1.
Pacific Time Zone
–
The Pacific Time Zone observes standard time by subtracting eight hours from Coordinated Universal Time. During daylight saving time, its time offset is UTC−7 and is based on the mean solar time of the 105th meridian west of the Greenwich Observatory. In the United States and Canada, this zone is generically called the Pacific Time Zone. Specifically, it uses Pacific Standard Time when observing standard time, most of Canada uses daylight saving time. In Mexico, the UTC−8 time zone is known as the Northwest Zone, the largest city in the Pacific Time Zone is Los Angeles, the citys metropolitan area is the largest in the zone. The following states or areas are part of the Pacific Time Zone, California Washington Oregon – all, except for most of Malheur County, nevada Idaho Panhandle – the northern half of Idaho, north of the Salmon River. The town of Hyder, Alaska, is officially in the Alaska Time Zone, however, most of the town observes the Pacific Time because of strong connections with nearby Stewart, British Columbia, which is in the Pacific Time Zone. The United States Post Office in Hyder strictly adheres to Alaska Time, in Canada, the Pacific Time Zone includes most of British Columbia, all of Yukon, and the townsite of Tungsten. In Mexico, the state of Baja California lies completely within the Pacific Time Zone and this does not include the state of Baja California Sur, which is south of Baja California. Through 2006, the time changed to daylight time at 02,00 LST to 03,00 LDT on the first Sunday in April. The Canadian provinces and territories that use daylight time each adopted these dates between October 2005 and February 2007, in Mexico, beginning in 2010, the portion of the country in this time zone uses the extended dates, as do some other parts. The vast majority of Mexico, however, still uses the old dates
Pacific Time Zone
–
Pacific Time Zone
2.
Geographic coordinate system
–
A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
Geographic coordinate system
–
Longitude lines are perpendicular and latitude lines are parallel to the equator.
3.
Greater Los Angeles Area
–
Throughout the 20th century, it was one of the fastest-growing regions in the United States, although growth has slowed since 2000. As of the 2010 U. S. Census, the Los Angeles Metropolitan Statistical Area had a population of nearly 13 million residents. Meanwhile, the metropolitan regions population at the 2010 census was estimated to be over 17.8 million residents. Either definition makes it the second largest metropolitan region in the country, behind the New York metropolitan area, the agglomeration of the urbanized Greater Los Angeles area surrounds the urban core of Los Angeles County. However, this Census definition includes large, sparsely populated and primarily desert swaths of Los Angeles, San Bernardino, according to the U. S. However, more than half of this area lies in the sparsely populated eastern areas of Riverside and San Bernardino counties. Los Angeles has a reputation for sprawl. For comparison, the New York–Newark Urbanized Area as a whole had a density of 5,309 per square mile. Los Angeles sprawl may originate in the decentralized structure. Its major commercial, financial, and cultural institutions are geographically dispersed rather than being concentrated in a single downtown or central area. Also, the density of Los Angeles proper is low when compared to some other large American cities such as New York, San Francisco, Boston. This is misleading though, since unlike other cities the boundary of Los Angeles incorporates mountain areas with almost no people, when the actually built up area is considered, urban Los Angeles has density in excess of 10,000 people per square mile. Densities are particularly high within a 5-mile radius of downtown, where some neighborhoods exceed 20,000 people per square mile. Also, what gives the entire Los Angeles metro region a high density is the fact many of the citys suburbs. Within its urbanized areas, Los Angeles is noted for having small lot sizes, buildings in the area are low when compared to other large cities, mainly due to zoning regulations. Los Angeles became a city just as the Pacific Electric Railway spread population to smaller cities much as interurbans did in East Coast cities. In the first decades of the century, the area was marked by a network of fairly dense. The ascendance of the automobile helped fill in the gaps between these towns with lower-density settlements. Many working class whites migrated to this area during the 1960s and 1970s out of East, as a result, there was a large growth in population into the Conejo Valley and into Ventura County through the US101 corridor
Greater Los Angeles Area
–
Los Angeles
Greater Los Angeles Area
–
Long Beach
Greater Los Angeles Area
–
The
Los Angeles Basin, viewed south from
Mulholland Drive. From left to right can be seen the
Santa Ana Mountains /
Saddleback (horizon),
downtown L.A., the
Hollywood Bowl (foreground),
Mid-Wilshire,
Long Beach –
Palos Verdes (background),
Catalina Island (horizon), the
Southbay and Pacific Ocean.
Greater Los Angeles Area
–
Skyscrapers in
Downtown Los Angeles
4.
Southern California
–
Southern California, often abbreviated as SoCal, is a geographic and cultural region that generally comprises Californias 10 southernmost counties. The region is described as eight counties, based on demographics and economic ties, Imperial, Los Angeles, Orange, Riverside, San Bernardino, San Diego, Santa Barbara. The more extensive 10-county definition, which includes Kern and San Luis Obispo counties, is used and is based on historical political divisions. Southern California is an economic center for the state of California. The 8-county and 10-county definitions are not used for the greater Southern California Megaregion, the megaregions area is more expansive, extending east into Las Vegas, Nevada and south across the Mexican border into Tijuana.5 million people. With over 22 million people, Southern California contains roughly 60 percent of Californias population, located east of Southern California is the Colorado Desert and the Colorado River at the border with Arizona. The Mojave Desert is located at the border with the state of Nevada while towards the south is the Mexico–United States border, within Southern California are two major cities, Los Angeles and San Diego, as well as three of the countrys largest metropolitan areas. With a population of 3,792,621, Los Angeles is the most populous city in California and the second most populous in the United States. South of Los Angeles and with a population of 1,307,402 is San Diego, the second most populous city in the state and the eighth most populous in the nation. The counties of Los Angeles, Orange, San Diego, San Bernardino, and Riverside are the five most populous in the state, the motion picture, television, and music industry are centered in the Los Angeles area in Southern California. Hollywood, a district within Los Angeles, gives its name to the American motion picture industry, headquartered in Southern California are The Walt Disney Company, Sony Pictures, Universal, MGM, Paramount Pictures, 20th Century Fox, and Warner Brothers. Universal, Warner Brothers, and Sony also run major record companies, Southern California is also home to a large homegrown surf and skateboard culture. Companies such as Vans, Volcom, Quiksilver, No Fear, RVCA, some of the worlds biggest action sports events, including the X Games, Boost Mobile Pro, and the U. S. Open of Surfing, are all held in Southern California. Southern California is also important to the world of yachting, the annual Transpacific Yacht Race, or Transpac, from Los Angeles to Hawaii, is one of yachtings premier events. The San Diego Yacht Club held the Americas Cup, the most prestigious prize in yachting, from 1988 to 1995, Southern California is home to many sports franchises and sports networks such as Fox Sports Net. Many locals and tourists frequent the Southern California coast for its popular beaches, the desert city of Palm Springs is popular for its resort feel and nearby open spaces. Southern California is not a geographic designation and definitions of what constitutes Southern California vary. Geographically, Californias North-South midway point lies at exactly 37°958.23 latitude, around 11 miles south of San Jose, however, when the state is divided into two areas, the term Southern California usually refers to the 10 southernmost counties of the state
Southern California
–
Southern California Images top from bottom, left to right:
San Diego Skyline,
Downtown Los Angeles,
Village of La Jolla,
Santa Monica Pier,
Surfer at Black's Beach,
Hollywood Sign,
Disneyland,
Hermosa Beach Pier
Southern California
–
San Diego Marina district
Southern California
–
Sunset in
Venice, a district in Los Angeles
Southern California
–
Three Arch Bay in Laguna
5.
Epicenter
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The term was coined by the Irish seismologist Robert Mallet. The word, however, is misused to mean center. In seismology, the epicenter is the point on the Earths surface directly above the point where the fault begins to rupture, however, in larger events, the length of the fault rupture is much longer, and damage can be spread across the rupture zone. During an earthquake seismic waves propagate spherically out from the hypocenter, outside of the seismic shadow zone both types of wave can be detected but, due to their different velocities and paths through the Earth, they arrive at different times. This distance is called the distance, commonly measured in °. Once epicentral distances have been calculated from at least three seismographic measuring stations, it is a matter to find out where the epicenter was located using trilateration. Epicentral distance is used in calculating seismic magnitudes developed by Richter. Epicenter is frequently misused when not employed in the context of seismology and it is often utilized as an alternative to centre. For example, Travel is restricted in the Chinese province thought to be the epicentre of the SARS outbreak, garners Modern American Usage gives several examples of such misuse. However, Garner notes that these misusages may be metaphorical uses of the term to describe focal points of unstable and potentially destructive environments
Epicenter
–
The epicentre is directly above the
earthquake 's
hypocentre (focus).
6.
Reseda, Los Angeles
–
Reseda /rəˈsiːdə/ is a neighborhood in the San Fernando Valley in Los Angeles, California. It was founded in 1912, and its business district started in 1915. The neighborhood was devoted to agriculture for many years, earthquakes struck the area in 1971 and 1994. The neighborhood has fifteen public and five private schools, the community includes public parks, a senior center and a regional branch library. Parts of Reseda have been used in motion picture and television productions. The area now known as Reseda, like much of Los Angeles County, on land that was originally part of the San Fernando Mission, Reseda originated in 1912 as the town of Marian. It was named after Marian Otis Chandler, the daughter of the Los Angeles Times publisher, Harrison Gray Otis, the name Reseda itself refers to the fragrant plant Reseda odorata which was commonly found in gardens of the time and is native to many areas with a Mediterranean climate. The geographic name Reseda was first used for a siding on a branch of the Southern Pacific Railroad, later, it was used as the name of a stop on the Pacific Electric interurban railway running along Sherman Way. Throughout this time the name of Marian remained, then in 1921, when a Fourth Class Post Office was found to be necessary. As the Zelzah Tribune reported, The Marian territory has made application for a post office to serve that district. Mrs. Turner, we are told, who has taken an active interest in the canvass and to create a sentiment for post office advantages, ninety-two residents convened and agreed to rename the town Reseda. The central business district began in 1915, at what is now the intersection of Reseda Boulevard and Sherman Way, soon a blacksmith shop and an auto repair garage were built nearby. Within a short time, these were followed by a grocery store, there were no sidewalks or pavement yet, most were beginning to be added during the 1918 to early 1920s time period. On the southwest corner of Sherman Way a wooden building housed the volunteer Fire Department until 1922, the wooden building, housing the Fire Department, was then moved to the southeast side of Sherman Way, where it remained until 1933. In May 1929, the citys namesake roadway, Reseda Avenue, was renamed Reseda Boulevard by a Los Angeles City ordinance, parts of the original 1920s and 1930s residential neighborhood remain and are found to the southwest of Sherman Way and Reseda Boulevard. The stock market crash of 1929 and subsequent Great Depression further slowed expansion, the Southern Pacific Railroad trains came up the middle of Sherman Way to pick up freight cars of lettuce on a daily basis during the lettuce harvest season. Around that time, manufacturing roof tile, canning poultry products, Reseda remained primarily an agricultural community with a population of 1,805 in 1930. However, by 1940 the population had increased to 4,147 residents, the mid to later 1940s saw a large increase in the numbers of single-family dwellings in Reseda and the loss of numerous acres of agriculture, and the addition of First Class Postal Service
Reseda, Los Angeles
–
Boundaries of Reseda as drawn by the Los Angeles Times
Reseda, Los Angeles
–
Facing west on Sherman Way
Reseda, Los Angeles
–
Reseda High School.
Reseda, Los Angeles
–
Grover Cleveland High School.
7.
San Fernando Valley
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The San Fernando Valley is an urbanized valley located in Los Angeles County, California, defined by the mountains of the Transverse Ranges circling it. Home to 1.8 million people, it lies north of the larger, nearly two thirds of the valleys land area is part of the city of Los Angeles. The other incorporated cities in the valley are Glendale, Burbank, San Fernando, Hidden Hills, the Los Angeles River begins at the confluence of Calabasas Creek and Bell Creek, between Canoga Park High School and Owensmouth Ave. in Canoga Park. These creeks headwaters are in the Santa Monica Calabasas foothills, the Simi Hills Hidden Hills, Santa Susana Field Laboratory, the river flows eastward along the southern regions of the Valley. One of the rivers two unpaved sections can be found at the Sepulveda Basin, a seasonal river, the Tujunga Wash, drains much of the western facing San Gabriel Mountains and passes into and then through the Hansen Dam Recreation Center in Lake View Terrace. It flows south along the Verdugo Mountains through the communities of the valley to join the Los Angeles River in Studio City. Other notable tributaries of the river include Dayton Creek, Caballero Creek, Bull Creek, Pacoima Wash, the elevation of the floor of the valley varies from about 600 ft to 1,200 ft above sea level. Universal City, an enclave in the part of the valley, is unincorporated land housing the Universal Studios filming lot. Mulholland Drive, which runs along the ridgeline of the Santa Monica Mountains, in this Mediterranean climate, post-1790s European agriculture for the missions support consisted of grapes, figs, olives, and general garden crops. The San Fernando Valley contains five incorporated cities—Glendale, Burbank, San Fernando, Hidden Hills and Calabasas—and part of a sixth, Los Angeles, the unincorporated communities are governed by the County of Los Angeles. The Los Angeles city section of the valley is divided into seven city districts,2,3,4,5,6,7 and 12. Of the 95 neighborhood councils in the city,34 are in the valley, the valley is represented in the California State Legislature by seven members of the State Assembly and five members of the State Senate. The valley is divided into five congressional districts, the San Fernando Valley, for the most part, tends to support Democrats in state and national elections. This is especially true in the areas which include Sherman Oaks. The Los Angeles satellite administrative center for the valley, The Civic Center Van Nuys, is in Van Nuys. The area in and around the Van Nuys branch of Los Angeles City Hall is home to a station, municipal and superior courts. Northridge is home to California State University, Northridge, many branches of the Los Angeles Public Library are located in the valley. For independent libraries see Incorporated Cities in the Municipalities and districts list below, Los Angeles Police Department, Los Angeles County Sheriffs Department, and independent valley city departments
San Fernando Valley
–
San Fernando Valley
San Fernando Valley
–
The West Valley Regional Branch of the
Los Angeles Public Library, in
Reseda
San Fernando Valley
–
Panorama of San Fernando Valley from Universal Studios
San Fernando Valley
–
Mission San Fernando: in a circa 1900 postcard
8.
Las Vegas Valley
–
The Las Vegas Valley is a major metropolitan area located in the southern part of the U. S. state of Nevada. The largest urban agglomeration in the state, it is the heart of the Las Vegas–Paradise-Henderson, the Valley is largely defined by the Las Vegas Valley landform, a 600 sq mi basin area surrounded by mountains to the north, south, east and west of the metropolitan area. The Valley is home to the three largest incorporated cities in Nevada, Las Vegas, Henderson and North Las Vegas, six unincorporated towns governed by the Clark County government are part of the Las Vegas Township and constitute the largest community in the state of Nevada. Since the 1990s the Las Vegas Valley has seen exponential growth, in 2014, a record breaking 41 million visited the Las Vegas area, producing a gross metropolitan product of more than $100 billion. The first reported non-Native American visitor to the Las Vegas Valley was the Mexican scout Rafael Rivera in 1829. Las Vegas was named by Mexicans in the Antonio Armijo party, including Rivera, in the 19th century, areas of the valley contained artesian wells that supported extensive green areas, or meadows, hence the name Las Vegas. The area was settled by Mormon farmers in 1854 and later became the site of a United States Army fort in 1864. Since the 1930s, Las Vegas has generally been identified as a center as well as a resort destination. Nellis Air Force Base is located in the northeast corner of the valley, the ranges that the Nellis pilots use and various other land areas used by various federal agencies, limit growth of the valley in terms of geographic area. Businessman Howard Hughes arrived in the late 1960s and purchased many casino hotels, as well as television, legitimate corporations began to purchase casino hotels as well, and the mob was run out by the federal government over the next several years. The constant stream of tourist dollars from the hotels and casinos was augmented by a new source of money from the establishment of what is now Nellis Air Force Base. The influx of personnel and casino job-hunters helped start a land building boom which is now leveling off. The Las Vegas area remains one of the top entertainment destinations. The valley is contained in the Las Vegas Valley landform and this includes the cities of Las Vegas, North Las Vegas, and Henderson, and the unincorporated towns of Paradise, Spring Valley, Sunrise Manor, Enterprise, Winchester, and Whitney. The valley is located within the larger metropolitan area, as the metropolitan area covers all of Clark County -including parts that do not fall within the valley. The government of Clark County has an Urban Planning Area of Las Vegas and this definition is a roughly rectangular area, about 20 mi from east to west and 30 miles from north to south. Notable exclusions from the Urban Planning Area include Red Rock, Blue Diamond, the Las Vegas Metropolitan Police Department is the largest police department in the valley and the state and exercises jurisdiction in the entire county. The department does not exercise jurisdiction in areas with separate police forces such as North Las Vegas, Henderson, Boulder City, Nellis Air Force Base
Las Vegas Valley
–
In order from top, clockwise left to right: 1.The
Las Vegas Strip; 2.
World Market Center Las Vegas; 3.Homes in
The Ridges; 4.
Red Rock Canyon National Conservation Area; 5.
Lou Ruvo Center for Brain Health; 6.
Las Vegas City Hall
Las Vegas Valley
–
Las Vegas Valley viewed in false color, from 438 mi (705 km) by
TERRA satellite. Grass-covered land, such as golf courses, appears in red. The picture bottom is just south of Sunset Road and the airport, the Spring Mountains on the west and Sunrise Mountain on the east.
Las Vegas Valley
–
Las Vegas at night in 2010.
Las Vegas Valley
–
Four-segment panorama of the Cosmopolitan, Bellagio, and Caesars Palace (left to right) from the Las Vegas Strip, across from the Bellagio fountains.
9.
Aftershocks
–
An aftershock is a smaller earthquake that occurs after a previous large earthquake, in the same area of the main shock. If an aftershock is larger than the shock, the aftershock is redesignated as the main shock. Aftershocks are formed as the crust around the fault plane adjusts to the effects of the main shock. Typically, aftershocks are found up to an equal to the rupture length away from the fault plane. The pattern of aftershocks helps confirm the size of area that slipped during the main shock, Aftershocks rates and magnitudes follow several well-established empirical laws. The frequency of aftershocks decreases roughly with the reciprocal of time after the main shock and this empirical relation was first described by Fusakichi Omori in 1894 and is known as Omoris law. It is expressed as n = k where k and c are constants, a modified version of Omoris law, now commonly used, was proposed by Utsu in 1961. N = k p p is a third constant which modifies the decay rate. According to these equations, the rate of aftershocks decreases quickly with time, the rate of aftershocks is proportional to the inverse of time since the mainshock and this relationship can be used to estimate the probability of future aftershock occurrence. These patterns describe only the behavior of aftershocks, the actual times, numbers and locations of the aftershocks are stochastic. N =10 a − b M Where, N is the number of greater or equal to M M is magnitude a and b are constants In summary, there are more small aftershocks. Aftershocks are dangerous because they are unpredictable, can be of a large magnitude. An aftershock sequence is deemed to have ended when the rate of seismicity drops back to a background level, i. e. no further decay in the number of events with time can be detected. Land movement around the New Madrid is reported to be no more than 0.2 mm a year, Aftershocks on the San Andreas are now believed to top out at 10 years while earthquakes in New Madrid are considered aftershocks nearly 200 years after the 1812 New Madrid earthquake. Some scientists have tried to use foreshocks to help predict upcoming earthquakes, on the East Pacific Rise however, transform faults show quite predictable foreshock behaviour before the main seismic event. Reviews of data of past events and their foreshocks showed that they have a low number of aftershocks, seismologists use tools such as the Epidemic-Type Aftershock Sequence model to study cascading aftershocks. Following a large earthquake and aftershocks, many people have reported feeling phantom earthquakes when in fact no earthquake was taking place and this condition, known as earthquake sickness is thought to be related to motion sickness, and usually goes away as seismic activity tails off. Earthquake Aftershocks Not What They Seemed at Live Science
Aftershocks
–
This article is about the geological event. For other uses of the term, see
Aftershock (disambiguation).
10.
Hypocenter
–
A hypocenter is the point of origin of an earthquake or a subsurface nuclear explosion. It is a synonym of the focus, confusingly, the term hypocenter is also used as a synonym for ground zero, the surface point directly beneath a nuclear airburst. An earthquakes hypocenter is the position where the energy stored in the rock is first released. This occurs directly beneath the epicenter, at a known as the focal or hypocentral depth. The focal depth can be calculated from measurements based on wave phenomena. Computing the hypocenters of foreshocks, main shock, and aftershocks of earthquakes allows the three-dimensional plotting of the fault along which movement is occurring, the wave reaches each station based upon how far away it was from the hypocenter. A number of things need to be taken into account, most importantly variations in the speed based upon the materials that it is passing through. With adjustments for velocity changes, the estimate of the hypocenter is made, then a series of linear equations is set up. The equations express the difference between the arrival times and those calculated from the initial estimated hypocenter. The system iterates until the location is pinpointed within the margin of error for the velocity computations, the dictionary definition of hypocenter at Wiktionary Media related to Hypocenters at Wikimedia Commons
Hypocenter
–
Hypocenter (Focus) and epicenter of an earthquake
11.
1933 Long Beach earthquake
–
The 1933 Long Beach earthquake took place on March 10 at 5,54 P. M. PST south of downtown Los Angeles, the epicenter was offshore, southeast of Long Beach, California, on the Newport–Inglewood Fault. The earthquake had a moment magnitude of 6.4 and a maximum Mercalli intensity of VIII, damage to buildings was widespread throughout Southern California. An estimated forty million dollars worth of property damage resulted, many of these fatalities occurred as people ran out of buildings and were hit by falling debris. The major damage occurred in the city of Long Beach on the south-facing coast of Los Angeles County. Unfavorable geological conditions combined with poorly constructed buildings increased the damage done by the quake, at Long Beach, buildings collapsed, water tanks fell through roofs, and houses were tossed off their foundations. School buildings were among the structures that incurred the most severe damage, the earthquake highlighted the need for earthquake-resistant design for structures in California. Many school buildings were damaged, with more than 230 school buildings that either were destroyed, suffered major damage, the California State Legislature passed the Field Act on April 10,1933, mandating that school buildings must be earthquake-resistant. If the earthquake had occurred during school hours, the toll would have been much higher
1933 Long Beach earthquake
–
Damage to the John Muir School, Pacific Avenue, Long Beach
1933 Long Beach earthquake
–
Los Angeles
12.
Thrust fault
–
A thrust fault is a type of fault, or break in the Earths crust across which there has been relative movement, in which rocks of lower stratigraphic position are pushed up and over higher strata. They are often recognized because they place older rocks above younger, Thrust faults are the result of compressional forces. Thrust faults are a class of reverse faulting that typically have low dip angles. It is often hard to recognize thrusts because their deformation and dislocation can be difficult to detect when they occur within the rocks without appreciable offset of lithological contacts. If the angle of the plane is low and the displacement of the overlying block is large the fault is called an overthrust. Erosion can remove part of the block, creating a fenster when the underlying block is only exposed in a relatively small area. When erosion removes most of the block, leaving only island-like remnants resting on the lower block. If the fault plane terminates before it reaches the Earths surface, because of the lack of surface evidence, blind thrust faults are difficult to detect until they rupture. The destructive 1994 quake in Northridge, California was caused by a blind thrust fault. Thrust faults, particularly involved in thin-skinned style of deformation, have a so-called ramp-flat geometry. Thrusts mostly propagate along zones of weakness within a sequence, such as mudstones or salt layers. The part of the thrust linking the two flats is known as a ramp and typically forms at an angle of about 15°-30° to the bedding. Continued displacement on a thrust over a ramp produces a characteristic fold geometry known as an anticline or, more generally. Fault-propagation folds form at the tip of a thrust fault where propagation along the decollement has ceased, the continuing displacement is accommodated by formation of an asymmetric anticline-syncline fold pair. As displacement continues the thrust tip starts to propagate along the axis of the syncline, such structures are also known as tip-line folds. Eventually the propagating thrust tip may reach another effective decollement layer, when a thrust that has propagated along the lower detachment, known as the floor thrust, cuts up to the upper detachment, known as the roof thrust, it forms a ramp within the stronger layer. With continued displacement on the thrust, higher stresses are developed in the footwall of the due to the bend on the fault. This may cause renewed propagation along the floor thrust until it again cuts up to join the roof thrust, further displacement then takes place via the newly created ramp
Thrust fault
–
Thrust fault in the
Qilian Shan, China. The older (left, blue and red) thrust over the younger (right, brown).
Thrust fault
–
The Glencoul Thrust at Aird da Loch,
Assynt in Scotland, the irregular grey mass of rock is formed of
Archaean or
Paleoproterozoic Lewisian gneisses thrust over well-bedded
Cambrian quartzite, along the top of the younger unit
Thrust fault
–
Small thrust fault in the cliffs at Lilstock Bay, Somerset, displacement of about 2 m
Thrust fault
–
Antiformal stack of thrust imbricates proved by drilling, Brooks Range Foothills, Alaska
13.
Interstate 10 in California
–
In the greater Los Angeles area, it is known as the Santa Monica Freeway and the San Bernardino Freeway, linked by a short concurrency on Interstate 5 at the East Los Angeles Interchange. Interstate 10 also has designated as either the Rosa Parks Freeway or the Redlands Freeway. The California Streets and Highways Code defines Route 10 from Route 1 in Santa Monica to Route 5 near Seventh Street in Los Angeles. Route 101 near Mission Road in Los Angeles to the Arizona state line at the Colorado River via the vicinity of Monterey Park, Pomona, Colton, Indio, and Chiriaco Summit and via Blythe. This short section of Route 10 between Route 5 and Route 101, which was defined as Route 110 until 1968, is signed overhead for I-10 eastbound. This I-5/I-10 cosigning is consistent with the Federal Highway Administrations Interstate Highway route logs that such an overlap exists for the segment of I-10 in California, I-10 is part of the California Freeway and Expressway System and is eligible for the State Scenic Highway System. However, it is not actually a scenic highway as designated by Caltrans, the Santa Monica Freeway is Route 10 from Route 1 to Route 5, as named by the State Highway Commission on April 25,1957. The section between the Harbor and San Diego freeways is also signed as the Rosa Parks Freeway, after the African American civil rights activist, the I-10 freeway is signed as the Christopher Columbus Transcontinental Highway in Santa Monica. Interstate 10 begins in the city of Santa Monica when State Route 1 turns into a freeway, SR1 exits onto Lincoln Boulevard and heads south while I-10 continues east. Soon after it enters the city of Los Angeles, I-10 has a interchange with Interstate 405. On the western edge of downtown, I-10 has an interchange with Interstate 110 to the south, I-10 then travels along the southern edge of downtown to the East Los Angeles Interchange. At the East Los Angeles Interchange, State Route 60 diverges east towards Riverside, I-10 then turns north, running concurrently with Interstate 5 for a few miles. Then, Interstate 10 heads east and merges with the traffic from the spur to US101 onto the San Bernardino Freeway, the freeway is 14 lanes wide from the Harbor Freeway interchange to the Arlington Avenue off-ramp. Most of these lanes are full at peak travel times, the remainder of the freeway varies between eight and 10 lanes in width. The whole freeway opened in 1965, with a dedication held in 1966. All three freeway-to-freeway interchanges along its length are notorious for their congestion, and are ranked among the top 10 most congested spots in the United States. Due to the traffic volume, car accidents are so common that Caltrans has constructed special Accident Investigation Sites separated from the freeway by fences. These enable the California Highway Patrol to quickly clear accidents from the traffic lanes
Interstate 10 in California
–
Interstate 10 begins at the McClure Tunnel in
Santa Monica, California.
Interstate 10 in California
–
Interstate 10
Interstate 10 in California
–
The Santa Monica Freeway interchange with the Harbor Freeway, as seen by traffic going eastbound on the Santa Monica
Interstate 10 in California
–
Downtown Los Angeles skyline as seen from the freeway. A slight (smaller than usual rush hour) traffic jam is ahead.
14.
Santa Monica, California
–
Santa Monica is a beachfront city in western Los Angeles County, California, United States. The Census Bureau population for Santa Monica in 2010 was 89,736, due in part to an agreeable climate, Santa Monica became a famed resort town by the early 20th century. The city has experienced a boom since the late 1980s through the revitalization of its core, significant job growth. The Santa Monica Pier remains a popular and iconic destination, Santa Monica was long inhabited by the Tongva people. Santa Monica was called Kecheek in the Tongva language, the first non-indigenous group to set foot in the area was the party of explorer Gaspar de Portolà, who camped near the present-day intersection of Barrington and Ohio Avenues on August 3,1769. Named after the Christian saint Monica, there are two different accounts of how the name came to be. One says it was named in honor of the feast day of Saint Monica, another version says it was named by Juan Crespí on account of a pair of springs, the Kuruvungna Springs, that were reminiscent of the tears Saint Monica shed over her sons early impiety. In Los Angeles, several battles were fought by the Californios, following the Mexican–American War, Mexico signed the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, which gave Mexicans and Californios living in state certain unalienable rights. US government sovereignty in California began on February 2,1848, in the 1870s the Los Angeles and Independence Railroad, connected Santa Monica with Los Angeles, and a wharf out into the bay. The first town hall was a modest 1873 brick building, later a beer hall and it is Santa Monicas oldest extant structure. By 1885, the towns first hotel was the Santa Monica Hotel, around the start of the 20th century, a growing population of Asian Americans lived in and around Santa Monica and Venice. A Japanese fishing village was near the Long Wharf while small numbers of Chinese lived or worked in Santa Monica, the two ethnic minorities were often viewed differently by White Americans who were often well-disposed towards the Japanese but condescending towards the Chinese. The Japanese village fishermen were an economic part of the Santa Monica Bay community. Donald Wills Douglas, Sr. built a plant in 1922 at Clover Field for the Douglas Aircraft Company, in 1924, four Douglas-built planes took off from Clover Field to attempt the first aerial circumnavigation of the world. Two planes returned after covering 27,553 miles in 175 days, the Douglas Company kept facilities in the city until the 1960s. The Great Depression hit Santa Monica deeply, one report gives citywide employment in 1933 of just 1,000. Hotels and office building owners went bankrupt, in the 1930s, corruption infected Santa Monica. The federal Works Project Administration helped build several buildings, most notably City Hall, the main Post Office and Barnum Hall were also among other WPA projects
Santa Monica, California
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Santa Monica's Ocean Avenue at Sunset
Santa Monica, California
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An 1840 Santa Monica adobe home (photographed in 1890).
Santa Monica, California
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A busy day on the beach, 1880
Santa Monica, California
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Exterior view of the Bank Building at the corner of Third Street and Broadway, Santa Monica, ca.1900
15.
Simi Valley, California
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The city of Simi Valley, in the eponymous valley, is in the southeast corner of Ventura County, California, United States. 30 miles from Downtown Los Angeles, Simi Valley is part of the Greater Los Angeles Area, the city sits next to Thousand Oaks, Moorpark, and Los Angeles. The citys 2014 population has been estimated at 126,871, the city of Simi Valley is surrounded by the Santa Susana Mountain range and the Simi Hills, west of the San Fernando Valley, and northeast of the Conejo Valley. It is largely a bedroom community, feeding the cities in the Los Angeles area and the San Fernando Valley to the east. The Ronald Reagan Presidential Library, where the president was buried in 2004, is in Simi Valley. Simi Valley has been ranked twice as the 18th most conservative city in the United States, once by The Bay Area Center For Voting Research, the Reagan Library has hosted Republican primary debates, last in 2012, and the first primary debates in 2016. A study done by the University of Vermont ranked Simi Valley as the fifth-happiest city in the United States, according to crime statistics by the FBI in 2013, Simi Valley is the seventh-safest city in the U. S. with a population of 100,000 or more. The U. S. Census Bureau of 2012 reported a household income of $87,894, which is higher than the California median of $70,231. Simi Valley was once inhabited by the Chumash people, who also settled much of the region from the Salinas Valley to the Santa Monica Mountains, with their presence dating back 10, around 5,000 years ago these tribes began processing acorns, and harvesting local marshland plants. Roughly 2,000 years later, as hunting and fishing techniques improved, shortly after this sharp increase a precious stone money system arose, increasing the viability of the region by offsetting fluctuations in available resources relating to climate changes. The native people who inhabited Simi Valley spoke a dialect of the Chumash language. Simi Valleys name derived from the Chumash word Shimiyi, which refers to the stringy, the name could have derived from strands of mist from coastal fog that move into the Oxnard Plain and wind their way up the Calleguas Creek and the Arroyo Las Posas into Simi Valley. The origin of the name was preserved because of the work of the anthropologist John P. Harrington, whose brother, the word Simiji was constructed by whites to the word Simi. There are other explanations about the name Simi, but this one was given to me by my brother who worked over 40 years for the Smithsonian Institution and it seems most plausible to me. Three Chumash settlements existed in Simi Valley during the Mission period in the late 18th and early 19th century, Shimiyi, Ta’apu, the cave is located on private land owned by Boeing, formerly operated by Rocketdyne for testing rocket engines and nuclear research. Other areas containing Chumash Native American pictographs in the Simi Hills are for instance by Lake Manor, the first Europeans to visit Simi Valley were members of the Spanish Portolà expedition, the first European land entry and exploration of the present-day state of California. The expedition traversed the valley on January 13–14,1770, traveling from Conejo Valley to San Fernando Valley and they camped near a native village in the valley on the 14th. Rancho Simi was the earliest Spanish colonial land grant within Ventura, the name derives from Shimiji, the name of the Chumash Native American village here before the Spanish
Simi Valley, California
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Aerial view of Simi Valley in 2014
Simi Valley, California
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Chumash trigram pictographs in Simi Valley.
Simi Valley, California
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Simi Adobe-Strathearn House was the headquarters of
Rancho Simi, one of the largest land grants in
Alta California by Spain. It is now a
California Historical Landmark and on the
U.S. National Register of Historic Places.
Simi Valley, California
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1990 Aerial view of the
Energy Technology Engineering Center at the Santa Susana Field Laboratory, Simi Hills, Simi Valley
16.
Santa Clarita, California
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Santa Clarita, officially the City of Santa Clarita, is the third largest city in Los Angeles County, California, and the seventeenth largest in the state of California. The city has annexed a number of unincorporated areas, contributing to the population increase. It is located about 35 miles northwest of downtown Los Angeles and it is a notable example of a U. S. edge city or boomburb. Santa Clarita was ranked by Money magazine in 2006 as 18th of the top 100 places to live, the four communities retain separate identities, and it is common for residents to refer to a specific neighborhood when asked where they are from. Santa Clarita is bounded on the west by the Golden State Freeway, the Antelope Valley Freeway runs northeast-southwest through an irregular east border, and the Newhall Pass is the citys southernmost point. Santa Clarita was incorporated in December 1987, but its history stretches back several centuries, about AD450, the Tataviam arrived, numbering around 2,000 at their zenith. The Santa Clara River was named by Spanish explorers for Clare of Assisi, the valley and the settlement later became known as little Santa Clara in deference to the Northern California mission and city of Santa Clara, California. In time, little Santa Clara became Santa Clarita, in 1842, Francisco Lopez made the first documented discovery of gold in California. The event is memorialized in an 1842 mining claim issued by Gov. Juan B, the discovery was made in Placerita Canyon, an area later used as Hollywoods original back lot. Newhalls next business interest was railroads and he invested in rail companies that would connect San Francisco to other cities and became president of the San Francisco and San Jose Railroad. In 1870, he and his partners sold the company to Southern Pacific Railroad, after railroads, Newhall turned to real estate and ranching. He purchased a number of the old Spanish and Mexican land grants in the state for a total of 143,000 acres between Monterey and Los Angeles counties. The most significant portion was the 46,460 acres Rancho San Francisco in northern Los Angeles County, which he purchased for $2/acre, the first station built on the line he named for his hometown, Saugus, Massachusetts. After his death, Newhalls heirs incorporated the Newhall Land and Farming Company, on September 26,1876, Charles Alexander Mentry brought in the states first productive oil well at Mentryville, giving rise to the California oil industry. The oil was brought to a refinery at Newhall, now the oldest existing petroleum refinery in the world, it was operational from 1874 to 1888. A few days earlier, on September 5,1876, Charles Crocker and Leland Stanford joined their railroads in Canyon Country, linking Los Angeles with the rest of the nation for the first time. The Saugus Cafe, on Railroad Avenue in Saugus, was established in 1887 and appears to be, by far, the oldest still-operating restaurant in Los Angeles County. Filming in Santa Clarita began shortly after the turn of the 20th century with a veritable Whos Who of actors, including William S. Hart, Tom Mix, Harry Carey and a young John Wayne
Santa Clarita, California
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Santa Clarita's Canyon Country in September 2008.
Santa Clarita, California
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The Santa Clarita welcome sign in May 2010.
Santa Clarita, California
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A typical stretch of Valencia Boulevard in the Valencia part of Santa Clarita in July 2004. The bridge in the distance carries a paseo (a type of dedicated pedestrian pathway) over the roadway.
Santa Clarita, California
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Overlooking Santa Clarita from Ed Davis Park in Towsley Canyon.
17.
California State University, Northridge
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California State University, Northridge is a public university in the Northridge neighborhood of Los Angeles, California, United States, in the San Fernando Valley. As of Fall 2014, the school had 2,096 faculty and it was founded first as the Valley satellite campus of Cal State Los Angeles. It then became an independent college in 1958 as San Fernando Valley State College, with major campus master planning, the University adopted its current name of California State University, Northridge in 1972. CSUN enrolls more than 40,000 students and ranks 10 in the U. S. in bachelors degrees awarded to underrepresented minority students, the university has over 200,000 alumni. CSUN is home to the National Center on Deafness, and the university hosts the International Conference on Technology and Persons with Disabilities, the establishment of CSUN began in 1952 with the proposal of a new satellite campus for Los Angeles State College. A Baldwin Hills location was planned in 1955, but San Fernando Valley advocates persuaded state officials to change the location to Northridge. In July 1958, the campus separated from Los Angeles State College and was renamed San Fernando Valley State College, with enrollment reaching 2,525, in 1959, it became the first State College to have its own computer. In 1964, the computer lab was moved into quarters in the newly completed Sierra Hall building complex. The campuss quiet, moderately conservative and overwhelmingly white suburban setting did not shield it from a share of the noise, strife, as on many college campuses, there were increasingly large antiwar demonstrations and occasional draft card burnings. In 1966–67, there were only 23 Black and 7 Latino students, responding to complaints about low minority representation, the administration made some attempt to boost enrollment of Latinos and Blacks in 1967. By the fall of 1968 the tally stood at about 150 Black and 75 Latino students, nobody was hurt and, under duress, the president agreed to their demands. The administration largely kept its part of the bargain, but despite an included assurance of amnesty,28 of the students involved were charged with kidnapping. The last such demonstration was in May 1971, on the first anniversary of the Kent State shootings, the college officially renamed itself California State University, Northridge in June 1972. In 1975, the construction of the CSUN sculpture began at the southeast corner of campus, by 1977, enrollment at the university was 28,023, with tuition at $95. In 1981, the officially established a foreign exchange student program with Japan, China, Ukraine, South Korea, Taiwan, Brazil. In 1988, the campus had an enrollment of 31,575, the 1994 Northridge earthquake struck on January 17 and caused $400 million in damage to the campus, the heaviest damage ever sustained by an American college campus. The epicenter was less than two miles away on a previously undiscovered blind thrust fault, later the same month, Vice President Al Gore visited with a promise of funds to help with the reconstruction. Due to inadequate earthquake engineering, the structure next to the Matadome was completely destroyed
California State University, Northridge
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Manzanita Hall
California State University, Northridge
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California State University, Northridge
California State University, Northridge
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Oviatt Library in 2009.
California State University, Northridge
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CSUN at National Model UN (2007)
18.
Newhall Pass interchange
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The Newhall Pass Interchange is a highway interchange at Newhall Pass, north of Sylmar in Southern California, United States. It connects Interstate 5 with State Route 14, the 5-14 split, as the interchange is commonly referred to as by locals, is the northernmost of five freeway interchanges on Interstate 5 within a 10-mile stretch. The interchange is extremely large, and consists of numerous flyover ramps, portions of Interstate 5 in the pass reach up to 21 lanes wide. The complex structure combines a directional T-interchange with a collector–distributor bypass, the bypass, signed as truck lanes, allows traffic to and from State Route 14 to avoid the congested pass summit. These truck lanes extend south to the Interstate 210 interchange, and have ramps to. The bypass is the original four-lane freeway, built as U. S. Route 99, a total collapse of the southbound Interstate 5 to northbound State Route 14 overpass occurred as a result of the February 9,1971 Sylmar earthquake. This collapse resulted in the collapse of the intersecting southbound State Route 14 to southbound I-5 overpass. Both bridges fell directly onto the southbound I-5 truck bypass, there was damage to all structures involved, varying from minor cracking and splaying, to the loss of complete sections of bridges. The interchange was rebuilt in 1973, with steel rebar reinforcement. It also caused the south 14 to south I-5 overpass to collapse directly onto the main I-5 freeway, the collapse also closed the Metrolinks Antelope Valley Line, which began operation to Lancaster soon after. The interchange was dedicated the Clarence Wayne Dean Memorial Interchange in his honor. In the weeks and months that followed, traffic was rerouted to San Fernando Road through the pass as reconstruction efforts began, the interchange was partially reopened on July 8, and completed in 1995 with additional reinforcing on the overpass support columns. The tunnel is a 550 ft long reinforced concrete box girder and it was last inspected in April 2007, and no problems were found. Thirty commercial vehicles and one passenger vehicle were involved in the traffic collision, a resulting fire soon spread from vehicle to vehicle, eventually encompassing the entire tunnel with flames shooting nearly 100 feet outside the tunnel and burning at around 1,400 °F. Three people died - including a 38-year-old male truck driver and his 6-year-old male passenger - and ten people were injured, as a result of the accident and ensuing fire, all lanes of I-5 between Calgrove Boulevard and State Route 14 were closed. In addition, the southbound onramps between State Route 126 and Calgrove Boulevard were closed along with the approaches from State Route 14. Firefighters finished removing debris from the tunnel at 7 a. m. on October 14, inspectors found heavy damage to the tunnel walls under the north portal. They also found a lot of spalling and exposed rebar, both of which can cause a loss of vertical support, however, the tunnel roof was found to be sound
Newhall Pass interchange
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Newhall Pass Interchange
19.
Interstate 5 in California
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Interstate 5 is a major north–south route of the Interstate Highway System in the U. S. state of California. It begins at the Mexico–United States border at the San Ysidro crossing, goes north across the length of California and crosses into Oregon south of the Medford-Ashland metropolitan area. It is the important and most used of the two major north-south routes on the Pacific Coast, the other being U. S. Route 101. This highway links the major California cities of San Diego, Santa Ana, Los Angeles, Stockton, Sacramento, Interstate 5 has several named portions, the Montgomery Freeway, San Diego Freeway, Santa Ana Freeway, Golden State Freeway, and West Side Freeway. I-5 is part of the California Freeway and Expressway System and is eligible for the State Scenic Highway System, however, it is a scenic highway as designated by Caltrans only from State Route 152 to I‑580. Interstate 5 begins at the San Ysidro Port of Entry from Mexico in the San Ysidro neighborhood of San Diego, immediately after the border, I-805 splits off to the northeast and serves as a bypass of I-5 that avoids the downtown San Diego area. I-5 itself continues northwest and intersects with the end of the SR905 freeway. I-5 then continues northward and joins the end of SR75. I-5 then enters Chula Vista, briefly leaving the San Diego city limits and it continues along the east side of San Diego Bay where it intersects with SR54 and enters National City. From there, I-5 veers around the San Diego Naval Base, I-5 subsequently interchanges with four state routes — SR15, SR75 and the Coronado Bay Bridge, the western end of SR94, and the southern end of SR163. In addition to serving downtown San Diego, I-5 also provides access to Balboa Park from the Pershing Drive exit. The portion of I-5 from the border to downtown San Diego is named the Montgomery Freeway in honor of John J. Montgomery, a pioneer aviator who flew a glider from a location near Chula Vista in 1884. I-5 continues northwest from downtown as the San Diego Freeway until it reaches its junction with I-8, then slightly to the north while passing near SeaWorld. Thereafter, I-5 interchanges with the end of SR52 before passing through the UC San Diego campus in University City near La Jolla. At Nobel Drive, the San Diego LDS Temple towers over I-5, shortly afterward, I-5 interchanges with the northern terminus of I-805 before continuing north and interchanging with the western end of SR56. At this interchange, there is a recently completed local bypass that provides the access to Carmel Mountain Road from both directions and provides the only access to SR56 going northbound. North of the San Diego city limits, I-5 enters into the city limits of Solana Beach, in Oceanside, I-5 intersects with the SR78 freeway and the SR76 expressway and continues through Camp Pendleton. It then follows the Pacific Ocean coastline for the next 20 miles, I-5 enters Orange County at the Christianitos Road exit
Interstate 5 in California
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I-5 looking south toward downtown San Diego in January 2002
Interstate 5 in California
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Interstate 5
Interstate 5 in California
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I-5 South in San Diego toward
Mexico, September 2012
Interstate 5 in California
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I-5 in the
Newhall Pass Interchange, where it intersects with I-210 and SR 14 near Santa Clarita
20.
Golden State Freeway
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Interstate 5 is a major north–south route of the Interstate Highway System in the U. S. state of California. It begins at the Mexico–United States border at the San Ysidro crossing, goes north across the length of California and crosses into Oregon south of the Medford-Ashland metropolitan area. It is the important and most used of the two major north-south routes on the Pacific Coast, the other being U. S. Route 101. This highway links the major California cities of San Diego, Santa Ana, Los Angeles, Stockton, Sacramento, Interstate 5 has several named portions, the Montgomery Freeway, San Diego Freeway, Santa Ana Freeway, Golden State Freeway, and West Side Freeway. I-5 is part of the California Freeway and Expressway System and is eligible for the State Scenic Highway System, however, it is a scenic highway as designated by Caltrans only from State Route 152 to I‑580. Interstate 5 begins at the San Ysidro Port of Entry from Mexico in the San Ysidro neighborhood of San Diego, immediately after the border, I-805 splits off to the northeast and serves as a bypass of I-5 that avoids the downtown San Diego area. I-5 itself continues northwest and intersects with the end of the SR905 freeway. I-5 then continues northward and joins the end of SR75. I-5 then enters Chula Vista, briefly leaving the San Diego city limits and it continues along the east side of San Diego Bay where it intersects with SR54 and enters National City. From there, I-5 veers around the San Diego Naval Base, I-5 subsequently interchanges with four state routes — SR15, SR75 and the Coronado Bay Bridge, the western end of SR94, and the southern end of SR163. In addition to serving downtown San Diego, I-5 also provides access to Balboa Park from the Pershing Drive exit. The portion of I-5 from the border to downtown San Diego is named the Montgomery Freeway in honor of John J. Montgomery, a pioneer aviator who flew a glider from a location near Chula Vista in 1884. I-5 continues northwest from downtown as the San Diego Freeway until it reaches its junction with I-8, then slightly to the north while passing near SeaWorld. Thereafter, I-5 interchanges with the end of SR52 before passing through the UC San Diego campus in University City near La Jolla. At Nobel Drive, the San Diego LDS Temple towers over I-5, shortly afterward, I-5 interchanges with the northern terminus of I-805 before continuing north and interchanging with the western end of SR56. At this interchange, there is a recently completed local bypass that provides the access to Carmel Mountain Road from both directions and provides the only access to SR56 going northbound. North of the San Diego city limits, I-5 enters into the city limits of Solana Beach, in Oceanside, I-5 intersects with the SR78 freeway and the SR76 expressway and continues through Camp Pendleton. It then follows the Pacific Ocean coastline for the next 20 miles, I-5 enters Orange County at the Christianitos Road exit
Golden State Freeway
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I-5 looking south toward downtown San Diego in January 2002
Golden State Freeway
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Interstate 5
Golden State Freeway
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I-5 South in San Diego toward
Mexico, September 2012
Golden State Freeway
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I-5 in the
Newhall Pass Interchange, where it intersects with I-210 and SR 14 near Santa Clarita
21.
California State Route 14
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State Route 14 is a north–south state highway in the U. S. state of California, largely in the Mojave Desert. The southern portion of the highway is signed as the Antelope Valley Freeway, legislatively, the route extends south of I-5 to State Route 1 in the Pacific Palisades area of Los Angeles, however the portion south of the junction with I-5 has not been constructed. The southern part of the route is a busy commuter freeway serving and connecting the cities of Santa Clarita, Palmdale. This section is rural, following the line between the hot Mojave desert and the forming Sierra Nevada mountain range, linked with US395, this road connects Los Angeles with such places as Mammoth Mountain, Mono Lake, Yosemite National Park and Reno, Nevada. Route 14 was part of U. S. Route 6 prior to truncation in 1964, portions of Route 14 remain signed with names associated with US6, including Midland Trail, Theodore Roosevelt Highway and Grand Army of the Republic Highway. This route is part of the California Freeway and Expressway System, the southern portion of the freeway, from Interstate 5 to the Avenue D exit near Lancaster, has been designated the Antelope Valley Freeway by the state legislature. The Antelope Valley Freeway begins in the Santa Susana Mountains at the Newhall Pass interchange by splitting from the Golden State Freeway and this is the busiest portion of the route with an annual average daily traffic count of 169,000 vehicles per day. The freeway forms the boundary of Santa Clarita along its route. Past Santa Clarita, the continues to the northeast and crosses the Sierra Pelona Mountains. The ascent is mostly rugged and rural terrain, with two small towns along the ascent, first Agua Dulce and later Acton. Between the two towns the freeway forms the boundary of Vasquez Rocks Park, a county park. The highway crests the Sierra Pelona Mountains via Escondido Summit, at an elevation of 3,258 feet, the highway then crests the San Gabriel Mountains via Soledad Pass, at an elevation of 3,209 feet. The route of the highway through the mountains loosely parallels that of the line of the Southern Pacific Railroad. After cresting both mountain passes, the highway descends into the Antelope Valley, a valley within the Mojave Desert. The highway crosses Angeles Forest Highway and the California Aqueduct in the descent, Route 14 serves as the primary north–south thoroughfare for the communities of Palmdale and Lancaster. Between Palmdale Boulevard and Avenue D in Lancaster, SR14 runs concurrently with SR138, from the Pearblossom Highway exit south of Palmdale to its northern terminus at Route 395 near Inyokern, SR14 has been designated the Aerospace Highway. The freeway passes the Los Angeles/Kern County line at Avenue A, the freeway portion terminates just south of Mojave, where SR14 serves as the main street and runs through the downtown area. State Route 58 was formerly routed concurrent with SR14 through Mojave, before it was rerouted onto a bypass running north, the character of the highway changes as it leaves Mojave
California State Route 14
–
Southbound view of
Interstate 5 near its intersection with State Route 14, at the
Newhall Pass Interchange,
Granada Hills
California State Route 14
–
State Route 14
California State Route 14
–
The northern terminus of Route 14 near
Inyokern
California State Route 14
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Looking south at the corner of Sierra Highway and Lancaster Blvd. in Lancaster in 1913
22.
Antelope Valley Freeway
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State Route 14 is a north–south state highway in the U. S. state of California, largely in the Mojave Desert. The southern portion of the highway is signed as the Antelope Valley Freeway, legislatively, the route extends south of I-5 to State Route 1 in the Pacific Palisades area of Los Angeles, however the portion south of the junction with I-5 has not been constructed. The southern part of the route is a busy commuter freeway serving and connecting the cities of Santa Clarita, Palmdale. This section is rural, following the line between the hot Mojave desert and the forming Sierra Nevada mountain range, linked with US395, this road connects Los Angeles with such places as Mammoth Mountain, Mono Lake, Yosemite National Park and Reno, Nevada. Route 14 was part of U. S. Route 6 prior to truncation in 1964, portions of Route 14 remain signed with names associated with US6, including Midland Trail, Theodore Roosevelt Highway and Grand Army of the Republic Highway. This route is part of the California Freeway and Expressway System, the southern portion of the freeway, from Interstate 5 to the Avenue D exit near Lancaster, has been designated the Antelope Valley Freeway by the state legislature. The Antelope Valley Freeway begins in the Santa Susana Mountains at the Newhall Pass interchange by splitting from the Golden State Freeway and this is the busiest portion of the route with an annual average daily traffic count of 169,000 vehicles per day. The freeway forms the boundary of Santa Clarita along its route. Past Santa Clarita, the continues to the northeast and crosses the Sierra Pelona Mountains. The ascent is mostly rugged and rural terrain, with two small towns along the ascent, first Agua Dulce and later Acton. Between the two towns the freeway forms the boundary of Vasquez Rocks Park, a county park. The highway crests the Sierra Pelona Mountains via Escondido Summit, at an elevation of 3,258 feet, the highway then crests the San Gabriel Mountains via Soledad Pass, at an elevation of 3,209 feet. The route of the highway through the mountains loosely parallels that of the line of the Southern Pacific Railroad. After cresting both mountain passes, the highway descends into the Antelope Valley, a valley within the Mojave Desert. The highway crosses Angeles Forest Highway and the California Aqueduct in the descent, Route 14 serves as the primary north–south thoroughfare for the communities of Palmdale and Lancaster. Between Palmdale Boulevard and Avenue D in Lancaster, SR14 runs concurrently with SR138, from the Pearblossom Highway exit south of Palmdale to its northern terminus at Route 395 near Inyokern, SR14 has been designated the Aerospace Highway. The freeway passes the Los Angeles/Kern County line at Avenue A, the freeway portion terminates just south of Mojave, where SR14 serves as the main street and runs through the downtown area. State Route 58 was formerly routed concurrent with SR14 through Mojave, before it was rerouted onto a bypass running north, the character of the highway changes as it leaves Mojave
Antelope Valley Freeway
–
Southbound view of
Interstate 5 near its intersection with State Route 14, at the
Newhall Pass Interchange,
Granada Hills
Antelope Valley Freeway
–
State Route 14
Antelope Valley Freeway
–
The northern terminus of Route 14 near
Inyokern
Antelope Valley Freeway
–
Looking south at the corner of Sierra Highway and Lancaster Blvd. in Lancaster in 1913
23.
1971 San Fernando earthquake
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The 1971 San Fernando earthquake occurred in the early morning of February 9 in the foothills of the San Gabriel Mountains in southern California. The unanticipated thrust earthquake had a moment magnitude between 6.5 and 6.7 and had a maximum Mercalli intensity of XI, the event was one in a series that affected the Los Angeles area in the late 20th century. Uplift and other effects affected private homes and businesses, the event affected a number of health care facilities in Sylmar, San Fernando, and other densely populated areas north of central Los Angeles. The Olive View Medical Center and Veterans Hospital both experienced very heavy damage, and buildings collapsed at both sites, causing the majority of deaths that occurred, the success in this area spurred the initiation of Californias Strong Motion Instrumentation Program. Transportation around the Los Angeles area was afflicted with roadway failures. Another aspect of the event were the hundreds of types of landslides that were documented in the San Gabriel mountains. The San Bernardino, Santa Ynez, and Santa Monica Mountains are also part of the anomalous east–west trending Transverse Ranges, the domain of the ranges stretches from the Channel Islands offshore, to the Little San Bernardino Mountains,300 miles to the east. Paleomagnetic evidence has shown that the western Transverse Ranges were formed as the Pacific Plate moved northward relative to the North American Plate. As the plate shifted to the north, a portion of the terrane that was parallel with the coast was rotated in a clockwise manner. The Transverse Ranges form the perimeter of a series of basins that begins with the Santa Barbara Channel on the west end. Moving eastward, there is the Ventura Basin, the San Fernando Valley, the San Fernando earthquake occurred on February 9 at 6,00,41 am Pacific Standard Time with a strong ground motion duration of about 12 seconds. The origin of faulting was located five miles north of the San Fernando Valley, considerable damage was seen in localized portions of the valley and also in the foothills of the San Gabriel mountains above the fault block. The fault that was responsible for the movement was not one that had considered a threat. Prominent surface faulting trending N72°W was observed along the San Fernando Fault Zone from a point south of Sylmar, stretching nearly continuously for 6 miles east to the Little Tujunga Canyon. As categorized during the intensive studies immediately following the earthquake, they were labeled the Mission Wells segment, Sylmar segment, Tujunga segment, Foothills area, and the Veterans fault. In repeated measurements of the different fault breaks, the results remained consistent, while lateral, transverse, and vertical motions were all observed, the largest individual component of movement was 5 ft 3 in of left lateral slip near the middle of the Sylmar segment. The largest cumulative amount of slip of 6 feet 7 inches occurred along the Sylmar, temporary seismometers that were set up in response to the mainshock were up and running from as soon as several hours to several days after the main event and provided additional data until March 1. The catalog of items was mostly complete and included 200 shocks of magnitude 3.0 or greater, during the first hour of activity, the larger aftershocks were overshadowing the smaller events
1971 San Fernando earthquake
–
The San Gabriel Mountains with the Veterans Hospital complex in center
1971 San Fernando earthquake
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CISN ShakeMap of the San Fernando earthquake mainshock
1971 San Fernando earthquake
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Ground level and overhead view of the scarp at the Foothill Nursing Home
1971 San Fernando earthquake
24.
Los Angeles Police Department
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The Los Angeles Police Department, officially the City of Los Angeles Police Department, is the law enforcement agency for the city of Los Angeles, California, United States. With 9,843 officers and 2,773 civilian staff, it is the third-largest municipal police department in the United States, after the New York City Police Department, the department serves an area of 498 square miles and a population of 4,030,904 people. The LAPD has been fictionalized in numerous movies, novels, the department has also been associated with a number of controversies, mainly concerned with racism, police brutality, and police corruption. The first specific Los Angeles police force was founded in 1853, as the Los Angeles Rangers, the Rangers were soon succeeded by the Los Angeles City Guards, another volunteer group. Neither force was particularly efficient and Los Angeles became known for its violence, gambling, the first paid force was created in 1869, when six officers were hired to serve under City Marshal William C. Warren. By 1900, under John M. Glass, there were 70 officers, in 1903, with the start of the Civil Service, this force was increased to 200. During World War II, under Clemence B, horrall, the overall number of personnel was depleted by the demands of the military. Despite efforts to maintain numbers, the police could do little to control the 1943 Zoot Suit Riots, Parker advocated police professionalism and autonomy from civilian administration. However, the Bloody Christmas scandal in 1951 led to calls for civilian accountability, under Parker, LAPD created the first SWAT team in United States law enforcement. Officer John Nelson and then-Inspector Daryl Gates created the program in 1965 to deal with threats from radical organizations such as the Black Panther Party operating during the Vietnam War era. The old headquarters for the LAPD was Parker Center, named former chief William H. Parker. The new headquarters is the new Police Administration Building located at 100 W. 1st St. immediately south of Los Angeles City Hall, the Los Angeles Board of Police Commissioners also known as the Police Commission, is a five-member body of appointed officials which oversees the LAPD. The board is responsible for setting policies for the department and overseeing the LAPDs overall management, the Chief of Police reports to the board, but the rest of the department reports to the chief. The Office of the Inspector General is an independent part of the LAPD that has oversight over the department’s internal disciplinary process and it was created by the recommendation of the Christopher Commission and it is exempt from civil service and reports directly to the Board of Police Commissioners. The current Inspector General is Alexander A. Bustamante who was formerly an Assistant United States Attorney, the OIG receives copies of every complaint filed against members of the LAPD as well as tracking specific cases along with any resultant litigation. The OIG also conducts audits on select investigations and conducts regular reviews of the system in order to ensure fairness. As well as overseeing the LAPDs disciplinary process, the Inspector General may undertake special investigations as directed by the Board of Police Commissioners, the Office of the Chief of Police is the administrative office comprising the Chief of Staff and the Employee Relations Group. The majority of the LAPDs approximately 10,000 officers are assigned within the Office of Operations, an Assistant Chief, currently First Assistant Chief Michel Moore, commands the office, and reports directly to the chief of police
Los Angeles Police Department
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Venice Police Station in the 1920s
Los Angeles Police Department
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Seal of the
City of Los Angeles
Los Angeles Police Department
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The New Police Administration Building opened in 2009
Los Angeles Police Department
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The
Rampart Division police station.
25.
Anaheim, California
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Anaheim is a city in Orange County, California, part of the Los Angeles metropolitan area. As of the 2010 United States Census, the city had a population of 336,265, making it the most populous city in Orange County, Anaheim remained largely a rural community until Disneyland opened in the city in 1955. This led to the construction of hotels and motels around the area. The city also developed into a center, producing electronics, aircraft parts. Anaheims city limits extend from Cypress in the west to the Riverside County line in the east and encompass a diverse collection of neighborhoods, Anaheim Hills is a master-planned community located in the citys eastern stretches that is home to many of the citys affluent. Downtown Anaheim has three historic districts, the largest of which is the Anaheim Colony. The Anaheim Resort, a district, includes Disneyland, Disney California Adventure. The Platinum Triangle, a redevelopment district surrounding Angel Stadium, is planned to be populated with mixed-use streets. Finally, Anaheim Canyon is a district north of California State Route 91. Anaheims name is a blend of Ana, after the nearby Santa Ana River, and heim, the city of Anaheim was founded in 1857 by 50 German-Americans who were residents of San Francisco and whose families had originated in Rothenburg ob der Tauber, Franconia in Bavaria. For $750 a share, the formed the Anaheim Vineyard Company. Their new community was named Annaheim, meaning home by the Santa Anna River in German, the name later was altered to Anaheim. To the Spanish-speaking neighbors, the settlement was known as Campo Alemán, although grape and wine-making was their primary objective, the majority of the 50 settlers were mechanics, carpenters and craftsmen with no experience in wine-making. The community set aside 40 acres for a center and a school was the first building erected there. The first home was built in 1857, the Anaheim Gazette newspaper was established in 1870, for 25 years, the area was the largest wine producer in California. However, in 1884, a disease infected the grape vines, other crops – walnuts, lemons and oranges – soon filled the void. Fruits and vegetables had become viable cash crops when the Los Angeles – Orange County region was connected to the railroad network in 1887. The famous Polish actress Helena Modjeska settled in Anaheim with her husband and various friends, among them Henryk Sienkiewicz, Julian Sypniewski, while living in Anaheim, Helena Modjeska became good friends with Clementine Langenberger, the second wife of August Langenberger
Anaheim, California
Anaheim, California
Anaheim, California
Anaheim, California
26.
Angel Stadium of Anaheim
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Angel Stadium of Anaheim, originally known as Anaheim Stadium and later Edison International Field of Anaheim, is a modern-style ballpark located in Anaheim, California. The stadium is referred to by its unofficial nickname The Big A. It is the fourth-oldest active Major League Baseball stadium, behind Fenway Park, Wrigley Field and it hosted the 1967,1989, and 2010 Major League Baseball All-Star Games. Located near the boundary of the parking lot is the landmark Big A sign and electronic marquee. The halo located near the top of the 230 tall, 210-ton sign is illuminated following games in which the Angels win, which gives rise to the fan expression, Light up the Halo. The station provides convenient access to the stadium, the nearby Honda Center, and Disneyland from various communities along the route, which links San Luis Obispo, Los Angeles, and San Diego. The Anaheim Resort Transit stops at the center along with Orange County Transportation Authority buses. and 2 to 3 AMA Supercross Championship races a year, the stadium also houses the studios and offices of the Angels owned and operated flagship radio station, KLAA. Angel Stadium has been the home of the Angels since their move from Los Angeles, on August 31,1964, ground was broken for Anaheim Stadium and in 1966, the then-California Angels moved into their new home after having spent four seasons renting Dodger Stadium from the Dodgers. The stadium was built on a parcel of about 160 acres of land originally used for agricultural purposes by the Allec, Russell. Consistent with many sports stadiums built in the 1960s, it is located in a suburban area. The field dimensions were derived from a study conducted by the Angels. Based on the air density at normal times, the Angels tried to formulate dimensions that were fairly balanced between pitcher, hitter and average weather conditions. The Angels tinkered with those dimensions several times, expanding or contracting parts of the outfield by a few here and there. One of the no-hitters, on June 1,1975, was his fourth, the Coliseum seated almost 100,000 people, and the Rams had trouble filling it even in their best years. Rosenbloom brokered a deal by which the Rams would move from Los Angeles to an expanded Anaheim Stadium, to add more seats for football games, the mezzanine and upper decks were extended completely around the playing field, resulting in a roughly trapezoidal, completely enclosed stadium. An elevated bank of bleachers was built in right field, and temporary seats were placed underneath, another bank of bleachers was built in left field. As a result, the view of the mountains and State Highway 57 was lost. A black and white scoreboard/instant replay video board was installed above the newly constructed upper deck seats in left field, a triangular metal spire was added to the top of the Jumbotron to evoke the original emplacement of the Big A
Angel Stadium of Anaheim
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Angel Stadium in 2003
Angel Stadium of Anaheim
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Anaheim Stadium under construction, May 1965
Angel Stadium of Anaheim
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The Angels play at an enclosed Anaheim Stadium, 1991
Angel Stadium of Anaheim
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The Rams hosting a football game at Anaheim Stadium, 1991.
27.
Martin Luther King, Jr. Day
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Martin Luther King Jr. Day is an American federal holiday marking the birthday of Martin Luther King Jr. It is observed on the third Monday of January each year, the holiday is similar to holidays set under the Uniform Monday Holiday Act. King was the spokesman for nonviolent activism in the Civil Rights Movement. The campaign for a holiday in Kings honor began soon after his assassination in 1968. President Ronald Reagan signed the holiday into law in 1983, at first, some states resisted observing the holiday as such, giving it alternative names or combining it with other holidays. It was officially observed in all 50 states for the first time in 2000, the idea of Martin Luther King Jr. Day as a holiday was promoted by labor unions in contract negotiations. Senator Edward Brooke introduced a bill in Congress to make Kings birthday a national holiday, the bill first came to a vote in the U. S. House of Representatives in 1979. However, it fell five short of the number needed for passage. Only two other figures have national holidays in the U. S. honoring them, George Washington, soon after, the King Center turned to support from the corporate community and the general public. The success of this strategy was cemented when musician Stevie Wonder released the single Happy Birthday to popularize the campaign in 1980 and hosted the Rally for Peace Press Conference in 1981. Six million signatures were collected for a petition to Congress to pass the law, senators Jesse Helms and John Porter East led opposition to the holiday and questioned whether King was important enough to receive such an honor. Helms criticized Kings opposition to the Vietnam War and accused him of espousing action-oriented Marxism, Helms led a filibuster against the bill and on October 3,1983, submitted a 300-page document to the Senate alleging that King had associations with communists. New York Senator Daniel Patrick Moynihan declared the document a packet of filth, threw it on the Senate floor, President Ronald Reagan originally opposed the holiday, citing cost concerns. But on November 2,1983, Reagan signed a bill, proposed by Representative Katie Hall of Indiana, the bill had passed the House of Representatives by a count of 338 to 90, a veto-proof margin. The holiday was observed for the first time on January 20,1986, the bill also established the Martin Luther King Jr. Federal Holiday Commission to oversee observance of the holiday, and Coretta Scott King, in 2000, Utah became the last state to have a holiday named after King when Human Rights Day was officially changed to Martin Luther King Jr. Day. Later that year, Mecham proclaimed the third Sunday in January to be Martin Luther King Jr. /Civil Rights Day in Arizona, in 1990, Arizona voters were given the opportunity to vote on giving state employees a paid MLK holiday. That same year, the National Football League threatened to move Super Bowl XXVII, both measures failed to pass, with only 49% of voters approving Prop 302, the more popular of the two options, although some who voted no on 302 voted yes on Prop 301
Martin Luther King, Jr. Day
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Martin Luther King Jr. in 1964
Martin Luther King, Jr. Day
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Sign from 1969 promoting a holiday to honor the anniversary of the assassination of Martin Luther King, Jr.
Martin Luther King, Jr. Day
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In honor of the Martin Luther King Day of Service, President
Barack Obama serves lunch in the dining room at
So Others Might Eat, a soup kitchen in Washington, January 18, 2010.
Martin Luther King, Jr. Day
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A Martin Luther King Day march in Oregon.
28.
Building code
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A building code is a set of rules that specify the standards for constructed objects such as buildings and nonbuilding structures. Buildings must conform to the code to obtain planning permission, usually from a local council, the main purpose of building codes is to protect public health, safety and general welfare as they relate to the construction and occupancy of buildings and structures. The building code becomes law of a jurisdiction when formally enacted by the appropriate governmental or private authority. Codes regulating the design and construction of structures where adopted into law, examples of building codes began in ancient times. In the USA the main codes are the International Commercial or Residential Code, electrical codes and plumbing, fifty states and the District of Columbia have adopted the I-Codes at the state or jurisdictional level. In Canada, national model codes are published by the National Research Council of Canada, the practice of developing, approving, and enforcing building codes varies considerably among nations. In some countries building codes are developed by the government agencies or quasi-governmental standards organizations, such codes are known as the national building codes. In other countries, where the power of regulating construction and fire safety is vested in local authorities, model building codes have no legal status unless adopted or adapted by an authority having jurisdiction. The developers of model codes urge public authorities to reference model codes in their laws, ordinances, regulations, when referenced in any of these legal instruments, a particular model code becomes law. This practice is known as adoption by reference, there are instances when some local jurisdictions choose to develop their own building codes. At some point in all major cities in the United States had their own building codes. However, due to increasing complexity and cost of developing building regulations. For example, in 2008 New York City abandoned its proprietary 1968 New York City Building Code in favor of a version of the International Building Code. The City of Chicago remains the only municipality in America that continues to use a building code the city developed on its own as part of the Municipal Code of Chicago, in Europe, the Eurocode is a pan-European building code that has superseded the older national building codes. Each country now has National Annexes to localize the contents of the Eurocode, similarly, in India, each municipality and urban development authority has its own building code, which is mandatory for all construction within their jurisdiction. All these local building codes are variants of a National Building Code, Building codes have a long history. The earliest known written building code is included in the Code of Hammurabi, the book of Deuteronomy in the Hebrew Bible stipulated that parapets must be constructed on all houses to prevent people from falling off. The Laws of the Indies were passed in the 1680s by the Spanish Crown to regulate the urban planning for colonies throughout Spains worldwide imperial possessions, the first systematic national building standard was established with the London Building Act of 1844
Building code
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Code Violation: This fire-rated
concrete block wall is penetrated by
cable trays and
cables. The hole should be
firestopped to restore the
fire-resistance rating of the wall. Instead, it is filled with
flammable polyurethane foam.
Building code
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"
Sutyagin's skyscraper " (Небоскрёб Сутягина) - supposedly world's tallest wooden single-family house - found to be in violation of fire codes by the city of
Arkhangelsk, Russia, and was demolished. [1]
29.
Structural design
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They can also be involved in the design of machinery, medical equipment, and vehicles where structural integrity affects functioning and safety. Structural engineering theory is based upon applied physical laws and empirical knowledge of the performance of different materials. Structural engineering design utilizes a number of relatively simple structural elements to build complex structural systems, Structural engineers are responsible for making creative and efficient use of funds, structural elements and materials to achieve these goals. Structural engineers are responsible for engineering design and analysis, entry-level structural engineers may design the individual structural elements of a structure, for example the beams, columns, and floors of a building. More experienced engineers may be responsible for the design and integrity of an entire system. Structural engineering has existed since humans first started to construct their own structures and it became a more defined and formalized profession with the emergence of the architecture as distinct profession from the engineering during the industrial revolution in the late 19th century. Until then, the architect and the engineer were usually one. Only with the development of specialized knowledge of theories that emerged during the 19th and early 20th centuries. The role of a structural engineer today involves a significant understanding of both static and dynamic loading, and the structures that are available to resist them. The complexity of modern structures often requires a great deal of creativity from the engineer in order to ensure the structures support and resist the loads they are subjected to. A structural engineer will typically have a four or five year undergraduate degree, Structural engineers are licensed or accredited by different learned societies and regulatory bodies around the world. The aim of that association is to exchange knowledge and to advance the practice of engineering worldwide in the service of the profession. Structural engineering dates back to 2700 B. C. E, when the step pyramid for Pharaoh Djoser was built by Imhotep, the first engineer in history known by name. Pyramids were the most common major structures built by ancient civilizations because the form of a pyramid is inherently stable. The limestone blocks were taken from a quarry near the build site, since the compressive strength of limestone is anywhere from 30 to 250 MPa, the blocks will not fail under compression. Therefore, the strength of the pyramid stems from the material properties of the stones from which it was built rather than the pyramids geometry. Throughout ancient and medieval history most architectural design and construction was carried out by artisans, such as masons and carpenters. No theory of structures existed, and understanding of how structures stood up was extremely limited, knowledge was retained by guilds and seldom supplanted by advances
Structural design
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Structural engineering deals with the making of complex systems like the
International Space Station, seen here from the departing
Space Shuttle Atlantis.
Structural design
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Structural engineers investigating NASA's Mars-bound
spacecraft, the
Phoenix Mars Lander
Structural design
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The
Eiffel Tower is a historical achievement of structural engineering.
Structural design
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Pont du Gard, France, a
Roman era aqueduct circa 19 BC.
