1.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
2.
Monaco
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Monaco, officially the Principality of Monaco, is a sovereign city-state and microstate, located on the French Riviera in Western Europe. France borders the country on three sides while the other side borders the Mediterranean Sea, Monaco has an area of 2.02 km2 and a population of about 38,400 according to the last census of 2015. With 19,009 inhabitants per km², it is the second smallest, Monaco has a land border of 5.47 km, a coastline of 3.83 km, and a width that varies between 1,700 and 349 m. The highest point in the country is a pathway named Chemin des Révoires on the slopes of Mont Agel, in the Les Révoires Ward. Monacos most populous Quartier is Monte Carlo and the most populous Ward is Larvotto/Bas Moulins, through land reclamation, Monacos land mass has expanded by twenty percent, in 2005, it had an area of only 1.974 km2. Monaco is known as a playground for the rich and famous, in 2014, it was noted about 30% of the population was made up of millionaires, more than in Zürich or Geneva. Monaco is a principality governed under a form of constitutional monarchy, although Prince Albert II is a constitutional monarch, he wields immense political power. The House of Grimaldi have ruled Monaco, with brief interruptions, the official language is French, but Monégasque, Italian, and English are widely spoken and understood. The states sovereignty was recognized by the Franco-Monegasque Treaty of 1861. Despite Monacos independence and separate foreign policy, its defense is the responsibility of France, however, Monaco does maintain two small military units. Economic development was spurred in the late 19th century with the opening of the countrys first casino, Monte Carlo, since then, Monacos mild climate, scenery, and gambling facilities have contributed to the principalitys status as a tourist destination and recreation center for the rich. In more recent years, Monaco has become a major banking center and has sought to diversify its economy into services and small, high-value-added, the state has no income tax, low business taxes, and is well known for being a tax haven. It is also the host of the street circuit motor race Monaco Grand Prix. Monaco is not formally a part of the European Union, but it participates in certain EU policies, including customs, through its relationship with France, Monaco uses the euro as its sole currency. Monaco joined the Council of Europe in 2004 and it is a member of the Organisation Internationale de la Francophonie. Monacos name comes from the nearby 6th-century BC Phocaean Greek colony, according to an ancient myth, Hercules passed through the Monaco area and turned away the previous gods. As a result, a temple was constructed there, the temple of Hercules Monoikos, because the only temple of this area was the House of Hercules, the city was called Monoikos. It ended up in the hands of the Holy Roman Empire, an ousted branch of a Genoese family, the Grimaldi, contested it for a hundred years before actually gaining control
3.
Circuit de Monaco
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Circuit de Monaco is a street circuit laid out on the city streets of Monte Carlo and La Condamine around the harbour of the principality of Monaco. It is commonly referred to as Monte Carlo because it is largely inside the Monte Carlo neighbourhood of Monaco. The circuit is used on two weekends in the month of May of each year to host the Formula One Monaco Grand Prix and Formula E Monaco ePrix or Monaco Historic Grand Prix alternating yearly. Formula Ones respective feeder series over the years – Formula Two, Formula 3000, the inaugural race was held in 1929 and was won by William Grover-Williams in a Bugatti. To date, only three drivers have won a race at the Circuit. Louis Chiron did it at the non-championship 1931 Monaco Grand Prix,82 years later, the third driver to do so was Stéphane Richelmi at the sprint race of the 2014 Monaco GP2 Series round. The building of the circuit takes six weeks, and the dismantling after the race three weeks. The race circuit has many elevation shifts, tight corners and is narrow and these features make it perhaps the most demanding track in Formula One racing. Although the course has changed many times during its history, it is considered the ultimate test of driving skills in Formula One. It contains both the slowest corner in Formula One and one of the quickest, due to the tight and twisty nature of the circuit, it favours the skill of the drivers over the power of the cars. However, there is very little overtaking as the course is so narrow, nelson Piquet likened racing round the course to riding a bicycle around your living room. Prior to 1987, the number of starting the race was limited to 20. The famous tunnel section is said to be difficult for drivers to cope due to the quick switch from light to dark, then back to light again. As a result, race outcomes tend to be decided by grid positions as well as pit strategies, several attempts have been made to improve cramped conditions in the pit garages. The circuit is generally recognised to be safe than other circuits used for Formula One. Driver and former winner Michael Schumacher stated before the 2012 Grand Prix that the risk is justifiable once a year. If it were not already an existing Grand Prix, it would not be permitted to be added to the Formula One schedule, in January 2009, the circuit was voted top of the Seven Sporting Wonders of the World in a poll of 3,500 British sports fans. The lap starts with a sprint up Boulevard Albert Ier
4.
Monte Carlo
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Monte Carlo /ˈmɒnti ˈkɑːrloʊ/ officially refers to an administrative area of the Principality of Monaco, specifically the ward of Monte Carlo/Spélugues, where the Monte Carlo Casino is located. The permanent population of the ward of Monte Carlo is about 3,500, from west to east they are, Fontvieille, Monaco-Ville, La Condamine, and Monte Carlo. Monte Carlo is situated on a prominent escarpment at the base of the Maritime Alps along the French Riviera and it is also the location of the Hôtel de Paris, the Café de Paris, and the Salle Garnier. The eastern part of the quarter includes the community of Larvotto with Monacos only public beach, as well as its new center. At the quarters eastern border, one crosses into the French town of Beausoleil, at the time, a number of small towns in Europe were growing prosperous from the establishment of casinos, notably in German towns such as Baden-Baden and Homburg. The success of the casino grew slowly, largely due to the areas inaccessibility from much of Europe, the installation of the railway in 1868, however, brought with it an influx of people into Monte Carlo and saw it grow in wealth. Saint-Charles Church on Monte Carlos Avenue Sainte-Charles was completed in 1883 and it was restored in its centenary year. The municipalities were merged into one in 1917, after accusations that the government was acting according to the divide and conquer. Today, Monaco is divided into 10 wards, with an eleventh ward planned to land reclaimed from the sea. The quarter of Monte Carlo was served by tramways from 1900 to 1953, in 2003 a new cruise ship pier was completed in the harbour at Monte Carlo. Monte Carlo is host to most of the Circuit de Monaco and it also hosts world championship boxing bouts, the European Poker Tour Grand Final and the World Backgammon Championship as well as the Monaco International Auto Show, fashion shows and other events. Although the Monte Carlo Masters tennis tournament is billed as taking place in the community, Monte Carlo has been visited by royalty as well as the general public and movie stars for decades. The rally, however, takes place outside the Monte Carlo quarter and is run mostly on French roads, the Opéra de Monte-Carlo or Salle Garnier was built to designs of the architect Charles Garnier, who also designed the Paris opera house now known as the Palais Garnier. Although much smaller, the Salle Garnier is very similar in style with decorations in red and gold and it was inaugurated on 25 January 1879 with a performance by Sarah Bernhardt dressed as a nymph. The first opera performed there was Robert Planquettes Le Chevalier Gaston on 8 February 1879, gunsbourg had remained for sixty years. This production formed part of an association between the company and Massenet and his operas, two of which were presented there posthumously. Other famous twentieth-century singers to appear at Monte Carlo included Titta Ruffo, Geraldine Farrar, Mary Garden, Tito Schipa, Beniamino Gigli, Claudia Muzio, Georges Thill, and Lily Pons. Apart from Massenet, composers whose works had their first performances at Monte Carlo included, Saint-Saëns, Mascagni, indeed, since its inauguration, the theatre has hosted 45 world premiere productions of operas
5.
Pole position
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In motorsport the pole position is the position at the inside of the front row at the start of a racing event. This position is given to the vehicle and driver with the best qualifying time in the trials before the race. This number-one qualifying driver is referred to as the pole sitter, historically, the fastest qualifier was not necessarily the designated pole-sitter. Different sanctioning bodies in motor sport employ different qualifying formats in designating who starts from pole position, often, a starting grid is derived either by current rank in the championship, or based on finishing position of a previous race. In contrast to contemporary motorsport, where only a participant is designated pole-sitter, prior to World War II. The term has its origins in horse racing, in which the fastest qualifying horse would be placed on the part of the course. Originally in Grand Prix racing, grid positions, including pole, were determined by lottery among the drivers, prior to the inception of the Formula 1 World Championship, the first instance of grid positions being determined by qualifying times was at the 1933 Monaco Grand Prix. Since then, the FIA have introduced many different qualifying systems to F1, between 1996 and 2006, the FIA made 6 significant changes to the qualifying procedure, each with the intention of making the battle for pole more interesting to an F1 viewer at home. Traditionally, pole was always occupied by the fastest driver due to low-fuel qualifying, the race-fuel qualifying era between 2003 and 2009 briefly changed this. Despite the changing formats, drivers attempting pole were required between 2003 and 2009 to do qualifying laps with the fuel they would use to start the race the next day. An underfuelled slower car and driver would therefore be able to take pole ahead of a better, in this situation, pole was not always advantageous to have in the race as the under-fueled driver would have to pit for more fuel before their rivals. With the race refueling ban introduced, low-fuel qualifying returned and these decisions are no longer in play. Since the reintroduction of the rule in 2011, this applies to the quickest first session time. Since 2014, the FIA has awarded a trophy to the driver who wins the most pole positions in the season, indicates that the driver won the World Championship in the same season. IndyCar uses four formats for qualifying, one for most oval tracks, one for Iowa Speedway, one for the Indianapolis 500, and another for road and street circuits. Oval qualifying is almost like the Indianapolis 500, with two laps, instead of four, averaged together with one attempt, although with just one session. At Iowa, each car takes one qualifying lap, and the top six cars advance to the race for the pole position. The result of the race determines positions 1–10
6.
United Kingdom
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The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom or Britain, is a sovereign country in western Europe. Lying off the north-western coast of the European mainland, the United Kingdom includes the island of Great Britain, Northern Ireland is the only part of the United Kingdom that shares a land border with another sovereign state—the Republic of Ireland. The Irish Sea lies between Great Britain and Ireland, with an area of 242,500 square kilometres, the United Kingdom is the 78th-largest sovereign state in the world and the 11th-largest in Europe. It is also the 21st-most populous country, with an estimated 65.1 million inhabitants, together, this makes it the fourth-most densely populated country in the European Union. The United Kingdom is a monarchy with a parliamentary system of governance. The monarch is Queen Elizabeth II, who has reigned since 6 February 1952, other major urban areas in the United Kingdom include the regions of Birmingham, Leeds, Glasgow, Liverpool and Manchester. The United Kingdom consists of four countries—England, Scotland, Wales, the last three have devolved administrations, each with varying powers, based in their capitals, Edinburgh, Cardiff and Belfast, respectively. The relationships among the countries of the UK have changed over time, Wales was annexed by the Kingdom of England under the Laws in Wales Acts 1535 and 1542. A treaty between England and Scotland resulted in 1707 in a unified Kingdom of Great Britain, which merged in 1801 with the Kingdom of Ireland to form the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. Five-sixths of Ireland seceded from the UK in 1922, leaving the present formulation of the United Kingdom of Great Britain, there are fourteen British Overseas Territories. These are the remnants of the British Empire which, at its height in the 1920s, British influence can be observed in the language, culture and legal systems of many of its former colonies. The United Kingdom is a country and has the worlds fifth-largest economy by nominal GDP. The UK is considered to have an economy and is categorised as very high in the Human Development Index. It was the worlds first industrialised country and the worlds foremost power during the 19th, the UK remains a great power with considerable economic, cultural, military, scientific and political influence internationally. It is a nuclear weapons state and its military expenditure ranks fourth or fifth in the world. The UK has been a permanent member of the United Nations Security Council since its first session in 1946 and it has been a leading member state of the EU and its predecessor, the European Economic Community, since 1973. However, on 23 June 2016, a referendum on the UKs membership of the EU resulted in a decision to leave. The Acts of Union 1800 united the Kingdom of Great Britain, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland have devolved self-government
7.
William Grover-Williams
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William Charles Frederick Grover-Williams, also known as W Williams, was a Grand Prix motor racing driver and special agent who worked for the Special Operations Executive inside France. He organized and coordinated the Chestnut network and he was captured and killed by the Nazis. Grover-Williams was born in Montrouge, Hauts-de-Seine, France, on 16 January 1903 to Frederick, Frederick Grover was an English horse breeder who had settled in Montrouge. Frederick met a French girl, Hermance Dagan, and they were soon married and their first child was Elizabeth, born in 1897. William had two other siblings - Alice and Frederic, born to an English father and a French mother, Grover-Williams grew up fluent in both the French and English languages. When William was eleven, he was sent to live with relatives in Hertfordshire, after the war, Frederick Grover moved the family to Monte Carlo. It was there that William developed a fascination for automobiles, having been taught to drive a Rolls-Royce by his sisters boyfriend, Grover-Williams passed his driving test whilst in Monaco and was granted a licence. Mechanically inclined, and fascinated by motorized vehicles, at the age of 15, Grover-Williams acquired an Indian motorcycle and it became his pride and joy. He would later go on to compete in races in the early 1920s, although he kept it secret from his family by adopting the pseudonym. In 1919, the Irish portrait painter, William Orpen became the official artist of the Paris Peace Conference, Orpen bought a Rolls-Royce car and hired Grover-Williams, who had returned to Paris, as his chauffeur. At the time, Orpen had a mistress named Yvonne Aupicq, Aupicq and Grover-Williams became good friends and after the collapse of Aupicqs relationship with Orpen, the pair were married in 1929. By 1926, Grover-Williams had begun racing a Bugatti in races throughout France, using the alias W Williams, entering the Grand Prix de Provence at Miramas, in 1928, he won the French Grand Prix, repeating in 1929. In November 1929, Grover-Williams married Yvonne Aubicq, whom he had met when chauffeuring the two around Paris, in 1931 he won the Belgian Grand Prix at Spa-Francorchamps. He also won the Grand Prix de la Baule three consecutive years, then his career waned and he was out of racing by the latter part of the 1930s. Following the Nazi occupation of France in World War II, Grover-Williams fled to England where he joined the Royal Army Service Corps, due to his fluency in French and English he was recruited into the Special Operations Executive to foster the French Resistance. On 2 August 1943, Grover-Williams was arrested by the SD, Grover-Williams was executed at Sachsenhausen concentration camp in the spring of 1945 along with Francis Suttill, another important SOE network leader. However, there is a theory that Grover-Williams may have survived the war, Grover-Williams was recommended for an MBE by the head of the SOE, Major-General Colin Gubbins, in September 1945 but when it became clear that he had died, the honour was not awarded. The Saboteur, a game released in 2009, features an Irish protagonist named Sean Devlin who is inspired by Grover-Williams
8.
Bugatti
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Automobiles Ettore Bugatti was a French car manufacturer of high-performance automobiles, founded in 1909 in the then German city of Molsheim, Alsace by Italian-born Ettore Bugatti. Bugatti cars were known for their beauty and for their many race victories. Famous Bugattis include the Type 35 Grand Prix cars, the Type 41 Royale, the Type 57 Atlantic and the Type 55 sports car. The death of Ettore Bugatti in 1947 proved to be the end for the marque, no more than about 8,000 cars were made. The company struggled financially, and released one last model in the 1950s, in the 1990s, an Italian entrepreneur revived it as a builder of limited production exclusive sports cars. Today, the name is owned by German automobile manufacturing group Volkswagen, the company was known both for the level of detail of its engineering in its automobiles, and for the artistic manner in which the designs were executed, given the artistic nature of Ettores family. During the war Ettore Bugatti was sent away, initially to Milan and later to Paris and he exhibited three light cars, all of them closely based on their pre-war equivalents, and each fitted with the same overhead camshaft 4-cylinder 1, 368cc engine with four valves per cylinder. Smallest of the three was a Type 13 with a body and using a chassis with a 2,000 mm wheelbase. The others were a Type 22 and a Type 23 with wheelbases of 2,250 and 2,400 mm respectively, the company also enjoyed great success in early Grand Prix motor racing, in 1929 a privately entered Bugatti won the first ever Monaco Grand Prix. Racing success culminated with driver Jean-Pierre Wimille winning the 24 hours of Le Mans twice, Bugatti cars were extremely successful in racing. The little Bugatti Type 10 swept the top four positions at its first race, the 1924 Bugatti Type 35 is probably the most successful racing car of all time, with over 2,000 wins. The Type 35 was developed by Bugatti with master engineer and racing driver Jean Chassagne who also drove it in the car’s first ever Grand Prix in 1924 Lyon, Bugattis swept to victory in the Targa Florio for five years straight from 1925 through 1929. Louis Chiron held the most podiums in Bugatti cars, and the modern marque revival Bugatti Automobiles S. A. S. named the 1999 Bugatti 18/3 Chiron concept car in his honour. But it was the racing success at Le Mans that is most remembered—Jean-Pierre Wimille and Pierre Veyron won the 1939 race with just one car. In the 1930s, Ettore Bugatti got involved in the creation of a racer airplane and this would be the Bugatti 100P, which never flew. It was designed by Belgian engineer Louis de Monge who had already applied Bugatti Brescia engines in his Type 7.5 lifting body, Ettore Bugatti also designed a successful motorised railcar, the Autorail Bugatti. The death of Ettore Bugattis son, Jean Bugatti, on 11 August 1939 marked a point in the companys fortunes. Jean died while testing a Type 57 tank-bodied race car near the Molsheim factory, World War II left the Molsheim factory in ruins and the company lost control of the property
9.
France
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France, officially the French Republic, is a country with territory in western Europe and several overseas regions and territories. The European, or metropolitan, area of France extends from the Mediterranean Sea to the English Channel and the North Sea, Overseas France include French Guiana on the South American continent and several island territories in the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian oceans. France spans 643,801 square kilometres and had a population of almost 67 million people as of January 2017. It is a unitary republic with the capital in Paris. Other major urban centres include Marseille, Lyon, Lille, Nice, Toulouse, during the Iron Age, what is now metropolitan France was inhabited by the Gauls, a Celtic people. The area was annexed in 51 BC by Rome, which held Gaul until 486, France emerged as a major European power in the Late Middle Ages, with its victory in the Hundred Years War strengthening state-building and political centralisation. During the Renaissance, French culture flourished and a colonial empire was established. The 16th century was dominated by civil wars between Catholics and Protestants. France became Europes dominant cultural, political, and military power under Louis XIV, in the 19th century Napoleon took power and established the First French Empire, whose subsequent Napoleonic Wars shaped the course of continental Europe. Following the collapse of the Empire, France endured a succession of governments culminating with the establishment of the French Third Republic in 1870. Following liberation in 1944, a Fourth Republic was established and later dissolved in the course of the Algerian War, the Fifth Republic, led by Charles de Gaulle, was formed in 1958 and remains to this day. Algeria and nearly all the colonies became independent in the 1960s with minimal controversy and typically retained close economic. France has long been a centre of art, science. It hosts Europes fourth-largest number of cultural UNESCO World Heritage Sites and receives around 83 million foreign tourists annually, France is a developed country with the worlds sixth-largest economy by nominal GDP and ninth-largest by purchasing power parity. In terms of household wealth, it ranks fourth in the world. France performs well in international rankings of education, health care, life expectancy, France remains a great power in the world, being one of the five permanent members of the United Nations Security Council with the power to veto and an official nuclear-weapon state. It is a member state of the European Union and the Eurozone. It is also a member of the Group of 7, North Atlantic Treaty Organization, Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, the World Trade Organization, originally applied to the whole Frankish Empire, the name France comes from the Latin Francia, or country of the Franks
10.
Podium
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A podium is a platform used to raise something to a short distance above its surroundings. It derives from the Greek πόδι, in architecture a building can rest on a large podium. Podia can also be used to people, for instance the conductor of an orchestra stands on a podium as do many public speakers. Common parlance has shown a use of podium in American English to describe a lectern. In sports, a type of podium is used to honor the top three competitors in such as the Olympics. In the Olympics a three-level podium is used, traditionally, the highest level in the center holds the gold medalist. To their right is a lower platform for the silver medalist. At the 2016 Summer Games in Rio, however, the Silver, in many sports, results in the top three of a competition are often referred to as podiums or podium finishes. In some individual sports, podiums is a statistic, referring to the number of top three results an athlete has achieved over the course of a season or career. The word may also be used, chiefly in the United States, as a verb, to podium, meaning to attain a podium place. Podia were first used at the 1930 British Empire Games in Hamilton, Ontario and subsequently during the 1932 Summer Olympic Games in Los Angeles, the winner stands in the middle, with the second placed driver to his right and the third place driver to his left. Also present are the selected by the race organisers who will present the trophies. In many forms of motorsport, the three top-placed drivers in a stand on a podium for the trophy ceremony. The recordings are versions of the national anthems, ensuring the podium ceremony does not exceeded its allocated time. Should a driver experience problems with his car on a lap in Formula One. The drivers will generally refrain from spraying if a fatality or major accident occurs during the event. Also, in countries where alcohol sponsorship or drinking is prohibited, alcoholic beverages may be replaced by other drinks, the NASCAR Sprint Cup Series, the highest level of stock car racing in the United States, does not use a podium in post-game events or statistics. Instead, the team celebrates in victory lane, and top-five
11.
Louis Chiron
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Louis Alexandre Chiron was a Monégasque racing driver who competed in rallies, sports car races, and Grands Prix. He is the oldest driver ever to have raced in Formula One, Louis Chiron fell in love with cars and racing when he was a teenager. He started driving in Grand Prix races after World War I, in which he was seconded from a regiment as a driver for Maréchal Pétain. In 1929 he drove a Delage to 7th place in the Indianapolis 500 and he won the 1931 Monaco Grand Prix—the only Monaco-born driver to have done so—and in 1933 he partnered with specialist endurance racer Luigi Chinetti to win the Spa 24 hours race. He retired in 1938, and World War II curtailed motor racing a year later, when racing resumed after the War, he came out of retirement and drove a Talbot-Lago to victory in two French Grands Prix. The review says biographer Miranda Seymour is “circumspect on Nice’s guilt”, a review of the same book in The New York Times says Nice was accused of being a “Gestapo agent”, that Seymour “rebuts” the charge, and that it made Nice unemployable. Paired with the Swiss driver Ciro Basadonna, Chiron won the 1954 Monte Carlo Rally, and achieved podium finishes in the fifteen Formula One races he entered that year. His last race was In 1955, when he took a Lancia D50 to sixth place in the Monaco Grand Prix a few weeks before his 56th birthday, becoming the oldest driver to compete in a Formula One race. He is also the oldest driver ever to have entered for a Formula One race, as he had achieved the greatest number of podium finishes in Bugattis, the 1999 Bugatti 18/3 Chiron concept car and the 2016 Bugatti Chiron are named in his honor. Grand Prix History, Louis Chiron Louis Chiron at The Crittenden Automotive Library Louis Chiron at Le Mans Louis Chiron at Find a Grave
12.
Grand Prix motor racing
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Grand Prix motor racing has its roots in organised automobile racing that began in France as far back as 1894. It quickly evolved from a road race from one town to the next, to endurance tests for car. Grand Prix motor racing eventually evolved into formula racing, and Formula One can be seen as its direct descendant, each event of the Formula One World Championships is still called a Grand Prix, Formula One is referred to as Grand Prix racing. Motor racing was started in France, as a result of the enthusiasm with which the French public embraced the motor car. Manufacturers were enthusiastic due to the possibility of using motor racing as a window for their cars. The first motoring contest took place on July 22,1894 and was organised by a Paris newspaper, the Paris–Rouen rally was 126 km, from Porte Maillot in Paris, through the Bois de Boulogne, to Rouen. Count Jules-Albert de Dion was first into Rouen after 6 hours 48 minutes at an speed of 19 km/h. He finished 3 minutes 30 seconds ahead of Albert Lemaître, followed by Doriot, René Panhard, in 1900, James Gordon Bennett, Jr. the owner of the New York Herald and the International Herald Tribune, established the Gordon Bennett Cup. He hoped the creation of an event would drive automobile manufacturers to improve their cars. Each country was allowed to enter up to three cars, which had to be built in the country that they represented and entered by that countrys automotive governing body. International racing colours were established in this event, in the United States, William Kissam Vanderbilt II launched the Vanderbilt Cup at Long Island, New York in 1904. Some anglophone sources wrongly list a race called the Pau Grand Prix in 1901 and this may stem from a mistranslation of the contemporary French sources such as the magazine La France Auto of March 1901. The name of the 1901 event was the Circuit du Sud-Ouest, the Grand Prix du Palais d’Hiver was the name of the prizes awarded for the lesser classes. The Grand Prix de Pau was the name of the awarded for the Heavy class. Thus Maurice Farman was awarded the Grand Prix de Pau for his victory in the Circuit du Sud-Ouest driving a Panhard 24 hp. In L’Histoire de l’Automobile/Paris 1907 Pierre Souvestre described the 1901 event as, dans le Circuit du Sud-Ouest, à l’occasion du meeting de Pau. ” The only race at the time to carry the name Grand Prix was organised by the Automobile Club de France. The circuit used, which was based in Le Mans, was triangular in shape
13.
Germany
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Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany, is a federal parliamentary republic in central-western Europe. It includes 16 constituent states, covers an area of 357,021 square kilometres, with about 82 million inhabitants, Germany is the most populous member state of the European Union. After the United States, it is the second most popular destination in the world. Germanys capital and largest metropolis is Berlin, while its largest conurbation is the Ruhr, other major cities include Hamburg, Munich, Cologne, Frankfurt, Stuttgart, Düsseldorf and Leipzig. Various Germanic tribes have inhabited the northern parts of modern Germany since classical antiquity, a region named Germania was documented before 100 AD. During the Migration Period the Germanic tribes expanded southward, beginning in the 10th century, German territories formed a central part of the Holy Roman Empire. During the 16th century, northern German regions became the centre of the Protestant Reformation, in 1871, Germany became a nation state when most of the German states unified into the Prussian-dominated German Empire. After World War I and the German Revolution of 1918–1919, the Empire was replaced by the parliamentary Weimar Republic, the establishment of the national socialist dictatorship in 1933 led to World War II and the Holocaust. After a period of Allied occupation, two German states were founded, the Federal Republic of Germany and the German Democratic Republic, in 1990, the country was reunified. In the 21st century, Germany is a power and has the worlds fourth-largest economy by nominal GDP. As a global leader in industrial and technological sectors, it is both the worlds third-largest exporter and importer of goods. Germany is a country with a very high standard of living sustained by a skilled. It upholds a social security and universal health system, environmental protection. Germany was a member of the European Economic Community in 1957. It is part of the Schengen Area, and became a co-founder of the Eurozone in 1999, Germany is a member of the United Nations, NATO, the G8, the G20, and the OECD. The national military expenditure is the 9th highest in the world, the English word Germany derives from the Latin Germania, which came into use after Julius Caesar adopted it for the peoples east of the Rhine. This in turn descends from Proto-Germanic *þiudiskaz popular, derived from *þeudō, descended from Proto-Indo-European *tewtéh₂- people, the discovery of the Mauer 1 mandible shows that ancient humans were present in Germany at least 600,000 years ago. The oldest complete hunting weapons found anywhere in the world were discovered in a mine in Schöningen where three 380, 000-year-old wooden javelins were unearthed
14.
Mercedes-Benz in motorsport
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The two companies which were merged to form the Mercedes-Benz brand in 1926 had both already enjoyed success in the new sport of motor racing throughout their separate histories. A single Benz competed in the worlds first motor race, the 1894 Paris–Rouen, in 1914, just before the beginning of the First World War, the DMG Mercedes 35 hp won the French Grand Prix, finishing 1-2-3. Karl Benzs company, Benz & Cie. built the bird beaked, Blitzen Benz that set land speed records several times and that record gained that model the reputation of being faster than any other automobile — as well as any train or plane. They constructed many aerodynamically designed race cars, Benz was involved in Grand Prix motor racing from 1923, when the Benz Tropfenwagen was introduced to motorsport at the European Grand Prix at Monza. These, the brainchild of Benz chief engineer Hans Nibel, were inspired by the Rumpler Tropfenwagen and were intended to increase acceptance of mid-engined cars. They resembled the later Auto Unions, and used the virtually unchanged Rumpler chassis and they were fitted with a 1,991 cc DOHC inline six producing 80 hp and demonstrated impeccable roadholding at 90 mph and above. Despite a promising start, with a fourth and a fifth in their debut, financial difficulties led to a merger with Daimler. In the 1930s, the new joint company, Daimler-Benz, with their mighty Mercedes-Benz Silver Arrows, dominated Grand Prix racing in Europe together with its rival, the cars set speed records up to 435 km/h. The team was guided by the great Rennleiter Alfred Neubauer until the company ceased racing at the start of WWII, in 1954 Mercedes-Benz returned to what was now known as Formula One racing, using the technologically advanced Mercedes-Benz W196 which was run in both open-wheeled and streamlined forms. Juan Manuel Fangio, a previous champion transferred mid-season from Maserati to Mercedes-Benz for their debut at the French Grand Prix on 4 July 1954, the team had immediate success and recorded a 1-2 victory with Fangio and Karl Kling, as well as the fastest lap. Fangio went on to win three races in 1954, winning the Championship. The success continued into the 1955 season, where the car was used again. The teams drivers, Fangio and the young Stirling Moss, won 6 of the 9 rounds between them, and finished first and second in that years championship, following the 1955 Le Mans disaster, Mercedes-Benz withdrew from all factory-sponsored motorsport. In the one year that Sauber ran Mercedes badged engines they only managed to score twelve points,1995 saw the normally aspirated Mercedes-Benz-Ilmor F1-V10 move to the Woking based McLaren team, replacing Peugeot who moved to supplying their engines to the Jordan team. In a season dominated by the Renault powered Benetton B195s and Williams FW17s, outside Formula One, Mercedes-Benz had increased its shareholding in the Ilmor company in 1996 and took full control nine years later. They have continued to design and build engines for McLaren, in the opening race of the 1997 Formula One season, David Coulthard produced victory for McLaren and ushered in a new era of success for the British based squad. Coincidentally this was the first race in which McLaren had competed with a silver livery due to West replacing Marlboro, the colour drew inevitable comparisons to the Silver Arrows of a previous era, and the nickname was applied to the McLarens. This was a significant result in F1 racing, McLarens first victory for three seasons and the first win for Mercedes-Benz since Juan Manuel Fangios success at the 1955 Italian Grand Prix
15.
Mercedes-Benz SSK
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The Mercedes-Benz SSK is a roadster built by German automobile manufacturer Mercedes-Benz between 1928 and 1932. Its name is an abbreviation of Super Sport Kurz, German for Super Sport Short, the SSKs extreme performance and numerous competitive successes made it one of the most highly regarded sports cars of its era. The SSK was the last car designed for Mercedes-Benz by the engineer Ferdinand Porsche before he left to found his own company. The SSK was based on the earlier Mercedes-Benz S, but with the chassis shortened by 19 inches to make the car lighter and more agile for racing, especially short races and hillclimbs. The supercharger on the SSKs engine was operated by a clutch that was engaged by depressing the throttle pedal. Backing off the throttle pedal disengaged the supercharger clutch, the S/SS/SSK line was one of the nominees in the penultimate round of voting for the Car of the Century award in 1999, as chosen by a panel of 132 motoring journalists and a public internet vote. Fewer than 40 SSKs were built during its span, of which about half were sold as Rennwagen
16.
Straight-six engine
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The straight-six engine or inline-six engine is an internal combustion engine with the cylinders mounted in a straight line along the crankcase with all the pistons driving a common crankshaft. The bank of cylinders may be oriented at any angle, and where the bank is inclined to the vertical, the straight-six layout is the simplest engine layout that possesses both primary and secondary mechanical engine balance, resulting in much less vibration than engines with fewer cylinders. In automobiles, the design is used for engine displacements ranging from approximately 2 to 5 litres. It is also used for smaller engines but these, although very smooth running. Since the length of an engine is proportional to the number of cylinders in one bank. Pre-World War II engines could be large by modern standards — such as the Rolls Royce Silver Ghosts 7.4 L engine and the 824 cu in of the 1910s Peerless, Pierce. They were used in a variety of including the de Havilland Dragon Rapide. The largest are used to ships, and use fuel oil. The straight-six can also be viewed as a modular component of larger motors which stack several straight-sixes together, e. g. flat- or V-12s, W-18s. Straight-six engines were introduced earlier than V6 engines. While the first straight-six was manufactured in 1903 by Spyker, it was not until 1950 that a production V6 was introduced, V6s had intrinsic vibration problems not present in the straight-six. The poor secondary harmonic balance of four-cylinder engines is largely addressed with the use of balance shafts although it can never match the in-line six, TVR used a straight-six configuration exclusively in their final cars before their demise. In a reversal of trends, Mercedes-Benz announced a return to inline-6 engines in October 2016. This was a part of a trend toward higher efficiency engines with fewer cylinders, manufacturers began to replace V8 engines with straight-6 engines and V6 engines with straight-4 engines, while V8 engines became smaller. Straight-sixes continue to be used in medium to large trucks, Ford is one notable exception using a V8 in medium duty trucks. GM pickup trucks abandoned the straight-six in 1984 for the 4.3 V6, in 2002, General Motors introduced the Vortec 4200 as part of the modular straight-four, straight-five and straight-six GM Atlas engine line. It was used in their sport utility vehicles. Jeep abandoned the straight-six in 2006 with the 2006 Jeep Wrangler being the last vehicle, Ram Trucks continues to offer straight-six engines in its heavy duty pickup truck and chassis cab models, although only V6 and V8 engines are available in the smaller versions
17.
Rudolf Caracciola
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Otto Wilhelm Rudolf Caracciola, more commonly Rudolf Caracciola, was a racing driver from Remagen, Germany. He won the European Drivers Championship, the equivalent of the modern Formula One World Championship. He also won the European Hillclimbing Championship three times – twice in sports cars, and once in Grand Prix cars, Caracciola raced for Mercedes-Benz during their original dominating Silver Arrows period, named after the silver colour of the cars, and set speed records for the firm. He was affectionately dubbed Caratsch by the German public, and was known by the title of Regenmeister, or Rainmaster, Caracciola began racing while he was working as apprentice at the Fafnir automobile factory in Aachen during the early 1920s, first on motorcycles and then in cars. Racing for Mercedes-Benz, he won his first two Hillclimbing Championships in 1930 and 1931, and moved to Alfa Romeo for 1932, where he won the Hillclimbing Championship for the third time. He returned to the newly reformed Mercedes-Benz racing team in 1934, like most German racing drivers in the 1930s, Caracciola was a member of the Nazi paramilitary group National Socialist Motor Corps, but never a member of the Nazi Party. He returned to racing after the Second World War, but crashed in qualifying for the 1946 Indianapolis 500, a second comeback in 1952 was halted by another crash, in a sports car race in Switzerland. After he retired, Caracciola worked as a Mercedes-Benz salesman targeting North Atlantic Treaty Organization troops stationed in Europe and he died in the German city of Kassel, after suffering liver failure. He was buried in Switzerland, where he had lived since the early 1930s and he is remembered as one of the greatest pre-1939 Grand Prix drivers, a perfectionist who excelled in all conditions. His record of six German Grand Prix wins remains unbeaten, Rudolf Caracciola was born in Remagen, Germany, on 30 January 1901. He was the child of Maximilian and Mathilde, who ran the Hotel Fürstenberg. His ancestors had migrated during the Thirty Years War from Naples to the German Rhineland, Caracciola was interested in cars from a young age, and from his fourteenth birthday wanted to become a racing driver. He drove an early Mercedes during the First World War, motorsport in Germany at the time, as in the rest of Europe, was an exclusive sport, mainly limited to the upper classes. As the sport more professional in the early 1920s, specialist drivers, like Caracciola. Caracciola enjoyed his first success in motorsport while working for Fafnir and he followed this with victory in a race at the Opelbahn in Rüsselsheim. He did not stay long in Aachen, however, in 1923, after punching a soldier from the occupying Belgian Army in a nightclub and he moved to Dresden, where he continued to work as a Fafnir representative. In April of that year, Caracciola won the 1923 ADAC race at the Berlin Stadium in a borrowed Ego 4 hp. In his autobiography, Caracciola said he only sold one car for Fafnir
18.
Bugatti Type 35
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The Type 35 was the most successful of the Bugatti racing models. The Type 35 was phenomenally successful, winning over 1,000 races in its time and it took the Grand Prix World Championship in 1926 after winning 351 races and setting 47 records in the two prior years. At its height, Type 35s averaged 14 race wins per week, Bugatti won the Targa Florio for five consecutive years, from 1925 through 1929, with the Type 35. The original model, introduced at the Grand Prix of Lyon on August 3,1924, bore was 60 mm and stroke was 88 mm as on many previous Bugatti models. This new powerplant featured five main bearings with a ball bearing system. This allowed the engine to rev to 6,000 rpm, solid axles with leaf springs were used front and rear, and drum brakes at the back, operated by cables, were specified. Alloy wheels were a novelty, as was the front axle for reduced unsprung weight. A second feature of the Type 35 that was to become a Bugatti trademark was passing the springs through the front axle rather than simply U-bolting them together as was done on their earlier cars, a rare version was de-bored for a total displacement of 1.5 L. There are two of these cars in New Zealand, dimensions, Length,3680 mm Width,1320 mm Wheelbase,2400 mm Track,1200 mm Weight,750 kg A less expensive version of the Type 35 appeared in May,1925. The factorys Type 35A name was ignored by the public, who nicknamed it Tecla after a famous maker of imitation jewelry, the Teclas engine used three plain bearings, smaller valves, and coil ignition like the Type 30. While this decreased maintenance requirements, it also reduced output, one-hundred thirty nine of the Type 35As were sold. The Type 35C featured a Roots supercharger, despite Ettore Bugattis disdain for forced induction, output was nearly 128 hp with a single Zenith carburettor. Type 35Cs won the French Grand Prix at Saint-Gaudens in 1928, for 1926, Bugatti introduced a special model for the Targa Florio race. Called the Type 35T officially, it became known as the Targa Florio. Engine displacement was up to 2.3 L with a longer 100 mm stroke, Grand Prix rule changes limiting capacity to 2.0 L limited the appeal of this model at the time with just thirteen produced. The final version of the Type 35 series was the Type 35B of 1927, originally named Type 35TC, it shared the 2.3 L engine of the Type 35T but added a large supercharger like the Type 35C. Output was 138 hp, and 45 examples were made, a British racing green Type 35B driven by William Grover-Williams won the 1929 French Grand Prix at Le Mans. The Type 35 chassis and body were reused on the Type 37 sports car, fitted with a new 1.5 L straight-4 engine,290 Type 37s were built
19.
Inline-four engine
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The inline-four engine or straight-four engine is a type of inline internal combustion four-cylinder engine with all four cylinders mounted in a straight line, or plane along the crankcase. The single bank of cylinders may be oriented in either a vertical or a plane with all the pistons driving a common crankshaft. Where it is inclined, it is called a slant-four. In a specification chart or when an abbreviation is used, an engine is listed either as I4 or L4. The inline-four layout is in primary balance and confers a degree of mechanical simplicity which makes it popular for economy cars. However, despite its simplicity, it suffers from an imbalance which causes minor vibrations in smaller engines. These vibrations become more powerful as engine size and power increase, the inline-four is the most common engine configuration in modern cars, while the V6 engine is the second most popular. This inline engine configuration is the most common in cars with a displacement up to 3.0 L, in practice, the displacement of inline-four petrol engines in cars rarely exceeds this figure. For example, the largest engine of this form on the U. S. market in model year 2015 is the Toyota 2TR-FE, however, there are some notable exceptions. Early vehicles also tended to have engines with larger displacements to develop horsepower, the Model A Ford was built with a 3.3 L inline-four engine. Inline-four diesel engines, which are lower revving than gasoline engines, Mitsubishi still employs a 3.0 L inline-four diesel. Generally, European and Asian manufacturers of trucks with a vehicle weight rating between 7.5 and 18 tonnes use inline four-cylinder diesel engines with displacements around 5 L. The MAN D0834 engine is a 4.6 L inline-4 with 220 hp and 627 lb·ft, the Isuzu Forward is a medium-duty truck which is available with a 5.2 L inline-four engine that delivers 210 hp and 470 lb·ft. The Hino Ranger is a medium-duty truck which is available with a 5.1 L inline-four engine that delivers 175 hp and 465 lb·ft, the earlier Hino Ranger even had a 5.3 L inline-four engine. The Kubota M135X is a tractor with a 6.1 L inline-four and this turbo-diesel engine has a bore of 118 mm and a relatively long stroke of 140 mm. One of the strongest Powerboat-4-cylinders is the Volvo Penta D4-300 turbodiesel and this is a 3.7 L-inline-4 with 300 hp and 516 lb·ft. Brunswick Marine built a 127 kW3.7 L 4-cylinder gasoline engine for their Mercruiser Inboard/outboard line, the block was formed from one half of a Ford 460 cubic inch V8 engine. This engine was produced in the 1970s and 1980s, One of the largest inline-four engines is the MAN B&W 4K90 marine engine
20.
Hans Stuck
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This article is about the father, for the son, see Hans-Joachim Stuck. Hans Stuck was a German motor racing driver, both his son Hans-Joachim Stuck and his grandsons Johannes and Ferdinand Stuck became race drivers. Stucks experience with car racing started in 1922 with early morning runs bringing milk from his farm to Munich and this eventually led to his taking up hill-climbing, he won his first race, at Baden-Baden, in 1923. In 1931, Austro-Daimler left racing, and Stuck eventually wound up driving a Mercedes-Benz SSKL in sports car racing, in 1933, his acquaintance with Adolf Hitler led to his involvement with Ferdinand Porsche and Auto Union in Hitlers plans for German auto racing. With his experience from racing up mountain passes in the Alps in the 1920s, he was virtually unbeatable when he got the new Auto Union car, which was designed by Porsche. Its rear mounted engine provided superior traction compared to conventional front engine designs, in circuit racing, the new car was very hard to master, though, due to the swing axle rear suspension design initially adopted by Porsche. His career with Auto Union was quite successful, in 1934, he won the German, Swiss and Czechoslovakian Grand Prix races. There was no European Championship for the races that year. Wins in a number of hill-climb races brought him European Mountain Champion, in 1935, he won the Italian Grand Prix (along with second at the German Grand Prix, he also won his usual collection of hill-climb wins, again taking the European Mountain Championship. 1936 was leaner, he placed second in the Tripoli and German Grands Prix, after Stuck missed a number of hill-climbs because of injuries suffered in accidents, that year the European Mountain Championship fell to his famous team-mate, Bernd Rosemeyer. 1937 was equally lean, bringing only second places in the Rio de Janeiro,1938 opened poorly, Stuck was either fired from, or quit, the Auto Union team. After the war, although Germans were banned from racing until 1950, Stuck obtained Austrian citizenship, a link with Alex von Falkenhausen led to Stuck driving for his team in Formula Two racing, although with little success. He drove a Porsche Spyder in 1953, also no success. A liaison with BMW, starting in 1957, was more fruitful, a switch to their tiny BMW700 RS did the trick, and at age 60, he became German Hillclimb Champion for the last time. He decided to retire on a note, and thereupon closed his professional driving career. As an instructor on the Nürburgring, he taught his son Hans-Joachim the secrets of this challenging circuit, Stuck was born in Warsaw in 1900. Although his parents were of Swiss ancestry, they had moved to Germany by the time Stuck was born and he was called up for military service in World War I in 1917. In 1918, his older brother Walter was killed, along with Walters commanding officer, as a result, Stuck met the sister, Ellen Hahndorff
21.
Austro-Daimler
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Austro-Daimler was an Austrian automaker company, from 1899 until 1934. It was subsidiary of the German Daimler-Motoren-Gesellschaft, in 1890, Eduard Bierenz was appointed as Austrian retailer. The company sold so well that also it began manufacturing the automobiles after uniting with Eduard Fischers engineering factory, the works were located at Wiener-Neustadt. By this subsidiary DMG became the first automotive multinational in history, thus on August 11,1899, the Austrian Daimler Engine Society was founded. Whilst the assembling parts stemmed from Stuttgart, in 1900 they built their first automobile which featured 2 cylinders,4 hp, soon they started producing engines for luxurious cars, trucks, buses, maritime ships, and trains. In 1902, Paul Daimler, Gottlieb Daimlers son, took charge of the Technical Department, in 1905 he built the companys first armoured car, which had 30 hp. Also, the company produced engines for trucks and buses. However, Daimler returned to Stuttgart in 1905 to take over the research and development department, senior Ferdinand Porsche took Daimlers place as technical designer. Although Austro-Daimler cars were competing at races already, Porsche pioneered aerodynamic usage with two famous racecars, also, he designed the Mercédès-Electrique-Mixte which was manufactured from 1902 until 1907. Porsche also impelled a company reformation, at a time when the company had 800 workers, the company was renamed Austro-Daimler on July 27,1906. That same year Emil Jellinek — who was Austrian too — bought several Austro-Daimler licenses to found ancillary companies abroad, in 1908, the Austro-Daimler began producing Zeppelin engines. Indeed, for Porsche this was a personal interest since he liked to take Archduke Franz Ferdinand flying over Vienna, pushing the companys development further, Porsche granted Austro-Daimlers definitive independence from DMGs ownership in 1909. In 1910, the company was renamed Austrian Daimler Engines AG whose logo was the Austrian Royal double-headed eagle, in 1912 DMG sold its remaining shares. In 1911 Austro-Daimler began producing the Prinz Heinrich model, this car and it could develop 95 bhp at 2,100 rpm, there was also a less potent version with side valves and a 6, 900-cc engine capable of developing 60 hp at only 1,200 rpm. During the First World War, the 4,500 workers of Austro-Daimler contributed in large quantities to wartime production, after the war, the company returned to the production of automobiles. Austro-Daimler still claimed Royal patronage via its connection with Prince Heinrich, in the first place, Austro-Daimler fused with several companies — Skoda, Fiat, and Puch. Then, it was submerged under Camillo Castiglionis squandering management, at this time, Porsche created the 1. 3-liter Sascha racing cars in the early 1920s. The smallest model the company offered was a 2, 212-cc four-cylinder, however, as the economic situation worsened, Porsche abandoned the company in 1923, ridding himself of Austro-Daimlers financial difficulties
22.
Austria
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Austria, officially the Republic of Austria, is a federal republic and a landlocked country of over 8.7 million people in Central Europe. It is bordered by the Czech Republic and Germany to the north, Hungary and Slovakia to the east, Slovenia and Italy to the south, the territory of Austria covers 83,879 km2. The terrain is mountainous, lying within the Alps, only 32% of the country is below 500 m. The majority of the population speaks local Bavarian dialects of German as their native language, other local official languages are Hungarian, Burgenland Croatian, and Slovene. The origins of modern-day Austria date back to the time of the Habsburg dynasty, from the time of the Reformation, many northern German princes, resenting the authority of the Emperor, used Protestantism as a flag of rebellion. Following Napoleons defeat, Prussia emerged as Austrias chief competitor for rule of a greater Germany, Austrias defeat by Prussia at the Battle of Königgrätz, during the Austro-Prussian War of 1866, cleared the way for Prussia to assert control over the rest of Germany. In 1867, the empire was reformed into Austria-Hungary, Austria was thus the first to go to war in the July Crisis, which would ultimately escalate into World War I. The First Austrian Republic was established in 1919, in 1938 Nazi Germany annexed Austria in the Anschluss. This lasted until the end of World War II in 1945, after which Germany was occupied by the Allies, in 1955, the Austrian State Treaty re-established Austria as a sovereign state, ending the occupation. In the same year, the Austrian Parliament created the Declaration of Neutrality which declared that the Second Austrian Republic would become permanently neutral, today, Austria is a parliamentary representative democracy comprising nine federal states. The capital and largest city, with a population exceeding 1.7 million, is Vienna, other major urban areas of Austria include Graz, Linz, Salzburg and Innsbruck. Austria is one of the richest countries in the world, with a nominal per capita GDP of $43,724, the country has developed a high standard of living and in 2014 was ranked 21st in the world for its Human Development Index. Austria has been a member of the United Nations since 1955, joined the European Union in 1995, Austria also signed the Schengen Agreement in 1995, and adopted the euro currency in 1999. The German name for Austria, Österreich, meant eastern realm in Old High German, and is cognate with the word Ostarrîchi and this word is probably a translation of Medieval Latin Marchia orientalis into a local dialect. Austria was a prefecture of Bavaria created in 976, the word Austria is a Latinisation of the German name and was first recorded in the 12th century. Accordingly, Norig would essentially mean the same as Ostarrîchi and Österreich, the Celtic name was eventually Latinised to Noricum after the Romans conquered the area that encloses most of modern-day Austria, around 15 BC. Noricum later became a Roman province in the mid-first century AD, heers hypothesis is not accepted by linguists. Settled in ancient times, the Central European land that is now Austria was occupied in pre-Roman times by various Celtic tribes, the Celtic kingdom of Noricum was later claimed by the Roman Empire and made a province
23.
Steyr-Daimler-Puch
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Steyr-Daimler-Puch was a large manufacturing conglomerate based in Steyr, Austria, which was broken up in stages between 1987 and 2001. The component parts and operations continued to exist under separate ownership, the company, initially known as Josef und Franz Werndl and Company was founded in 1864 as a rifle manufacturer. It grew rapidly during the First World War, by the end of which it employed 14,000 people, the company began producing bicycles in 1894, and Steyr automobiles after 1918. It was heavy and well-built, if a little cumbersome, soon, however, the small but luxurious 1.5 L six Type XII of the late twenties won international motor press acclaim. The company changed it name to Steyr-Werke AG in 1924, in 1934, Steyr merged with Austro-Daimler-Puch to form Steyr-Daimler-Puch. The request was approved and prisoners were brought by guarded train from the Mauthausen-Gusen camp complex at Gusen 30 km distant and this was approved and prisoners were used for facilities construction, and to supplant manufacturing labor. This practice heretofore was not common at other larger German companies, though others followed suit including Mercedes-Benz and MAN. The vehicle range was for use, including the Steyr RSO Raupenschlepper Ost with an air-cooled 3.5 L V8 engine designed by Ferdinand Porsche. War-time production there also included arms, assault rifles, machine guns. After the war, Steyr-Daimler-Puch built Diesel engined trucks and buses, small and heavy tractors, First, Steyr assembled the FIAT 1100E, then put their own engine in a Fiat 1400, renaming the car the Steyr 2000. From 1957 through to the early 1970s it produced the tiny Puch 500 under license from FIAT, the Haflinger was produced from 1959–1974, the Pinzgauer from 1971–2000, and the Puch G from 1979. The Austro-Daimler branch built heavy tractors and trucks for the imperial Austrian army, the main Steyr civil agricultural tractor production started in 1947. After the war Steyr-Daimler-Puch resumed manufacturing bicycles and mopeds, gradually establishing distributors in countries to manage their sales. Steyr also made bicycles for sale for other retailers, most notably Sears, in the mid 1970s Steyr-Daimler-Puch America was incorporated in Connecticut to manage importation and distribution of bicycles and mopeds. Puch Austro-Daimler bicycles remained in production at Graz in Austria until the motorcycle and bicycle fabrication portions of the company there were sold in the mid 1987 to Piaggio & C, because of their extreme durability and toughness Steyr products won many enthusiastic friends around the world. Other production lines were spun off or sold outright to form independent companies, including Puchs motorcycle division going to Piaggio. In 1990, the engine division was spun off into Steyr Motorentechnik GmbH. Steyr Landmaschinentechnik AG was sold to Case Corporation in 1996 and renamed Case Steyr Landmaschinentechnik, in 1998, the production of military vehicles was sold to an Austrian investor company, which named it Steyr-Daimler-Puch Spezialfahrzeug GmbH
24.
Straight-eight engine
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The straight-eight engine or inline-eight engine is an eight-cylinder internal combustion engine with all eight cylinders mounted in a straight line along the crankcase. The type has been produced in side-valve, IOE, overhead-valve, sleeve-valve, a straight-eight can be timed for inherent primary and secondary balance, with no unbalanced primary or secondary forces or moments. However, crankshaft torsional vibration, present to some degree in all engines, is sufficient to require the use of a harmonic damper at the end of the crankshaft. Without such damping, fatigue cracking near the main bearing journal may occur. Also, due to the number of power strokes per revolution. The smooth running characteristics of the straight-eight made it popular in luxury, however, the engines length demanded the use of a long engine compartment, making the basic design unacceptable in modern vehicles. Also, due to the length of the engine, torsional vibration in both crankshaft and camshaft can adversely affect reliability and performance at high speeds, as a result, the design has been displaced almost completely by the shorter V8 engine configuration. The first straight-eight was conceived by Charron, Girardot et Voigt in 1903, great strides were made during World War I, as Mercedes made straight-eight aircraft engines like the Mercedes D. IV. The disadvantages of crank and camshaft twisting were not considered at this time, unlike the V8 engine configuration, examples of which were used in De Dion-Bouton, Scripps-Booth, and Cadillac automobiles by 1914, no straight-eight engines were used in production cars before 1920. The Duesenberg brothers introduced their first production straight-eight in 1921, straight-eight engines were used in expensive luxury and performance vehicles until after World War II. Bugattis and Duesenbergs commonly used double overhead cam straight-eight engines, other notable straight-eight-powered automobiles were built by Daimler, Mercedes-Benz, Isotta-Fraschini, Alfa Romeo, Stutz, Stearns-Knight and Packard. One marketing feature of engines was their impressive length — some of the Duesenberg engines were over 4 ft long, resulting in the long hoods found on these automobiles. In the United States in the 1920s, automobile manufacturers, including Chandler, Marmon, Gardner, Engine manufacturer Lycoming built straight-eight engines for sale to automobile manufacturers, including Gardner, Auburn, and Locomobile. The automobile manufacturers within the Cord Corporation, comprising Auburn, Cord, Lycoming continues to this day as an aircraft engine manufacturer. In the late 1920s, volume sellers Hudson and Studebaker introduced straight-eight engines for the vehicles in their respective lines. They were followed in the early 1930s by Nash, REO, and the Buick, Oldsmobile, the Buick straight-eight engine was an overhead valve design, while the Oldsmobile and Pontiac straight-eights were flathead engines. Chevrolet, as a marque, did not have a straight-eight. Cadillac, the brand of General Motors, stayed with their traditional V8 engines
25.
Chile
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Chile, officially the Republic of Chile, is a South American country occupying a long, narrow strip of land between the Andes to the east and the Pacific Ocean to the west. It borders Peru to the north, Bolivia to the northeast, Argentina to the east, Chilean territory includes the Pacific islands of Juan Fernández, Salas y Gómez, Desventuradas, and Easter Island in Oceania. Chile also claims about 1,250,000 square kilometres of Antarctica, the arid Atacama Desert in northern Chile contains great mineral wealth, principally copper. Southern Chile is rich in forests and grazing lands, and features a string of volcanoes and lakes, the southern coast is a labyrinth of fjords, inlets, canals, twisting peninsulas, and islands. Spain conquered and colonized Chile in the century, replacing Inca rule in northern and central Chile. After declaring its independence from Spain in 1818, Chile emerged in the 1830s as a relatively stable authoritarian republic, in the 1960s and 1970s the country experienced severe left-right political polarization and turmoil. The regime, headed by Augusto Pinochet, ended in 1990 after it lost a referendum in 1988 and was succeeded by a coalition which ruled through four presidencies until 2010. Chile is today one of South Americas most stable and prosperous nations and it leads Latin American nations in rankings of human development, competitiveness, income per capita, globalization, state of peace, economic freedom, and low perception of corruption. It also ranks high regionally in sustainability of the state, Chile is a founding member of the United Nations, the Union of South American Nations and the Community of Latin American and Caribbean States. There are various theories about the origin of the word Chile, another theory points to the similarity of the valley of the Aconcagua with that of the Casma Valley in Peru, where there was a town and valley named Chili. Another origin attributed to chilli is the onomatopoeic cheele-cheele—the Mapuche imitation of the warble of a locally known as trile. The Spanish conquistadors heard about this name from the Incas, ultimately, Almagro is credited with the universalization of the name Chile, after naming the Mapocho valley as such. The older spelling Chili was in use in English until at least 1900 before switching over to Chile, stone tool evidence indicates humans sporadically frequented the Monte Verde valley area as long as 18,500 years ago. About 10,000 years ago, migrating Native Americans settled in fertile valleys, settlement sites from very early human habitation include Monte Verde, Cueva del Milodon and the Pali Aike Craters lava tube. They fought against the Sapa Inca Tupac Yupanqui and his army, the result of the bloody three-day confrontation known as the Battle of the Maule was that the Inca conquest of the territories of Chile ended at the Maule river. The next Europeans to reach Chile were Diego de Almagro and his band of Spanish conquistadors, the Spanish encountered various cultures that supported themselves principally through slash-and-burn agriculture and hunting. The conquest of Chile began in earnest in 1540 and was carried out by Pedro de Valdivia, one of Francisco Pizarros lieutenants, who founded the city of Santiago on 12 February 1541. Although the Spanish did not find the gold and silver they sought, they recognized the agricultural potential of Chiles central valley
26.
Juan Zanelli
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Juan Zanelli was a Chilean racecar driver. He was born in Iquique, Chile in 1906 and he raced in Grand Prix motor racing and hillclimbs from 1929 to 1936. In a Bugatti he won the 1929 and 1930 Bugatti GP at Le Mans, finished 8th in Alessandria in 1929 and 2nd in 1930, 2nd at the 1929 Marne GP and he won the 1933 Penya Rhin Grand Prix in Barcelona, Spain in an Alfa Romeo. Zanelli won the Racing Cars division of the 1931 European Hillclimb Championship and he died during a fight between members of the French Resistance, and members of the Gestapo, in the streets of Toulouse, France in 1944. THE GOLDEN ERA OF GP RACING 1934-40
27.
Marcel Lehoux
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Marcel Lehoux was a French racing driver and businessman. Lehoux was born in Vendée in France and his racing career was built on the back of his successful trading company that operated in French Algeria. He placed second at the Grand Prix de la Marne at Reims in 1929, behind Zenelli and ahead of his friend, Philippe Étancelin, at the 1930 Algerian Grand Prix, he followed Étancelin home to second. In 1931, he shared a Bugatti with Étancelin for both the Italian and French Grands Prix, events of 10 hours duration, run to Formula Libre rules and he would later race for Bugatti and Scuderia Ferrari racing teams. Lehoux died after a collision in the 1936 Deauville Grand Prix, the Golden Era of Grand Prix Racing. Review of the 1936 Deauville Grand Prix, with images and film Review of the 1936 Deauville Grand Prix with sources and images
28.
Frazer Nash
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AFN continued to produce sports cars badged Frazer Nash incorporating a unique multi-chain transmission until the Second World War and also imported BMW cars to the UK. After the war it continued producing cars with conventional transmission until 1957. It also continued selling BMW cars and motorcycles and finally in 1956 became the importer of Porsche cars. Frazer Nash Limiteds business was founded in 1922 by Archibald Frazer-Nash and his new businesss activities were centred on Kingston upon Thames, Surrey. The first true Frazer Nash was made in 1924, however Frazer Nash Limited entered receivership in 1927. Eventually the business was sold to a new company, AFN Limited, in 1929 a majority of AFNs capital was acquired by Harold Joseph Aldington and its operations moved to Isleworth, Middlesex. Thereafter, the company was run by the three Aldington brothers, Aldy, Don and Bill, the other two were Donald Arthur Aldington and William Henry Aldington. They were all referred to by their initials. The last of the family owners/directors was Aldys son, John Taylor Aldington, the company produced around 400 of the famous chain drive models between 1924 and 1939. AFN Ltd produced about 85 more cars from 1948 to 1957 and these cars were entirely unrelated to the chain-drive pre-war Frazer Nash, but were largely a direct evolution of the sporting BMW328, mentioned above. AFN, as owners of the UK rights to the 328 engine, models include the Le Mans Replica, the Mille Miglia, the Targa Florio, the Le Mans Coupé and the Sebring. Competition successes included a place at Le Mans and wins in the Targa Florio in 1951. The post-war cars are highly prized by collectors. Formula 2 cars produced by the company contested various races including four Grand Prix events counting towards the 1952 World Championship of Drivers, the cars were driven by Tony Crook and Ken Wharton. Considering the small number of cars made, the range is vast. Cars were all built to order and virtually any combination was possible, some were rebuilt at the factory as different versions. Frazer Nash cars participated in four Grands Prix races counting towards the World Championship of Drivers, Drivers of Frazer Nash cars scored 3 World Championship points. Frazer Nash placed equal 13th in the 1953 World Sportscar Championship with a Le Mans model having finished sixth in the 1953 RAC Tourist Trophy, list of car manufacturers of the United Kingdom Jenkinson, Denis. From Chain-Drive to Turbocharger, The A. F. N
29.
Italy
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Italy, officially the Italian Republic, is a unitary parliamentary republic in Europe. Located in the heart of the Mediterranean Sea, Italy shares open land borders with France, Switzerland, Austria, Slovenia, San Marino, Italy covers an area of 301,338 km2 and has a largely temperate seasonal climate and Mediterranean climate. Due to its shape, it is referred to in Italy as lo Stivale. With 61 million inhabitants, it is the fourth most populous EU member state, the Italic tribe known as the Latins formed the Roman Kingdom, which eventually became a republic that conquered and assimilated other nearby civilisations. The legacy of the Roman Empire is widespread and can be observed in the distribution of civilian law, republican governments, Christianity. The Renaissance began in Italy and spread to the rest of Europe, bringing a renewed interest in humanism, science, exploration, Italian culture flourished at this time, producing famous scholars, artists and polymaths such as Leonardo da Vinci, Galileo, Michelangelo and Machiavelli. The weakened sovereigns soon fell victim to conquest by European powers such as France, Spain and Austria. Despite being one of the victors in World War I, Italy entered a period of economic crisis and social turmoil. The subsequent participation in World War II on the Axis side ended in defeat, economic destruction. Today, Italy has the third largest economy in the Eurozone and it has a very high level of human development and is ranked sixth in the world for life expectancy. The country plays a prominent role in regional and global economic, military, cultural and diplomatic affairs, as a reflection of its cultural wealth, Italy is home to 51 World Heritage Sites, the most in the world, and is the fifth most visited country. The assumptions on the etymology of the name Italia are very numerous, according to one of the more common explanations, the term Italia, from Latin, Italia, was borrowed through Greek from the Oscan Víteliú, meaning land of young cattle. The bull was a symbol of the southern Italic tribes and was often depicted goring the Roman wolf as a defiant symbol of free Italy during the Social War. Greek historian Dionysius of Halicarnassus states this account together with the legend that Italy was named after Italus, mentioned also by Aristotle and Thucydides. The name Italia originally applied only to a part of what is now Southern Italy – according to Antiochus of Syracuse, but by his time Oenotria and Italy had become synonymous, and the name also applied to most of Lucania as well. The Greeks gradually came to apply the name Italia to a larger region, excavations throughout Italy revealed a Neanderthal presence dating back to the Palaeolithic period, some 200,000 years ago, modern Humans arrived about 40,000 years ago. Other ancient Italian peoples of undetermined language families but of possible origins include the Rhaetian people and Cammuni. Also the Phoenicians established colonies on the coasts of Sardinia and Sicily, the Roman legacy has deeply influenced the Western civilisation, shaping most of the modern world
30.
Luigi Arcangeli
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Luigi Arcangeli was an Italian motorcycle and car racer. Arcangeli was born at Forlì in 1894, a factory rider for Sarolea, Sunbeam, Bianchi and Moto Guzzi, he turned to four wheels in the wake of his friend Tazio Nuvolari. His first appearance was a win in 1928 at the Circuito di Senigallia with a 2-litre Bugatti, after Bugatti he drove Talbot-Darracqs, winning at Cremona in 1928, continuing with Maserati Tipo 8C-2500, with a first place at the Rome Grand Prix in 1930. Later he moved to Alfa Romeo and joined Enzo Ferraris scuderia with Nuvolari as team mate. Arcangeli died the year at Monza, during the tests for the Italian Grand Prix. A Scuderia Luigi Arcangeli was created to honor Luigi Arcangeli name, the Scuderia is active nowadays, building ArcangeliMoto regolarità race bikes in limited numbers
31.
Maserati in motorsport
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One of the first Maseratis the Tipo 26 driven by Alfieri Maserati with Guerino Bertocchi acting as riding mechanic won the Targa Florio 1,500 cc class in 1926, finishing in ninth place in overall. Maserati was very successful in pre-war Grand Prix racing using a variety of cars with 4,6,8 and 16 cylinders, other notable pre-war successes include winning the Indianapolis 500 twice, both times with Wilbur Shaw at the wheel of a 8CTF. Maserati won the Targa Florio in 1937,1938,1939 and 1940, the first two wins were achieved by Giovanni Rocco with a Maserati 6CM and the last two by Luigi Villoresi with a 6CM in 1939 and a 4CL in 1940. Maseratis post-war factory effort in car racing in 1954 for the second season of the World Sportscar Championship. The factory raced as Officine Alfieri Maserati, in the 1954 World Sportscar Championship season Maserati entered the Maserati A6GCS finishing 5th in the Manufacturers Championship. In the 1955 World Sportscar Championship season Maserati finished 4th in the Manufacturers Championship, in the 1956 World Sportscar Championship season Maserati finished 2nd in the Manufacturers Championship including a win at the 1000 km Buenos Aires and the 1000 km at the Nürburgring. The win at 19561000 km Buenos Aires was a Maserati 300S sports car driven by Stirling Moss, in the 1957 World Sportscar Championship season Maserati again finished 2nd in the Manufacturers Championship. This time with wins at Sebring and Rabelöfsbanan In the 1959 World Sportscar Championship season Maserati finished 4th in the Manufacturers Championship, in the 1960 World Sportscar Championship season Maserati finished 3rd in the Manufacturers Championship. With a win at the ADAC1000 km Nürburgring for a Maserati Tipo 61 driven by Stirling Moss, in the 1961 World Sportscar Championship season Maserati finished 2nd in the Manufacturers Championship. With a repeat win at the ADAC1000 km Nürburgring for a Maserati Tipo 61 this time driven by Lloyd Casner, list of Maserati sports and GT racing cars Maserati A6GCS Sports Car Maserati 350S Sports Car. The cars for the 1987 World Touring Car Championship season were entered by Pro Team Italia/Imberti, the car was in Group A Division 3 competing against the Ford Sierra RS Cosworth and later in the season Ford Sierra RS500. The car was driven by Bruno Giacomelli, Armin Hahne, Marcello Gunella, Mario Hytten, Nicola Tesini, for the British Touring Car Championship the cars were entered by Trident Motorsport. This was for the 1988 and 1989 seasons, the car was driven by Nick May, John Lepp and Vic Lee. A former 1987 WTCC car was bought by Adriano Dece who converted it for used on road rallies, Maserati participated in Formula One motor racing during the 1940s, 1950s and 1960s. Its works Formula One programme was successful, providing a total of 9 Grand Prix wins for the factory team. Maserati designed three Formula One cars, the Maserati 4CLT, the Maserati A6GCM and the Maserati 250F, however, due to financial difficulties in the late 1950s the team had to withdraw from Formula One in 1958 despite the 250F still being successful. Privateers continued to use the 250F until 1960, the last year F1 allowed front-engine race cars, in the 1960s, Maserati supplied engines to British Formula One team Cooper. The most successful car of that collaboration was the Cooper-Maserati T81 and it won the 1966 Mexican Grand Prix and the 1967 South African Grand Prix, driven by John Surtees and Pedro Rodríguez respectively
René Dreyfus
Grover-Williams
Borzacchini
Stuber
Chiron
Zanelli
Stuck
Emil Frankl
Emil Bourlier
Veličkovič