1.
Falklands War
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It began on Friday,2 April 1982, when Argentina invaded and occupied the Falkland Islands in an attempt to establish the sovereignty it had claimed over them. On 5 April, the British government dispatched a naval force to engage the Argentine Navy. The conflict lasted 74 days and ended with the Argentine surrender on 14 June 1982, in total,649 Argentine military personnel,255 British military personnel, and three Falkland Islanders died during the hostilities. The conflict was an episode in the protracted confrontation over the territories sovereignty. Argentina asserted that the islands are Argentine territory, and the Argentine government thus characterised its military action as the reclamation of its own territory, the British government regarded the action as an invasion of a territory that had been a Crown colony since 1841. Falkland Islanders, who have inhabited the islands since the early 19th century, are descendants of British settlers. The conflict has had an effect in both countries and has been the subject of various books, articles, films, and songs. Patriotic sentiment ran high in Argentina, but the outcome prompted large protests against the military government. In the United Kingdom, the Conservative Party government, bolstered by the outcome, was re-elected the following year. The cultural and political weight of the conflict has had less effect in Britain than in Argentina, diplomatic relations between the United Kingdom and Argentina were restored in 1989 following a meeting in Madrid, Spain, at which the two governments issued a joint statement. No change in either countrys position regarding the sovereignty of the Falkland Islands was made explicit, in 1994, Argentinas claim to the territories was added to its constitution. In December 1981 there was a change in the Argentine military regime, bringing to office a new junta headed by General Leopoldo Galtieri, Brigadier Basilio Lami Dozo. Anaya was the architect and supporter of a military solution for the long-standing claim over the islands. Such action would also bolster its dwindling legitimacy, the newspaper La Prensa speculated in a step-by-step plan beginning with cutting off supplies to the islands, ending in direct actions late in 1982, if the UN talks were fruitless. The Royal Navy ice patrol vessel HMS Endurance was dispatched from Stanley to South Georgia in response, the Argentine military junta, suspecting that the UK would reinforce its South Atlantic Forces, ordered the invasion of the Falkland Islands to be brought forward to 2 April. Britain was initially taken by surprise by the Argentine attack on the South Atlantic islands, despite repeated warnings by Royal Navy captain Nicholas Barker, on 2 April 1982, Argentine forces mounted amphibious landings off the Falkland Islands. The invasion was met with a defence organised by the Falkland Islands Governor Sir Rex Hunt. Word of the invasion first reached Britain from Argentine sources, a Ministry of Defence operative in London had a short telex conversation with Governor Hunts telex operator, who confirmed that Argentines were on the island and in control
2.
Stanley, Falkland Islands
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Stanley is the capital of the Falkland Islands. It is located on the island of East Falkland, on a slope in one of the wettest parts of the islands. At the 2012 census, the town had a population of 2,121, Stanley is represented by five members of the Legislative Assembly of the Falkland Islands, currently Jan Cheek, Barry Elsby, Michael Poole, Gavin Short and Mike Summers. Stanley is the shopping centre on the islands and the hub of East Falklands road network. The Falkland Islands Company owns several shops and a hotel, Stanley has four pubs, eleven hotels and guesthouses, three restaurants, a fish and chip shop and the main tourist office. There are three churches, including the Anglican Christ Church Cathedral, the southernmost Anglican cathedral in the world, a bomb disposal unit in the town is a legacy of the Falklands War. The town hall serves as a post office, philatelic bureau, law court, the police station also contains the islands only prison, with a capacity of thirteen in the cells. The community centre includes a pool, a sports centre, library. A grass football pitch is located by the community centre and hosts regular games, Stanley Racecourse, located on the west side of Stanley, holds a two-day horse racing meeting every year on 26 and 27 December. The Christmas races have been here for over one hundred years. Stanley Golf Course has an 18-hole course and a club house and it is also located to the west of Stanley. King Edward VII Memorial Hospital is the main hospital, with doctors practice and surgery, radiology department, dental surgery. Several bus and taxi companies operate out of Stanley, Stanley is also home to the Falkland Islands Radio Station, the Stanley office of the British Antarctic Survey, and the office of the weekly Penguin News newspaper. A nursery and garden centre is here, in whose greenhouses some of the islands vegetables are grown. The original capital of the islands was at Port Louis to the north of the present site of Stanley, captains Francis Crozier and James Clark Ross were recruited by Governor Richard Moody in his quest to find a new capital for The Falklands. Both Crozier and Ross were among the Royal Navys most distinguished seafarers and they spent 5 months in the islands with their ships Terror and Erebus. Governor Moody however, decided to move the capital to Port Jackson, Stanley Harbour was considered to have a deeper anchorage for visiting ships. Work on the settlement began in 1843 and it became the capital in July 1845 and it was named after Lord Stanley, Secretary of State for War and the Colonies at the time
3.
Falkland Islands
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The Falkland Islands are an archipelago in the South Atlantic Ocean on the Patagonian Shelf. The principal islands are about 300 miles east of South Americas southern Patagonian coast, the archipelago, with an area of 4,700 square miles, comprises East Falkland, West Falkland and 776 smaller islands. As a British overseas territory, the Falklands have internal self-governance, the islands capital is Stanley on East Falkland. Controversy exists over the Falklands discovery and subsequent colonisation by Europeans, at various times, the islands have had French, British, Spanish, and Argentine settlements. Britain reasserted its rule in 1833, although Argentina maintains its claim to the islands, in April 1982, Argentine forces temporarily occupied the islands. British administration was restored two months later at the end of the Falklands War, most Falklanders favour the archipelago remaining a UK overseas territory, but its sovereignty status is part of an ongoing dispute between Argentina and the United Kingdom. The population primarily consists of native-born Falkland Islanders, the majority of British descent, other ethnicities include French, Gibraltarian and Scandinavian. Immigration from the United Kingdom, the South Atlantic island of Saint Helena, under the British Nationality Act 1983, Falkland Islanders are British citizens. The islands lie on the boundary of the oceanic and tundra climate zones. They are home to bird populations, although many no longer breed on the main islands because of competition from introduced species. Major economic activities include fishing, tourism and sheep farming, with an emphasis on high-quality wool exports, oil exploration, licensed by the Falkland Islands Government, remains controversial as a result of maritime disputes with Argentina. The Falkland Islands take their name from the Falkland Sound, a strait separating the two main islands. The name Falkland was applied to the channel by John Strong, Strong named the strait in honour of Anthony Cary, 5th Viscount of Falkland, the Treasurer of the Navy who sponsored their journey. The name Falklands was not applied to the islands until 1765, the term Falklands is a standard abbreviation used to refer to the islands. The Spanish name for the archipelago, Islas Malvinas, derives from the French Îles Malouines — the name given to the islands by French explorer Louis-Antoine de Bougainville in 1764, Bougainville, who founded the islands first settlement, named the area after the port of Saint-Malo. The port, located in the Brittany region of western France, was in turn named after St. Malo, in Spanish, the territory was designated as Islas Malvinas. The nomenclature used by the United Nations for statistical processing purposes is Falkland Islands, although Fuegians from Patagonia may have visited the Falkland Islands in prehistoric times, the islands were uninhabited at the time of their discovery by Europeans. Claims of discovery date back to the 16th century, but no consensus exists on whether these early explorers discovered the Falklands or other islands in the South Atlantic, whether or not the settlements were aware of each others existence is debated by historians
4.
United Kingdom
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The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom or Britain, is a sovereign country in western Europe. Lying off the north-western coast of the European mainland, the United Kingdom includes the island of Great Britain, Northern Ireland is the only part of the United Kingdom that shares a land border with another sovereign state—the Republic of Ireland. The Irish Sea lies between Great Britain and Ireland, with an area of 242,500 square kilometres, the United Kingdom is the 78th-largest sovereign state in the world and the 11th-largest in Europe. It is also the 21st-most populous country, with an estimated 65.1 million inhabitants, together, this makes it the fourth-most densely populated country in the European Union. The United Kingdom is a monarchy with a parliamentary system of governance. The monarch is Queen Elizabeth II, who has reigned since 6 February 1952, other major urban areas in the United Kingdom include the regions of Birmingham, Leeds, Glasgow, Liverpool and Manchester. The United Kingdom consists of four countries—England, Scotland, Wales, the last three have devolved administrations, each with varying powers, based in their capitals, Edinburgh, Cardiff and Belfast, respectively. The relationships among the countries of the UK have changed over time, Wales was annexed by the Kingdom of England under the Laws in Wales Acts 1535 and 1542. A treaty between England and Scotland resulted in 1707 in a unified Kingdom of Great Britain, which merged in 1801 with the Kingdom of Ireland to form the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. Five-sixths of Ireland seceded from the UK in 1922, leaving the present formulation of the United Kingdom of Great Britain, there are fourteen British Overseas Territories. These are the remnants of the British Empire which, at its height in the 1920s, British influence can be observed in the language, culture and legal systems of many of its former colonies. The United Kingdom is a country and has the worlds fifth-largest economy by nominal GDP. The UK is considered to have an economy and is categorised as very high in the Human Development Index. It was the worlds first industrialised country and the worlds foremost power during the 19th, the UK remains a great power with considerable economic, cultural, military, scientific and political influence internationally. It is a nuclear weapons state and its military expenditure ranks fourth or fifth in the world. The UK has been a permanent member of the United Nations Security Council since its first session in 1946 and it has been a leading member state of the EU and its predecessor, the European Economic Community, since 1973. However, on 23 June 2016, a referendum on the UKs membership of the EU resulted in a decision to leave. The Acts of Union 1800 united the Kingdom of Great Britain, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland have devolved self-government
5.
Falkland Islands Defence Force
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The Falkland Islands Defence Force is the locally maintained volunteer defence unit in the Falkland Islands, a British Overseas Territory. The FIDF works alongside the units supplied by the United Kingdom to ensure the security of the islands. The first volunteer unit in the Islands was formed in 1854 during the Crimean War to guard against possible aggression by the Russian Empire, not given an official title, this unit was sometimes known as the Stanley Volunteers. In 1891, a steamer owned by one of the involved in the Chilean Civil War docked at Stanley. Although ostensibly there to carry out repairs to its engines, the presence onboard of 200 armed soldiers was considered a security threat, the Governor, Sir Roger Goldsworthy, therefore ordered that an armed volunteer force be formed. The first draft of men of the Falkland Islands Volunteers were sworn in at a ceremony at Government House in June 1892, during the First World War, members of the Volunteers were mobilised to man military outposts around the Islands, while 36 Falklanders enlisted in the armed forces. At the end of the war, the Falkland Islands Volunteers was renamed as the Falkland Islands Defence Force, the FIDF was mobilised again during the Second World War, manning defensive outposts around the Islands. At this time, a mounted unit was raised. On 27 September 1939, thirty-three men arrived from Argentina in a called the Tabaris Highlanders. Gathered from the Anglo-Argentine community, they were supposed to defend the islands from a German attack, six of these volunteers were rejected on medical and other grounds and returned to Buenos Aires almost immediately. The commanding officer, a Major Morrough, was one of those rejected, the remainder were enrolled in the Falkland Islands Defence Force, with Ronald Campbell made sergeant as commander and Thomas Dawson Sanderson made corporal. Many were rugby players, including Sanderson, who was president of a rugby club, the men left the Islands on 8 December 1939, once the immediate danger of attack from German raiders was judged to have receded. During this time the Highlanders dug out gun pits, embankments, twenty-two of them applied from Stanley to join the British Forces. After the end of the war, the presence of Royal Marines as part of the Islands defence led to the FIDF adopting RM dress, there, they took four islanders hostage. The FIDF, alongside the Royal Marines, contained the situation, following this, the FIDF was on heightened alert until February 1967. On 1 April 1982, alongside the Royal Marines party, the FIDF was mobilised to defend the Islands from the Argentine invasion, of its approx 120 men only 23 turned out. The following day, Sir Rex Hunt ordered them to surrender, the Argentines confiscated all of the FIDFs equipment and declared them to be an illegal organisation. For the duration of the war, some members of the FIDF were kept under house arrest at Fox Bay until the Argentine surrender, the FIDF was reformed in 1983
6.
Argentina
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Argentina, officially the Argentine Republic, is a federal republic in the southern half of South America. With a mainland area of 2,780,400 km2, Argentina is the eighth-largest country in the world, the second largest in Latin America, and the largest Spanish-speaking one. The country is subdivided into provinces and one autonomous city, Buenos Aires. The provinces and the capital have their own constitutions, but exist under a federal system, Argentina claims sovereignty over part of Antarctica, the Falkland Islands, and South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands. The earliest recorded presence in the area of modern-day Argentina dates back to the Paleolithic period. The country has its roots in Spanish colonization of the region during the 16th century, Argentina rose as the successor state of the Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata, a Spanish overseas viceroyalty founded in 1776. The country thereafter enjoyed relative peace and stability, with waves of European immigration radically reshaping its cultural. The almost-unparalleled increase in prosperity led to Argentina becoming the seventh wealthiest developed nation in the world by the early 20th century, Argentina retains its historic status as a middle power in international affairs, and is a prominent regional power in the Southern Cone and Latin America. Argentina has the second largest economy in South America, the third-largest in Latin America and is a member of the G-15 and it is the country with the second highest Human Development Index in Latin America with a rating of very high. Because of its stability, market size and growing high-tech sector, the description of the country by the word Argentina has to be found on a Venice map in 1536. In English the name Argentina probably comes from the Spanish language, however the naming itself is not Spanish, Argentina means in Italian of silver, silver coloured, probably borrowed from the Old French adjective argentine of silver > silver coloured already mentioned in the 12th century. The French word argentine is the form of argentin and derives of argent silver with the suffix -in. The Italian naming Argentina for the country implies Argentina Terra land of silver or Argentina costa coast of silver, in Italian, the adjective or the proper noun is often used in an autonomous way as a substantive and replaces it and it is said lArgentina. The name Argentina was probably first given by the Venitian and Genoese navigators, in Spanish and Portuguese, the words for silver are respectively plata and prata and of silver is said plateado and prateado. Argentina was first associated with the silver mountains legend, widespread among the first European explorers of the La Plata Basin. The first written use of the name in Spanish can be traced to La Argentina, a 1602 poem by Martín del Barco Centenera describing the region, the 1826 constitution included the first use of the name Argentine Republic in legal documents. The name Argentine Confederation was also used and was formalized in the Argentine Constitution of 1853. In 1860 a presidential decree settled the name as Argentine Republic
7.
Royal Navy
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The Royal Navy is the United Kingdoms naval warfare force. Although warships were used by the English kings from the medieval period. The modern Royal Navy traces its origins to the early 16th century, from the middle decades of the 17th century and through the 18th century, the Royal Navy vied with the Dutch Navy and later with the French Navy for maritime supremacy. From the mid 18th century it was the worlds most powerful navy until surpassed by the United States Navy during the Second World War. The Royal Navy played a key part in establishing the British Empire as the world power during the 19th. Due to this historical prominence, it is common, even among non-Britons, following World War I, the Royal Navy was significantly reduced in size, although at the onset of the Second World War it was still the worlds largest. By the end of the war, however, the United States Navy had emerged as the worlds largest, during the Cold War, the Royal Navy transformed into a primarily anti-submarine force, hunting for Soviet submarines, mostly active in the GIUK gap. The Royal Navy is part of Her Majestys Naval Service, which includes the Royal Marines. The professional head of the Naval Service is the First Sea Lord, the Defence Council delegates management of the Naval Service to the Admiralty Board, chaired by the Secretary of State for Defence. The strength of the fleet of the Kingdom of England was an important element in the power in the 10th century. English naval power declined as a result of the Norman conquest. Medieval fleets, in England as elsewhere, were almost entirely composed of merchant ships enlisted into service in time of war. Englands naval organisation was haphazard and the mobilisation of fleets when war broke out was slow, early in the war French plans for an invasion of England failed when Edward III of England destroyed the French fleet in the Battle of Sluys in 1340. Major fighting was confined to French soil and Englands naval capabilities sufficed to transport armies and supplies safely to their continental destinations. Such raids halted finally only with the occupation of northern France by Henry V. Henry VII deserves a large share of credit in the establishment of a standing navy and he embarked on a program of building ships larger than heretofore. He also invested in dockyards, and commissioned the oldest surviving dry dock in 1495 at Portsmouth, a standing Navy Royal, with its own secretariat, dockyards and a permanent core of purpose-built warships, emerged during the reign of Henry VIII. Under Elizabeth I England became involved in a war with Spain, the new regimes introduction of Navigation Acts, providing that all merchant shipping to and from England or her colonies should be carried out by English ships, led to war with the Dutch Republic. In the early stages of this First Anglo-Dutch War, the superiority of the large, heavily armed English ships was offset by superior Dutch tactical organisation and the fighting was inconclusive
8.
Assault Amphibious Vehicle
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The Assault Amphibious Vehicle —official designation AAV-P7/A1 —is a fully tracked amphibious landing vehicle manufactured by U. S. Combat Systems and FNSS Defence Systems, the AAV-P7/A1 is the current amphibious troop transport of the United States Marine Corps. It is also operated by other forces, Marines call them amtracks, a shortening of their original designation, amphibious tractor. The LVTP-7 was first introduced in 1972 as a replacement for the LVTP-5, the Cummins VT400 diesel engine replaced the GM 8V53T, and this was driven through FMCs HS-400-3A1 transmission. The hydraulic traverse and elevation of the station was replaced by electric motors. The suspension and shock absorbers were strengthened as well, the fuel tank was made safer, and a fuel-burning smoke generator system was added. Eight smoke grenade launchers were placed around the armament station. The headlight clusters were housed in a square instead of the earlier round type. The driver was provided with an instrument panel and a night vision device. These upgraded vehicles were originally called LVT-7A1, but the Marine Corps renamed the LVTP-7A1 to AAV-7A1 in 1984. Enhanced Applique Armor Kits were developed for the AAV-7A1 in 1989 and fitted by 1993, the ground clearance has returned to 16 inches and the horsepower to ton ratio has changed from 13 to 1 back to 17 to 1. Introduction of the BFV components and the rebuild to standard effort is expected to reduce costs for the remaining life of the AAV through the year 2013. Though due to the cancellation of the EFV the AAV will remain in much longer. In July 2013, the Marine Corps began seeking assistance for a limited reset of the services AAVs to enhance reliability. The limited reset was planned to begin in 2016, with roughly 40 percent of the 1, the AAVs service life is to end in 2030. The Marines released a request for proposals for the AAV Survivability Upgrade Program on 29 October 2013,396 AAVs are planned to go through the survivability upgrade, with numbers varying each year ranging from 22 to 96 vehicles. Survivability upgrades will be applied to a fraction of the fleet to improve force protection until the fielding of the Amphibious Combat Vehicle, SAIC was awarded the contract to perform AAV upgrades in March 2015. On 28 January 2016, Marine and SAIC officials unveiled the AAV survivability upgrade, Survivability enhancements include replacing the angled Enhanced Applique Armor Kit with 49 buoyant, flat-sided ceramic panels, a 2
9.
Invasion of South Georgia
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The scrap workers had been infiltrated by Argentine marines posing as civilian scientists. At the same time, the Argentine crew had to report to the top BAS commander in Grytviken, briatore replied that the mission had the approval of the British embassy in Buenos Aires. Eventually, the Argentine captain ordered the lowering of the flag, the BAS commander sent a message to the Governor of the Falkland Islands, Rex Hunt. After consulting London, Hunt was instructed to dispatch HMS Endurance to South Georgia with a detachment of 22 Royal Marines. Aware of the contract, the Argentine Navy conceived of a plan to hijack Davidoffs business in South Georgia, the action was code named Operation Alpha. Marchessi assessed Leith facilities on board the Panamanian registered yacht Caiman, the failure of the Argentines to comply with the diplomatic formalities prompted Whitehall to opt for a small-scale intervention. In the meantime, a formal protest was issued by the British embassy in Buenos Aires, the Argentine Foreign Ministers response appeared to defuse the crisis, the note asserted that the Buen Suceso would soon be leaving, and that the mission had no official sanction at all. By the morning of 22 March Buen Suceso left Leith harbour, however, in the afternoon, a BAS observation post detected the presence of Argentine personnel and passed the information to London. In consequence, the Foreign Office chose to order HMS Endurance to evacuate any Argentine personnel remaining in South Georgia, in addition, upon arrival at Leith, Endurance found the Antarctic Survey ship ARA Bahía Paraíso at anchor. This vessel landed a party of 10 naval commandos picked up from South Orkney Islands, facing the potential for military action, the Foreign Office sought some sort of compromise. The Argentine intention, however, was that the arrival of any of its citizens to South Georgia should follow the agreed on the communications treaty of 1971. Governor Rex Hunt strongly rejected this extension of the agreement, valid only for the Falklands jurisdiction, costa Mendez left things in a limbo, both countries were then on the brink of conflict. Shortly before the Argentine landings on the Falklands, Bahía Paraíso and Endurance were playing a game around South Georgia, until 31 March. The British plan was that Martin would be in charge until the Argentine forces showed any hostile intentions, if that occurred, Acting Lieutenant Keith Mills, the most senior officer of the Royal Marines party, would take command. Mills received a message from HMS Endurance relaying instructions from London that he should make only a token resistance to any Argentine violation of British territory. He allegedly replied sod that, Ill make their eyes water, meanwhile, the Argentine navy ordered the corvette ARA Guerrico to join Bahía Paraíso at Leith, equipped with two helicopters and carrying 40 marines, along with Astizs team. The aim was the capture of Grytviken, the group would be called Grupo de Tareas 60.1, under the command of Captain Trombetta, on board Bahía Paraíso. Endurance, some miles offshore, would provide communication between the small British detachment and London, the new rules of engagement authorized Mills to fire in self defence, after warning
10.
Occupation of the Falkland Islands
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Until their invasion on 2 April 1982 by the Argentine military junta, they had been governed by the United Kingdom since it re-established control over them in 1833. The invasion and subsequent occupation signalled the start of the Falklands War, the Falkland Islands had been under British administration since January 1833, when the United Kingdom re-established sovereignty over the islands which, at that time, housed an Argentine settlement. Argentina has claimed the Falklands to be part of their territory ever since, the UK first claimed South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands in 1843, and incorporated them as Falkland Islands Dependencies in 1908. In November 1976, Argentina landed and occupied the islands of Southern Thule which had been in British possession since the 18th century. In the early hours of 2 April 1982, in the wake of violent anti-government riots in Buenos Aires, the military junta, faced with overwhelming Argentine force, Sir Rex Hunt surrendered to Admiral Carlos Büsser at 9. 15am. The next day, Argentina sent troops to capture and occupy South Georgia, historically, Argentina had claimed the islands were part of the then federal territory of Tierra del Fuego and South Atlantic islands. On the first day of the occupation, Governor Hunt and officials from the Foreign Office were forcibly evicted from the islands by the Argentine forces and sent to Montevideo, Argentine troops took over control of the Falkland Islands Broadcasting Studio when Patrick Watts was live on air. The Argentines used the station to play tapes with instructions for the islanders. Argentina made Spanish the official language of the Islands and changed Port Stanleys name to Puerto Argentino, traffic was commanded to drive on the right by painting arrows on the road indicating the direction of traffic and changing the location of street and traffic signs to Spanish and metric system. However, outside Stanley, most roads were single track anyway and some refused to observe the new rule. Other acts of civil disobedience included Reg Silvey broadcasting clandestine radio messages throughout the occupation, the Argentine military evacuated 52 schoolchildren from Stanley and turned the playground of the school into a compound for drilling troops. The Argentine peso replaced the Falkland Islands pound and stamps were overfranked with an Islas Malvinas postcode, the Argentine military police arrived on the islands with detailed files on many islanders. One of their first actions was to arrest and deport noted critics of links to Argentina including David Colville, as well as Bill Luxton, such deportations proved internationally embarrassing as Bill Luxton gave numerous interviews on his deportation and subsequently detainees faced internal exile at Fox Bay. Major Patricio Dowling, an Argentine of Irish origin, became the chief of police and he frequently overstepped his authority, ignoring instructions to treat the islanders with respect, and quickly became known throughout the islands for his tendency to resort to violence. Dowling imposed a regime of arbitrary house searches, arrests and questioning and his actions came to the attention of Comodoro Carlos Bloomer-Reeve who recommended to Brigadier-General Menéndez that he be removed and he was subsequently sent back to the mainland in disgrace. Bloomer-Reeve had previously lived on the islands between 1975 and 1976, when he ran the LADE operation in Stanley and had great affection for the islanders. Despite their political differences, the humanity and moral courage of both men earned them the respect and even friendship of many islanders. However, Argentine officers did expropriate civilian property at Goose Green following the detention of the civilian population, on 22 April, the British task force arrived in Falklands waters, three days later British troops recaptured South Georgia
11.
Operation Paraquet
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Operation Paraquet was the code name for the British military operation to recapture the island of South Georgia from Argentine military control in April 1982 at the start of the Falklands War. This view prompted the expression Kill Paraquat before it kills us, the operation, a subsidiary of the main Operation Corporate was successful, leading to the island being restored to British control on 25 April 1982. Major General Jeremy Moore of the Royal Marines was told to provide a Commando company group for a secret mission, originally selecting 45 Commando who had recently completed jungle warfare training, the final selection was 42 Commando who had recently been on a winter deployment to Norway. The second-in-command of 42 Commando, Major Guy Sheridan, a mountaineer, was selected to be Landing Force Commander. M Company of 42 Commando, commanded by Captain Chris Nunn, was augmented by specialists from the Reconnaissance Troop, the Support Company, signals and medics, a total of 132 men. Sheridan requested the support of the Royal Marine Mountain and Arctic Warfare Cadre, in the event, the whole of D Squadron comprising not only the Mountain Troop, but also 16 Troop,18 Troop and 17 Troop along with the Squadron HQ all joined the force at Ascension. Finally,2 Troop, Special Boat Squadron and, as requested by Sheridan, the addition of the extra troops caused some difficulty in the already crowded accommodation in the available ships. The task group sailed from Ascension on 11 April, pausing to redistribute the SAS troops between ships on the 13 April, finally,6 SBS were embarked in the submarine HMS Conqueror. This group, known as CTG317.9, was commanded by Captain Brian Young of Antrim. The task group met with HMS Endurance on 14 April and on the day, received written orders for the operation from Admiral Fieldhouse dated 12 April. Conqueror was first on the scene and carried out a survey of key areas of the South Georgia coast, the Argentine submarine forces consisted of four boats. Two were modern type 209 submarines and two were GUPPY conversions of United States World War II fleet submarines, one of the latter, ARA Santa Fe, was the only submarine to see combat during the conflict. Her sensors were unreliable, and the capacity of her aged batteries was much reduced from their original design. Santa Fe transported troops while orders to remain undetected, not to attack any ships. Storm conditions prevented use of the snorkel, which placed unexpected demands on the batteries, the reinforcements were successfully landed at Grytviken under moonless cloud cover in the pre-dawn hours of 25 April. Santa Fe was underway by 05,00, but was discovered by Antrims Wessex helicopter before she could submerge, the Wessex was joined by task force Wasp and Lynx helicopters, which fired at least six AS-12 missiles at the submarine. Santa Fe returned to Grytviken in sinking condition while her crew fired at the helicopters with rifles, sweden and France requested Astizs extradition from the British authorities after learning about his capture, but his captors rejected the petition. An Argentine prisoner of war, Navy Petty Officer Felix Artuso and he is buried at Grytviken Cemetery
12.
Operation Black Buck
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The objectives of all missions were to attack Port Stanley airfield and its associated defences. The Operation Black Buck raids were staged from RAF Ascension Island, the aircraft carried either twenty-one 1,000 lb bombs internally or two or four Shrike anti-radar missiles externally. The overall effect of the raids on the war is difficult to determine, the raids did minimal damage to the runway and damage to radars was quickly repaired. This dissuasive effect was however watered down when British officials made clear there would be no strikes on air bases in Argentina. A single crater was produced on the runway, rendering it impossible for the airfield to be used by fast jets, Argentine ground crew repaired the runway within twenty-four hours, to a level of quality suitable for the C-130 Hercules transport and Aermacchi MB-339 light attack jet. The Vulcan lacked the range to fly to the Falklands without refuelling several times, the RAFs tanker planes were mostly converted Handley Page Victor bombers with similar range, so they too had to be refuelled in the air. A total of 11 tankers were required for two Vulcans, a huge logistical effort as all aircraft had to use the same strip. The raids, at almost 6,800 nautical miles and 16 hours for the journey, were the longest-ranged bombing raids in history at that time. Without aircraft able to cover the distance, activities in the South Atlantic would be carried out by the Royal Navy. Plans were set in motion within the RAF to see if it could carry out any operations near the Falklands. The airfield nearest to the Falklands and usable for RAF operations was on Ascension Island, long-range operations were entirely dependent upon the RAFs tanker fleet and so fourteen Handley Page Victor tankers were transferred from RAF Marham to Ascension Island. The RAF tankers themselves were capable of being refuelled in flight, at RAF Marham, the tanker force was set to planning refuelling operations to take one or more bombers to the Falklands and back. The Avro Vulcan was the last of the British V bombers in use for bombing. They were based in the UK and assigned to NATO for nuclear operations, at RAF Waddington, the retraining of crews in conventional bombing and in-flight refuelling was begun. Aircraft were selected based upon their engines, only those with the more powerful Bristol Olympus 301 engines were considered suitable, One of the most challenging tasks was re-instating the refuelling system, which had been blocked off. Three 22-year-old Vulcan B2s were selected—XM597, XM598 and XM607—drawn from No,44,50 and No.101 Squadron RAF. After an initial delay of one day, the Vulcans were deployed to Wideawake, two further Vulcans, XM612 and XL391 were stationed at Wideawake as reserve aircraft in case of mechanical failures in the three primary aircraft. Squadron Leader Neil McDougall, Squadron Leader John Reeve, Squadron Leader Alastair Monty Montgomery, evaluation of the effectiveness of the Dash 10 pod and ECM training was undertaken at the RAF Spadeadam electronic warfare ranges in north-west England
13.
ARA General Belgrano
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ARA General Belgrano was an Argentine Navy light cruiser in service from 1951 until 1982. Previously named USS Phoenix, she saw action in the Pacific theatre of World War II before being sold by the United States Navy to Argentina, the vessel was the second to have been named after the Argentine founding father Manuel Belgrano. The first vessel was a 7, 069-ton armoured cruiser completed in 1896, after almost 31 years of service, she was sunk on 2 May 1982 during the Falklands War by the Royal Navy submarine Conqueror with the loss of 323 lives. Losses from General Belgrano totalled just over half of Argentine military deaths in the war, the sinking of General Belgrano was highly controversial in both the United Kingdom and Argentina at the time and remains so to this day. The warship was built as USS Phoenix, the sixth of the Brooklyn-class light cruiser class, in Camden, New Jersey by the New York Shipbuilding Corporation starting in 1935, and launched in March 1938. She survived the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor in 1941 undamaged, at the end of the war, she was placed in reserve at Philadelphia on 28 February 1946, decommissioned on 3rd July that year and remained laid up at Philadelphia. Phoenix was sold to Argentina in October 1951 with another of her class and she was renamed 17 de Octubre after the Peoples Loyalty day, an important symbol for the political party of the then-president Juan Perón. The cruiser accidentally rammed her sister Nueve de Julio on exercises in 1956, General Belgrano was outfitted with the Sea Cat anti-aircraft missile system between 1967 and 1968. On 30 April this was upgraded to a Total Exclusion Zone within which any sea vessel or aircraft from any entering the zone might be fired upon without further warning. The concept of a Total Exclusion Zone was a novelty in maritime law, the purpose of it seems to have been to reduce the amount of time needed to ascertain whether any vessel in the zone was hostile or not. The zone was respected by the shipping of neutral nations. The Argentine military junta began to reinforce the islands in late April when it was realised that the British Task Force was heading south, as part of these movements, Argentine Naval units were ordered to take positions around the islands. General Belgrano had left Ushuaia in Tierra del Fuego on 26 April, two destroyers, ARA Piedra Buena and ARA Bouchard were detached from Task Group 79.2 and together with the tanker, YPF Puerto Rosales joined General Belgrano to form Task Group 79.3. By 29 April the ships were patrolling the Burdwood Bank, south of the islands, on 30 April General Belgrano was detected by the British nuclear-powered hunter-killer submarine Conqueror. The submarine approached over the following day, on 1 May 1982, Admiral Juan Lombardo ordered all Argentine naval units to seek out the British task force around the Falklands and launch a massive attack the following day. General Belgrano, which was outside and to the south-west of the zone, was ordered south-east. Lombardos signal was intercepted by British Intelligence, although the group was outside the British-declared Total Exclusion Zone of 370 km radius from the islands, the British decided that it was a threat. After consultation at Cabinet level, Thatcher agreed that Commander Chris Wreford-Brown should attack General Belgrano, at 15,57 on 2 May, Conqueror fired three 21 inch Mk 8 mod 4 torpedoes, each with an 805-pound Torpex warhead
14.
HMS Sheffield (D80)
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HMS Sheffield was the second Royal Navy ship to be named after the city of Sheffield in Yorkshire. She was a Type 42 guided missile destroyer laid down by Vickers Shipbuilding and Engineering at Barrow-in-Furness on 15 January 1970 and she was launched by Queen Elizabeth II on 10 June 1971 and commissioned on 16 February 1975. An explosion during construction killed two workers and damaged a section of hull which was replaced with a section from an identical ship, Hércules. It was not until 1980 that Sheffield became effective, with Sea Dart, the ship was part of the task force sent to the Falkland Islands during the Falklands war. She was struck by an Exocet air-launched anti-ship missile from a Super Etendard aircraft belonging to the Argentine Navy on 4 May 1982, Sheffield was first detected by an Argentine Naval Aviation Lockheed SP-2H Neptune patrol aircraft at 07,50 on 4 May 1982. The Neptune kept the British ships under surveillance, verifying Sheffields position again at 08,14 and 08,43. Two Argentine Navy Super Étendards, both armed with AM39 Exocets, took off from Río Grande naval air base at 09,45, the two aircraft were 3-A-202, piloted by mission commander Capitán de Fragata Augusto Bedacarratz, and 3-A-203, piloted by Teniente Armando Mayora. At 10,35, the Neptune climbed to 1,170 metres and detected a large, a few minutes later, the Neptune contacted the Super Étendards with this information. Flying at very low altitude at approximately 10,50, both Super Étendards climbed to 160 metres to verify these contacts, but failed to locate them,25 miles later they climbed again and, after a few seconds of scanning, the targets appeared on their radar screens. The Super Étendards did not need to refuel again from the KC-130, which had been waiting, on some task force ships the threat from the type 209 submarine was seen as higher priority than the threat from the air. Sheffields radar operators had difficulty distinguishing Mirage and Super Etendard aircraft, Sheffield had assessed the Exocet threat overrated for the previous two days, and assessed another as a false alarm. Sheffield apparently did not hear the incoming aircraft and missiles, detect them on its electronic support measures sets, no detections were reported via data link from Glasgow. Sheffield and Coventry were chatting over UHF, communications ceased until an unidentified message was heard flatly stating, Sheffield is hit. Sheffield picked up the incoming missiles on her type 965 radar, the operations officer informed the missile director, the launch aircraft had not been detected as the British had expected, and it was not until smoke was sighted that the target was confirmed as sea skimming missiles. Five seconds later, an Exocet hit Sheffield amidships, approximately 8 feet above the waterline on deck 2, the other missile splashed into the sea a half mile off her port beam. The flagship, HMS Hermes, dispatched the escorts Arrow and Yarmouth to investigate, confusion reigned until Sheffields Lynx helicopter unexpectedly landed aboard Hermes carrying the air operations officer and operations officer, confirming the strike. The codeword used to start this procedure was handbrake, which had to be broadcast once the signal of the Agave radar of the Super Étendard was picked up. The initial Ministry of Defence Board of Inquiry on the sinking of the Sheffield concluded that, based upon available evidence, however, some of the crew and members of the task force believed that the missiles 165 kilograms warhead had detonated
15.
Raid on Pebble Island
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The Raid on Pebble Island was a raid by British Special Forces on Pebble Islands airfield during the Falklands War, and took place on the night of 14–15 May 1982. Pebble Island is one of the smaller Falkland Islands, lying north of West Falkland, reconnaissance by these aircraft could have compromised the Royal Navys manoeuvres before its intended landing on East Falkland.5 inch guns. The Naval Gunfire Support Forward Observer who was responsible for co-ordinating the naval support was Captain Chris Brown RA of 148 Battery 29 Commando Regiment Royal Artillery. Initial intentions were for a squadron strength air insertion from Hermes using personnel from D Squadron,22 Regiment, the raiding party would destroy the deployed aircraft, radar site, ground crew and the force protection garrison before helicopter exfiltration to return to the deck before daybreak. Reconnaissance for the raid was conducted by personnel from the Boat Troop of D Squadron, in light of this information the planning emphasised the importance of destroying the aircraft as a priority, with support personnel as a secondary priority. During the night of 14 May, two Westland Sea King HC4 helicopters of 846 Naval Air Squadron, part of the Commando Helicopter Force, the delivery point was 3.7 mi from the airstrip on Pebble Island. For small arms, M16 rifles were used, some with underslung M203 grenade launchers, approach navigation was conducted by a member of the Boat Troop who had carried out the reconnaissance. As the raiding party approached the target they spotted an Argentine sentry but were not seen, allowing them to enter the target, once all the aircraft had been prepared the raiding team opened fire on the aircraft with small arms and L1A1 rockets. All of the aircraft were damaged, with some having their undercarriages shot away, following this cue Glamorgan began shelling the Argentine positions on the airfield using high-explosive rounds, hitting the ammunition dump and fuel stores. The defending force did not engage until the raiding party had re-grouped and were preparing to move out. The Argentine version states that their marines remained in shelters during the Glamorgan shelling, the British wounded were the result of shrapnel from exploding charges settled by the Argentines under the airstrip in order to deny its use to the enemy. The blasts were triggered in the belief that the operation was an assault to take over the air base. The wounded man was hauled back to the site with the raiding party reaching the aircraft by the required time for transportation back to Hermes before daybreak. The decision was made to proceed with exfiltration rather than returning to attack the defending force, assets destroyed during the raid totalled, Six FMA IA58 Pucarás Four Turbo Mentor trainer/light attack aircraft One Short SC. One of the officers involved, Captain Hamilton, was killed in another SAS action near Port Howard. The Argentine forces continued occupying the position until they were evacuated later in the war, One Hundred Days, Memoirs of the Falklands Battle Group Commander. Special Air Service - Pebble Island - The Falklands War 1982
16.
Operation Mikado
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The man in charge of the planning was Brigadier Peter de la Billière, then Director of the SAS. According to the plan, the C-130 would be kept on the tarmac with the running while the 55 men of B Squadron SAS performed their mission. If the C-130s survived then they would head for the Chilean air base at Punta Arenas, if not, the surviving members of the SAS Squadron and aircrew would travel to the Chilean border, about 50 miles away. A preliminary reconnaissance mission on Río Grande, code-named Operation Plum Duff, was launched from HMS Invincible on the night of 17/18 May, as a prelude to the attack. The operation consisted of transporting a small SAS team to the Argentine side of Tierra del Fuego on a stripped down Royal Navy Westland Sea King Mark IV. The team would then march to the Rio Grande air base, the mission required that the Sea King helicopter travel a distance close to its operation range, so this would be a one-way mission. Therefore, the mission consisted of dropping the SAS team in Argentina, heading to Chile. The aircraft, with a crew and eight-man SAS team. Due to an encounter with a drilling rig in an offshore gas field it was forced to detour. As it approached the Argentinian coast after four hours, fog reduced flying visibility to less than a mile, as they approached twelve miles from the planned SAS drop-off point, visibility was reduced to such an extent that the pilot was forced to land. The pilots were forced to fly on instruments through Instrument Meteorological Conditions into neutral Chile, the SAS team was dropped off on the south coast of Bahia Inútil where they were to attempt to move to their Observation Post on foot. The helicopter crew flew to a closer to Punta Arenas where they landed. One of the two pilots and the aircrewman disembarked on the beach and they cut holes in the helicopter to allow it to sink once it was ditched. The other pilot then flew it out over the water but was unable to sink it and he flew back to the beach in order to cut more holes, but was blinded in his Night Vision Goggles by a blinking Low Fuel light and crashed on the beach. The crew set fire to the helicopter and detonated explosive charges before leaving the scene and they moved over the course of several nights to a point of observation near Punta Arenas, where they attempted to make contact with the British Embassy. They were discovered and picked up by the Chilean Military while moving through town, members of the Argentine 24th Regiment of Infantry claimed in 2007 that they hit the helicopter with small arms fire amid thick fog south of Rio Gallegos. The SAS reconnaissance mission was eventually aborted, the British forces also had no information on how the base was organized, and did not know where the Exocets were stored or even where the pilots mess was. Ultimately, the British Government acknowledged that there was a likelihood that the operation would have failed
17.
Battle of San Carlos (1982)
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The Battle of San Carlos was a major battle between aircraft and ships that lasted from 21 to 25 May 1982 during the British landings on the shores of San Carlos Water in the 1982 Falklands War. Low-flying land-based Argentine jet aircraft made repeated attacks on ships of the British Task Force and it was the first time in history that a modern surface fleet armed with surface-to-air missiles and with air cover backed up by STOVL carrier-based aircraft defended against full-scale air strikes. The British sustained severe losses and damage, but were able to create and consolidate a beachhead, after the Argentine invasion of the Falkland Islands the United Kingdom initiated Operation Corporate sending a Task Force 12000 km south in order to retake the islands. Under the codename Operation Sutton the British forces planned amphibious landings around San Carlos, on an inlet located off Falkland Sound, Argentine forces operated under range and payload limitations as they had limited refuelling resources and were operating at maximum range. A-4 Skyhawk, The A-4 was used by both the Argentine Air Force and Argentine Naval Aviation, in spite of using two 295-gallons drop tanks, they needed aerial refuelling twice during missions. Bomb load used during the conflict was one British-made 1000 lb unguided bomb or four 227 kg Spanish/American built retarding tail bombs and their main weapon during the conflict was the British-made 1000 lb unguided bomb. They retained their 30 mm DEFA cannon, mirage IIIEA, The French-built interceptor has an internal fuel tank smaller than that of the Dagger, so they could not fly low enough to escort the strike aircraft. They carried a pair of R550 Magic IR missiles in their flights to the islands. FMA IA-58 Pucara, The Argentine-built counter-insurgency aircraft operated from the Goose Green grass airstrip during the battle, the aircraft were armed with rocket pods, two 20 mm cannons and four 7.62 mm machine guns. British air cover was provided for the first time by Harrier carriers and these carriers deployed short-takeoff, vertical-landing Harriers. The Argentine Army force on site was a section from the 25th Infantry Regiment named Combat team Güemes located at Fanning Head. The British fleet entered San Carlos during the night and at 02,50 was spotted by EC Güemes which opened fire with 81mm mortars, 1st Lt Carlos Daniel Esteban from EC Güemes informed Goose Green garrison about the landings at 08,22. The Argentine high command at Stanley initially suggested that an operation was not feasible at San Carlos. Finally, at 10,00, a COAN Aermacchi MB-339 jet based on the islands was dispatched to San Carlos on a reconnaissance flight, in the meantime, the FAA had already started launching their mainland-based aircraft at 09,00. He attacked HMS Argonaut and an unidentified RFA ship with guns and rockets, three planes scrambled from Goose Green and were engaged by gunfire from HMS Ardent. Cpt Benítez was shot down by a Stinger missile fired by the Special Air Service, he ejected and walked back to his base, Mj Tomba was shot down by pilot Nigel Ward, while Lt Michelouds aircraft escaped and landed at Port Stanleys airfield. Four aircraft made a diversion north of the islands, from San Julian, Cpt Dimeglio and Lt Castillo attacked HMS Antrim with their 30mm cannon. Their 1,000 lb bombs failed to explode, from Rio Grande, Tierra del Fuego, Cpt Rodhe and Lt Bean attacked HMS Argonaut, Lt Bean was shot down by a Sea Wolf SAM from HMS Broadsword, Broadsword was attacked by pilot Cpt Janet
18.
HMS Ardent (F184)
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HMS Ardent was a Royal Navy Type 21 frigate. Built by Yarrow Shipbuilders Ltd, Glasgow, Scotland and she was completed with Exocet launchers in B position. Ardent took part in the Falklands War, where she was sunk by Argentine aircraft in the Falkland Sound on 21 May 1982, on 19 April 1982 Ardent sailed from HMNB Devonport near Plymouth for the Falkland Islands. On route, she escorted task force ships that had left late, on their way to Ascension Island, arriving on 3 May and sailing on the morning of the 7 May. On 21 May 1982, whilst lying in Falkland Sound and supporting Operation Sutton by bombarding the Argentine airstrip at Goose Green, the air strikes caused Ardent to sink the next day. The first attack took place when a lone A-4 Skyhawk dropped two bombs at 16,00 Z, which straddled the frigate but both failed to explode, the bulk of the air strikes began at 17,40 Z. Ardent was ordered to proceed west of North West Island along with Yarmouth to split air attacks from the south, a group of three aircraft, either Skyhawks or IAI Daggers crossed the Falklands Sound from the west and then turned to their left to attack from the north east. Cannon fire and three struck home as the Argentine aircraft pressed their attack from the port side. The only defensive weapons which reacted properly were the 20 mm AA cannons, the Sea Cat anti-aircraft missile system failed to lock onto the attackers, who also outmanoeuvred the 4.5 gun by carrying out their run out of its arc of fire. The aft switchboard was severely damaged, causing loss of power for some key assets, the hangar was left in flames, and the crew suffered a number of casualties. Still in full control of her engines and steering, but virtually defenceless, Ardent was told to head north, but at 18,00 Z five Skyhawks approached the frigate and dropped numerous free-fall and retard bombs. A pattern of two to four bombs exploded in the quarter, while an undetermined number of others which failed to explode penetrated into the ship. Some of the bombs exploded in the water nearby, battering the ship. The dining hall was shattered, communications between the bridge and the control centre were cut off, and the ship lost steering. This attack caused many casualties, especially among the teams working in the hangar. Ardent stopped in the waters of Grantham Sound, the fires in her stern now out of control. With the ship listing heavily, Commander Alan West decided to abandon the ship, Yarmouth came alongside to take off survivors, and the crew was transferred to Canberra. At that time it was known that 22 men had lost their lives, Ardent continued to burn throughout the night, accompanied by the occasional explosion, until she sank at 6,30 Z the next day, with only her foremast remaining above the water
19.
Battle of Seal Cove
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The Battle of Seal Cove was a minor naval action west of Lively Island, during the 1982 Falklands War. The coaster ARA Monsunen was actually a small British vessel that had captured in the course of the Argentine invasion. The ship was spotted by a Royal Air Force Hawker Siddeley Harrier while sailing from Fox Bay towards Stanley with a cargo of 150 drums of fuel and 250 sacks of flour. At 4,00 am GMT on 23 May, a Lynx helicopter from HMS Brilliant identified the Monsunen while the latter was heading to the north, after a surrender order was radioed to the motorboat, another helicopter transporting a SBS team tried to intercept her. The aircraft was greeted with heavy gun and small arms fire. At the same time, the coastal ship’s radar detected the British squadron about eight miles to stern, almost immediately, HMS Yarmouth began to fire her 4.5 inch deck gun on the Argentine vessel, forcing her to manoeuvre in order to avoid the incoming rounds. When the distance fell to 4 miles, Captain Gopcevich, the Argentine commander, decided that the way to deceive the British radar was to beach the boat on Seal Cove. Shortly after he succeeded in running aground his ship and ordering the crew to abandon her, the fire was inaccurate and aimed at the general area of landing. In the process of evacuating the vessel, one of the ratings fell overboard and suffered some serious bruises, the crew members took refuge in an improvised inland shelter. After effectively losing the track of their enemy, the British frigates gave up. Monsunen was found by her complement at dawn, with her engine still running, however, a sling had become entangled with her propeller, disabling the transmission. With the ships speed now dramatically reduced, Gopcevich radioed for help to Stanley, a few hours later, another British trawler seized by the Argentines, ARA Forrest, towed the Monsunen to Darwin. The much needed cargo was uploaded by ARA Forrest, which made for Stanley, the coaster successfully completed Monsunens relief mission on 25 May. ARA Monsunen was later recovered at Darwin by British forces on 29 May, the action is thought to be the only naval encounter between armed surface ships in the war. Jorge Gopcevich Canevari was awarded the La Nación Argentina al Valor en Combate cross, the Official History of the Falklands Campaign. Battle Atlas of the Falklands War 1982 by Land, Sea, ISBN 1-84753-950-5 Southby-Tailyour, Ewen and Clapp, Michael. Amphibious Assault Falklands, The Battle of San Carlos Water, ISBN 0-85052-420-2 Falkland Area Operations, 22nd-23rd May 1982 Apostadero naval Malvinas
20.
HMS Antelope (F170)
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HMS Antelope was a Type 21 frigate of the Royal Navy that participated in the Falklands War. Her keel was laid down 23 March 1971 by Vosper Thornycroft in Woolston, Southampton, initial budget costs for this class were £3.5 million, with final costs exceeding £14 million. She was commissioned on 17 July 1975, and was the unit of the class never to be fitted with Exocet launchers. In 1977, she attended the Silver Jubilee Fleet Review, at this time she was part of the 7th Frigate Squadron. Antelope took part in the Falklands War arriving in the area of operations on 21 May 1982. On 23 May 1982, while on air defence duty at the entrance to San Carlos Water, the first pair attacked from astern, with the flight leader breaking off his attack after one of Antelopes Sea Cat SAMs exploded under the port wing of his aircraft. The pilot, Capitán Pablo Carballo, managed to nurse his aircraft back to Rio Gallegos, the second aircraft on this flight pressed home his bomb run and put a 1, 000-pound bomb in Antelopes starboard side, killing one crewman, Steward Mark R. Stephens. The bomb did not explode and the Argentine aircraft was damaged by small arms fire, the second pair of Skyhawks attacked minutes later from the starboard quarter. Guadagnini was not so lucky, but shot down and killed by weapons, while his bomb pierced the frigates hull. Antelope also fired a Sea Cat at what was believed to be an attacker, but this was Capitán Carballo. This missile missed, but passed less than 10 metres from Carballos cockpit, one of the bombs was inaccessible because of wreckage, the other had been damaged and was thought to be in a particularly dangerous condition. Three attempts by the bomb disposal team to withdraw the fuse of this bomb by remote means failed, the ship was torn open from waterline to funnel, with the blast starting major fires in both engine rooms, which spread very quickly. The starboard fire main was fractured, the ship lost all power. Tobin was the last person to leave the ship, about five minutes after his departure, the following day Antelope was still afloat, but her keel had broken and her superstructure melted into a heap of twisted metal. Antelope broke in half and sank that day, TV and still pictures of Antelopes demise became one of the iconic images of the Falklands War and appear repeatedly in histories of the event. On 27 January 2002 a diving team from the frigate Montrose replaced the Naval Ensign on Antelope, the wreck is designated as a prohibited area under the Falkland Islands Protection of Wrecks Act. Ships of the Royal Navy, The Complete Record of all Fighting Ships of the Royal Navy, the Official Board of Inquiry into the loss of HMS Antelope Video Interview with Warrant Officer John Phillips about events on HMS Antelope
21.
SS Atlantic Conveyor
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Atlantic Conveyor was a British merchant navy ship, registered in Liverpool, that was requisitioned during the Falklands War. She was hit on 25 May 1982 by two Argentine air-launched AM39 Exocet missiles, killing 12 sailors, Atlantic Conveyor sank whilst under tow on 28 May 1982. The wrecksite is designated under the Protection of Military Remains Act 1986, Atlantic Conveyor was a 14,950 ton roll-on, roll-off container ship owned by Cunard. She was built along with six other ships, each named Atlantic. And sailing under different national flags for different companies, along with her sister ship, Atlantic Causeway, Atlantic Conveyor was requisitioned by the Ministry of Defence at the beginning of the Falklands War through the STUFT system. The ships were used to carry supplies for the Royal Navy Task Force sent by the British government to retake the Falkland Islands from Argentine occupation. Sailing for Ascension Island on 25 April 1982, Atlantic Conveyor carried a cargo of six Wessex helicopters from 848 Naval Air Squadron, at Ascension, she picked up eight Fleet Air Arm Sea Harriers and six RAF Harrier GR.3 jump jets. One Chinook of B flight No.18 Squadron RAF left Atlantic Conveyor to support operations on Ascension, with the aircraft stored she then set sail for the South Atlantic. With the additional aircraft on Hermes a Lynx HAS.2 helicopter was flown, on 25 May 1982 Atlantic Conveyor was hit by two AM39 Air Launched Exocet missiles fired by two Argentine Navy Super Étendard jet fighters. Both Exocets struck Atlantic Conveyor on the quarter of the ship. There are conflicting accounts on whether the warheads exploded after penetrating the ships hull, due to the presence of both fuel and ammunition that were stored below decks, the incendiary effect of the unburnt propellant from the missiles caused an uncontrollable fire. When the fire had burnt out, the ship was boarded, while under tow by the requisitioned tug Irishman, Atlantic Conveyor sank in the early morning of 28 May 1982. All the helicopters but one Chinook, squadron identification code Bravo November, were destroyed in the fire, the loss of these helicopters meant that British troops had to march on foot across the Falklands to recapture Stanley. Twelve men died in Atlantic Conveyor, including the master, Captain Ian North. The ship was the first British merchant vessel lost at sea to enemy fire since World War II, the ships replacement was built on Tyneside. Piloting a Sea King helicopter of 820 Naval Air Squadron, Prince Andrew was first to lift off survivors, a dangerous task carried out by Sea Kings was to act as decoys, to deflect sea-skimming missiles away from surface ships. This was achieved by hovering close to the ship and as the radar seeker could not resolve targets in azimuth, if the helicopter was not too high the missile guidance system would aim for the centroid of its apparent target and hopefully pass between the two. Prince Andrew at one point flew his helicopter as an Exocet missile decoy, chaff rockets aim to seduce a missile with a similar technique by increasing the apparent length of the target
22.
HMS Coventry (D118)
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HMS Coventry was a Type 42 destroyer of the Royal Navy. Laid down by Cammell Laird and Company, Limited, at Birkenhead on 29 January 1973, she was launched on 21 June 1974 and she was sunk by Argentine Air Force A-4 Skyhawks on 25 May 1982 during the Falklands War. The principal role of ships was to provide the fleet with mid-range anti-air warfare capability with secondary roles of anti-surface. A total of sixteen Type 42s were built between 1972 and 1985, in three batches, with Coventry the last of the first batch to be commissioned, to cut costs, the first two batches had 47 feet removed from the bow and the beam-to-length ratio reduced. These early Type 42s performed poorly during trials and were notoriously poor sea-keepers, Type 42 destroyers were fitted with the Sea Dart surface-to-air missiles designed in the 1960s to counter threats from manned aircraft. Sea Dart was constrained by limitations on its capacity and reaction time. Coventry was commissioned on 10 November 1978 under the command of Captain C. P. O. Burne at Portsmouth. Following post-commissioning trials, the ship was used to trial the operation of the new Westland Lynx helicopter from the Type 42 platform, to test the combinations safe operating limits. Throughout 1981 and into 1982, Coventry took part in exercises in home waters. Coventry was taking part in the Exercise Springtrain 82 near the British base of Gibraltar, along with other vessels involved in the exercise she was detailed for service in the Falklands Campaign. She had a Union Flag painted on the roof of her bridge, on 27 April, Coventry, in company with Glamorgan, Glasgow, Arrow and Sheffield, entered the Total Exclusion Zone, a 200-mile cordon around the Falkland Islands. Alongside Sheffield and Glasgow, Coventry would form the air defence vanguard for the aircraft following behind. Coventrys contribution to the Falklands War was considerable and her helicopter was the first to fire Sea Skua air-to-surface anti-ship missiles in action. Her Westland Lynx HAS. Mk.2 fired two Sea Skua missiles on 3 May at ARA Alferez Sobral, the former USS Salish. One missile missed and the hit a small boat, knocking out the radio aerials. Glasgows Lynx fired two more Sea Skua, and the vessel retreated, with eight killed, eight wounded. Her damaged bridge is now on display at the Naval Museum in Tigre, the vessel remains in service in the Argentine Navy. Coventry was the first warship to fire Sea Dart surface-to-air missiles in anger when the ship fired three on 9 May at two Learjets of Escuadrón Fénix, just missing the aircraft
23.
Battle of Goose Green
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The Battle of Goose Green was an engagement between British and Argentine forces during the Falklands War. Goose Green and its neighbouring settlement Darwin on East Falkland lie on Choiseul Sound on the east side of the central isthmus. They are about 13 miles south of the site where the major British amphibious landings took place in San Carlos Water on the night of 21/22 May 1982, British forces worked on UTC time and many reports and sources quote the timing of events based on Zulu time. All times stated in this page are reflected as local, Falkland Island time, on the day of the battle, sunrise was at 08,39 and sunset at 16,58. To avoid confusion between similar company designations, Argentine companies are referred to in the form Company A while British forces are referred to as A Company. Goose Green and Darwin are on an isthmus connecting Lafonia to Wickham Heights. The terrain is rolling and treeless and is covered with grass outcrops, areas of gorse and peat bogs making effective camouflage. From May to August, the southern winter, the ground is sodden and frequently covered with brackish water, causing movement to be slow and exhausting. The isthmus has two settlements, both on the coastal edge with Darwin settlement to the north and Goose Green to the south. The islands have a cold, damp climate and light, drizzly rains occur two out of three days with continuous winds. Periods of rain, snow, fog, and sun change rapidly, the bulk of the Argentine forces were in positions around Port Stanley about 50 miles to the east of San Carlos. The Argentine positions at Goose Green and Darwin were well defended by a force of combined units equipped with artillery, mortars,35 mm cannon and machine guns. British intelligence indicated that the Argentine force presented limited offensive capabilities, as a result, British Joint Headquarters in the UK came under increasing pressure from the British government for an early ground offensive of political and propaganda value. There were also fears that the United Nations Security Council would vote for a cease-fire, if the Darwin-Goose Green isthmus could be taken prior to such a decision, British forces would control access to the entire Lafonia and thus a significant portion of East Falkland. On 25 May Brigadier Julian Thompson, ground forces commander, commanding 3 Commando Brigade, was ordered to mount an attack on Argentine positions around Goose Green. The task force, in 1982, also contained a company of the ranger-type 25th Infantry Regiment, there was also one battery of three OTO Melara Mod 56105 mm pack howitzers from the 4th Airborne Artillery Regiment. Pucarás based at Stanley, armed with rockets and napalm, provided air support. Total forces under Piaggis commanded numbered 1,083 men and he assumed an all-round defence posture with Company A IR12 providing the key to his defence, they being deployed along a gorse hedge running across the Darwin isthmus from Darwin Hill to Boca House
24.
Battle of Mount Harriet
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The Battle of Mount Harriet was an engagement of the Falklands War, which took place on the night of 11/12 June 1982 between British and Argentine forces. It was one of three battles in an operation on the same night. The 1st Battalion, Welsh Guards and two companies from 40 Commando were in reserve, HMS Yarmouth provided naval-gunfire support for the British forces. The Argentine defenders consisted of Lieutenant Colonel Diego Sorias 4th Infantry Regiment, after a fierce fight at close quarters, the Argentine patrol melted away from the boulders and snow-soaked scrub and grass. By the end of May, Major Cedric Delves D Squadron had gained Mount Kent, and Tactical HQ commenced patrolling Bluff Cove Peak, the attack was preceded by many days of observation and nights of patrolling. Some night-fighting patrols were part of a plan to convince the Argentinians that the attack would come from a westerly direction. Other, more covert, patrols were to find a route through a minefield around the south of Mount Harriet, sniping and naval artillery were used to harass the defenders and deny them sleep. The Recce Troop opened fire and two conscripts were killed, and an NCO went down, concussed when shot in the helmet by one of the Marine snipers. The Primary Forward Air Controller, commando-trained Flight Lieutenant Dennis Marshal-Hasdell, remembers, We were separated from our heavy bergens with the radios, the patrol was spread over quite a large area, with lots of shouting, noise and firing going on. The Marines abandoned all their equipment, and although no one told us, with no information, and the likelihood of having to fight our way out, Dave Greedus and I decided to abandon our equipment, destroying as much as we could. The two radio sets were tough enough, but the HAZE unit of the target marker was designed to withstand the weight of a tank. The next day,10 Troop re-occupied the Mount Wall observation post against no opposition, on 8 June crack reinforcements arrived in the form of machine-gunners and mortarmen from the 1st Patricios Infantry Regiment and Regiment of Mounted Grenadiers to support the 4th Infantry Regiment. Around dusk on 9 June, the Sorias men detected the presence of British troops that had taken up positions in a house on the approaches to Mount Harriet. The Scots Guards were forced to disengage and retreated to North Basin under heavy small arms, over a period of a week, the 4th Regiment defended the Harriet-Two Sisters sector from five Royal Marine platoon-size attacks. Every time the Royal Marine Commandos got into the forward platoon positions, J Company would launch a diversionary attack on the western end of Mount Harriet. As they moved around the feature in the dark, J company launched their very loud diversionary attack from the west, the battle for Mount Harriet began on the evening of 11 June with a blistering naval bombardment that killed two Argentines and wounded twenty-five. John Witheroe, one of the British war correspondents, later recalled the softening up fire, We were involved with one attack on Mount Harriet. This involved marching for hours on a very dark night
25.
Battle of Two Sisters
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The Battle of Two Sisters was an engagement of the Falklands War during the British advance towards the capital, Port Stanley, it took place from 11 to 12 June 1982. The 2nd Battalion, Parachute Regiment, was held in reserve, Naval gunfire support was provided by HMS Glamorgans two 4. 5-inch guns. Major Óscar Jaimets B Company of the 6th Regiment, acting as the local reserve, captain Andrés Ferreros patrol reached the base of Mount Kent but were then promptly pinned down by machinegun and mortar fire. First-Sergeant Raimundo Máximo Viltes was badly wounded when a bullet shattered his heel, Air Troop had two men wounded by rifle fire. First Lieutenant Márquez and Sergeant Blas had shown great personal courage, during this contact, the SAS suffered two casualties from grenades. The Argentine Commandos stumbled on an occupied by 15 SAS troopers. Throughout 30 May, Royal Air Force Harriers were active over Mount Kent, one of them, responding to a call for help from D Squadron, was shot down by small arms fire while attacking Mount Kents eastern lower slopes. Sub-Lieutenant Llambías-Pravazs platoon was later credited with the destruction of the Harrier XZ963 flown by Squadron-Leader Jerry Pook, Marine Andrew Tubb of Recce Troop was on these patrols, We were actually inside the Argentine position, so we ended up shelling ourselves. We did a lot of patrols up to Two Sisters. that time we pepper-potted for about 400 metres to get out, through the Argy lines firing 66 rockets to fight through and we got artillery again to smoke us out. It took us well over an hour to get away and it seemed like a few minutes and we killed seventeen of them, and all we had was one bloke with a flesh wound. For his patrol action, Lieutenant Chris Fox received the Military Cross, in general terms, the Argentines were thoroughly entrenched, about 6,000 metres or less across no-mans-land. The Argentine positions were mined and heavily patrolled, at about 2.10 am local time on 10 June a strong 45 Commando fighting patrol probed the 3rd Platoon position. In the ensuing fight Special Forces Sergeants Mario Antonio Cisneros and Ramón Gumercindo Acosta were killed, the British military historian Bruce Quarrie later wrote, A constant series of patrols was undertaken at night to scout out and harass the enemy. Typical was the patrol sent out in the hours of the morning of 10 June. Lieutenant David Stewart of X-Ray Company,45 Commando, had briefed his men during the previous afternoon, using a shallow stream for cover, they moved up the slope and deployed into position among the rocks in front of the Argentine trenches. With the help of a night scope, they could see sentries moving about. Suddenly, an Argentine machine-gun opened fire and the Marines launched a couple of flares from their mortar, firing back with their own machine-guns, within seconds three Argentine soldiers and two Marines were dead. Other figures could be running on the hill to the left
26.
HMS Glamorgan (D19)
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HMS Glamorgan was a County-class destroyer of the Royal Navy with a displacement of 5,440 tonnes. The ship was built by Vickers-Armstrongs in Newcastle Upon Tyne and named after the Welsh county of Glamorgan and she was launched on 9 July 1964, and was delivered to the Royal Navy two years later. 5/6 inch guns.5 turret and the ageing Seacat and Seaslug missiles. In the spring and early summer of 1982 Glamorgan was involved in the Falklands War during which she engaged Argentine land forces, in the last days of the war Argentine navy technicians fired a land-based MM-38 Exocet missile which struck the ship causing damage and killing 14 sailors. She was refitted in late 1982 and her last active deployment for the Royal Navy was to the coast of Lebanon in 1984. In 1986 she was sold to the Chilean Navy, and renamed Almirante Latorre and she served for 12 years until late 1998. On 11 April 2005, she sank while under tow to be broken up and her most useful armament proved to be her remaining twin 4. 5-inch guns, which were used primarily to shell enemy positions on shore. Glamorgan was first in action on the evening and night of 1 May when she joined forces with the frigates HMS Arrow, the three British ships soon came under attack by three IAI Dagger jets, two 500 lb bombs fell close alongside Glamorgan, causing minor underwater damage. Two weeks later on 14 May she was again in action and she also fired a Sea slug missile at the airstrip. At 06,37 the following morning, Saturday 12 June 1982, the two MM38 Exocet missiles had been removed from the destroyer ARA Seguí and secured on the launcher, a technically difficult task requiring reprogamming. The launcher was dubbed ITB by the Argentine personnel which approximately means in Argentine slang trashy firing platform, a RASIT radar supplied by the Argentinian Army tracked Glamorgans movements. Glamorgan was steaming at about 20 knots some 18 nautical miles off shore, the first attempt to fire a missile did not result in a launch. At the second attempt a missile was launched, but it did not find the target, the third attempt resulted in a missile tracking the target. The incoming Exocet missile was being tracked on both the bridge and operations room radar by the Principal Warfare Officer and Navigation Officer, before the missile impact, the ship was moving at high speed. After the ship executed a turn away from the missile in the limited time available, a few seconds. This made a 10 by 15 feet hole in the deck and a 5 by 4 feet hole in the galley area below. Fourteen crew members were killed and more wounded, the ship was under way again with all fires extinguished by 10,00. On the following day, repairs were made at sea and, after the Argentinian surrender on 14 June and she sailed for home on 21 June, and re-entered Portsmouth on 10 July 1982 after 104 days at sea. The following crew members were killed in action during the Falklands War, Petty Officer Air Engineering Mechanic Michael J. Adcock Cook Brian Easton Air Engineering Mechanic Mark Henderson Air Engineering Mechanic Brian P
27.
Battle of Mount Longdon
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Naval gunfire support was provided by HMS Avengers 4. 5-in gun. The Argentine force consisted of B Company of the 7th Infantry Regiment of the 10th Mechanized Infantry Brigade, the local Argentine commander was 34-year-old Major Carlos Carrizo Salvadores, the second-in-command of RI7. Marine Teniente de Navío Sergio Andrés Dachary had arrived at Mount Longdon in the preceding the battle. The young RI7 soldiers were not going to abandon their positions easily and they possessed fully automatic FN FAL rifles, FAP light machine guns and PAMS sub-machine guns, these weapons delivered more firepower than the British L1A1 rifle. They were also equipped with FN MAG7. 62mm general purpose machineguns, at their San Miguel del Monte training camp the 7th Regiment companies prepared for possible war against Chile and carried out some helicopter drills with the 601st Combat Aviation Battalion. Private Jorge Altieri in an interview after the war told how he trained hard with B Company, other guys were given FAP light machineguns – and others got PAMS. The main emphasis in shooting was making every bullet count, I was also shown how to use a bazooka, how to make and lay booby-traps, and how to navigate at night, and we went on helicopter drills, night and day attacks and ambushes. From 16 April to 11 June we fought, wed have soup with lentils, green peas and we would tell our officer, We cant tell the British soldiers to wait so that we could get better food and then start shooting. We werent properly fed prior to the fighting like we shouldve been, the experiences in Baldinis platoon varied from soldier to soldier. Sub-Lieutenant Baldini is accused of having handed out punishment to a number of conscripts for having abandoned their posts to go looking for food. They supplied themselves with whiskey from the pubs, but they weren’t prepared for war and they disappeared when things got serious. Alonso also claims the conscripts on Mount Longdon fought “without any type of leadership by our commanders, alonso admits he took no part in the fighting for he was evacuated during the daylight hours of 11 June, a victim of shell-shock during an artillery bombardment. The previous day, Private Carbone had also evacuated after he shot himself in his left thigh while inside his tent as is revealed in the book Two Sides of Hell. There are serious claims that false testimonies were used as evidence in accusing the Argentine officers and NCOs, there are some types of crimes that no state should allow to go unpunished, no matter how much time has passed, such as the crimes of the dictatorship. Last year Germany sentenced a 98-year-old corporal for his role in the camps in one of the Eastern European countries occupied by Nazi Germany. It didnt take into account his age or rank,3 PARA made a desperate march across the hills north of Mount Simon to seize the key piece of high ground above the settlement of Estancia, also known as Estancia House. The weather conditions were atrocious, with the Paras marching through steep slippery hillocks to the objective, Nick Rose was a private in 6 Platoon under Lieutenant Jonathan Shaw, The terrain dictated exactly how we advanced. A lot of the time if we were going along on tracks – what few we did go on – we used Indian file, which is staggered file on either side of the track, like a zig-zag
28.
Battle of Wireless Ridge
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Wireless Ridge was one of seven strategic hills within five miles of Stanley at 51°40′14″S 57°55′55″W that had to be taken in order for the Islands capital to be approached. The attack was successful, and the entire Argentine force on the Islands surrendered later that day. 5-in gun, the Argentine force consisted of the 7th Infantry Regiment and detachments from other units. At first, the 7th Regiment on Wireless Ridge was relatively comfortable, shooting sheep, Private Guillermo Vélez maintains that he personally shot and killed 50 sheep during his time on Wireless Ridge. Chaundler flew to Ascension Island on a Vickers VC10 and then to the Falklands on a C-130 Hercules that was dropping supplies by parachute, four days after Goose Green, Chaundler joined 2 Para. After debriefing the battalions officers about Goose Green and the events following, from Fitzroy,2 Para were moved by helicopter to Bluff Cove Peak where they were held in reserve. The first line of hills, Two Sisters, Mount Longdon, three other hills were then slated to be captured, Mount Tumbledown by the Scots Guards, Mount William by the Ghurkhas and Wireless Ridge by 2 Para. The final phase of 3 Commando Brigades campaign, the battle for Stanley, on the morning of 13 June, it became clear that the attacks on Tumbledown had been successful. So 2 Para marched around the back of Mount Longdon to take up their positions for the assault on Wireless Ridge. As the action was expected to be concluded quickly, they took only their weapons and as much ammunition as possible, leaving most other gear behind in the camp. On Bluff Cove Peak, the Battalions mortars and heavy guns were attacked by Argentine A-4 Skyhawks. In the closing hours of the 13 June, D Company began the attack sequence and it had been hit by an intense barrage from British guns, from land and sea. The approximately 80 casualties sustained by 2 Para two weeks earlier at the Battle of Goose Green, had induced them not to take any chances the second time around. Omar Giménez, says that three or four times he was killed by a direct hit during the softening up bombardment. When D Coy reached the hill, they found that the Argentine compañía C of the 7th Infantry Regiment had withdrawn due to the heavy bombardment. They came under heavy fire, massive retaliation was initiated by the British machine-gunners. The Argentine defenders there eventually withdrew in the face of withering fire. By this stage of the battle, there were not many experienced Argentine officers left, the Forward Artillery Observation Officer, the Operations Officer and the compañía A and C commanders and at least three senior platoon commanders, were wounded. C Coy then moved down from their start line to advance to a position east of Wireless Ridge where they found a platoon position to be unoccupied
29.
Battle of Mount Tumbledown
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The Battle of Mount Tumbledown was an engagement in the Falklands War, one of a series of battles that took place during the British advance towards Stanley. This close-quarters night battle was dramatized in the BBC film Tumbledown. The Argentinian forces defending the mountains were Commander Carlos Robacios 5th Marine Infantry Battalion, the defending Argentines were already proving costly in lives. The attack was supported by gunfire from HMS Actives 4.5 inch gun. At the time of the battle, Ship-of-the-Line Lieutenant Eduardo Villarrazas N Company held Mount Tumbledown, Mount William was just south of Tumbledown and the Marine battalions O Company under Ship-of-the-Line Lieutenant Ricardo Quiroga was on its lower slopes. Major Oscar Ramon Jaimets B Company, 6th Regiment was in reserve behind N Company, Ship-of-the-Line Lieutenant Rodolfo Oscar Cionchis M Company occupied Sapper Hill. The Argentinian defenders held firm under the British softening up bombardment, Major Jaimet later recalled, I heard the cries of the wounded calling for their comrades, twelve men wounded before nightfall. We thought we had suffered before, but what luxury and comfort compared to this, during the battle, the 5th Marines Command Post took five direct hits, but Commander Robacio emerged unscathed. The 1st Platoon, led by Midshipman Bianchi, was located 500 meters southwest of Mount William, the 2nd Platoon, led by Midshipman Oruezabala, was located a little more to the northwest of the 1st Section. The 3rd Platoon, led by Chief Petty Officer Lucero, was located north of Mount Tumbledown, the left flank of this section was very close to the Company HQ. The 4th Section, led by Lieutenant Vazquez, was located at the west end of Tumbledown, with their area of responsibility pointing west and south. The 5th Section, led by Lieutenant Mino, was at the west end of Tumbledown, behind the 4th Section, facing west, note that whilst, the standard composition of infantry companies, is of three platoons this can be augmented in times of war. In this case two further sections were added, the 4th and 5th sections, the 12.7 mm machine guns were located behind the 1st Section. 105 mm recoilless rifles divided, a group was at the end of the 1st Section. 60 mm mortar were between the 4th Section and the command post. The 5th Marine Battalion, Nacar Company, 4th Platoon was located on the edge of Mount Tumbledown. His forehead pointed south, the purpose of location was to beat with guns the flank of the valley that was left to his forehead. Approximately 1000–1500 meters to front of the 1st and 2nd platoon were located, Section had a frontline of about 150–200 m
30.
Argentine surrender in the Falklands War
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The last stage of the Falklands War was the surrender of the Argentine Governor at Port Stanley. With the last natural defence line at Mount Tumbledown breached, the Argentine town defences of Port Stanley began to falter, in the morning gloom, one company commander got lost and his junior officers became despondent. At 2100 hours on 14 June 1982, the commander of the Argentine garrison in Stanley, General Mario Menéndez, surrendered to the Major General Jeremy Moore. The surrender was in conflict with the Argentine Army code stating that a surrender was illegal unless more than 50% of the men were casualties, the terms of the surrender document were slightly changed after negotiation by General Menéndez. The phrase unconditional surrender was changed for the term surrender, the Argentines were granted, The Argentines units will retain their flags. The units will remain under control of their respective officers The surrender ceremony will be private The Argentine officers will retain their sidearms. The final point about the returning of the 11,313 prisoners of war in their own ships was not accepted and 4,167 of them were repatriated to Argentina on the ocean liner Canberra alone. The Argentine Rattenbach commission was assembled after the war to investigate the causes of defeat and it recommended serious penalties for some of the officers in charge, but its influence on the later trial was practically nil. On 20 June, the British retook the South Sandwich Islands, Corbeta Uruguay was established in 1976, but the Argentine base was only contested through diplomatic channels by the UK until 1982. The war lasted 74 days, with 255 British and 649 Argentine soldiers, marines, sailors, and airmen, the British Government decreed that all classified information would be available to the public in the year 2082. However, following the Freedom of Information Act, a deal of formerly classified material is now available. The surrender document is on display at the Imperial War Museum in London, relations between the UK and Argentina were not restored until 1989 and only under the umbrella formula which states that the islands sovereignty dispute will remain aside. Guerra Bajo la Cruz del Sur, Eduardo Jose Costa ISBN 950-614-749-3
31.
Armed Forces of the Argentine Republic
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The Armed Forces of the Argentine Republic, in Spanish, Fuerzas Armadas de la República Argentina, are controlled by the Commander-in-Chief and a civilian Minister of Defense. The Argentine military, as has been the tendency in other Latin American countries, were more influential in former times. Starting in 1930 and throughout the 20th century, democratic governments were more often than not interrupted by military coups, the terrible consequences of the last dictatorship destroyed the military image as the moral reserve of the nation and opened the way to transform them to into todays armed forces. After the Revolución Libertadora coup that deposed president Juan Domingo Perón in 1955, the fight would end in 1963 with military clashes and the defeat of the reds who were opposed to Perón. In 1965, the Argentine military conducted land military maneuvers on Antarctica under then-Colonel Jorge E. Leal, nicknamed Operación 90, this was undertaken ten years before the Antarctic Treaty came into being and was conducted to cement Argentinas claims to a portion of those territories. The last military dictatorship, the National Reorganization Process, lasted from 1976 to 1983, during much of the 19th and the 20th century, relations between neighbour Chile chilled due to disputes over Patagonia, though in recent years relations have improved dramatically. Such action would also bolster its dwindling legitimacy, after short but fierce naval and air battles, the British landed on 21 May, and a land campaign followed until the Argentine forces surrendered on 14 June. 649 Argentines and 255 British died during the war, the political effects of the war were strong and prompted even larger protests against the dictatorship, which hastened its downfall. Far-right sectors of the Army rebelled in the Carapintadas movement, to contain the rebellions, Alfonsín promoted the Full stop law and the Law of due obedience. The following president, Carlos Menem, gave the presidential pardon to the military found guilty in the Trial of the Juntas and it would not be until 1990, when the last military uprising in Argentine history was crushed, that the political conflict within the Army finally subsided. In January 1989, during the attack on La Tablada. The success of Operación Alfil as it was known, with more than 700 interceptions and 25,000 miles sailed on the operations theatre helped to overcome the so-called Malvinas syndrome. From 1990 to 1992, the Baradero-class patrol boats were deployed under UN mandate ONUCA to the Gulf of Fonseca in Central America, in 1994, the three Drummond-class corvettes participated on Operation Uphold Democracy in Haiti. Also, in the 1990s, Argentine Armed Forces began a defense cooperation and friendship policy with neighbors Brazil and Chile. The Argentine military have been reduced both in number and budget, but became more professional, especially after conscription was abolished by president Menem. The British embargo due to the Falklands War was officially eliminated, democratic governments since 1983 straightened the military budget and did not approve any large scale equipment purchases. Argentina military spending is one of the lowest of South America and as of 2010, the Mercosur served, for example, to discourage the Paraguayan military from an attempted coup in early 2000. On 2007 an agreement for cooperation in peace operations was signed with France, Argentina created with Chile a combined force for future United Nations mandates
32.
Spanish language
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Spanish —also called Castilian —is a Romance language that originated in the Castile region of Spain, with hundreds of millions of native speakers around the world. It is usually considered the worlds second-most spoken native language after Mandarin Chinese and it is one of the few languages to use inverted question and exclamation marks. Spanish is a part of the Ibero-Romance group of languages, which evolved from several dialects of Vulgar Latin in Iberia after the collapse of the Western Roman Empire in the 5th century. Beginning in the early 16th century, Spanish was taken to the colonies of the Spanish Empire, most notably to the Americas, as well as territories in Africa, Oceania, around 75% of modern Spanish is derived from Latin. Greek has also contributed substantially to Spanish vocabulary, especially through Latin, Spanish vocabulary has been in contact from an early date with Arabic, having developed during the Al-Andalus era in the Iberian Peninsula. With around 8% of its vocabulary being Arabic in origin, this language is the second most important influence after Latin and it has also been influenced by Basque as well as by neighboring Ibero-Romance languages. It also adopted words from languages such as Gothic language from the Visigoths in which many Spanish names and surnames have a Visigothic origin. Spanish is one of the six languages of the United Nations. It is the language in the world by the number of people who speak it as a mother tongue, after Mandarin Chinese. It is estimated more than 437 million people speak Spanish as a native language. Spanish is the official or national language in Spain, Equatorial Guinea, speakers in the Americas total some 418 million. In the European Union, Spanish is the tongue of 8% of the population. Spanish is the most popular second language learned in the United States, in 2011 it was estimated by the American Community Survey that of the 55 million Hispanic United States residents who are five years of age and over,38 million speak Spanish at home. The Spanish Constitution of 1978 uses the term castellano to define the language of the whole Spanish State in contrast to las demás lenguas españolas. Article III reads as follows, El castellano es la lengua española oficial del Estado, las demás lenguas españolas serán también oficiales en las respectivas Comunidades Autónomas. Castilian is the official Spanish language of the State, the other Spanish languages as well shall be official in their respective Autonomous Communities. The Spanish Royal Academy, on the hand, currently uses the term español in its publications. Two etymologies for español have been suggested, the Spanish Royal Academy Dictionary derives the term from the Provençal word espaignol, and that in turn from the Medieval Latin word Hispaniolus, from—or pertaining to—Hispania
33.
Government House, Falkland Islands
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Government House in Stanley has been the home of the Falkland Islands London-appointed Governors since the mid-19th century. The official residence was built in 1845, the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica says in the Falkland Islands article that Government House, grey, stone-built and slated, calls to mind a manse in Shetland or Orkney. Sir Ernest Shackleton stayed here during his famous expedition, allegedly, he described his time there as being far colder than any time on the ice. Whether that refers to the welcome he received or the temperature is not clear and it was the site of a major battle during the Argentine invasion of the Falklands in 1982. Government Houses of the British Empire Governor of the Falkland Islands
34.
Government of the United Kingdom
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Her Majestys Government, commonly referred to as the UK government or British government, is the central government of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland. The government is led by the Prime Minister, who all the remaining ministers. The prime minister and the other most senior ministers belong to the supreme decision-making committee, the government ministers all sit in Parliament, and are accountable to it. After an election, the monarch selects as prime minister the leader of the party most likely to command a majority of MPs in the House of Commons. Under the uncodified British constitution, executive authority lies with the monarch, although this authority is exercised only by, or on the advice of, the prime minister, the Cabinet members advise the monarch as members of the Privy Council. They also exercise power directly as leaders of the Government Departments, the current prime minister is Theresa May, who took office on 13 July 2016. She is the leader of the Conservative Party, which won a majority of seats in the House of Commons in the election on 7 May 2015. Prior to this, Cameron and the Conservatives led a government from 2010 to 2015 with the Liberal Democrats. A key principle of the British Constitution is that the government is responsible to Parliament, Britain is a constitutional monarchy in which the reigning monarch does not make any open political decisions. All political decisions are taken by the government and Parliament and this constitutional state of affairs is the result of a long history of constraining and reducing the political power of the monarch, beginning with the Magna Carta in 1215. Parliament is split into two houses, the House of Lords and the House of Commons, the House of Commons is the lower house and is the more powerful. The House of Lords is the house and although it can vote to amend proposed laws. Parliamentary time is essential for bills to be passed into law, Ministers of the Crown are responsible to the House in which they sit, they make statements in that House and take questions from members of that House. For most senior ministers this is usually the elected House of Commons rather than the House of Lords, since the start of Edward VIIs reign, in 1901, the prime minister has always been an elected member of Parliament and therefore directly accountable to the House of Commons. Under the British system the government is required by convention and for reasons to maintain the confidence of the House of Commons. It requires the support of the House of Commons for the maintenance of supply, by convention if a government loses the confidence of the House of Commons it must either resign or a General Election is held. The support of the Lords, while useful to the government in getting its legislation passed without delay, is not vital, a government is not required to resign even if it loses the confidence of the Lords and is defeated in key votes in that House. The House of Commons is thus the Responsible house, the prime minister is held to account during Prime Ministers Question Time which provides an opportunity for MPs from all parties to question the PM on any subject
35.
Foreign and Commonwealth Office
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The Foreign and Commonwealth Office, commonly called the Foreign Office, is a department of the Government of the United Kingdom. It is responsible for protecting and promoting British interests worldwide and it was created in 1968 by merging the Foreign Office and the Commonwealth Office. The head of the FCO is the Secretary of State for Foreign and Commonwealth Affairs and this position is regarded as one of the four most prestigious appointments in the Cabinet, alongside those of Chancellor of the Exchequer and Home Secretary. Together with the Prime Minister, these are the Great Offices of State, the FCO is managed from day-to-day by a civil servant, the Permanent Under-Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs, who also acts as the Head of the Her Majestys Diplomatic Service. This position is held by Sir Simon McDonald, who took office on 1 September 2015, safeguarding the UK’s national security by countering terrorism and weapons proliferation, and working to reduce conflict. Building the UK’s prosperity by increasing exports and investment, opening markets, ensuring access to resources, supporting British nationals around the world through modern and efficient consular services. The two departments foreign affairs responsibilities became the Foreign Office, whilst their domestic affairs responsibilities were assigned to the Home Office, the Home Office is technically the senior. One of the most influential Times journalists was Valentine Chirol, British Ambassadors across Europe communicated with him on a number of political and local issues. Twentieth century During World War I, the Arab Bureau was set up within the British Foreign Office as a section of the Cairo Intelligence Department, the FCO was formed in 1968, from the merger of the short-lived Commonwealth Office and the Foreign Office. The Foreign and Commonwealth Office held responsibility for development issues between 1970 and 1974, and again between 1979 and 1997. From 1997, this became the responsibility of the separate Department for International Development, the National Archives website contains a Government timeline to show the departments responsible for Foreign Affairs from 1945. When David Miliband took over as Foreign Secretary in June 2007, one of the key messages of these discussions was the conclusion that the existing framework of ten international strategic priorities, dating from 2003, was no longer appropriate. Although the framework had been useful in helping the FCO plan its work and allocate its resources, the new strategic framework consists of three core elements, A flexible global network of staff and offices, serving the whole of the UK Government. Three essential services that support the British economy, British nationals abroad and these services are delivered through UK Trade & Investment, consular teams in Britain and overseas, and UK Visas and Immigration. In August 2005 a report by management consultant group Collinson Grant was made public by Andrew Mackinlay, the report severely criticised the FCOs management structure, noting, The Foreign Office could be slow to act. Delegation is lacking within the management structure, the FCO could feasibly cut 1200 jobs. At least £48 million could be saved annually, the Foreign Office commissioned the report to highlight areas which would help it achieve its pledge to reduce spending by £87 million over three years. In response to the report being made public, the Foreign Office stated it had implemented the reports recommendations
36.
Royal Marines
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The Corps of Royal Marines is the United Kingdoms amphibious light infantry force, forming part of the Naval Service, along with the Royal Navy. The Royal Marines were formed in 1755 as the Royal Navys infantry troops, as a highly specialised and adaptable light infantry force, the Royal Marines are trained for rapid deployment worldwide and capable of dealing with a wide range of threats. The Royal Marines have close ties with allied marine forces, particularly the United States Marine Corps. Today, the Royal Marines are a fighting force within the British Armed forces. The Royal Marines can trace its origins back as far as 28 October 1664 when at the grounds of the Honourable Artillery Company the Duke of York and Albanys maritime regiment of foot was first formed. On 5 April 1755, His Majestys Marine Forces, fifty Companies in three Divisions, headquartered at Chatham, Portsmouth, and Plymouth, were formed by Order of Council under Admiralty control. Initially all field officers were Royal Navy officers as the Royal Navy felt that the ranks of Marine field officers were largely honorary and this meant that the furthest a Marine officer could advance was to lieutenant colonel. It was not until 1771 that the first Marine was promoted to colonel and this attitude persisted well into the 1800s. During the rest of the 18th century, they served in numerous landings all over the world and they also served in the American War of Independence, being particularly courageous in the Battle of Bunker Hill led by Major John Pitcairn. In 1788 a detachment of four companies of marines, under Major Robert Ross, due to an error the Fleet left Portsmouth without its main supply of ammunition, and were not resupplied until the Fleet docked in Rio de Janeiro midway through the voyage. In 1802, largely at the instigation of Admiral the Earl St. Vincent, the Royal Marines Artillery was formed as a separate unit in 1804 to man the artillery in bomb ketches. These had been manned by the Armys Royal Regiment of Artillery, during the Napoleonic Wars the Royal Marines participated in every notable naval battle on board the Royal Navys ships and also took part in multiple amphibious actions. In the Caribbean theatre volunteers from freed French slaves on Marie-Galante were used to form Sir Alexander Cochranes first Corps of Colonial Marines and these men bolstered the ranks, helping the British to hold the island until reinforcements arrived. This practice was repeated during the War of 1812, where escaped American slaves were formed into Cochranes second Corps of Colonial Marines and these men were commanded by Royal Marines officers and fought alongside their regular Royal Marines counterparts at the Battle of Bladensburg. Throughout the war Royal Marines units raided up and down the east coast of America including up the Penobscot River and they fought in the Battle of New Orleans and later helped capture Fort Bowyer in Mobile Bay in what was the last action of the war. In 1855 the Infantry forces were renamed the Royal Marines Light Infantry, during the Crimean War in 1854 and 1855, three Royal Marines earned the Victoria Cross, two in the Crimea and one in the Baltic. In 1862 the name was altered to Royal Marine Light Infantry. The Royal Navy did not fight any other ships after 1850, in these Naval Brigades, the function of the Royal Marines was to land first and act as skimishers ahead of the sailor Infantry and Artillery
37.
Antarctic
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The Antarctic is a polar region, specifically the region around the Earths South Pole, opposite the Arctic region around the North Pole. The Antarctic comprises in the sense the continent of Antarctica. The region covers some 20% of the Southern Hemisphere, of which 5. 5% is the area of the Antarctic continent itself. All of the land and ice shelves south of 60°S latitude are administrated under the Antarctic Treaty System, in a biogeographic sense, the Antarctic ecozone is one of eight ecozones of the Earths land surface. Most of the Antarctic region is situated south of 60°S latitude parallel, there are only two species of flowering plant, Antarctic hair grass and Antarctic pearlwort, but a range of mosses, liverworts, lichens and macrofungi. The first Antarctic land discovered was the island of South Georgia, the first human born in the Antarctic was Solveig Gunbjørg Jacobsen born on 8 October 1913 in Grytviken, South Georgia. However, the region is visited by more than 40,000 tourists annually, the definitive results of the conference was presented at the Antarctic Treaty states meeting in Uruguay in May 2010. The Antarctic hosts the worlds largest protected area comprising 1.07 million km2, the South Georgia, because Antarctica surrounds the South Pole, it is theoretically located in all time zones. For practical purposes, time zones are based on territorial claims or the time zone of a stations owner country or supply base. Antarctic Circle History of Antarctica Krupnik, Igor, Michael A. Lang, smithsonian at the Poles, Contributions to International Polar Year Science
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HMS Endurance (1967)
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HMS Endurance was a Royal Navy ice patrol vessel that served from 1967 to 1991. She came to notice when she was involved in the Falklands War of 1982. Grogerwerft of Germany built her in 1956 as Anita Dan for Lauritzen Lines, the UK government bought her in 1967 and had Harland & Wolff convert her. She was commissioned into the Royal Navy as HMS Endurance, named after the sailing ship Endurance that took the explorer Ernest Shackletons expedition to the Antarctic in 1914, the new Endurance maintained a UK presence in Antarctica and the Falkland Islands during the southern summer. She also supported the British Antarctic Survey and she had a bright red hull, as is common for polar vessels to aid visibility but otherwise uncommon for the Royal Navy, so her crew nicknamed her The Red Plum. In February 1972 when the cruise ship Lindblad Explorer ran aground, Endurance was in the vicinity under Captain Rodney Bowden, the Ministry of Defences 1981 Defence White Paper proposed naval cuts including decommissioning Endurance, which was scheduled for 15 April 1982. Endurances withdrawal from Antarctic patrol without replacement was perceived in Britain as having encouraged the Argentine invasion, the subsequent Franks Report acknowledged it as a factor. On 19 March 1982, while Endurance was at Stanley, South Georgia was occupied by Argentine civilians, the ship, commanded by Captain Nick Barker, was sent to order the Argentines off the island. Endurance had a small Royal Marines detachment and took further Marines from NP8901, arriving on 25 March 1982 Endurance encountered the Argentine transport ARA Bahía Paraíso, which had landed 40 Argentine troops. Endurance landed her marines, then returned to the Falklands on 30 March, in April the UK command ordered Endurance to join the UK Task Force, which in April landed SBS soldiers at Hound Bay on South Georgia on 22 April. Task Force vessels moved into deeper waters as a precaution against Argentine submarines, Endurance was involved in combat action on 25 April 1982 when her two Wasp ASW helicopters took part in attacks on the submarine ARA Santa Fe, which was later abandoned by her crew. When Argentine forces surrendered the day, Endurance remained near the island to show the UK flag, maintain a naval presence. Endurance also took part in the rescue of wildlife film-makers Cindy Buxton and Annie Price, toward the end of her life the ship was nicknamed HMS Encumbrance due to reliability problems. In 1989 she struck an iceberg and although she was repaired and she was replaced by Polar Circle, later renamed HMS Endurance
Argentina
