. Expressly named were Wiltshire, Hampshire, Berkshire and Bimshire, lastly, in the Daily Argosy of 1652 there is a reference to Bim as a possible corruption of Byam, the name of a Royalist leader against the Parliamentarians. That source suggested the followers of Byam became known as Bims, amerindian settlement of Barbados dates to about the 4th to 7th centuries AD, by a group known as the Saladoid-Barrancoid. In the 13th century, the Kalinago arrived from South America, the Spanish and Portuguese briefly claimed Barbados from the late 16th to the 17th centuries. The Arawaks are believed to have fled to neighbouring islands, apart from possibly displacing the Caribs, the Spanish and Portuguese made little impact and left the island uninhabited. Some Arawaks migrated from British Guiana in the 19th century and continue to live in Barbados, during the Cromwellian era this included a large number of prisoners-of-war, vagrants and people who were illicitly kidnapped, who were forcibly transported to the island and sold as servants
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Tropical cyclone
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Depending on its location and strength, a tropical cyclone is referred to by names such as hurricane, typhoon /taɪˈfuːn/, tropical storm, cyclonic storm, tropical depression, and simply cyclone. A hurricane is a storm that occurs in the Atlantic Ocean and northeastern Pacific Ocean, a typhoon occurs in the northwestern Pacific Ocean, Tropical cyclones typically form over large bodies of relatively warm water. They derive their energy through the evaporation of water from the ocean surface and this energy source differs from that of mid-latitude cyclonic storms, such as noreasters and European windstorms, which are fueled primarily by horizontal temperature contrasts. The strong rotating winds of a tropical cyclone are a result of the conservation of momentum imparted by the Earths rotation as air flows inwards toward the axis of rotation. As a result, they form within 5° of the equator. Tropical cyclones are typically between 100 and 2,000 km in diameter, Tropical refers to the geographical origin of these systems, which form almost exclusively over tropical seas. Cyclone refers to their nature, with wind blowing counterclockwise in the Northern Hemisphere. The opposite direction of circulation is due to the Coriolis effect, in addition to strong winds and rain, tropical cyclones are capable of generating high waves, damaging storm surge, and tornadoes. They typically weaken rapidly over land where they are cut off from their energy source. For this reason, coastal regions are vulnerable to damage from a tropical cyclone as compared to inland regions. Heavy rains, however, can cause significant flooding inland, though their effects on human populations are often devastating, tropical cyclones can relieve drought conditions. They also carry heat away from the tropics and transport it toward temperate latitudes. Tropical cyclones are areas of low pressure in the troposphere. On Earth, the pressures recorded at the centers of tropical cyclones are among the lowest ever observed at sea level, the environment near the center of tropical cyclones is warmer than the surroundings at all altitudes, thus they are characterized as warm core systems. The near-surface wind field of a cyclone is characterized by air rotating rapidly around a center of circulation while also flowing radially inwards. At the outer edge of the storm, air may be nearly calm, however, due to the Earths rotation, as air flows radially inward, it begins to rotate cyclonically in order to conserve angular momentum. At an inner radius, air begins to ascend to the top of the troposphere and this radius is typically coincident with the inner radius of the eyewall, and has the strongest near-surface winds of the storm, consequently, it is known as the radius of maximum winds. Once aloft, air flows away from the center, producing a shield of cirrus clouds
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Universal Time Coordinated
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Coordinated Universal Time, abbreviated to UTC, is the primary time standard by which the world regulates clocks and time. It is within about 1 second of mean time at 0° longitude. It is one of closely related successors to Greenwich Mean Time. For most purposes, UTC is considered interchangeable with GMT, the first Coordinated Universal Time was informally adopted on 1 January 1960. This change also adopted leap seconds to simplify future adjustments, a number of proposals have been made to replace UTC with a new system that would eliminate leap seconds, but no consensus has yet been reached. Leap seconds are inserted as necessary to keep UTC within 0.9 seconds of universal time, see the Current number of leap seconds section for the number of leap seconds inserted to date. The official abbreviation for Coordinated Universal Time is UTC and this abbreviation arose from a desire by the International Telecommunication Union and the International Astronomical Union to use the same abbreviation in all languages. English speakers originally proposed CUT, while French speakers proposed TUC, the compromise that emerged was UTC, which conforms to the pattern for the abbreviations of the variants of Universal Time. Time zones around the world are expressed using positive or negative offsets from UTC, the westernmost time zone uses UTC−12, being twelve hours behind UTC, the easternmost time zone, theoretically, uses UTC+12, being twelve hours ahead of UTC. In 1995, the nation of Kiribati moved those of its atolls in the Line Islands from UTC-10 to UTC+14 so that the country would all be on the same day. UTC is used in internet and World Wide Web standards. The Network Time Protocol, designed to synchronise the clocks of computers over the internet, computer servers, online services and other entities that rely on having a universally accepted time use UTC as it is more specific than GMT. If only limited precision is needed, clients can obtain the current UTC from a number of official internet UTC servers, for sub-microsecond precision, clients can obtain the time from satellite signals. UTC is also the standard used in aviation, e. g. for flight plans. Weather forecasts and maps all use UTC to avoid confusion about time zones, the International Space Station also uses UTC as a time standard. Amateur radio operators often schedule their radio contacts in UTC, because transmissions on some frequencies can be picked up by many time zones, UTC is also used in digital tachographs used on large goods vehicles under EU and AETR rules. UTC divides time into days, hours, minutes and seconds, days are conventionally identified using the Gregorian calendar, but Julian day numbers can also be used. Each day contains 24 hours and each hour contains 60 minutes, the number of seconds in a minute is usually 60, but with an occasional leap second, it may be 61 or 59 instead
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Cabo Rojo, Puerto Rico
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Cabo Rojo derives its name from both the reddish color of its salt-flats and the reddish tint that characterizes the seaside cliffs along its southern coast. According to legend, the name was given by Christopher Columbus himself, the first church, founded in 1783, was called San José. The present-day main catholic church is called San Miguel Arcángel Church located in the towns square, the latter apparently fought back by throwing stones and are thus known as tira piedras. The area of near Las Salinas has been inhabited since 30 BC, punta Ostiones, listed in the National Register of Historic Places as an archeological site, was home to a large group of Archaic Indians. Despite the threat of pirates and Indians, the Spanish settled the area of Los Morrillos around 1511, by 1525, salt mining was an important industry in the area. According to Fray Iñigo Abbad y Lasierra by the end of the 18th century, in 1759 the first request to establish itself as a town was denied. Cabo Rojo was founded on December 17,1771 by Nicolás Ramírez de Arellano, the Municipality of Cabo Rojo sits in the southern-west corner of the island of Puerto Rico, on the Western Coastal Plains. It is bordered by Mayagüez and Hormigueros to the north, San Germán and Lajas to the east, the Caribbean Sea to the south, Cabo Rojo has a surface area of 72 square miles. However, some peaks are Mariquita, Buena Vista, Vargas. The municipality is spread over 9 barrios/wards and Cabo Rojo Pueblo, its downtown, Cabo Rojo is a principal municipality of the San Germán–Cabo Rojo metropolitan area as well as the larger Mayagüez–San Germán–Cabo Rojo Combined Statistical Area. Cabo Rojo is also known for its fishing, particularly the Puerto Real fishing village. This old lighthouse was automated and electrically charged in 1967 and is considered to have some, if not, the lighthouse has undergone recent renovations, which has created controversy because of the quality of the work. According to locals and scholars, the structure was gutted leaving nothing of historical significance behind. The lighthouse is located near the Salinas, or salt mines and these salt mines are reported to be the oldest industry in the New World. Salt has been mined in this site non-stop since the times of the Taínos, near the Salinas, a local civic group Caborrojeños Pro Salud y Ambiente run a visitors center known as the Centro Interpretativo Las Salinas De Cabo Rojo don Efrén Pérez Rivera. They offer free guided tours of the area, which is rich in flora. The Boquerón State Forest is one of seven state forests managed by the Puerto Rico Department of Natural and Environmental Resources, all municipalities in Puerto Rico are administered by a, elected every four years. The current mayor of Cabo Rojo is Bobby Ramírez Kurtz, who beat incumbent Perza Rodríguez at the 2012 general election, Rodríguez, a member of the New Progressive Party of Puerto Rico, became mayor after the death of Santos Padilla Ferrer in the year 2007
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Maximum sustained wind
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The maximum sustained wind associated with a tropical cyclone is a common indicator of the intensity of the storm. Within a mature tropical cyclone, it is found within the eyewall at a distance defined as the radius of maximum wind, unlike gusts, the value of these winds are determined via their sampling and averaging the sampled results over a period of time. Surface winds are variable due to friction between the atmosphere and the Earths surface, as well as near hills and mountains over land. Over the ocean, satellite imagery determines the value of the sustained winds within a tropical cyclone. Land, ship, aircraft reconnaissance observations, and radar imagery can also estimate this quantity and this value helps determine damage expected from a tropical cyclone, through use of such scales as the Saffir-Simpson scale. However, the United States National Weather Service defines sustained winds within tropical cyclones by averaging winds over a period of one minute, measured at the same 10 metres height. This is an important distinction, as the value of the highest one-minute sustained wind is about 14% greater than a sustained wind over the same period. In most tropical cyclone basins, use of the satellite-based Dvorak technique is the method used to determine a tropical cyclones maximum sustained winds. The extent of banding and difference in temperature between the eye and eyewall is used within the technique to assign a maximum sustained wind. Central pressure values for their centers of low pressure are approximate, the intensity of example hurricanes is derived from both the time of landfall and the maximum intensity. The tracking of individual clouds on minutely satellite imagery could be used in the future in estimating surface winds speeds for tropical cyclones, ship and land observations are also used, when available. Doppler weather radar can be used in the manner to determine surface winds with tropical cyclones near land. Friction between the atmosphere and the Earths surface causes a 20% reduction in the wind at the surface of the Earth, surface roughness also leads to significant variation of wind speeds. Over land, winds maximize at hill or mountain crests, while sheltering leads to wind speeds in valleys. Compared to over water, maximum sustained winds over land average 8% lower, in most basins, maximum sustained winds are used to define their category. In the Atlantic and northeast Pacific oceans, the Saffir-Simpson scale is used and this scale can be used to determine possible storm surge and damage impact on land. In most basins, the category of the cyclone is determined from the cyclones maximum sustained wind. Only in Australia is this quantity not used to define the tropical category, in their basin
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The Bahamas
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The Bahamas, known officially as the Commonwealth of the Bahamas, is an archipelagic state within the Lucayan Archipelago. The capital is Nassau on the island of New Providence, the designation of the Bahamas can refer either to the country or to the larger island chain that it shares with the Turks and Caicos Islands. As stated in the mandate/manifesto of the Royal Bahamas Defence Force, the Bahamas is the site of Columbus first landfall in the New World in 1492. At that time, the islands were inhabited by the Lucayan, although the Spanish never colonised the Bahamas, they shipped the native Lucayans to slavery in Hispaniola. The islands were mostly deserted from 1513 until 1648, when English colonists from Bermuda settled on the island of Eleuthera, the Bahamas became a British Crown colony in 1718, when the British clamped down on piracy. After the American War of Independence, the Crown resettled thousands of American Loyalists in the Bahamas, they brought their slaves with them, Africans constituted the majority of the population from this period. Slavery in the Bahamas was abolished in 1834, Today the descendants of slaves and free Africans make up nearly 90% of the population, issues related to the slavery years are part of society. The Bahamas became an independent Commonwealth realm in 1973, retaining Queen Elizabeth II as its monarch, in terms of gross domestic product per capita, the Bahamas is one of the richest countries in the Americas, with an economy based on tourism and finance. The name Bahamas is derived from either the Taino ba ha ma, alternatively, it may originate from Guanahani, a local name of unclear meaning. In English, the Bahamas is one of two countries whose self-standing short name begins with the word the, along with The Gambia. Taino people moved into the uninhabited southern Bahamas from Hispaniola and Cuba around the 11th century and they came to be known as the Lucayan people. An estimated 30,000 Lucayan inhabited the Bahamas at the time of Christopher Columbus arrival in 1492, Columbuss first landfall in the New World was on an island he named San Salvador. Some researchers believe this site to be present-day San Salvador Island, an alternative theory holds that Columbus landed to the southeast on Samana Cay, according to calculations made in 1986 by National Geographic writer and editor Joseph Judge, based on Columbuss log. Evidence in support of this remains inconclusive, on the landfall island, Columbus made first contact with the Lucayan and exchanged goods with them. The Spanish forced much of the Lucayan population to Hispaniola for use as forced labour, the slaves suffered from harsh conditions and most died from contracting diseases to which they had no immunity, half of the Taino died from smallpox alone. The population of the Bahamas was severely diminished, in 1648, the Eleutherian Adventurers, led by William Sayle, migrated from Bermuda. These English Puritans established the first permanent European settlement on an island which they named Eleuthera—the name derives from the Greek word for freedom and they later settled New Providence, naming it Sayles Island after one of their leaders. To survive, the settlers salvaged goods from wrecks, in 1670 King Charles II granted the islands to the Lords Proprietors of the Carolinas in North America
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New Providence
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New Providence is the most populous island in the Bahamas, containing more than 70% of the total population. It houses the national city of Nassau. The island was originally under Spanish control following Christopher Columbuss discovery of the New World, Nassau, the islands largest city, was formerly known as Charles-town, but it was burned to the ground by the Spanish in 1684. It was laid out and renamed Nassau in 1695 by Nicholas Trott, the three branches of Bahamian Government, the executive, the legislative, and the judiciary, are all headquartered on New Providence. New Providence functions as the commercial hub of the Bahamas. It is also home to more than 400 banks and trust companies, the name New Providence Island is derived from a 16th‐century governor who gave thanks to Divine Providence for his survival after a shipwreck. The New was added later to distinguish it from Providencia off the Mosquito Coast used by pirates, after 1670, Bermudian salt rakers gathering sea salt in Grand Turk and Inagua became regular visitors to the island. The first lasting European occupation was on Eleuthera in 1648, by 1670, there were over 900 people on the settlement of Charles-Town. Due to ineffective governors, Charles-Town was attacked by the French and Spanish navies, became a base for pirates. However, two later in 1686, new English colonists from Jamaica came and settled. They were called back by the governor of Jamaica, but they ignored this order, in 1695, Governor Nicolas Trott rebuilt the town and added a fort, both were called Nassau. However, the fort was damaged in a Spanish attack in 1700. Due to the lack of cannon and soldiers in the fort, by 1713, there were over 1000 pirates in Nassau and they outnumbered the 400–500 law-abiding inhabitants. In 1718, Governor Woodes Rogers came in and offered a pardon for any willing to give up their ways. Using his intelligence and threatening to them if they did not take the pardon. In February 1776, American Esek Hopkins led a squadron of seven ships in an effort to raid the British-held island in order to secure supplies. In an event known as the Battle of Nassau, on March 3 and 4, Hopkins landed the first-ever amphibious assault by American military forces consisting of 250 Marines, under the covering fire of the Providence and Wasp, the attackers overwhelmed Fort Montague. The British retreated to Fort Nassau, but then surrendered to Continental forces, the Americans managed to secure 88 cannon and 15 mortars, but most of the much desired gunpowder was evacuated before capture
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Nassau, Bahamas
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Nassau is the capital, largest city, and commercial centre of the Commonwealth of the Bahamas. The city has an population of 274,400 as of 2016. The city is located on the island of New Providence, which much like a business district. Nassau is the site of the House of Assembly and various departments and was considered historically to be a stronghold of pirates. The city was named in honour of William III of England, nassaus modern growth began in the late eighteenth century, with the influx of thousands of American Loyalists and their slaves to the Bahamas following the American Revolutionary War. Many of them settled in Nassau and eventually came to outnumber the original inhabitants, as the population of Nassau grew, so did its populated areas. Today the city dominates the island and its satellite, Paradise Island. However, until the post-Second World War era, the outer suburbs scarcely existed, most of New Providence was uncultivated bush until Loyalists were resettled there following the American Revolutionary War, they established several plantations, such as Clifton and Tusculum. In addition, slaves freed from American ships, such as the Creole case in 1841, were allowed to settle there, Nassau was formerly known as Charles Town, it was burned to the ground by the Spanish in 1684 during one of their frequent wars with the English. The name Nassau derives from the House of Nassau and ultimately from the town of Nassau, due to a lack of effective Governors, Nassau fell on hard times. In 1703 Spanish and French allied forces briefly occupied Nassau, from 1703 to 1718 there was no governor in the colony and by 1713, the sparsely settled Bahamas had become a pirate haven. The Governor of Bermuda stated that there were over 1,000 pirates in Nassau and they proclaimed Nassau a pirate republic, establishing themselves as governors. Examples of pirates that used Nassau as their base are Charles Vane, Thomas Barrow, Benjamin Hornigold, Calico Jack Rackham, Anne Bonny, Mary Read, in 1718, the British sought to regain control of the islands and appointed Captain Woodes Rogers as Royal governor. He successfully clamped down on the pirates, reformed the civil administration, Rogers cleaned up Nassau and rebuilt the fort, using his own wealth to try to overcome problems. In 1720 the Spanish made an attempt to capture Nassau. During the wars in the Thirteen Colonies, Nassau experienced an economic boom, with funds from privateering, a new fort, street lights and over 2300 sumptuous houses were built and Nassau was extended. In addition to this, mosquito breeding swamps were filled, in 1778 after an overnight invasion, American raiders led by Captain Rathburn, left with ships, gunpowder and military stores after stopping in Nassau for only two days. In 1782 Spain captured Nassau for the last time when Don Juan de Cagigal, governor-general of Cuba, attacked New Providence with 5000 men
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New Smyrna Beach, Florida
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New Smyrna Beach is a city in Volusia County, Florida, United States, located on the central east coast of the state, with the Atlantic Ocean to the east. Its population was estimated to be 23,230 in 2013 by the United States Census Bureau, the downtown section of the city is located on the west side of the Indian River and the Indian River Lagoon system. The Coronado Beach Bridge crosses the Intracoastal Waterway just south of Ponce de Leon Inlet, the surrounding area offers many opportunities for outdoor recreation, these include fishing, sailing, motorboating, golfing and hiking. Visitors participate in sports of all kinds, including swimming, scuba diving, kitesurfing. In July 2009, New Smyrna Beach was ranked number nine on the list of best surf towns in Surfer and it was recognized as one of the worlds top 20 surf towns by National Geographic. No one had attempted to settle so many people at one time in a town in North America. Turnbull recruited about 1300 settlers, intending for them to grow hemp, sugarcane, the majority of the colonists came from Minorca, one of the Mediterranean Balearic Islands of Spain, and were of Catalan culture and language. Around 500 or so came from Greece, the survivors, about 600 in number, marched nearly 70 miles north on the Kings Road and relocated to St. Augustine, where their descendants live to this day. In 1783, East and West Florida were returned to the Spanish, the St. Photios Greek Orthodox National Shrine on St. George Street in St. Augustine honors the Greeks among the settlers of New Smyrna, they were the first Greek Orthodox followers in North America. The historical exhibit adjoining the chapel tells the story of their plight, with accompanying exhibits, central Florida remained sparsely populated by white settlers well into the 19th century, and it was frequently raided by Seminole Indians trying to protect their territory. United States troops fought against them in the Seminole Wars, during the Civil War in the 1860s, the Stone Wharf of New Smyrna was shelled by Union gunboats. In 1887, when New Smyrna was incorporated, it had a population of 150, in 1892, Henry Flagler provided service to the town via his Florida East Coast Railway. This led to a increase in the areas population. Its economy grew as tourism was added to its citrus and commercial fishing industries, New Smyrna became New Smyrna Beach in 1947, when the city annexed the seaside community of Coronado Beach. Today, it is a town of over 20,000 permanent residents. Like St. Augustine, established by the Spanish, New Smyrna has been under the rule of four flags, the British, Spanish, United States, after the end of the Civil War in 1865, it returned with Florida to the United States. See also, New Smyrna Beach Historic District New Smyrna Beachs motto is cygnus inter anates, the city is located in the so-called Fun Coast region of the state of Florida, a regional term created by the Daytona Beach/Halifax area Chamber of Commerce. This coincides with the area code,386, which spells FUN on touchtone phones
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Points of the compass
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The points of the compass, specifically on the compass rose, mark divisions of a compass, such divisions may be referred to as winds or directions. A compass point allows reference to a heading in a general or colloquial fashion. A compass is primarily divided into the four cardinal points—north, south, east and these are often further subdivided by the addition of the four intercardinal directions—northeast between north and east, southeast, southwest, and northwest —to indicate the eight principal winds. In meteorological usage, further intermediate points between cardinal and ordinal points, such as north-northeast between north and northeast, are added to give the sixteen points of a wind compass, for most applications, the fractional points have been superseded by degrees measured clockwise from North. In ancient China 24 points of the compass were used, measuring fifteen degrees between points. The names of the compass directions follow the 32-point wind compass rose follow these rules, The cardinal directions are north, east, south, west, the ordinal directions are northeast, southeast, southwest and northwest, formed by bisecting the angle of the cardinal winds. The name is merely a combination of the cardinals it bisects, the eight principal winds are the cardinals and ordinals considered together, that is N, NE, E, SE, S, SW, W, NW. Each principal wind is 45° from its neighbour, the principal winds form the basic eight-wind compass rose. The eight half-winds are the points obtained by bisecting the angles between the principal winds, the half-winds are north-northeast, east-northeast, east-southeast, south-southeast, south-southwest, west-southwest, west-northwest and north-northwest. Notice that the name is constructed simply by combining the names of the winds to either side, with the cardinal wind coming first. The eight principal winds and the eight half-winds together yield a 16-wind compass rose, all of the above named points plus the sixteen quarter winds listed in the next paragraph define the 32 points of the wind compass rose. The sixteen quarter winds are the points obtained by bisecting the angles between the points on a 16-wind compass rose. The name of a quarter-wind is X by Y, where X is a principal wind, so northeast by east means one quarter from NE towards E, southwest by south means one quarter from SW towards S. The eight principal winds, eight half-winds and sixteen quarter winds together yield a 32-wind compass rose, in the mariners exercise of boxing the compass, all thirty-two points of the compass are named in clockwise order. The title of the Alfred Hitchcock 1959 movie, North by Northwest, is not a direction point on the 32-wind compass. The traditional compass rose of eight winds was invented by seafarers in the Mediterranean Sea during the Middle Ages. This Italianate patois was used to designate the names of the winds on the compass rose found in mariner compasses. Tramutana, Gregale, Grecho, Sirocco, Xaloc, Lebeg, Libezo, Leveche, Mezzodi, Migjorn, Magistro, Mestre, etc
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Georgia (U.S. state)
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Georgia is a state in the southeastern United States. It was established in 1733, the last of the original Thirteen Colonies, named after King George II of Great Britain, Georgia was the fourth state to ratify the United States Constitution, on January 2,1788. It declared its secession from the Union on January 19,1861 and it was the last state to be restored to the Union, on July 15,1870. Georgia is the 24th largest and the 8th most populous of the 50 United States, from 2007 to 2008,14 of Georgias counties ranked among the nations 100 fastest-growing, second only to Texas. Georgia is known as the Peach State and the Empire State of the South, Atlanta is the states capital, its most populous city and has been named a global city. Georgia is bordered to the south by Florida, to the east by the Atlantic Ocean and South Carolina, to the west by Alabama, the states northern part is in the Blue Ridge Mountains, part of the Appalachian Mountains system. Georgias highest point is Brasstown Bald at 4,784 feet above sea level, Georgia is the largest state entirely east of the Mississippi River in land area. Before settlement by Europeans, Georgia was inhabited by the mound building cultures, the British colony of Georgia was founded by James Oglethorpe on February 12,1733. The colony was administered by the Trustees for the Establishment of the Colony of Georgia in America under a charter issued by King George II. The Trustees implemented a plan for the colonys settlement, known as the Oglethorpe Plan. In 1742 the colony was invaded by the Spanish during the War of Jenkins Ear, in 1752, after the government failed to renew subsidies that had helped support the colony, the Trustees turned over control to the crown. Georgia became a colony, with a governor appointed by the king. The Province of Georgia was one of the Thirteen Colonies that revolted against British rule in the American Revolution by signing the 1776 Declaration of Independence, the State of Georgias first constitution was ratified in February 1777. Georgia was the 10th state to ratify the Articles of Confederation on July 24,1778, in 1829, gold was discovered in the North Georgia mountains, which led to the Georgia Gold Rush and an established federal mint in Dahlonega, which continued its operation until 1861. The subsequent influx of white settlers put pressure on the government to land from the Cherokee Nation. In 1830, President Andrew Jackson signed the Indian Removal Act into law, sending many eastern Native American nations to reservations in present-day Oklahoma, including all of Georgias tribes. Despite the Supreme Courts ruling in Worcester v. Georgia that ruled U. S. states were not permitted to redraw the Indian boundaries, President Jackson and the state of Georgia ignored the ruling. In 1838, his successor, Martin Van Buren, dispatched troops to gather the Cherokee
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Extratropical cyclone
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Extratropical cyclones are capable of producing anything from cloudiness and mild showers to heavy gales, thunderstorms, blizzards, and tornadoes. These types of cyclones are defined as large scale low pressure systems that occur in the middle latitudes of the Earth. In contrast with tropical cyclones, extratropical cyclones produce rapid changes in temperature and dew point along broad lines, called weather fronts, the term cyclone applies to numerous types of low pressure areas, one of which is the extratropical cyclone. The descriptor extratropical signifies that this type of cyclone generally occurs outside the tropics and they are termed mid-latitude cyclones if they form within those latitudes, or post-tropical cyclones if a tropical cyclone has intruded into the mid latitudes. Weather forecasters and the public often describe them simply as depressions or lows. Terms like frontal cyclone, frontal depression, frontal low, extratropical low, non-tropical low, Extratropical cyclones are classified mainly as baroclinic, because they form along zones of temperature and dewpoint gradient known as frontal zones. They can become barotropic late in their cycle, when the distribution of heat around the cyclone becomes fairly uniform with its radius. Extratropical cyclones form anywhere within the regions of the Earth. A study of extratropical cyclones in the Southern Hemisphere shows that between the 30th and 70th parallels, there are an average of 37 cyclones in existence during any 6-hour period, a separate study in the Northern Hemisphere suggests that approximately 234 significant extratropical cyclones form each winter. Extratropical cyclones form along linear bands of temperature/dewpoint gradient with significant vertical wind shear, initially, cyclogenesis, or low pressure formation, occurs along frontal zones near a favorable quadrant of a maximum in the upper level jetstream known as a jet streak. The favorable quadrants are usually at the rear and left front quadrants. The divergence causes air to rush out from the top of the air column and this in turn forces convergence in the low-level wind field and increased upward motion within the column. The increased upward motion causes atmospheric pressure at ground level to lower and this is because the upward air motion counteracts gravity, lessening the weight of the atmosphere in that location. The lowered pressure strengthens the cyclone, as the cyclone strengthens, the cold front sweeps towards the equator and moves around the back of the cyclone. Meanwhile, its associated warm front progresses more slowly, as the air ahead of the system is denser. Later, the cyclones occlude as the portion of the cold front overtakes a section of the warm front, forcing a tongue, or trowal. Eventually, the cyclone will become cold and begin to weaken. Atmospheric pressure can fall very rapidly when there are upper level forces on the system
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Ontario
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Ontario, one of the 13 provinces and territories of Canada, is located in east-central Canada. It is Canadas most populous province by a margin, accounting for nearly 40 percent of all Canadians. Ontario is fourth-largest in total area when the territories of the Northwest Territories and it is home to the nations capital city, Ottawa, and the nations most populous city, Toronto. There is only about 1 km of land made up of portages including Height of Land Portage on the Minnesota border. Ontario is sometimes divided into two regions, Northern Ontario and Southern Ontario. The great majority of Ontarios population and arable land is located in the south, in contrast, the larger, northern part of Ontario is sparsely populated with cold winters and is heavily forested. The province is named after Lake Ontario, a thought to be derived from Ontarí, io, a Huron word meaning great lake, or possibly skanadario. Ontario has about 250,000 freshwater lakes, the province consists of three main geographical regions, The thinly populated Canadian Shield in the northwestern and central portions, which comprises over half the land area of Ontario. Although this area mostly does not support agriculture, it is rich in minerals and in part covered by the Central and Midwestern Canadian Shield forests, studded with lakes, Northern Ontario is subdivided into two sub-regions, Northwestern Ontario and Northeastern Ontario. The virtually unpopulated Hudson Bay Lowlands in the north and northeast, mainly swampy. Southern Ontario which is further sub-divided into four regions, Central Ontario, Eastern Ontario, Golden Horseshoe, the highest point is Ishpatina Ridge at 693 metres above sea level located in Temagami, Northeastern Ontario. In the south, elevations of over 500 m are surpassed near Collingwood, above the Blue Mountains in the Dundalk Highlands, the Carolinian forest zone covers most of the southwestern region of the province. A well-known geographic feature is Niagara Falls, part of the Niagara Escarpment, the Saint Lawrence Seaway allows navigation to and from the Atlantic Ocean as far inland as Thunder Bay in Northwestern Ontario. Northern Ontario occupies roughly 87 percent of the area of the province. Point Pelee is a peninsula of Lake Erie in southwestern Ontario that is the southernmost extent of Canadas mainland, Pelee Island and Middle Island in Lake Erie extend slightly farther. All are south of 42°N – slightly farther south than the border of California. The climate of Ontario varies by season and location, the effects of these major air masses on temperature and precipitation depend mainly on latitude, proximity to major bodies of water and to a small extent, terrain relief. In general, most of Ontarios climate is classified as humid continental, Ontario has three main climatic regions
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Puerto Rico
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Puerto Rico, officially the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico and briefly called Porto Rico, is an unincorporated territory of the United States located in the northeast Caribbean Sea. It is an archipelago that includes the island of Puerto Rico and a number of smaller ones such as Mona, Culebra. The capital and most populous city is San Juan and its official languages are Spanish and English, though Spanish predominates. The islands population is approximately 3.4 million, Puerto Ricos rich history, tropical climate, diverse natural scenery, renowned traditional cuisine, and attractive tax incentives make it a popular destination for travelers from around the world. Four centuries of Spanish colonial government transformed the ethnic, cultural and physical landscapes primarily with waves of African captives, and Canarian. In the Spanish imperial imagination, Puerto Rico played a secondary, in 1898, following the Spanish–American War, the United States appropriated Puerto Rico together with most former Spanish colonies under the terms of the Treaty of Paris. Puerto Ricans are natural-born citizens of the United States, however, Puerto Rico does not have a vote in the United States Congress, which governs the territory with full jurisdiction under the Puerto Rico Federal Relations Act of 1950. As a U. S. territory, American citizens residing on the island are disenfranchised at the level and may not vote for president. However, Congress approved a constitution, allowing U. S. citizens on the territory to elect a governor. A fifth referendum will be held in June 2017, with only Statehood, in early 2017, the Puerto Rican government-debt crisis posed serious problems for the government. The outstanding bond debt that had climbed to $70 billion or $12,000 per capita at a time with 12. 4% unemployment, the debt had been increasing during a decade long recession. Puerto Ricans often call the island Borinquen – a derivation of Borikén, its indigenous Taíno name, the terms boricua and borincano derive from Borikén and Borinquen respectively, and are commonly used to identify someone of Puerto Rican heritage. The island is also known in Spanish as la isla del encanto. Columbus named the island San Juan Bautista, in honor of Saint John the Baptist, eventually traders and other maritime visitors came to refer to the entire island as Puerto Rico, while San Juan became the name used for the main trading/shipping port and the capital city. The islands name was changed to Porto Rico by the United States after the Treaty of Paris of 1898, the anglicized name was used by the US government and private enterprises. The name was changed back to Puerto Rico by a joint resolution in Congress introduced by Félix Córdova Dávila in 1931, the ancient history of the archipelago known today as Puerto Rico is not well known. The scarce archaeological findings and early Spanish scholarly accounts from the colonial era constitute the basis of knowledge about them. The first comprehensive book on the history of Puerto Rico was written by Fray Íñigo Abbad y Lasierra in 1786, the first settlers were the Ortoiroid people, an Archaic Period culture of Amerindian hunters and fishermen who migrated from the South American mainland
