1.
1916 in paleontology
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Paleontology or palaeontology is the study of prehistoric life forms on Earth through the examination of plant and animal fossils. This includes the study of fossils, tracks, burrows, cast-off parts, fossilised feces, palynomorphs. Because humans have encountered fossils for millennia, paleontology has a long history both before and after becoming formalized as a science and this article records significant discoveries and events related to paleontology that occurred or were published in the year 1916. May, Charles H. Sternberg resigned from the Geological Survey of Canada because the Survey decided to end its work in Alberta. This effectively dissolved the Sternberg family team because Charles H. Sternbergs sons Charles M. unlike his brothers, Levi Sternberg also quit the Survey and joined their father in collecting fossils from the Steveville area in what is now Dinosaur Provincial Park. Their work was performed for little pay under a contract with the British Museum of Natural History, together they excavated several dinosaur skeletons, which were to be sent to the Museum in two shipments. Data courtesy of George Olshevskys dinosaur genera list
2.
1917 in paleontology
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Paleontology or palaeontology is the study of prehistoric life forms on Earth through the examination of plant and animal fossils. This includes the study of fossils, tracks, burrows, cast-off parts, fossilised feces, palynomorphs. Because humans have encountered fossils for millennia, paleontology has a long history both before and after becoming formalized as a science and this article records significant discoveries and events related to paleontology that occurred or were published in the year 1917. Data courtesy of George Olshevskys dinosaur genera list, hunting Dinosaurs in the Badlands of the Red Deer River Valley, Alberta by C. H. Sternberg was published. Although the work over all was non-fiction, it concluded with a series of fictional chapters wherein Sternberg dreamt of traveling back in time to the ages of prehistory
3.
1921 in paleontology
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Paleontology or palaeontology is the study of prehistoric life forms on Earth through the examination of plant and animal fossils. This includes the study of fossils, tracks, burrows, cast-off parts, fossilised feces, palynomorphs. Because humans have encountered fossils for millennia, paleontology has a long history both before and after becoming formalized as a science and this article records significant discoveries and events related to paleontology that occurred or were published in the year 1921. Data courtesy of George Olshevskys dinosaur genera list
4.
1922 in paleontology
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Paleontology or palaeontology is the study of prehistoric life forms on Earth through the examination of plant and animal fossils. This includes the study of fossils, tracks, burrows, cast-off parts, fossilised feces, palynomorphs. Because humans have encountered fossils for millennia, paleontology has a long history both before and after becoming formalized as a science and this article records significant discoveries and events related to paleontology that occurred or were published in the year 1922. Data courtesy of George Olshevskys dinosaur genera list
5.
1925 in paleontology
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Paleontology or palaeontology is the study of prehistoric life forms on Earth through the examination of plant and animal fossils. This includes the study of fossils, tracks, burrows, cast-off parts, fossilised feces, palynomorphs. Because humans have encountered fossils for millennia, paleontology has a long history both before and after becoming formalized as a science and this article records significant discoveries and events related to paleontology that occurred or were published in the year 1925. Data courtesy of George Olshevskys dinosaur genera list
6.
1930 in paleontology
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Paleontology or palaeontology is the study of prehistoric life forms on Earth through the examination of plant and animal fossils. This includes the study of fossils, tracks, burrows, cast-off parts, fossilised feces, palynomorphs. Because humans have encountered fossils for millennia, paleontology has a long history both before and after becoming formalized as a science and this article records significant discoveries and events related to paleontology that occurred or were published in the year 1930
7.
1932 in paleontology
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Paleontology or palaeontology is the study of prehistoric life forms on Earth through the examination of plant and animal fossils. This includes the study of fossils, tracks, burrows, cast-off parts, fossilised feces, palynomorphs. Because humans have encountered fossils for millennia, paleontology has a long history both before and after becoming formalized as a science and this article records significant discoveries and events related to paleontology that occurred or were published in the year 1932. Stauffer & Plummer described the condont genus Gondolella, data courtesy of George Olshevskys dinosaur genera list
8.
1933 in paleontology
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Paleontology or palaeontology is the study of prehistoric life forms on Earth through the examination of plant and animal fossils. This includes the study of fossils, tracks, burrows, cast-off parts, fossilised feces, palynomorphs. Because humans have encountered fossils for millennia, paleontology has a long history both before and after becoming formalized as a science and this article records significant discoveries and events related to paleontology that occurred or were published in the year 1933. Barnum Brown prospected the Two Medicine Formation, but found nothing significant, lull published a mongraph wherein he discusses AMNH5244, a ceratopsian braincase. Data courtesy of George Olshevskys dinosaur genera list, trexler, D.2001, Two Medicine Formation, Montana, geology and fauna, In, Mesozoic Vertebrate Life, edited by Tanke, D. H. and Carpenter, K. Indiana University Press, pp. 298–309
9.
1936 in paleontology
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Paleontology or palaeontology is the study of prehistoric life forms on Earth through the examination of plant and animal fossils. This includes the study of fossils, tracks, burrows, cast-off parts, fossilised feces, palynomorphs. Because humans have encountered fossils for millennia, paleontology has a long history both before and after becoming formalized as a science and this article records significant discoveries and events related to paleontology that occurred or were published in the year 1936. Data courtesy of George Olshevskys dinosaur genera list
10.
1924 in science
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The year 1924 in science and technology involved some significant events, listed below. The Einstein Tower near Potsdam, Germany, designed by Erich Mendelsohn, mount Stromlo Observatory near Canberra, Australia, is established as the Commonwealth Solar Observatory. The term ectogenesis is coined by British scientist J. B. S, haldane to describe the growth of mammalian embryos in artificial environments. The first inactive tetanus toxoid is discovered and produced, december 17 – Dismantling of James Watts workshop for display in the Science Museum, London, commences. Stefan Banach and Alfred Tarski publish the Banach–Tarski paradox, david Hilbert proposes Hilberts paradox of the Grand Hotel. German physiologist and psychiatrist Hans Berger records the first human electroencephalogram, the first specimen of Australopithecus africanus, the fossil skull of the Taung Child, is identified in South Africa. S. N. Bose and Albert Einstein publish papers in Zeitschrift für Physik applying Bose–Einstein statistics to light quanta and to atomic models and this leads to discovery of the Pauli exclusion principle. Louis de Broglie introduces the wave-model of atomic structure, based on the ideas of wave–particle duality, february 5 – Hourly time signals from Royal Greenwich Observatory are broadcast for the first time. February – John Logie Baird sends rudimentary television pictures over a short distance, václav Holek designs the ZB vz.26 light machine gun for Zbrojovka Brno
11.
1926 in architecture
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The year 1926 in architecture involved some significant architectural events and new buildings. June 7 - While walking along the Gran Via de les Corts Catalanes in Barcelona, Antoni Gaudí is struck by a passing tram, delays in receiving medical treatment contribute to his death in hospital a few days later. On June 12, after a procession through the streets of Barcelona lined by thousands. November 27 - In Williamsburg, Virginia, the restoration of Colonial Williamsburg begins, undated British General Post Office K2 red telephone box, designed by Giles Gilbert Scott, is introduced, chiefly in the London area. The Frankfurt kitchen is designed by Margarete Schütte-Lihotzky for Ernst Mays social housing project New Frankfurt in Frankfurt, the russian avant-garde magazine SA is published for the first time. Louis, Missouri, USA, designed by Mauran, Russell & Crowell with I. R, timlin Sourdough Inn, Fort Yukon, Alaska, USA900 Stewart Avenue, USA Royal Gold Medal - Ragnar Ostberg. Grand Prix de Rome, architecture, Jean-Baptiste Hourlier
12.
1926 in literature
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This article presents lists of the literary events and publications in 1926. February 8 – Seán OCaseys play The Plough and the Stars opens at the Abbey Theatre, on February 11, the performance is marred by ugly scenes in the audience, one man strikes an actress. February 12 – The Irish Free State minister for Justice, Kevin OHiggins, February 26 – The future English novelist Graham Greene is received into the Catholic Church. April 1 – Hugo Gernsback launches his pioneering science fiction magazine Amazing Stories in the United States, may 11 – C. S. Lewis and J. R. R. Tolkien meet for the first time in Oxford. October 14 – The childrens book Winnie-the-Pooh, by A. A. Milne, is first published by Methuen in London. December 3 – English detective story writer Agatha Christie disappears from her home in Surrey, December – Thomas Mann begins writing Die Geschichten Jaakobs in Munich, first of the tetralogy Joseph and His Brothers on which he will work until January 1943. Antonin Artaud and Roger Vitrac establish the Théatre Alfred-Jarry in Paris for the production of surrealist drama, bread Loaf Writers Conference is founded in Middlebury, Vermont. Ford Madox Ford publishes A Man Could Stand Up --, the book of a four-volume work titled Parades End published between 1924 and 1928. Vsevolod Meyerhold stages a landmark production of Gogols satirical comedy The Government Inspector in Moscow. Margaret Mitchell begins writing the novel Gone with the Wind, the remains of English poet Isaac Rosenberg are re-interred at Bailleul Road East Cemetery, Plot V, St. Laurent-Blangy, Pas de Calais, France. S. S. Van Dine publishes the first Philo Vance mystery novel, Peter Llewelyn Davies establishes the London publishing house Peter Davies Ltd. Yeats – Autobiographies Paul Zarifopol – Din registrul ideilor gingașe Alfred Eckhard Zimmern – The Third British Empire January 5 – W. D
13.
1926 in music
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This is a list of notable events in music that took place in the year 1926. January - Blind Lemon Jefferson makes his first recordings, april 9 - Leopold Stokowski conducts the world premiere of Edgar Varèses Amériques, with the Philadelphia Orchestra. April 25 - Première of Giacomo Puccinis opera Turandot at the Teatro alla Scala in Milan, may 12 - Dmitri Shostakovichs Symphony No.1 premières in Leningrad. The composer is 19 years old, december 18 - The Estonian National Symphony Orchestra gives its first concert. First recordings by Jelly Roll Morton & His Red Hot Peppers Opening of the Salzburger Festspielhaus Virgilio Savona begins studying music, the Société de Musique de Chambre de Genève is founded by Frank Martin. The National Conservatoire is founded in Athens by composer Manolis Kalomiris, operatic baritone Leslie Rands marries his DOyly Carte co-star Marjorie Eyre. Hamiltons Sisters and Fordyce tour briefly with another female group, Jerry. John Serry Sr. is accepted for studies at the noted Pietro Deiro accordion studio in Greenwich Village starting his education as an instrumentalist at the age of 11, sweetheart of All My Dreams w. m. Art Finch, Kay Finch, & Bert Lowe After I Say Im Sorry w. m. Walter Donaldson & Abe Lyman Alabama Stomp w. Henry Creamer m. James P. Johnson All Alone Monday w. Bert Kalmar m. Harry Ruby Am I Wasting My Time On You. Irving Bibo & Howard Johnson Baby Face w. Benny Davis m. Harry Akst Barcelona w. Gus Kahn m, tolchard Evans Because I Love You w. m. Irving Berlin Big Butter And Egg Man w. m, Sidney Clare, Cliff Friend & Joseph H. Santly The Birth Of The Blues w. B. G. De Sylva & Lew Brown m. Introduced by Harry Richman in the revue George Whites Scandals of 1926 Black Bottom w. B. G. De Sylva & Lew Brown m. Introduced by Ann Pennington, The McCarthy Sisters, Frances Williams, Jelly Roll Morton The Blue Room w. Lorenz Hart m. Introduced by Eva Puck and Sammy White in the musical The Girl Friend Breezin Along With The Breeze w. m, mel Stitzel Charmaine w. Lew Pollack m. Erno Rapee Cherie, I Love You w. m, milton Ager Cross Your Heart w. B. G. De Sylva m. Lewis E. Gensler Deed I Do w. Walter Hirsch m. Fred Rose The Desert Song w. Otto Harbach & Oscar Hammerstein II m, introduced by Vivienne Segal and Robert Halliday in the operetta The Desert Song The Devil Is Afraid Of Music w. m. Willard Robison The Dicky Bird Hop w. Leslie Sarony m, ronald Gourley Do, Do, Do w. Ira Gershwin m. George Gershwin
14.
Paleontology
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Paleontology or palaeontology is the scientific study of life that existed prior to, and sometimes including, the start of the Holocene Epoch. It includes the study of fossils to determine organisms evolution and interactions with each other, paleontological observations have been documented as far back as the 5th century BC. The science became established in the 18th century as a result of Georges Cuviers work on comparative anatomy, and developed rapidly in the 19th century. The term itself originates from Greek παλαιός, palaios, i. e. old, ancient, ὄν, on, i. e. being, creature and λόγος, logos, i. e. speech, thought, study. Paleontology lies on the border between biology and geology, but differs from archaeology in that it excludes the study of modern humans. It now uses techniques drawn from a range of sciences, including biochemistry, mathematics. The final quarter of the 20th century saw the development of molecular phylogenetics, molecular phylogenetics has also been used to estimate the dates when species diverged, but there is controversy about the reliability of the molecular clock on which such estimates depend. The simplest definition is the study of ancient life, paleontology is one of the historical sciences, along with archaeology, geology, astronomy, cosmology, philology and history itself. This means that it aims to describe phenomena of the past, hence it has three main elements, description of the phenomena, developing a general theory about the causes of various types of change, and applying those theories to specific facts. Sometimes the smoking gun is discovered by an accident during other research. Paleontology lies on the boundary between biology and geology since paleontology focuses on the record of past life but its source of evidence is fossils. In addition paleontology often uses techniques derived from other sciences, including biology, osteology, ecology, chemistry, techniques developed in engineering have been used to analyse how ancient organisms might have worked, for example how fast Tyrannosaurus could move and how powerful its bite was. As knowledge has increased, paleontology has developed specialised subdivisions, vertebrate paleontology concentrates on fossils of vertebrates, from the earliest fish to the immediate ancestors of modern mammals. Invertebrate paleontology deals with fossils of such as molluscs, arthropods. Paleobotany focuses on the study of plants, but traditionally includes the study of fossil algae. Palynology, the study of pollen and spores produced by plants and protists. Micropaleontology deals with all microscopic fossil organisms, regardless of the group to which they belong, one example is the development of oxygenic photosynthesis by bacteria, which hugely increased the productivity and diversity of ecosystems. This also caused the oxygenation of the atmosphere, together, these were a prerequisite for the evolution of the most complex eukaryotic cells, from which all multicellular organisms are built
15.
Ancient Greek
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Ancient Greek includes the forms of Greek used in ancient Greece and the ancient world from around the 9th century BC to the 6th century AD. It is often divided into the Archaic period, Classical period. It is antedated in the second millennium BC by Mycenaean Greek, the language of the Hellenistic phase is known as Koine. Koine is regarded as a historical stage of its own, although in its earliest form it closely resembled Attic Greek. Prior to the Koine period, Greek of the classic and earlier periods included several regional dialects, Ancient Greek was the language of Homer and of fifth-century Athenian historians, playwrights, and philosophers. It has contributed many words to English vocabulary and has been a subject of study in educational institutions of the Western world since the Renaissance. This article primarily contains information about the Epic and Classical phases of the language, Ancient Greek was a pluricentric language, divided into many dialects. The main dialect groups are Attic and Ionic, Aeolic, Arcadocypriot, some dialects are found in standardized literary forms used in literature, while others are attested only in inscriptions. There are also several historical forms, homeric Greek is a literary form of Archaic Greek used in the epic poems, the Iliad and Odyssey, and in later poems by other authors. Homeric Greek had significant differences in grammar and pronunciation from Classical Attic, the origins, early form and development of the Hellenic language family are not well understood because of a lack of contemporaneous evidence. Several theories exist about what Hellenic dialect groups may have existed between the divergence of early Greek-like speech from the common Proto-Indo-European language and the Classical period and they have the same general outline, but differ in some of the detail. The invasion would not be Dorian unless the invaders had some relationship to the historical Dorians. The invasion is known to have displaced population to the later Attic-Ionic regions, the Greeks of this period believed there were three major divisions of all Greek people—Dorians, Aeolians, and Ionians, each with their own defining and distinctive dialects. Often non-west is called East Greek, Arcadocypriot apparently descended more closely from the Mycenaean Greek of the Bronze Age. Boeotian had come under a strong Northwest Greek influence, and can in some respects be considered a transitional dialect, thessalian likewise had come under Northwest Greek influence, though to a lesser degree. Most of the dialect sub-groups listed above had further subdivisions, generally equivalent to a city-state and its surrounding territory, Doric notably had several intermediate divisions as well, into Island Doric, Southern Peloponnesus Doric, and Northern Peloponnesus Doric. The Lesbian dialect was Aeolic Greek and this dialect slowly replaced most of the older dialects, although Doric dialect has survived in the Tsakonian language, which is spoken in the region of modern Sparta. Doric has also passed down its aorist terminations into most verbs of Demotic Greek, by about the 6th century AD, the Koine had slowly metamorphosized into Medieval Greek
16.
Prehistory
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Prehistory means literally before history, from the Latin word for before, præ, and Greek ιστορία. Neighbouring civilisations were the first to follow, most other civilisations reached the end of prehistory during the Iron Age. The period when a culture is written about by others, but has not developed its own writing is known as the protohistory of the culture. By definition, there are no records from human prehistory. Clear techniques for dating were not well-developed until the 19th century and this article is concerned with human prehistory as defined here above. There are separate articles for the history of the Earth. However, for the race as a whole, prehistory ends when recorded history begins with the accounts of the ancient world around the 4th millennium BC. For example, in Egypt it is accepted that prehistory ended around 3200 BC, whereas in New Guinea the end of the prehistoric era is set much more recently. The three-age system is the periodization of prehistory into three consecutive time periods, named for their respective predominant tool-making technologies, Stone Age Bronze Age Iron Age. The notion of prehistory began to surface during the Enlightenment in the work of antiquarians who used the word primitive to describe societies that existed before written records, the first use of the word prehistory in English, however, occurred in the Foreign Quarterly Review in 1836. The main source for prehistory is archaeology, but some scholars are beginning to more use of evidence from the natural and social sciences. This view has been articulated by advocates of deep history, human population geneticists and historical linguists are also providing valuable insight for these questions. Human prehistory differs from history not only in terms of its chronology, restricted to material processes, remains and artifacts rather than written records, prehistory is anonymous. Because of this, reference terms that use, such as Neanderthal or Iron Age are modern labels with definitions sometimes subject to debate. Palaeolithic means Old Stone Age, and begins with the first use of stone tools, the Paleolithic is the earliest period of the Stone Age. The early part of the Palaeolithic is called the Lower Palaeolithic, evidence of control of fire by early humans during the Lower Palaeolithic Era is uncertain and has at best limited scholarly support. The most widely accepted claim is that H. erectus or H. ergaster made fires between 790,000 and 690,000 BP in a site at Bnot Yaakov Bridge, Israel. The use of fire enabled early humans to cook food, provide warmth, Early Homo sapiens originated some 200,000 years ago, ushering in the Middle Palaeolithic
17.
Organism
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In biology, an organism is any contiguous living system, such as an animal, plant, fungus, protist, archaeon, or bacterium. All known types of organisms are capable of some degree of response to stimuli, reproduction, growth and development and homeostasis. An organism consists of one or more cells, when it has one cell it is known as an organism. Most unicellular organisms are of microscopic scale and are thus described as microorganisms. Humans are multicellular organisms composed of trillions of cells grouped into specialized tissues. An organism may be either a prokaryote or a eukaryote, prokaryotes are represented by two separate domains—bacteria and archaea. Eukaryotic organisms are characterized by the presence of a cell nucleus. Fungi, animals and plants are examples of kingdoms of organisms within the eukaryotes, estimates on the number of Earths current species range from 10 million to 14 million, of which only about 1.2 million have been documented. More than 99% of all species, amounting to five billion species. In 2016, a set of 355 genes from the last universal ancestor of all living organisms living was identified. The term organism first appeared in the English language in 1703 and it is directly related to the term organization. There is a tradition of defining organisms as self-organizing beings. An organism may be defined as an assembly of molecules functioning as a more or less stable whole that exhibits the properties of life. Dictionary definitions can be broad, using such as any living structure, such as a plant, animal, fungus or bacterium, capable of growth. Many definitions exclude viruses and possible man-made non-organic life forms, as viruses are dependent on the machinery of a host cell for reproduction. A superorganism is an organism consisting of individuals working together as a single functional or social unit. There has been controversy about the best way to define the organism, several contributions are responses to the suggestion that the category of organism may well not be adequate in biology. Viruses are not typically considered to be organisms because they are incapable of autonomous reproduction and this controversy is problematic because some cellular organisms are also incapable of independent survival and live as obligatory intracellular parasites
18.
Earth
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Earth, otherwise known as the World, or the Globe, is the third planet from the Sun and the only object in the Universe known to harbor life. It is the densest planet in the Solar System and the largest of the four terrestrial planets, according to radiometric dating and other sources of evidence, Earth formed about 4.54 billion years ago. Earths gravity interacts with objects in space, especially the Sun. During one orbit around the Sun, Earth rotates about its axis over 365 times, thus, Earths axis of rotation is tilted, producing seasonal variations on the planets surface. The gravitational interaction between the Earth and Moon causes ocean tides, stabilizes the Earths orientation on its axis, Earths lithosphere is divided into several rigid tectonic plates that migrate across the surface over periods of many millions of years. About 71% of Earths surface is covered with water, mostly by its oceans, the remaining 29% is land consisting of continents and islands that together have many lakes, rivers and other sources of water that contribute to the hydrosphere. The majority of Earths polar regions are covered in ice, including the Antarctic ice sheet, Earths interior remains active with a solid iron inner core, a liquid outer core that generates the Earths magnetic field, and a convecting mantle that drives plate tectonics. Within the first billion years of Earths history, life appeared in the oceans and began to affect the Earths atmosphere and surface, some geological evidence indicates that life may have arisen as much as 4.1 billion years ago. Since then, the combination of Earths distance from the Sun, physical properties, in the history of the Earth, biodiversity has gone through long periods of expansion, occasionally punctuated by mass extinction events. Over 99% of all species that lived on Earth are extinct. Estimates of the number of species on Earth today vary widely, over 7.4 billion humans live on Earth and depend on its biosphere and minerals for their survival. Humans have developed diverse societies and cultures, politically, the world has about 200 sovereign states, the modern English word Earth developed from a wide variety of Middle English forms, which derived from an Old English noun most often spelled eorðe. It has cognates in every Germanic language, and their proto-Germanic root has been reconstructed as *erþō, originally, earth was written in lowercase, and from early Middle English, its definite sense as the globe was expressed as the earth. By early Modern English, many nouns were capitalized, and the became the Earth. More recently, the name is simply given as Earth. House styles now vary, Oxford spelling recognizes the lowercase form as the most common, another convention capitalizes Earth when appearing as a name but writes it in lowercase when preceded by the. It almost always appears in lowercase in colloquial expressions such as what on earth are you doing, the oldest material found in the Solar System is dated to 4. 5672±0.0006 billion years ago. By 4. 54±0.04 Gya the primordial Earth had formed, the formation and evolution of Solar System bodies occurred along with the Sun
19.
Fossil
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Fossils are the preserved remains or traces of animals, plants, and other organisms from the remote past. The totality of fossils, both discovered and undiscovered, and their placement in fossiliferous rock formations and sedimentary layers is known as the fossil record. The study of fossils across geological time, how they were formed, such a preserved specimen is called a fossil if it is older than some minimum age, most often the arbitrary date of 10,000 years. The observation that fossils were associated with certain rock strata led early geologists to recognize a geological timescale in the 19th century. The development of dating techniques in the early 20th century allowed geologists to determine the numerical or absolute age of the various strata. Like extant organisms, fossils vary in size from microscopic, even single bacterial cells one micrometer in diameter, to gigantic, such as dinosaurs, Fossils may also consist of the marks left behind by the organism while it was alive, such as animal tracks or feces. These types of fossil are called trace fossils, as opposed to body fossils, finally, past life leaves some markers that cannot be seen but can be detected in the form of biochemical signals, these are known as chemofossils or biosignatures. The process of fossilization varies according to type and external conditions. Permineralization is a process of fossilization that occurs when an organism is buried, the empty spaces within an organism become filled with mineral-rich groundwater. Minerals precipitate from the groundwater, occupying the empty spaces and this process can occur in very small spaces, such as within the cell wall of a plant cell. Small scale permineralization can produce very detailed fossils, for permineralization to occur, the organism must become covered by sediment soon after death or soon after the initial decay process. The degree to which the remains are decayed when covered determines the later details of the fossil, some fossils consist only of skeletal remains or teeth, other fossils contain traces of skin, feathers or even soft tissues. This is a form of diagenesis, in some cases the original remains of the organism completely dissolve or are otherwise destroyed. The remaining organism-shaped hole in the rock is called an external mold, if this hole is later filled with other minerals, it is a cast. An endocast or internal mold is formed when sediments or minerals fill the cavity of an organism. This is a form of cast and mold formation. If the chemistry is right, the organism can act as a nucleus for the precipitation of minerals such as siderite, if this happens rapidly before significant decay to the organic tissue, very fine three-dimensional morphological detail can be preserved. Nodules from the Carboniferous Mazon Creek fossil beds of Illinois, USA, are among the best documented examples of such mineralization, replacement occurs when the shell, bone or other tissue is replaced with another mineral
20.
Animal track
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An Animal track is the imprint left behind in soil, snow, mud, or other ground surfaces that an animal walks across. Animal tracks are used by hunters in tracking their prey and by naturalists to identify animals living in a given area. Books are commonly used to identify animal tracks, which may look different based on the weight of the particular animal, tracks can be fossilized over millions of years. It is for this reason we are able to see fossilized dinosaur tracks in some types of rock formations and these types of fossils are called trace fossils since they are a trace of an animal left behind rather than the animal itself. In paleontology, tracks often preserve as sandstone infill, forming a mold of the track
21.
Burrow
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A burrow is a hole or tunnel excavated into the ground by an animal to create a space suitable for habitation, temporary refuge, or as a byproduct of locomotion. Burrows provide a form of shelter against predation and exposure to the elements and can be found in nearly every biome, a wide variety of vertebrates construct or use burrows in many different types of substrate and can range widely in complexity. Mammals are perhaps most well known for burrowing, especially Insectivora like the voracious mole, the rabbit, a member of the family Lagomorpha, is a well-known burrower. There are estimates that a single burrow can occupy a full cubic metre. Great gerbils live in groups in extensive burrows, which can be seen on satellite images. Even the unoccupied burrows can remain visible in the landscape for years, the burrows are distributed regularly, although the occupied burrows appear to be clustered in space. Even Carnivora like the meerkat, and marsupials, are burrowers, the largest burrowing animal is probably the polar bear when it makes its maternity den in snow or earth. Burrows by birds are made in soft soils, some penguins. The Magellanic penguin is an example, constructing burrows along coastal Patagonian regions of Chile, other burrowing birds are puffins, kingfishers, and bee-eaters. Kangaroo mice construct burrows in fine sand, examples of vertebrate burrowing animals include a number of mammals, amphibians, fish, reptiles, and birds. Scabies mites construct their burrows in the skin of the animal or human. Some sea urchins and clams can burrow into rock, the burrows produced by invertebrate animals can be filled actively or passively. Dwelling burrows which remain open during occupation by an organism are filled passively, actively filled burrows, on the other hand, are filled with material by the burrowing organism itself. The establishment of an invertebrate burrow often involves the soaking of surrounding sediment in mucus in order to prevent collapse, examples of burrowing invertebrates are insects, spiders, sea urchins, crustaceans, clams and worms. Burrows are also preserved in the fossil record as a type of trace fossil. Holt Maternity den Sett- a network of badger tunnels
22.
Feces
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Feces or faeces are the solid or semisolid metabolic waste from an animals digestive tract, discharged through the anus or cloaca during a process called defecation. Urine and feces together are called excreta, collected feces has various uses, namely as fertilizer or soil conditioner in agriculture, as a fuel source, or for medicinal purposes. After an animal has digested eaten material, the remains of material are discharged from its body as waste. Although it is lower in energy than the food from which it is derived, feces may retain a large amount of energy and this means that of all food eaten, a significant amount of energy remains for the decomposers of ecosystems. Many organisms feed on feces, from bacteria to fungi to insects such as dung beetles, some may specialize in feces, while others may eat other foods as well. Feces serve not only as a food, but also as a supplement to the usual diet of some animals. Feces and urine, which reflect light, are important to raptors such as kestrels. Seeds also may be found in feces, animals who eat fruit are known as frugivores. An advantage for a plant in having fruit is that animals will eat the fruit and this mode of seed dispersal is highly successful, as seeds dispersed around the base of a plant are unlikely to succeed and often are subject to heavy predation. Provided the seed can withstand the pathway through the system, it is not only likely to be far away from the parent plant. This cycling of matter is known as the biogeochemical cycle, the distinctive odor of feces is due to bacterial action. Gut flora produce compounds such as indole, skatole, and thiols and these are the same compounds that are responsible for the odor of flatulence. Consumption of foods prepared with spices may result in the spices being undigested, the perceived bad odor of feces has been hypothesized to be a deterrent for humans, as consuming or touching it may result in sickness or infection. Human perception of the odor may be contrasted by an animals perception of it, for example. In humans and depending on the individual and the circumstances, defecation may occur daily, extensive hardening of the feces may cause prolonged interruption in the routine and is called constipation. Human fecal matter varies significantly in appearance, depending on diet, normally it is semisolid, with a mucus coating. The brown coloration comes from a combination of bile and bilirubin, in newborn babies, initially fecal matter is yellow-green after the meconium. This coloration comes from the presence of bile alone, throughout the life of an ordinary human, one may experience many types of feces
23.
Coprolite
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Coprolites are classified as trace fossils as opposed to body fossils, as they give evidence for the animals behaviour rather than morphology. The name is derived from the Greek words κόπρος and λίθος and they were first described by William Buckland in 1829. Prior to this they were known as fir cones and bezoar stones. They serve a purpose in paleontology because they provide direct evidence of the predation. Coprolites may range in size from a few millimetres to over 60 centimetres, coprolites, distinct from paleofaeces, are fossilized animal dung. Like other fossils, coprolites have had much of their original composition replaced by mineral deposits such as silicates, in the same context, there are the urolites, erosions caused by evacuation of liquid wastes and nonliquid urinary secretions. The fossil hunter Mary Anning had noticed that bezoar stones were found in the abdominal region of ichthyosaur skeletons found in the Lias formation at Lyme Regis. She also noted that if such stones were broken open they often contained fossilized fish bones and scales as well as sometimes bones from smaller ichthyosaurs. It was these observations by Anning that led the geologist William Buckland to propose in 1829 that the stones were fossilized feces and named them coprolites. In one example these fossils can be analyzed for certain minerals that are known to exist in trace amounts in certain species of plant that can still be detected millions of years later. In another example, the existence of proteins in coprolites can be used to pinpoint the existence of cannibalistic behavior in an ancient culture. The recognition of coprolites is aided by their structural patterns, such as spiral or annular markings, by their content, such as undigested food fragments, the smallest coprolites are often difficult to distinguish from inorganic pellets or from eggs. Most coprolites are composed chiefly of calcium phosphate, along with quantities of organic matter. By analyzing coprolites, it is possible to infer the diet of the animal which produced them, coprolites have been recorded in deposits ranging in age from the Cambrian period to recent times and are found worldwide. Some of them are useful as index fossils, such as Favreina from the Jurassic period of Haute-Savoie in France, some marine deposits contain a high proportion of fecal remains. However, animal excrement is easily fragmented and destroyed, so usually has little chance of becoming fossilized, realising their potential as a source of available phosphate once they had been treated with sulphuric acid, he patented an extraction process and set about finding new sources. Very soon, coprolites were being mined on a scale for use as fertiliser due to their high phosphate content. The major area of extraction occurred over the east of England, centred on Cambridgeshire, there is a Coprolite Street near Ipswich docks where the Fisons works once stood
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Palynology
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Palynology is the study of dust or particles that are strewn. A classic palynologist analyses particulate samples collected from the air, from water, the condition and identification of those particles, organic and inorganic, give the palynologist clues to the life, environment, and energetic conditions that produced them. Palynology does not include diatoms, foraminiferans or other organisms with siliceous or calcareous exoskeletons, palynology is an interdisciplinary science and is a branch of earth science and biological science, particularly plant science. Stratigraphical palynology is a branch of micropalaeontology and paleobotany, which studies fossil palynomorphs from the Precambrian to the Holocene, early investigators include Christian Gottfried Ehrenberg, Gideon Mantell and Henry Hopley White. Quantitative analysis of pollen began with Lennart von Posts published work, although he published in the Swedish language, his methodology gained a wide audience through his lectures. In particular, his Kristiania lecture of 1916 was important in gaining a wider audience, because the early investigations published in the Nordic languages or Scandinavian languages the field of pollen analysis was confined to those countries. The isolation ended with the German publication of Gunnar Erdtmans 1921 thesis, the methodology of pollen analysis became widespread throughout Europe and North America and revolutionized Quaternary vegetation and climate change research. Earlier pollen researchers were Früh, who enumerated many common tree types. There is a study of samples taken from sediments of Swedish lakes by Trybom, Pinus. Georg F. L. Sarauw studied fossil pollen of middle Pleistocene age from the harbour of Copenhagen, a. Weber appear to be among the first to undertake percentage frequency calculations. The term palynology was introduced by Hyde and Williams in 1944, following correspondence with the Swedish geologist Antevs, Hyde and Williams chose palynology on the basis of the Greek words paluno meaning to sprinkle and pale meaning dust. Pollen analysis advanced rapidly in this due to advances in optics. Much of the science was revised by Johannes Iversen and Knut Fægri in their textbook on the subject, palynomorphs are broadly defined as organic-walled microfossils between 5 and 500 micrometres in size. They are extracted from sedimentary rocks and sediment cores both physically, by treatment and wet sieving, and chemically, by chemical digestion to remove the non-organic fraction. Palynomorphs may be composed of material such as chitin, pseudochitin and sporopollenin. Palynomorphs that have a taxonomy description are sometimes referred to as palynotaxa, palynomorphs form a geological record of importance in determining the type of prehistoric life that existed at the time the sedimentary formation was laid down. As a result, these microfossils give important clues to the climatic conditions of the time. Their paleontological utility derives from an abundance numbering in millions of cells per gram in organic marine deposits, palynomorphs, however, generally have been destroyed in metamorphic or recrystallized rocks
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Residue (chemistry)
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In chemistry residue is whatever remains or acts as a contaminant after a given class of events. Residue may be the material remaining after a process of preparation, separation, or purification, such as distillation, evaporation and it may also denote the undesired by-products of a chemical reaction. Toxic chemical residues, wastes or contamination from other processes, are a concern in food safety, for example, the U. S. Food and Drug Administration and the Canadian Food Inspection Agency have guidelines for detecting chemical residues that are possibly dangerous to consume. Residue may refer to an atom or a group of atoms that forms part of a molecule, in biochemistry and molecular biology, a residue refers to a specific monomer within the polymeric chain of a polysaccharide, protein or nucleic acid. One might say, This protein consists of 118 amino acid residues or The histidine residue is considered to be basic because it contains an imidazole ring. Note that a residue is different from a moiety, which, a residue might be one amino acid in a polypeptide or one monosaccharide in a starch molecule
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Science
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Science is a systematic enterprise that builds and organizes knowledge in the form of testable explanations and predictions about the universe. The formal sciences are often excluded as they do not depend on empirical observations, disciplines which use science, like engineering and medicine, may also be considered to be applied sciences. However, during the Islamic Golden Age foundations for the method were laid by Ibn al-Haytham in his Book of Optics. In the 17th and 18th centuries, scientists increasingly sought to formulate knowledge in terms of physical laws, over the course of the 19th century, the word science became increasingly associated with the scientific method itself as a disciplined way to study the natural world. It was during this time that scientific disciplines such as biology, chemistry, Science in a broad sense existed before the modern era and in many historical civilizations. Modern science is distinct in its approach and successful in its results, Science in its original sense was a word for a type of knowledge rather than a specialized word for the pursuit of such knowledge. In particular, it was the type of knowledge which people can communicate to each other, for example, knowledge about the working of natural things was gathered long before recorded history and led to the development of complex abstract thought. This is shown by the construction of calendars, techniques for making poisonous plants edible. For this reason, it is claimed these men were the first philosophers in the strict sense and they were mainly speculators or theorists, particularly interested in astronomy. In contrast, trying to use knowledge of nature to imitate nature was seen by scientists as a more appropriate interest for lower class artisans. A clear-cut distinction between formal and empirical science was made by the pre-Socratic philosopher Parmenides, although his work Peri Physeos is a poem, it may be viewed as an epistemological essay on method in natural science. Parmenides ἐὸν may refer to a system or calculus which can describe nature more precisely than natural languages. Physis may be identical to ἐὸν and he criticized the older type of study of physics as too purely speculative and lacking in self-criticism. He was particularly concerned that some of the early physicists treated nature as if it could be assumed that it had no intelligent order, explaining things merely in terms of motion and matter. The study of things had been the realm of mythology and tradition, however. Aristotle later created a less controversial systematic programme of Socratic philosophy which was teleological and he rejected many of the conclusions of earlier scientists. For example, in his physics, the sun goes around the earth, each thing has a formal cause and final cause and a role in the rational cosmic order. Motion and change is described as the actualization of potentials already in things, while the Socratics insisted that philosophy should be used to consider the practical question of the best way to live for a human being, they did not argue for any other types of applied science
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Acer chaneyi
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Acer chaneyi is an extinct maple species in the family Sapindaceae described from a number of fossil leaves and samaras. The species is known from Oligocene to Miocene sediments exposed in Alaska, Idaho, Nevada and it is one of several extinct species belonging to the living section Rubra. Acer chaneyi is known from leaf and samara specimens which were recovered from a number of different formations in Western North America, the oldest occurrence is from the possibly Early Oligocene Gumboot Mountain flora of Southern Washington state followed by the Late Oligocene Kukak Bay flora in Alaska. In the early Miocene A. chaneyi is known from the Alaskan Kanalku Bay flora, Oregon Collawash, further Middle Miocene occurrences in Nevada are the Thurston Ranch flora, Deadman Creek flora, Pyramid flora, Purple Mountain flora, Eastgate flora, and Middlegate floras. Late Miocene occurrences in Oregon are the Weyerhauser flora, Hidden Lake flora, Austin flora, Tipton flora, Stinking Water flora, Late Miocene occurrences in Idaho are the Cartwright Ranch flora, Horseshoe Bend flora, Alkali Creek flora and Trapper Creek flora. Based on the identified fossil occurrences A. chaneyi has a range of approximately 20 million years. The species Acer ferrignoi is a descendant species that survived in the Oregon Cascades until 7 million years ago. The nomenclatural history for A. chaneyi is fairly complex, a number of different names have applied to the fossils of different locations. The species was reviewed by paleobotanists Jack A. Wolfe of the United States Geological Survey, Denver office, in a 1987 paper in the Journal of the Faculty of Science, Hokkaido University. The oldest name suggested for the fossils was Acer bendirei which was coined by Leo Lesquereux in 1883. The fossils used for his description of the species however were a mix of different plants. The next oldest name, Acer gigas, is from 1902 and was coined by Frank Knowlton for a fossil samara from the John Day formation. The fossil is missing the base of the fruit and the attachment scar, similarly they rejected A. grahamensis, for which the type specimen is also missing the attachment scar. They settled on A. chaneyi as the oldest valid species description, leaves of Acer chaneyi are simple in structure, with perfectly actinodromus vein structure and are widely ovate to orbiculate in shape. The leaves are deeply dissected, occasionally into three lobes but more typically into five, the upper lateral lobes are two thirds as long as the median lobe, and all the lateral lobes are elliptic in outline. The leaves have five and eleven secondary veins which diverge from the basal region of the primary vein at angles ranging from 25° to 50°. The secondary veins arch towards the margin in broadly convex to concave arches. The margins show large tooth-like serrations that are associated with smaller serrations on the basal side of the larger serrations
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Oligocene
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The Oligocene is a geologic epoch of the Paleogene Period and extends from about 33.9 million to 23 million years before the present. As with other geologic periods, the rock beds that define the epoch are well identified but the exact dates of the start. The name Oligocene comes from the Ancient Greek ὀλίγος and καινός, the Oligocene is preceded by the Eocene Epoch and is followed by the Miocene Epoch. The Oligocene is the third and final epoch of the Paleogene Period, the Oligocene is often considered an important time of transition, a link between the archaic world of the tropical Eocene and the more modern ecosystems of the Miocene. Major changes during the Oligocene included an expansion of grasslands. By contrast, the Oligocene–Miocene boundary is not set at an easily identified worldwide event, Oligocene faunal stages from youngest to oldest are, The Paleogene Period general temperature decline is interrupted by an Oligocene 7-million-year stepwise climate change. A deeper 8.2 °C,400, 000-year temperature depression leads the 2 °C, the stepwise climate change began 32.5 Ma and lasted through to 25.5 Ma, as depicted in the PaleoTemps chart. The Oligocene climate change was a increase in ice volume. The 7-million-year depression abruptly terminated within 1–2 million years of the La Garita Caldera eruption at 28–26 Ma, a deep 400, 000-year glaciated Oligocene Miocene boundary event is recorded at McMurdo Sound and King George Island. During this epoch, the continued to drift toward their present positions. Antarctica became more isolated and finally developed an ice cap, a brief marine incursion marks the early Oligocene in Europe. Marine fossils from the Oligocene are rare in North America, there appears to have been a land bridge in the early Oligocene between North America and Europe, since the faunas of the two regions are very similar. Sometime during the Oligocene, South America was finally detached from Antarctica and it also allowed the Antarctic Circumpolar Current to flow, rapidly cooling the Antarctic continent. Angiosperms continued their expansion throughout the world as tropical and sub-tropical forests were replaced by deciduous forests. Open plains and deserts became more common and grasses expanded from their habitat in the Eocene moving out into open tracts. However, even at the end of the period, grass was not quite enough for modern savannas. In North America, subtropical species dominated with cashews and lychee trees present, and temperate trees such as roses, beeches, the legumes spread, while sedges, bulrushes, and ferns continued their ascent. Even more open landscapes allowed animals to grow to larger sizes than they had earlier in the Paleocene epoch 30 million years earlier, marine faunas became fairly modern, as did terrestrial vertebrate fauna on the northern continents
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Miocene
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The Miocene is the first geological epoch of the Neogene Period and extends from about 23.03 to 5.333 million years ago. The Miocene was named by Sir Charles Lyell and its name comes from the Greek words μείων and καινός and means less recent because it has 18% fewer modern sea invertebrates than the Pliocene. The Miocene follows the Oligocene Epoch and is followed by the Pliocene Epoch, the earth went from the Oligocene through the Miocene and into the Pliocene, with the climate slowly cooling towards a series of ice ages. The Miocene boundaries are not marked by a single distinct global event, the apes arose and diversified during the Miocene, becoming widespread in the Old World. By the end of this epoch, the ancestors of humans had split away from the ancestors of the chimpanzees to follow their own evolutionary path, as in the Oligocene before it, grasslands continued to expand and forests to dwindle in extent. In the Miocene seas, kelp forests made their first appearance, the plants and animals of the Miocene were fairly modern. The Miocene faunal stages from youngest to oldest are typically named according to the International Commission on Stratigraphy, Two subdivisions each form the lower, middle, continents continued to drift toward their present positions. Mountain building took place in western North America, Europe, both continental and marine Miocene deposits are common worldwide with marine outcrops common near modern shorelines. Well studied continental exposures occur in the North American Great Plains, India continued to collide with Asia, creating dramatic new mountain ranges. The Tethys Seaway continued to shrink and then disappeared as Africa collided with Eurasia in the Turkish–Arabian region between 19 and 12 Ma. The subsequent uplift of mountains in the western Mediterranean region and a fall in sea levels combined to cause a temporary drying up of the Mediterranean Sea near the end of the Miocene. The global trend was towards increasing aridity caused primarily by global cooling reducing the ability of the atmosphere to absorb moisture, climates remained moderately warm, although the slow global cooling that eventually led to the Pleistocene glaciations continued. Although a long-term cooling trend was well underway, there is evidence of a period during the Miocene when the global climate rivalled that of the Oligocene. The Miocene warming began 21 million years ago and continued until 14 million years ago, by 8 million years ago, temperatures dropped sharply once again, and the Antarctic ice sheet was already approaching its present-day size and thickness. Greenland may have begun to have large glaciers as early as 7 to 8 million years ago, life during the Miocene Epoch was mostly supported by the two newly formed biomes, kelp forests and grasslands. This allows for more grazers, such as horses, rhinoceroses, ninety five percent of modern plants existed by the end of this epoch. The higher organic content and water retention of the deeper and richer grassland soils, with long term burial of carbon in sediments, produced a carbon and this, combined with higher surface albedo and lower evapotranspiration of grassland, contributed to a cooler, drier climate. The expansion of grasslands and radiations among terrestrial herbivores correlates to fluctuations in CO2
England
Australia