1.
Pennsylvania Railroad
–
The Pennsylvania Railroad was an American Class I railroad, founded in 1846. Commonly referred to as the Pennsy, the PRR was headquartered in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, the PRR was the largest railroad by traffic and revenue in the U. S. for the first half of the 20th century. Over the years, it acquired, merged with or owned part of at least 800 other rail lines and companies and its only formidable rival was the New York Central, which carried around three-quarters of PRRs ton-miles. At one time, the PRR was the largest publicly traded corporation in the world, with a larger than that of the U. S. government. The corporation still holds the record for the longest continuous dividend history, in 1968, PRR merged with rival NYC to form the Penn Central Transportation Company, which filed for bankruptcy within two years. The viable parts were transferred in 1976 to Conrail, which was broken up in 1999, with 58 percent of the system going to the Norfolk Southern Railway. Amtrak received the electrified segment east of Harrisburg, with the opening of the Erie Canal and the beginnings of the Chesapeake and Ohio Canal, Philadelphia business interests became concerned that the port of Philadelphia would lose traffic. The state legislature was pressed to build a canal across Pennsylvania and it soon became evident that a single canal would not be practical and a series of railroads, inclined planes, and canals was proposed. Because freight and passengers had to change several times along the route and canals froze in winter, it soon became apparent that the system was cumbersome. The Commonwealth of Pennsylvania granted a charter to the Pennsylvania Railroad in 1846 to build a rail line that would connect Harrisburg to Pittsburgh. The Directors chose John Edgar Thomson, an engineer from the Georgia Railroad, to survey, the crest of the mountain was penetrated by the 3, 612-foot Gallitzin Tunnels and then descended by a more moderate grade to Johnstown. The western end of the line was built from Pittsburgh east along the banks of the Allegheny. In 1857, the PRR purchased the Main Line of Public Works from the state of Pennsylvania, the line was double track from its inception, and by the end of the century a third and fourth track were added. Over the next 50 years, PRR expanded by gaining control of railroads by stock purchases. This line is still an important cross-state corridor, carrying Amtraks Philadelphia to Harrisburg Main Line and he served as PRRs first Chief Engineer and third President. Track connection in Philadelphia was made via the PRRs Connecting Railway, the PRRs Baltimore and Potomac Rail Road opened on July 2,1872, between Baltimore and Washington, D. C. This route required transfer via horse car in Baltimore to the lines heading north from the city. On June 29,1873, the Baltimore and Potomac Tunnel through Baltimore was completed, the PRR started the misleadingly named Pennsylvania Air Line service via the Northern Central Railway and Columbia, Pennsylvania
2.
Pennsylvania Railroad class I1s
–
The Pennsylvania Railroads class I1s steam locomotives were the largest class of 2-10-0 Decapods in the United States, with 598 built 1916–1923. They were the dominant freight locomotive on the system until World War II, nicknames for the type included Decs and Hippos, the latter due to the large boiler. Unlike smaller 2-10-0s that preceded them, the I1s design was huge, taking advantage of the PRRs heavy trackage and high allowed axle load, with a wide, large cylinders enabled the I1s to apply that power to the rails. Their power was undeniable, but they were not popular with the crews, for they were riding at all. One author described them as the terror of the PRR. The large boiler limited the size of the wheels, which made it impossible to mount counterweights large enough to balance the piston thrusts. Their factor of adhesion is low, so they were prone to slipping, subclass I1sa increased maximum steam cut-off to admit steam for 78% of the piston stroke, boosting low speed tractive effort from 90,000 to 96,000 pounds-force. There was no obvious external difference except for a builders plate. I1s locomotives were converted to I1sa during major overhaul, eventually 489 were converted while 109 remained as built, in 1923 PRR put engine 4358 on the Altoona test plant. The tests below were all stoker fired, in two hours at 7.12 miles per hour it consumed 8,129 pounds of coal and averaged 71,993 pounds of tractive effort at the driver rims, corresponding to 6. 4% thermal efficiency. In one hour at 14.24 miles per hour it consumed 6,809 pounds of coal and averaged 63,263 pounds tractive effort, or 7. 1% efficiency. At 22.02 miles per hour it consumed 7,000 lb/h of 13,039 BTU/lb coal and averaged 43,515 pounds TE, for 7. 1% efficiency. At 21.36 miles per hour at 50% cutoff it consumed 5,230 pounds of 13,372 BTU/lb coal in 30 minutes averaging 51,409 pounds TE, only one I1 survives today, #4483. PRR #4483 History and Restoration Photos Further History of PRR #4483 Info and Photos on modeling an N Scale PRR I1s Diagram
3.
Swiss locomotive and railcar classification
–
It started out as a uniform system for the classification and naming of all rolling stock, powered and unpowered, but had been replaced and amended by the UIC classification of goods wagons. The Swiss classification system was created by the Swiss federal railways department, in 1902, when the Swiss Federal Railways was founded as a government railway, that new railway also became bound by the system. The Swiss system is less precise than those other systems in the way it deals with axles, because it refers only to numbers, rather than to arrangements, of powered axles. The Swiss system is more a method of classifying locomotive. The classifications for which the Swiss system provides have always been adapted to new requirements. The last modification to the system occurred in 1968, with the publication of the Directory of the Rolling Stock of the Swiss Private Railways by the Swiss Federal Agency for Transport. For carriages and wagons, the system was progressively replaced from 1968 by the UIC international wagon classification system. However, all of Switzerlands powered rolling stock initially retained its Swiss type classification or class designation, the standard gauge private railways of Switzerland soon followed the example of the Swiss Federal Railways, and agreement was reached as to the allocation of number ranges. The narrow gauge railways have largely retained the old system for locomotives, railcars and passenger carriages, here is a description of the classification system as it operated up to 1989, and as it still operates in respect of narrow gauge private railway motive power. There is no provision for combining the codes A, B, C, D, E, G, R and T, the combination of H and G is possible. HG would therefore be a narrow gauge locomotive, with a mix of adhesion, since 1966, in respect of railcars and tractors, he or hm has meant pure rack rail drive, and eh or mh has meant a mix of adhesion and rack rail drive. Steam powered tank locomotives were given an E, and the maximum speed of the locomotive was designated with a lower case letter. Thus, an Ea 3/6 was a locomotive with vmax >80 kilometres per hour. With steam locomotives, separate driving mechanisms were displayed, so, for example, a Mallet locomotive was named G 2x2/2 or G 2/3+2/2, and not G 4/4 or G 4/5. Up until 1920, standard gauge locomotives were given the letter F. The class later designated as Be 5/7 was therefore originally named Fb 5/7, the designation R was originally intended for locomotives with an axle load of under 16 tonnes. These lightweight locomotives exert less stress on the rails when they negotiate curves, with the introduction of the Re 4/4II, the axle load limit was dropped following extensive testing. Several locomotives were given approval for higher cornering speeds, to which their type designation had not yet been adapted
4.
Whyte notation
–
The notation counts the number of leading wheels, then the number of driving wheels, and finally the number of trailing wheels, groups of numbers being separated by dashes. Other classification schemes, like UIC classification and the French, Turkish and Swiss systems for steam locomotives, in the notation a locomotive with two leading axles in front, then three driving axles and then one trailing axle is classified as 4-6-2. Articulated locomotives such as Garratts, which are two locomotives joined by a common boiler, have a + between the arrangements of each engine. Thus a double Pacific type Garratt is a 4-6-2+2-6-4, for Garratt locomotives the + sign is used even when there are no intermediate unpowered wheels, e. g. the LMS Garratt 2-6-0+0-6-2. This is because the two units are more than just power bogies. They are complete engines, carrying fuel and water tanks, the + sign represents the bridge that links the two engines. Simpler articulated types such as Mallets, have a frame under a common boiler where there are no unpowered wheels between the sets of powered wheels. Typically, the frame is free to swing, whereas the rear frame is rigid with the boiler. Thus a Union Pacific Big Boy is a 4-8-8-4, four leading wheels, one group of eight driving wheels, another group of eight driving wheels and this numbering system is shared by duplex locomotives, which have powered wheel sets sharing a rigid frame. No suffix means a tender locomotive, T indicates a tank locomotive, in European practice, this is sometimes extended to indicate the type of tank locomotive, T means side tank, PT pannier tank, ST saddle tank, WT well tank. T+T means a tank locomotive that also has a tender, in Europe, the suffix R can signify rack or reversible, the latter being Bi-cabine locomotives used in France. The suffix F indicates a fireless locomotive, other suffixes have been used, including ng for narrow-gauge and CA or ca for compressed air. In Britain, small diesel and petrol locomotives are classified in the same way as steam locomotives. This may be followed by D for diesel or P for petrol, thus 0-6-0DE denotes a six-wheel diesel locomotive with electric transmission. Where the axles are coupled by chains or shafts or are individually driven, thus 4wPE indicates a four-wheel petrol locomotive with electric transmission. For large diesel locomotives the UIC classification is used, the main limitation of Whyte Notation is that it does not cover non-standard types such as Shay locomotives, which use geared trucks rather than driving wheels. The most commonly used system in Europe outside the United Kingdom is UIC classification, based on German practice, in American practice, most wheel arrangements in common use were given names, sometimes from the name of the first such locomotive built. For example, the 2-2-0 type arrangement is named Planet, after the 1830 locomotive on which it was first used, the most common wheel arrangements are listed below
5.
Steam locomotive
–
A steam locomotive is a railway locomotive that produces its pulling power through a steam engine. These locomotives are fueled by burning combustible material—usually coal, wood, the steam moves reciprocating pistons which are mechanically connected to the locomotives main wheels. Both fuel and water supplies are carried with the locomotive, either on the locomotive itself or in wagons pulled behind, the first steam locomotive, made by Richard Trevithick, first operated on 21 February 1804, three years after the road locomotive he made in 1801. The first practical steam locomotive was built in 1812-13 by John Blenkinsop, Steam locomotives were first developed in Great Britain during the early 19th century and used for railway transport until the middle of the 20th century. From the early 1900s they were superseded by electric and diesel locomotives, with full conversions to electric. The majority of locomotives were retired from regular service by the 1980s, though several continue to run on tourist. The earliest railways employed horses to draw carts along railway tracks, in 1784, William Murdoch, a Scottish inventor, built a small-scale prototype of a steam road locomotive. An early working model of a rail locomotive was designed and constructed by steamboat pioneer John Fitch in the US during 1794. His steam locomotive used interior bladed wheels guided by rails or tracks, the model still exists at the Ohio Historical Society Museum in Columbus. The authenticity and date of this locomotive is disputed by some experts, accompanied by Andrew Vivian, it ran with mixed success. The design incorporated a number of important innovations that included using high-pressure steam which reduced the weight of the engine, Trevithick visited the Newcastle area in 1804 and had a ready audience of colliery owners and engineers. The visit was so successful that the railways in north-east England became the leading centre for experimentation. Trevithick continued his own steam propulsion experiments through another trio of locomotives, Four years later, the successful twin-cylinder locomotive Salamanca by Matthew Murray for the edge railed rack and pinion Middleton Railway debuted in 1812. Another well known early locomotive was Puffing Billy built 1813–14 by engineer William Hedley and it was intended to work on the Wylam Colliery near Newcastle upon Tyne. This locomotive is the oldest preserved, and is on display in the Science Museum. George Stephenson built Locomotion No.1 for the Stockton and Darlington Railway, north-east England, in 1829, his son Robert built in Newcastle The Rocket which was entered in and won the Rainhill Trials. This success led to the company emerging as the pre-eminent builder of locomotives used on railways in the UK, US. The Liverpool and Manchester Railway opened a year later making exclusive use of power for passenger
6.
Leading wheel
–
The leading wheel or leading axle or pilot wheel of a steam locomotive is an unpowered wheel or axle located in front of the driving wheels. The axle or axles of the wheels are normally located on a leading truck. Leading wheels are used to help the locomotive negotiate curves and to support the front portion of the boiler, importantly, the leading bogie does not have simple rotational motion about a vertical pivot, as might first be thought. It must also be free to slip sideways to a small extent, the sliding bogie of this type was patented by William Adams in 1865. The first use of leading wheels is commonly attributed to John B, Jervis who employed them in his 1832 design for a locomotive with four leading wheels and two driving wheels. In the Whyte system of describing locomotive wheel arrangements, his locomotive would be classified as a 4-2-0, in the UIC classification system, which counts axles rather than wheels and uses letters to denote powered axles, the Jervis would be classified 2A. Locomotives without leading trucks are generally regarded as unsuitable for high speed use, the British Railway Inspectorate condemned the practice in 1895, following an accident involving two 0-4-4s at Doublebois, Cornwall, on the Great Western Railway. A single leading axle increases stability somewhat, while a leading truck is almost essential for high-speed operation. The highest number of leading wheels on a locomotive is six as seen on the 6-2-0 Crampton type. Six-wheel leading trucks were not very popular, the Cramptons were built in the 1840s, but it was not until 1939 that the PRR used one on the S1. AAR wheel arrangement Adams axle Trailing wheel UIC classification Whyte notation
7.
Driving wheel
–
On a steam locomotive, a driving wheel is a powered wheel which is driven by the locomotives pistons. On diesel and electric locomotives, the wheels may be directly driven by the traction motors. Coupling rods are not usually used, and it is common for each axle to have its own motor. Jackshaft drive and coupling rods were used in the past but their use is now confined to shunting locomotives, on an articulated locomotive or a duplex locomotive, driving wheels are grouped into sets which are linked together within the set
8.
Trailing wheel
–
On a steam locomotive, a trailing wheel or trailing axle is generally an unpowered wheel or axle located behind the driving wheels. The axle of the wheels is usually located in a trailing truck. On some large locomotives, an engine was mounted on the trailing truck to provide extra tractive effort when starting a heavy train. Trailing wheels were used in early locomotives but fell out of favor for a time during the latter 19th century. As demand for more powerful locomotives increased, trailing wheels began to be used to support the crew cab, trailing wheels first appeared on American locomotives between 1890 and 1895, but their axle worked in rigid pedestals. It enabled boilers to be lowered, since the top of the frames was dropped down behind the driving wheels. The firebox could also be longer and wider, increasing the surface area and steam generation capacity of the boiler. One-piece cast-steel trailer trucks were developed about 1915, to provide the strength for a booster engine to be fitted to the trailing axle. Finally, about 1921 the Delta trailing truck was developed with a centering device at the rear ends of the truck frame. Delta trucks were soon enlarged to carry four trailing wheels, in the Whyte notation, trailing wheels are designated by the last numbers in the series. For example, the 2-8-2 Mikado type locomotive had two leading wheels, eight driving wheels, and two trailing wheels, some locomotives such as the 4-4-0 American type had no trailing wheels and were designated with a zero in the final place. In the UIC classification system, the number of rather than the number of wheels is counted. AAR wheel arrangement Steam locomotive nomenclature UIC classification Whyte notation
9.
United States
–
Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
10.
0-10-0
–
In the United Kingdom, this type is known as a Decapod, a name which is applied to 2-10-0 types in the United States. The Russian E class 0-10-0 was the most numerous class of locomotive in the world. In 1899, Karl Gölsdorf introduced his famous 180.00 class for the Austrian State Railway and it employed the Gölsdorf axle system and had the drive, unusually, on the fourth axle. The class existed both as simple expansion and as two-cylinder compound engines, and they worked in Yugoslavia, Czechoslovakia, Romania. Three 0-10-0 locomotives were owned by the Canadian Pacific Railway, sixteen 600 mm narrow gauge 0-10-0 locomotives, built by Baldwin Locomotive Works from 1924 to 1929, remained operational on the Yunnan-Kopei Railway until 1990. The VR Class Vr3 0-10-0T was numbered in the range from 752 to 756, the first locomotive was ordered in 1924 from Hanomag in Germany. No.755 is stored at the Finnish Railway Museum, the 0-10-0 type proved popular in Germany. Several types of tender locomotives of this arrangement were built between approximately 1905 and 1915, after which the wheel arrangement was abandoned in favor of the 2-10-0. Subsequent German locomotives of type were tank locomotives, including classes BR82, BR87, BR940, BR941, BR942-4, BR945-17, BR9419-21. The Staatspoorwegen ter Sumatara’s Westkust built a line on the west coast of Sumatra from 1887 until 1896. This railway used to haul products from Ombilin coal mines to the port of Teluk Bayur in Padang, severe terrain with 8% grades required a locomotive with great power. The E10 was a tank steam locomotive employed in West Sumatra, of which 22 were built from 1921 to 1928 by Esslingen in Germany. The E10 has four cylinders, with two dedicated to drive the rack gears. The class E10 eventually consisted of 39 locomotives, of which the last seven engines were built in 1967 by Nippon Sharyo, the class was used in regular service until the mid-1980s. Four 4100 class 0-10-0T locomotives, numbered from 4100 to 4103, based on this design, a total of 394110 Class 0-10-0T locomotives, numbered from 4110 to 4148, were built in Japan in 1914 and 1917. The last members of the class were withdrawn from service on JNR in 1950, four of the locomotives were sent to the Korean Peninsula in 1938, but their subsequent fate is unknown. The 0-10-0 type was the standard freight locomotive in Russia and was manufactured in very large numbers. The E class freight locomotive was made up of several sub-classes, the sub-classes included E, Em, Eg, Esh, Eu, and Er
11.
United Kingdom
–
The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom or Britain, is a sovereign country in western Europe. Lying off the north-western coast of the European mainland, the United Kingdom includes the island of Great Britain, Northern Ireland is the only part of the United Kingdom that shares a land border with another sovereign state—the Republic of Ireland. The Irish Sea lies between Great Britain and Ireland, with an area of 242,500 square kilometres, the United Kingdom is the 78th-largest sovereign state in the world and the 11th-largest in Europe. It is also the 21st-most populous country, with an estimated 65.1 million inhabitants, together, this makes it the fourth-most densely populated country in the European Union. The United Kingdom is a monarchy with a parliamentary system of governance. The monarch is Queen Elizabeth II, who has reigned since 6 February 1952, other major urban areas in the United Kingdom include the regions of Birmingham, Leeds, Glasgow, Liverpool and Manchester. The United Kingdom consists of four countries—England, Scotland, Wales, the last three have devolved administrations, each with varying powers, based in their capitals, Edinburgh, Cardiff and Belfast, respectively. The relationships among the countries of the UK have changed over time, Wales was annexed by the Kingdom of England under the Laws in Wales Acts 1535 and 1542. A treaty between England and Scotland resulted in 1707 in a unified Kingdom of Great Britain, which merged in 1801 with the Kingdom of Ireland to form the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. Five-sixths of Ireland seceded from the UK in 1922, leaving the present formulation of the United Kingdom of Great Britain, there are fourteen British Overseas Territories. These are the remnants of the British Empire which, at its height in the 1920s, British influence can be observed in the language, culture and legal systems of many of its former colonies. The United Kingdom is a country and has the worlds fifth-largest economy by nominal GDP. The UK is considered to have an economy and is categorised as very high in the Human Development Index. It was the worlds first industrialised country and the worlds foremost power during the 19th, the UK remains a great power with considerable economic, cultural, military, scientific and political influence internationally. It is a nuclear weapons state and its military expenditure ranks fourth or fifth in the world. The UK has been a permanent member of the United Nations Security Council since its first session in 1946 and it has been a leading member state of the EU and its predecessor, the European Economic Community, since 1973. However, on 23 June 2016, a referendum on the UKs membership of the EU resulted in a decision to leave. The Acts of Union 1800 united the Kingdom of Great Britain, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland have devolved self-government
12.
Europe
–
Europe is a continent that comprises the westernmost part of Eurasia. Europe is bordered by the Arctic Ocean to the north, the Atlantic Ocean to the west, yet the non-oceanic borders of Europe—a concept dating back to classical antiquity—are arbitrary. Europe covers about 10,180,000 square kilometres, or 2% of the Earths surface, politically, Europe is divided into about fifty sovereign states of which the Russian Federation is the largest and most populous, spanning 39% of the continent and comprising 15% of its population. Europe had a population of about 740 million as of 2015. Further from the sea, seasonal differences are more noticeable than close to the coast, Europe, in particular ancient Greece, was the birthplace of Western civilization. The fall of the Western Roman Empire, during the period, marked the end of ancient history. Renaissance humanism, exploration, art, and science led to the modern era, from the Age of Discovery onwards, Europe played a predominant role in global affairs. Between the 16th and 20th centuries, European powers controlled at times the Americas, most of Africa, Oceania. The Industrial Revolution, which began in Great Britain at the end of the 18th century, gave rise to economic, cultural, and social change in Western Europe. During the Cold War, Europe was divided along the Iron Curtain between NATO in the west and the Warsaw Pact in the east, until the revolutions of 1989 and fall of the Berlin Wall. In 1955, the Council of Europe was formed following a speech by Sir Winston Churchill and it includes all states except for Belarus, Kazakhstan and Vatican City. Further European integration by some states led to the formation of the European Union, the EU originated in Western Europe but has been expanding eastward since the fall of the Soviet Union in 1991. The European Anthem is Ode to Joy and states celebrate peace, in classical Greek mythology, Europa is the name of either a Phoenician princess or of a queen of Crete. The name contains the elements εὐρύς, wide, broad and ὤψ eye, broad has been an epithet of Earth herself in the reconstructed Proto-Indo-European religion and the poetry devoted to it. For the second part also the divine attributes of grey-eyed Athena or ox-eyed Hera. The same naming motive according to cartographic convention appears in Greek Ανατολή, Martin Litchfield West stated that phonologically, the match between Europas name and any form of the Semitic word is very poor. Next to these there is also a Proto-Indo-European root *h1regʷos, meaning darkness. Most major world languages use words derived from Eurṓpē or Europa to refer to the continent, in some Turkic languages the originally Persian name Frangistan is used casually in referring to much of Europe, besides official names such as Avrupa or Evropa
13.
Germany
–
Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany, is a federal parliamentary republic in central-western Europe. It includes 16 constituent states, covers an area of 357,021 square kilometres, with about 82 million inhabitants, Germany is the most populous member state of the European Union. After the United States, it is the second most popular destination in the world. Germanys capital and largest metropolis is Berlin, while its largest conurbation is the Ruhr, other major cities include Hamburg, Munich, Cologne, Frankfurt, Stuttgart, Düsseldorf and Leipzig. Various Germanic tribes have inhabited the northern parts of modern Germany since classical antiquity, a region named Germania was documented before 100 AD. During the Migration Period the Germanic tribes expanded southward, beginning in the 10th century, German territories formed a central part of the Holy Roman Empire. During the 16th century, northern German regions became the centre of the Protestant Reformation, in 1871, Germany became a nation state when most of the German states unified into the Prussian-dominated German Empire. After World War I and the German Revolution of 1918–1919, the Empire was replaced by the parliamentary Weimar Republic, the establishment of the national socialist dictatorship in 1933 led to World War II and the Holocaust. After a period of Allied occupation, two German states were founded, the Federal Republic of Germany and the German Democratic Republic, in 1990, the country was reunified. In the 21st century, Germany is a power and has the worlds fourth-largest economy by nominal GDP. As a global leader in industrial and technological sectors, it is both the worlds third-largest exporter and importer of goods. Germany is a country with a very high standard of living sustained by a skilled. It upholds a social security and universal health system, environmental protection. Germany was a member of the European Economic Community in 1957. It is part of the Schengen Area, and became a co-founder of the Eurozone in 1999, Germany is a member of the United Nations, NATO, the G8, the G20, and the OECD. The national military expenditure is the 9th highest in the world, the English word Germany derives from the Latin Germania, which came into use after Julius Caesar adopted it for the peoples east of the Rhine. This in turn descends from Proto-Germanic *þiudiskaz popular, derived from *þeudō, descended from Proto-Indo-European *tewtéh₂- people, the discovery of the Mauer 1 mandible shows that ancient humans were present in Germany at least 600,000 years ago. The oldest complete hunting weapons found anywhere in the world were discovered in a mine in Schöningen where three 380, 000-year-old wooden javelins were unearthed
14.
Russia
–
Russia, also officially the Russian Federation, is a country in Eurasia. The European western part of the country is more populated and urbanised than the eastern. Russias capital Moscow is one of the largest cities in the world, other urban centers include Saint Petersburg, Novosibirsk, Yekaterinburg, Nizhny Novgorod. Extending across the entirety of Northern Asia and much of Eastern Europe, Russia spans eleven time zones and incorporates a range of environments. It shares maritime borders with Japan by the Sea of Okhotsk, the East Slavs emerged as a recognizable group in Europe between the 3rd and 8th centuries AD. Founded and ruled by a Varangian warrior elite and their descendants, in 988 it adopted Orthodox Christianity from the Byzantine Empire, beginning the synthesis of Byzantine and Slavic cultures that defined Russian culture for the next millennium. Rus ultimately disintegrated into a number of states, most of the Rus lands were overrun by the Mongol invasion. The Soviet Union played a role in the Allied victory in World War II. The Soviet era saw some of the most significant technological achievements of the 20th century, including the worlds first human-made satellite and the launching of the first humans in space. By the end of 1990, the Soviet Union had the second largest economy, largest standing military in the world. It is governed as a federal semi-presidential republic, the Russian economy ranks as the twelfth largest by nominal GDP and sixth largest by purchasing power parity in 2015. Russias extensive mineral and energy resources are the largest such reserves in the world, making it one of the producers of oil. The country is one of the five recognized nuclear weapons states and possesses the largest stockpile of weapons of mass destruction, Russia is a great power as well as a regional power and has been characterised as a potential superpower. The name Russia is derived from Rus, a state populated mostly by the East Slavs. However, this name became more prominent in the later history, and the country typically was called by its inhabitants Русская Земля. In order to distinguish this state from other states derived from it, it is denoted as Kievan Rus by modern historiography, an old Latin version of the name Rus was Ruthenia, mostly applied to the western and southern regions of Rus that were adjacent to Catholic Europe. The current name of the country, Россия, comes from the Byzantine Greek designation of the Kievan Rus, the standard way to refer to citizens of Russia is Russians in English and rossiyane in Russian. There are two Russian words which are translated into English as Russians
15.
World War II
–
World War II, also known as the Second World War, was a global war that lasted from 1939 to 1945, although related conflicts began earlier. It involved the vast majority of the worlds countries—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing alliances, the Allies and the Axis. It was the most widespread war in history, and directly involved more than 100 million people from over 30 countries. Marked by mass deaths of civilians, including the Holocaust and the bombing of industrial and population centres. These made World War II the deadliest conflict in human history, from late 1939 to early 1941, in a series of campaigns and treaties, Germany conquered or controlled much of continental Europe, and formed the Axis alliance with Italy and Japan. Under the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact of August 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union partitioned and annexed territories of their European neighbours, Poland, Finland, Romania and the Baltic states. In December 1941, Japan attacked the United States and European colonies in the Pacific Ocean, and quickly conquered much of the Western Pacific. The Axis advance halted in 1942 when Japan lost the critical Battle of Midway, near Hawaii, in 1944, the Western Allies invaded German-occupied France, while the Soviet Union regained all of its territorial losses and invaded Germany and its allies. During 1944 and 1945 the Japanese suffered major reverses in mainland Asia in South Central China and Burma, while the Allies crippled the Japanese Navy, thus ended the war in Asia, cementing the total victory of the Allies. World War II altered the political alignment and social structure of the world, the United Nations was established to foster international co-operation and prevent future conflicts. The victorious great powers—the United States, the Soviet Union, China, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and the United States emerged as rival superpowers, setting the stage for the Cold War, which lasted for the next 46 years. Meanwhile, the influence of European great powers waned, while the decolonisation of Asia, most countries whose industries had been damaged moved towards economic recovery. Political integration, especially in Europe, emerged as an effort to end pre-war enmities, the start of the war in Europe is generally held to be 1 September 1939, beginning with the German invasion of Poland, Britain and France declared war on Germany two days later. The dates for the beginning of war in the Pacific include the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War on 7 July 1937, or even the Japanese invasion of Manchuria on 19 September 1931. Others follow the British historian A. J. P. Taylor, who held that the Sino-Japanese War and war in Europe and its colonies occurred simultaneously and this article uses the conventional dating. Other starting dates sometimes used for World War II include the Italian invasion of Abyssinia on 3 October 1935. The British historian Antony Beevor views the beginning of World War II as the Battles of Khalkhin Gol fought between Japan and the forces of Mongolia and the Soviet Union from May to September 1939, the exact date of the wars end is also not universally agreed upon. It was generally accepted at the time that the war ended with the armistice of 14 August 1945, rather than the formal surrender of Japan
16.
Erie Railroad
–
It expanded west to Chicago with its 1941 merger with the former Atlantic and Great Western Railroad, also known as the New York, Pennsylvania and Ohio Railroad. Its mainline route proved influential in the development and economic growth of the Southern Tier, including such as Binghamton, Elmira. The Erie Railroad repair shops were located in Hornell, and were Hornells largest employer, Hornell was also where Eries main line split into two routes, one north to Buffalo and the other west to Cleveland. On October 17,1960, the Erie merged with the former rival Delaware, the Hornell repair shops were closed, and repair operations moved to the Lackawannas Scranton facility, this had a devastating effect on Hornell from which it has never recovered. Most of the former Erie line between Hornell and Binghamton was destroyed in 1972 by the floods of Hurricane Agnes, what was left of the Erie Lackawanna became part of Conrail in 1976. In 1983, Erie remnants became part of New Jersey Transit rail operations, today, most of the surviving Erie Railroad routes are operated by the Norfolk Southern Railway. The New York and Erie Rail Road was chartered April 24,1832 by Governor of New York, Enos T. Throop to connect the Hudson River at Piermont, north of New York City, west to Lake Erie at Dunkirk. On February 16,1841 the railroad was authorized to cross into the northeast corner of Pennsylvania on the west side of the Delaware River, construction began in 1836, and it opened from Piermont to Goshen on September 23,1841. After some financial problems, construction resumed in August 1846, further extensions opened to Binghamton December 27,1848, Owego January 1,1849, and the full length to Dunkirk May 19,1851. At Dunkirk steamboats continued across Lake Erie to Detroit, Michigan, the line was built as 6 ft wide gauge, this was believed to be a superior technology to standard gauge, providing more stability. In 1848 the railroad built the Starrucca Viaduct, a railroad bridge over Starrucca Creek in Lanesboro. The viaduct is 1,040 feet long,100 feet high and 25 feet wide at the top and it is the oldest stone rail bridge in Pennsylvania still in use. The Eries charter was amended April 8,1845 to allow the building of the Newburgh Branch, running from the line near Harriman north-northeast to Newburgh. The branch opened January 8,1850 and it was later used as a connection to the New York and New England Railroad via a car float operation across the river to Beacon, New York. Through ticketing began in 1851, with a change of cars at Ramapo due to the gauge break. In 1852 the Buffalo and Rochester Railroad, part of the New York Central Railroad system, the alignment from Buffalo to Attica was sold to the Eries Buffalo and New York City Railroad, a reorganization of the Attica and Hornellsville Railroad, and converted to the Eries wide gauge. The extension from Attica southeast to Hornellsville opened on November 17,1852, giving the Erie access to Buffalo, the Erie began operating the Chemung Railroad in 1850, this provided a branch from Horseheads north to Watkins. The Canandaigua and Elmira Railroad opened in 1851 as an extension from Watkins to Canandaigua and was operated by the Erie until 1853
17.
Wheelbase
–
In both road and rail vehicles, the wheelbase is the distance between the centers of the front and rear wheels. For road vehicles with more than two axles, the wheelbase is defined as the distance between the axle and the centerpoint of the driving axle group. In the case of a truck, the wheelbase would be the distance between the steering axle and a point midway between the two rear axles. The wheelbase of a vehicle equals the distance between its front and rear wheels, at equilibrium, the total torque of the forces acting on a vehicle is zero. So, for example, when a truck is loaded, its center of gravity shifts rearward, the amount the vehicle sinks will depend on counter acting forces like the size of the tires, tire pressure, and the stiffness of the suspension. If the vehicle is accelerating or decelerating, extra torque is placed on the rear or front tire respectively, so, as is common experience, when the vehicle accelerates, the rear usually sinks and the front rises depending on the suspension. Likewise, when braking the front noses down and the rear rises, because of the effect the wheelbase has on the weight distribution of the vehicle, wheelbase dimensions are crucial to the balance and steering. For example, a car with a greater weight load on the rear tends to understeer due to the lack of the load on the front tires. This is why it is crucial, when towing a single-axle caravan, likewise, a car may oversteer or even spin out if there is too much force on the front tires and not enough on the rear tires. Also, when turning there is lateral torque placed upon the tires which imparts a turning force that depends upon the length of the distances from the CM. Wheelbases provide the basis for one of the most common vehicle size class systems, some luxury vehicles are offered with long-wheelbase variants to increase the spaciousness and therefore the luxury of the vehicle. Prime Minister of the United Kingdom Tony Blair was given a version of the Rover 75 for official use. In contrast, coupé varieties of vehicles such as the Honda Accord are usually built on shorter wheelbases than the sedans they are derived from. The wheelbase on many commercially available bicycles and motorcycles is so short, relative to the height of their centers of mass, in skateboarding the word wheelbase is used for the distance between the two inner pairs of mounting holes on the deck. This is different from the distance between the centers of the two wheel pairs. A reason for this use is that decks are sold with prefabricated holes. It is therefore easier to use the holes for measuring and describing this characteristic of the deck. A common misconception is that the choice of wheelbase is influenced by the height of the skateboarder, however, the length of the deck would then be a better candidate, because the wheelbase affects characteristics useful in different speeds or terrains regardless of the height of the skateboarder
18.
Firebox (steam engine)
–
In a steam engine, the firebox is the area where the fuel is burned, producing heat to boil the water in the boiler. Most are somewhat box-shaped, hence the name, the hot gases generated in the firebox are pulled through a rack of tubes running through the firebox boiler. In the standard steam locomotive type boiler, the firebox is surrounded by water space on five sides. The bottom of the firebox is open to atmospheric pressure, if the engine burns solid fuel, like wood or coal, there is a grate covering most of the bottom of the firebox to hold the fire. An ashpan, mounted underneath the firebox and below the grates, catches and collects hot embers, ashes, in a coal-burning locomotive, the grates may be shaken to clean dead ash from the bottom of the fire. They are shaken either manually or by a powered grate shaker, wood-burning locomotives have fixed grates that cant be shaken. Wood ash is generally powder which will fall through the grates with no more required than the vibrations of the locomotive rolling down the track. The fire grates must be replaced due to the extreme heat they must endure. Combustion air enters through the bottom of the firebox and airflow is usually controlled by damper doors above the ash collection pocket of the ash pan, a locomotive that burns liquid fuel - usually Bunker C fuel oil or similar heavy oil - does not have grates. Instead, they have a metal gauge firing pan bolted tight against the bottom of the firebox. The firing pan is covered with firebrick and the firebox has a lining, usually up to the level of the firebox door. The oil burner is a nozzle containing a slot for the oil to flow out onto a steam jet which atomizes the oil into a fine mist which ignites in the firebox. The oil burner nozzle is mounted in the front of the firebox, protected by a hood of firebrick. Dampers control air flow to the oil fire, there is a large brick arch the front third to half of the firebox. It is supported on arch tubes, thermic syphons, or circulators, the brick arch directs heat, flames, and smoke back over the fire towards the rear of the firebox. Visible smoke contains unburned combustible carbon particles and combustible gasses, the purpose of this redirection is to cause more complete combustion of these particles and gasses which make the locomotive more efficient and causes less visible smoke to be emitted from the stack. Without the arch, flames and visible smoke would be sucked straight into the firetubes without having been fully burned, the brick arch and its supports require periodic replacement due to the extreme heat they endure. Firetubes are attached to one wall of the firebox and carry the hot gaseous products of combustion through the water, heating it
19.
Train
–
A train is a form of rail transport consisting of a series of vehicles that usually runs along a rail track to transport cargo or passengers. Motive power is provided by a locomotive or individual motors in self-propelled multiple units. Although historically steam propulsion dominated, the most common forms are diesel and electric locomotives. Other energy sources include horses, engine or water-driven rope or wire winch, gravity, pneumatics, batteries, the word train comes from the Old French trahiner, from the Latin trahere pull, draw. There are various types of trains that are designed for particular purposes, a train may consist of a combination of one or more locomotives and attached railroad cars, or a self-propelled multiple unit. The first trains were rope-hauled, gravity powered or pulled by horses, from the early 19th century almost all were powered by steam locomotives. A passenger train is one which includes passenger-carrying vehicles which can often be very long, one notable and growing long-distance train category is high-speed rail. In order to much faster operation over 500 km/h, innovative Maglev technology has been researched for years. In most countries, such as the United Kingdom, the distinction between a tramway and a railway is precise and defined in law, a freight train uses freight cars to transport goods or materials. Freight and passengers may be carried in the train in a mixed consist. Rail cars and machinery used for maintenance and repair of tracks, etc. are termed maintenance of way equipment, similarly, dedicated trains may be used to provide support services to stations along a train line, such as garbage or revenue collection. There are various types of trains that are designed for particular purposes, a train can consist of a combination of one or more locomotives and attached railroad cars, or a self-propelled multiple unit. Trains can also be hauled by horses, pulled by a cable, special kinds of trains running on corresponding special railways are atmospheric railways, monorails, high-speed railways, maglev, rubber-tired underground, funicular and cog railways. A passenger train may consist of one or several locomotives and coaches, alternatively, a train may consist entirely of passenger carrying coaches, some or all of which are powered as a multiple unit. In many parts of the world, particularly the Far East and Europe, freight trains are composed of wagons or trucks rather than carriages, though some parcel and mail trains are outwardly more like passenger trains. Trains can also be mixed, comprising both passenger accommodation and freight vehicles, special trains are also used for track maintenance, in some places, this is called maintenance of way. A train with a locomotive attached at each end is described as top and tailed, where a second locomotive is attached temporarily to assist a train up steep banks or grades it is referred to as banking in the UK, or helper service in North America. Recently, many loaded trains in the United States have been made up one or more locomotives in the middle or at the rear of the train
20.
Lehigh Valley Railroad
–
The Lehigh Valley Railroad was one of a number of railroads built in the northeastern United States primarily to haul anthracite coal. On January 7,1853, the name was changed to Lehigh Valley Railroad. It was sometimes known as the Route of the Black Diamond, at the time, anthracite was transported by boat down the Lehigh River, the railroad was meant to be faster transportation. The railroad ended operations in 1976 and merged into Conrail along with several railroads that same year. During its existence, the Lehigh Valley Railroad used a line that later became known as the Lehigh Line in order for it to operate. The line was known as the Lehigh Valley Mainline during the majority of its time under the ownership of the Lehigh Valley Railroad, Conrail shortened the line by abandoning most of its route to Buffalo. The Lehigh Line still exists and retains its original route but it now also doesnt reach close to New York City, the Lehigh Line is now owned by the Norfolk Southern Railway and has lost its trackage miles between Manville, New Jersey and Newark, New Jersey. As of 31 Dec 1925,1363.7 miles of road,3533.3 miles of track, the Lehigh Valley Railroad was authorized on April 21,1846 for freight and transportation of passengers, goods, wares, merchandise and minerals in Lehigh Valley, Pennsylvania. The route was surveyed and grading started in 1850, but progress was slow, the railroad began to survey a route from Mauch Chunk to Easton, Pennsylvania and the route was to be double tracked. The survey was conducted by Robert H. Sayre, the railroads Chief Engineer, with a rail of not less than 55 lb to the yard, and aiding along the line not less than four miles additional. Asa Packer wanted thorough rock cuts throughout the length of the line and doubled tracked bridge over the Delaware River into Phillipsburg. The railroads growth occurred after Asa Packer invested in the company in 1852, on January 7,1853, the railroad was renamed to the Lehigh Valley Railroad. Sayre, the chief engineer, the lines route to Mauch Chunk was delayed. At Easton, the LVRR constructed a bridge across the Delaware River for connections to the CNJ. From Easton to Allentown, the LVRR ran two trains daily from its opening date until September 11,1855, during this time, the LVRR was finishing construction of an extension of the line from Allentown to Mauch Chunk. After October 1,1855, the LVRR added more services to the Allentown-Mauch Chunk route. Through a connection with the Central Railroad of New Jersey, LVRR passengers had a route to Newark, New Jersey, Jersey City, New Jersey, a daily freight train was put into operation leaving Easton in the morning and returning in the evening. In the early part of October 1855, a contract was made with Howard & Co of Philadelphia to do the business of the railroad
21.
Northern Pacific Railway
–
The Northern Pacific Railway was a transcontinental railroad that operated across the northern tier of the western United States from Minnesota to the Pacific Coast. It was approved by Congress in 1864 and given nearly 40 million acres of land grants, which it used to raise money in Europe for construction. The railroad had about 6800 miles of track and served an area, including extensive trackage in the states of Idaho, Minnesota, Montana, North Dakota, Oregon, Washington. In addition the company had a branch to Winnipeg, Manitoba. The main activities were shipping wheat and other products, cattle, timber and minerals, bringing in consumer goods, transporting passengers. The company was headquartered first in Brainerd, Minnesota, then in Saint Paul and it had a tumultuous financial history, and in 1970 it merged with other lines to form the Burlington Northern Railroad. Congress granted the railroad a potential 60 million acres of land in exchange for building rail transportation to an undeveloped territory, Josiah Perham was elected its first president on December 7,1864. It could not use all the land and in the end took just under 40 million acres, for the next six years, backers of the road struggled to find financing. Though John Gregory Smith succeeded Perham as president on January 5,1865, groundbreaking did not take place until February 15,1870, at Carlton, Minnesota,25 miles west of Duluth, Minnesota. The backing and promotions of famed financier Jay Cooke in the summer of 1870 brought the first real momentum to the company, over the course of 1871, the Northern Pacific pushed westward from Minnesota into present-day North Dakota. Surveyors and construction crews had to maneuver through swamps, bogs, the difficult terrain and insufficient funding delayed by six months the construction phase in Minnesota. The NP also began building its line north from Kalama, Washington Territory, on the Columbia River outside of Portland, Oregon, towards Puget Sound. Four small construction engines were purchased, the Minnetonka, Itaska, Ottertail and St. Cloud, in Minnesota, the Lake Superior and Mississippi Railroad completed construction of its 155-mile line stretching from Saint Paul to Lake Superior at Duluth in 1875. It was leased to the Northern Pacific the following year, and was absorbed by the Northern Pacific. The Northern Pacific Railroad reached Fargo, Dakota Territory, early in June 1872, the following year, in June 1873, the N. P. reached the shores of the Missouri River, at Edwinton D. T. In the west, the track extended 25 miles north from Kalama, surveys were carried out in North Dakota protected by 600 troops under General Winfield Scott Hancock. Headquarters and shops were established in Brainerd, Minnesota, a named for the President John Gregory Smiths wife Anna Elizabeth Brainerd. A severe stock market crash and financial collapse after 1873, led by the Credit Mobilier Scandal, in 1886, the company put down 164 miles of main line across North Dakota, with an additional 45 miles in Washington
22.
Stampede Pass
–
Stampede Pass is a mountain pass in the northwest United States, through the Cascade Range in the state of Washington. East of Seattle, its importance to transportation lies almost entirely with railroading and it is approximately twelve miles south-southeast of Snoqualmie Pass, the gap for Interstate 90. The pass, and the tunnel to the south which takes advantage of it, the pass was discovered by Virgil Bogue, a civil engineer for the Northern Pacific. About January 1 of 1881, I received instructions from Colonel Isaac W. Smith to explore Tacoma Pass, which had been discovered by J. T. Sheets in the Autumn previous, and the range to the north of that pass to some point, which would cover all possible passes, that might lead out of the Green River, Washington in that direction. A party of three or four men, well supplied with provisions, had left at Thorpes Prairie during the winter. We left Tacoma without any delay and went to McClintocks situated on the divide between White River and Green River, from McClintocks we were obliged to cut a trail through the brush and fallen logs. Our first camp at McClintocks was January 17,1881 and we worked steadily at the trail, moving camp frequently, and camped on Green River at a point 500 to 1,000 feet east of the present second crossing of that stream on January 26,1881. Our camp on Green River was Camp No.5, the snow on our arrival, was about two feet deep and crusted over. We found that the trains could go no farther. We concluded therefore, to take to the sleds with which we had been provided, packing on mens backs, the party was supplied with snow shoes, but it was not always practicable to use them. With pack-trains bringing supplies to the shed at Canoe Creek, and sleds, etc. beyond, at this place we were obliged to remain four days, owing to a rain storm which flooded all the streams in the river to such an extent that they were practically impassable. The morning of February 24 we got under way again, and shortly after leaving camp, saw an eagle soaring above our heads. On March 2, we reached Camp No.13 on Green River and our first camp, which I called Camp No. 14, continuing the numbers brought from below, was on a hill not far above Green River Hot Springs. 15, was on a bar in what we afterward called Sunday Creek. On the night following February 5 our Camp No.16 was at the foot of the ridge in the angle formed by Camp Creek and Sunday Creek. We had, therefore, passed entirely by the cabin, which we afterward found located on Green River about one mile above the mouth of Sunday Creek
23.
Grade (slope)
–
The grade of a physical feature, landform or constructed line refers to the tangent of the angle of that surface to the horizontal. It is a case of the slope, where zero indicates horizontality. A larger number indicates higher or steeper degree of tilt, often slope is calculated as a ratio of rise to run, or as a fraction in which run is the horizontal distance and rise is the vertical distance. The grades or slopes of existing physical features such as canyons and hillsides, stream and river banks, grades are typically specified for new linear constructions. The grade may refer to the slope or the perpendicular cross slope. There are several ways to express slope, as an angle of inclination to the horizontal, as a percentage, the formula for which is 100 rise run which could also be expressed as the tangent of the angle of inclination times 100. In the U. S. this percentage grade is the most commonly used unit for communicating slopes in transportation, surveying, construction, and civil engineering. As a per mille figure, the formula for which is 1000 rise run which could also be expressed as the tangent of the angle of inclination times 1000 and this is commonly used in Europe to denote the incline of a railway. As a ratio of one part rise to so many parts run, for example, a slope that has a rise of 5 feet for every 100 feet of run would have a slope ratio of 1 in 20. This is generally the method used to describe railway grades in Australia, any of these may be used. Grade is usually expressed as a percentage, but this is converted to the angle α from horizontal or the other expressions. Slope may still be expressed when the run is not known. This is not the way to specify slope, it follows the sine function rather than the tangent function. But in practice the way to calculate slope is to measure the distance along the slope and the vertical rise. When the angle of inclination is small, using the slope length rather than the horizontal displacement makes only an insignificant difference, Railway gradients are usually expressed in terms of the rise in relation to the distance along the track as a practical measure. In cases where the difference between sin and tan is significant, the tangent is used. In any case, the identity holds for all inclinations up to 90 degrees, tan α = sin α1 − sin 2 α In Europe. Grades are related using the equations with symbols from the figure at top
24.
2-8-0
–
In the United States and elsewhere, this wheel arrangement is commonly known as a Consolidation. Of all the types that were created and experimented with in the 19th century. The first locomotive of this arrangement was possibly built by the Pennsylvania Railroad. Like the first 2-6-0s, this first 2-8-0 had an axle that was rigidly attached to the locomotives frame. To create this 2-8-0, PRR master mechanic John P. Laird modified an existing 0-8-0, the 2-6-0 Mogul type, first created in the early 1860s, is often considered as the logical forerunner to the 2-8-0. However, a claim is made that the first true 2-8-0 engine evolved from the 0-8-0 and was ordered by the United States Lehigh and Mahanoy Railroad, the name given to the new locomotive was Consolidation, the name that was later almost globally adopted for the type. According to this viewpoint, the first 2-8-0 order by Lehigh dates to 1866 and antedates the adoption of the type by other railways and coal, from its introduction in 1866 and well into the early 20th century, the 2-8-0 design was considered to be the ultimate heavy-freight locomotive. The 2-8-0s forte was starting and moving impressive loads at unimpressive speeds, the practical limit of the design was reached in 1915, when it was realised that no further development was possible with a locomotive of this wheel arrangement. As in the United States, the 2-8-0 was also a type in Europe. The type was used in Australia, New Zealand. The 2-8-0 locomotive was used extensively throughout Australia, the Js remained in service in New South Wales until 1915, when they were withdrawn. Wartime shortages between 1916 and 1920 had six engines re-entering service after being shopped and fitted with superheaters, the last engine of this class was finally withdrawn in 1934 and all were scrapped by 1937. The second batch of 2-8-0 locomotives to appear in Australia, between 1896 and 1916, was the NSWGR T class engines. During World War II,14 of these locomotives were equipped with superheaters, from 1899, the Victorian Railways also used a range of broad-gauge 2-8-0 locomotives. The first of these locomotives were the Baldwin-built Victorian Railways V class and these engines were built at Phoenix Foundry in Ballarat, Victoria. By 1930, they had disappeared from the VR, the VRs next type was the 26 C class engines, which saw freight and passenger service. In 1922, a smaller and lighter 2-8-0, the K class, was introduced for branchline freight, finally, the VR introduced sixty light 2-8-0 J class engines in 1954. These also worked both freight and passenger services, the first 2-8-0 engines in private service on the Midland Railway of Western Australia arrived in 1912
25.
Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railway
–
The Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railway, often abbreviated as Santa Fe or AT&SF, was one of the larger railroads in the United States. Chartered in February 1859, the reached the Kansas-Colorado border in 1873 and Pueblo, Colorado. To create a demand for its services, the set up real estate offices. Despite the name, its main line never served Santa Fe, New Mexico, as the terrain was too difficult, the Santa Fe was a pioneer in intermodal freight transport, an enterprise that included a tugboat fleet and an airline. Its bus line extended passenger transportation to areas not accessible by rail, the AT&SF was the subject of a popular song, Harry Warren & Johnny Mercers On the Atchison, Topeka and the Santa Fe, written for the film, The Harvey Girls. The railroad officially ceased operations on December 31,1996, when it merged with the Burlington Northern Railroad to form the Burlington Northern & Santa Fe Railway. The Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe Railway was chartered on February 11,1859, to join Atchison and Topeka, Kansas, with Santa Fe, in its early years, the railroad opened Kansas to settlement. Much of its revenue came from wheat grown there and from cattle driven north from Texas to Wichita, rather than turn its survey southward at Dodge City, AT&SF headed southwest over Raton Pass because of coal deposits near Trinidad, Colorado and Raton, New Mexico. D&RG paid an estimated $1.4 million to Santa Fe for its work within the Gorge and agreed not to extend its line to Santa Fe, while Santa Fe agreed to forego its planned routes to Denver and Leadville. Building across Kansas and eastern Colorado was simple, with few natural obstacles and it set up real estate offices in the area and promoted settlement across Kansas on the land that was granted to it by Congress in 1863. It offered discounted fares to anyone who traveled west to land, if the land was purchased. AT&SF reached Albuquerque in 1880, Santa Fe, the destination of the railroad, found itself on a short branch from Lamy. In March 1881 AT&SF connected with the Southern Pacific at Deming, New Mexico, the railroad then built southwest from Benson, Arizona, to Nogales on the Mexican border where it connected with the Sonora Railway, which the AT&SF had built north from the Mexican port of Guaymas. The Atlantic & Pacific Railroad was chartered in 1866 to build west from Springfield, Missouri, the infant A&P had no rail connections. The line that was to become the St. Louis–San Francisco Railway would not reach Springfield for another four years, A&P started construction in 1868, built southwest into what would become Oklahoma, and promptly entered receivership. In 1879 A&P struck a deal with the Santa Fe and Frisco railroads to construct a line for each. The railroads would jointly build and own the A&P railroad west of Albuquerque, in 1883 A&P reached Needles, California, where it connected with an SP line. A&P also built a line between Tulsa, Oklahoma and St. Louis, Missouri for the Frisco, but the Tulsa-Albuquerque portion remained unbuilt, by January 1890, the entire system consisted of some 7,500 miles of track
26.
Compound locomotive
–
A compound locomotive is a steam locomotive which is powered by a compound engine, a type of steam engine where steam is expanded in two or more phases. Colloquially referred to as an engine, the locomotive is only one application of the compounding principle. Compounding became popular for railway locomotives from the early 1880s and by the 1890s were becoming common, large numbers were constructed, mostly two- and four-cylinder compounds, in France, Germany, Austria, Hungary, and the United States. It declined in popularity due to issues and because superheating provided similar efficiencies at lower cost. Nonetheless, compound Mallets were built by the Norfolk and Western Railway right up to 1952. In order to balance piston thrusts of a compound, the HP, LP cylinder volume ratio has to be carefully determined, in non-condensing engines, the HP, LP volume ratio is usually 1, 2¼. On geared locomotives, cylinder volumes can be more or less identical by increasing LP piston speed. Strictly speaking compound only stands for double-expansion, but the term is applied to any multiple-expansion engine. In situations where heavy grades and low axle loads were combined, however, in the past, optimum performance demanded constant attention and expert handling, which usually made single-manning advisable, thus reducing a locomotives availability. At the end of the age, this particular problem was being addressed by Andre Chapelon. This is especially true of locomotives built in the years of the 20th century. Resuperheating was also a feature of L. D, portas prototype 4-8-0 rebuild, Presidente Peron/Argentina. Most other systems employ starting valves of various kinds, another criterion is whether the valve gears of the two groups are wholly independent or linked together in some way. S. A in the early years of the 20th Century, notably on the Santa Fe. Jonathan Hornblower, the grandson of one of Newcomens engine erectors in Cornwall and he was prevented from developing it further by James Watt, who claimed his own patents were infringed. A method to lessen the magnitude of the heating and cooling of a single-expansion steam engine that leads to inefficiency was invented in 1804 by British engineer Arthur Woolf. Woolf patented his stationary Woolf high-pressure compound engine in 1805, the first design of a compound railway locomotive on record belongs to Thomas Craddock, who patented a design for a condensing compound locomotive in 1846. In this system, the two alternated as high and low pressure, with the change-over occurring halfway through each stroke. Two locomotives, one passenger and one goods, were converted to the system, nothing is known of this locomotives subsequent career and it does not appear to have been reproduced
27.
2-10-2
–
In the United States of America and elsewhere the 2-10-2 is known as the Santa Fe type, after the Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railway that first used the type in 1903. The 2-10-2 wheel arrangement evolved in the United States from the 2-10-0 Decapod of the Atchison, Topeka, consequently, the ATSF added a trailing truck to the locomotives which allowed them to operate successfully in both directions. These first 2-10-2 locomotives became the forerunners to the entire 2-10-2 family, the trailing truck allows a larger, deeper firebox than that of a 2-10-0. Like all ten-coupled designs, the rigid wheelbase of the coupled wheels presented a problem on curves, requiring flangeless drivers, lateral motion devices. The 2-10-2s inherent problem was the low speed restriction on the type, further, the 2-10-2 had other inherent restrictions. In addition the 2-10-2, like the 2-6-2, had its main rod connected to the coupled axle, very near to the centre of gravity. The peak of the 2-10-2 design limitations was reached in the United States in 1926 and was overcome with the advent of the superior 2-10-4 design. Locomotives with a 2-10-2 wheel arrangement were used in a number of countries around the world, including those in North America, Western Europe, China, continental Europe saw a fair number of 2-10-2s, although the type was always less popular than 2-8-2 Mikados and 2-10-0 Decapods. A large number of European 2-10-2s were tank locomotives, taking advantage of the nature of the wheel arrangement. The metre gauge General Manuel Belgrano Railway in Argentina operated the E2 series of 2-10-2 locomotives and these required modification by Livio Dante Porta to achieve their full potential. Ten more powerful examples were introduced into service in 1964, two classes of 2-10-2 locomotives were used in the Belgian Congo. Two locomotives were built by Du Haine Saint-Pierre for the CF du Congo Superieur aux Grands Lacs Africains in 1937 and they had 510 by 530 millimetres cylinders and 1,060 millimetres diameter coupled wheels, with a working order mass of 64.7 tonnes. One locomotive was built for the CF du Bas-Congo au Katanga by Société Anonyme John Cockerill in 1947, numbered 901, in 1916, Canadian National Railways took delivery of ten Class T-1-a 2-10-2s from an order made by the short-lived Canadian Government Railways and built by ALCO. Ten more were delivered from the Montreal Locomotive Works in 1918, Canadian Locomotive Company produced five T-2-as in 1924. Ten ALCOs named T-3-as were acquired from the Boston and Albany Railroad in 1928, Canadian Locomotive Company produced the last series of 2-10-2s for CNR, a batch of 15 T-4-as in 1929, and 18 T-4-bs in 1930. The 2-10-2s began to be scrapped in the mid-1950s, with the last models being used until 1961, there are two surviving CNR 2-10-2 locomotives. One is no.4008 on display at the CNR Station in Rainy River, ON, the mainstay of Chinese steam was their 2-10-2 locomotives. This was the arrangement of the Chinese QJ class locomotives that were based on the Soviet LV class
28.
Russian locomotive class Ye
–
They were lightweight engines with relatively low axle loadings. The locomotives were nicknamed Russian Decapods, a number of locomotives were acquired by the Finnish railways and by the China Railway When Russia entered the war in 1914, it was dependent mainly on 0-8-0 and 2-8-0 locomotives. Another problem was that the 0-10-0s were being produced only at one factory, at this time, Professor N. L. Shchukin, head of the commission of rolling stock, the Ministry of Railways, proposed ordering 400 2-10-0 locomotives from the United States. Although the production was to be American, the locomotive was designed by Russian engineers and this called for 10 drive wheels, a low axle loading, a large firebox to burn low-grade coal, and an overall similar design to the class Э class 0-10-0. Because the weight of the boiler, particularly the firebox, caused the load on some axles to exceed 16 tonnes, it was decided to add a lead pony truck. This also allowed a slightly bigger boiler whilst keeping the axle loadings within acceptable limits, some people would have rather ordered a 2-10-2 locomotive, but it was decided to keep it as a 2-10-0, as its shorter length would allow to fit on smaller turntables. Another reason was that the drive wheels allowed a wide firebox above the wheels to be nearly as deep as a locomotive with a trailing axle. The cylinders were originally planned to be 630 mm stroke by 700 mm bore, but because America uses inches, the designers changed it to 635 mm stroke by 711.2 mm bore. It was originally planned to use plate frames, but since that would take away from production in setting up the equipment in American factories. Diagrams showing the basic dimensions of four models, in 1915, the first 400 locomotives entered production. In Russia, they were given the name of class Е, with subclasses varying on the city of the manufacturer, Еф for Baldwin built, Ес for Alco built and it is worth noting that the locomotives were manufactured without brakes. This is due to the fact that it was determined to equip these locomotives with Westinghouse brakes, therefore, the braking equipment was commissioned by the joint stock company of Westinghouse in Petrograd. For this reason, upon arriving in Vladivostok, locomotives were first sent to the workshops of the Chinese Eastern Railway in Harbin. Here, the locomotives were equipped with brake apparatuses, and prepared to be sent to the railways of the European part of Russia, in 1916, after satisfactory performance of the first engines, Russia decided to order a further 475 locomotives, with minor changes. These locomotives were heavier, with an adhesive weight of 80.3 tonnes In 1917. Baldwin was only able to supply 75 at this time, however, when the United States entered the war in 1917, they decided to aid the Allied effort by producing more 2-10-0s for Russia. However, production was interrupted by the 1917 Bolshevik revolution, and this left 200 locomotives stranded in the US. At this point, the United States Railroad Administration decided to convert them to gauge by fitting wider tires
29.
North Carolina Transportation Museum
–
The North Carolina Transportation Museum is a museum in Spencer, North Carolina. It is a collection of automobiles, aircraft, and railway vehicles, the museum is located at the former Southern Railways 1896-era Spencer Shops and devotes much of its space to the states railroad history. The museum has the largest collection of relics in the Carolinas. Its Back Shop building of three stories high is most notable for its size of two football fields long. The museum was founded in 1977, when the Southern Railway deeded 4 acres of land to North Carolina for a transportation museum, two years later, another 53 acres was added to the original donation, the entirety of the railways largest former steam locomotive repair shops. The museums first exhibit called People, Places and Time opened in 1983, the museum grew over the years, most notably in 1996, with the opening of Barber Junction, a relocated railroad depot from some 30 miles away, and the newly renovated Bob Julian Roundhouse. Barber Junction serves as the museums Visitors Center and departure point for the train ride. The Bob Julian Roundhouse serves as the hub for most of the railroad exhibits. Several bays of the Spencer Shops roundhouse, built in 1924, are devoted to locomotives and it was here that steam locomotives from 1896-1953 were repaired. In the first 16 stalls, visitors can walk among the massive locomotives, moving into the enclosed Elmer Lam gallery in stalls 17 through 20, aviation exhibits dominate, with a full size replica Wright Flyer, Piedmont Airlines exhibits, and more. Moving into the restoration shop occupying stalls 21 through 32, visitors may also see volunteers working on various railroad pieces, the remaining five stalls are dedicated to additional enclosed exhibits. The museum is the largest repository of relics in North and South Carolina. About three-thousand people were employed to repair the trains at the Spencer Shops in the first half of the twentieth-century, the Flue Shop, where all the flues for steam engines were formerly produced, has become the Bumper To Bumper exhibit, featuring vintage and antique cars. These include, several Model Ts, a Model A, a Highway Patrol car from 1935, a Divco Milk Truck, a Lincoln Continental and others are also part of the museums collection. In 2005, the museums Back Shop underwent a renovation, which included repairs to the roof, re-pointing of the brick. This building, where the full overhaul of steam locomotives took place, is most notable for its size. It is two football fields long and nearly three stories tall, however, it may be most notable for the words Be Careful, standing some three feet tall, visible from nearly anywhere on the north end of the site. In 2009, the museum opened the Back Shop to the public for the first time, behind-the -Scenes tours and special events often feature a full Back Shop tour
30.
Russian Empire
–
The Russian Empire was a state that existed from 1721 until it was overthrown by the short-lived February Revolution in 1917. One of the largest empires in history, stretching over three continents, the Russian Empire was surpassed in landmass only by the British and Mongol empires. The rise of the Russian Empire happened in association with the decline of neighboring powers, the Swedish Empire, the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, Persia. It played a role in 1812–14 in defeating Napoleons ambitions to control Europe. The House of Romanov ruled the Russian Empire from 1721 until 1762, and its German-descended cadet branch, with 125.6 million subjects registered by the 1897 census, it had the third-largest population in the world at the time, after Qing China and India. Like all empires, it included a large disparity in terms of economics, ethnicity, there were numerous dissident elements, who launched numerous rebellions and assassination attempts, they were closely watched by the secret police, with thousands exiled to Siberia. Economically, the empire had an agricultural base, with low productivity on large estates worked by serfs. The economy slowly industrialized with the help of foreign investments in railways, the land was ruled by a nobility from the 10th through the 17th centuries, and subsequently by an emperor. Tsar Ivan III laid the groundwork for the empire that later emerged and he tripled the territory of his state, ended the dominance of the Golden Horde, renovated the Moscow Kremlin, and laid the foundations of the Russian state. Tsar Peter the Great fought numerous wars and expanded an already huge empire into a major European power, Catherine the Great presided over a golden age. She expanded the state by conquest, colonization and diplomacy, continuing Peter the Greats policy of modernisation along West European lines, Tsar Alexander II promoted numerous reforms, most dramatically the emancipation of all 23 million serfs in 1861. His policy in Eastern Europe involved protecting the Orthodox Christians under the rule of the Ottoman Empire and that connection by 1914 led to Russias entry into the First World War on the side of France, Britain, and Serbia, against the German, Austrian and Ottoman empires. The Russian Empire functioned as a monarchy until the Revolution of 1905. The empire collapsed during the February Revolution of 1917, largely as a result of failures in its participation in the First World War. Perhaps the latter was done to make Europe recognize Russia as more of a European country, Poland was divided in the 1790-1815 era, with much of the land and population going to Russia. Most of the 19th century growth came from adding territory in Asia, Peter I the Great introduced autocracy in Russia and played a major role in introducing his country to the European state system. However, this vast land had a population of 14 million, grain yields trailed behind those of agriculture in the West, compelling nearly the entire population to farm. Only a small percentage lived in towns, the class of kholops, close to the one of slavery, remained a major institution in Russia until 1723, when Peter I converted household kholops into house serfs, thus including them in poll taxation
31.
World War I
–
World War I, also known as the First World War, the Great War, or the War to End All Wars, was a global war originating in Europe that lasted from 28 July 1914 to 11 November 1918. More than 70 million military personnel, including 60 million Europeans, were mobilised in one of the largest wars in history and it was one of the deadliest conflicts in history, and paved the way for major political changes, including revolutions in many of the nations involved. The war drew in all the worlds great powers, assembled in two opposing alliances, the Allies versus the Central Powers of Germany and Austria-Hungary. These alliances were reorganised and expanded as more nations entered the war, Italy, Japan, the trigger for the war was the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria, heir to the throne of Austria-Hungary, by Yugoslav nationalist Gavrilo Princip in Sarajevo on 28 June 1914. This set off a crisis when Austria-Hungary delivered an ultimatum to the Kingdom of Serbia. Within weeks, the powers were at war and the conflict soon spread around the world. On 25 July Russia began mobilisation and on 28 July, the Austro-Hungarians declared war on Serbia, Germany presented an ultimatum to Russia to demobilise, and when this was refused, declared war on Russia on 1 August. Germany then invaded neutral Belgium and Luxembourg before moving towards France, after the German march on Paris was halted, what became known as the Western Front settled into a battle of attrition, with a trench line that changed little until 1917. On the Eastern Front, the Russian army was successful against the Austro-Hungarians, in November 1914, the Ottoman Empire joined the Central Powers, opening fronts in the Caucasus, Mesopotamia and the Sinai. In 1915, Italy joined the Allies and Bulgaria joined the Central Powers, Romania joined the Allies in 1916, after a stunning German offensive along the Western Front in the spring of 1918, the Allies rallied and drove back the Germans in a series of successful offensives. By the end of the war or soon after, the German Empire, Russian Empire, Austro-Hungarian Empire, national borders were redrawn, with several independent nations restored or created, and Germanys colonies were parceled out among the victors. During the Paris Peace Conference of 1919, the Big Four imposed their terms in a series of treaties, the League of Nations was formed with the aim of preventing any repetition of such a conflict. This effort failed, and economic depression, renewed nationalism, weakened successor states, and feelings of humiliation eventually contributed to World War II. From the time of its start until the approach of World War II, at the time, it was also sometimes called the war to end war or the war to end all wars due to its then-unparalleled scale and devastation. In Canada, Macleans magazine in October 1914 wrote, Some wars name themselves, during the interwar period, the war was most often called the World War and the Great War in English-speaking countries. Will become the first world war in the sense of the word. These began in 1815, with the Holy Alliance between Prussia, Russia, and Austria, when Germany was united in 1871, Prussia became part of the new German nation. Soon after, in October 1873, German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck negotiated the League of the Three Emperors between the monarchs of Austria-Hungary, Russia and Germany
32.
October Revolution
–
It took place with an armed insurrection in Petrograd on 25 October 1917. During this time, urban workers began to organize into councils wherein revolutionaries criticized the provisional government and this immediately initiated the establishment of the Russian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic, the worlds first self-proclaimed socialist state. The revolution was led by the Bolsheviks, who used their influence in the Petrograd Soviet to organize the armed forces, Bolshevik Red Guards forces under the Military Revolutionary Committee began the takeover of government buildings on 24 October 1917. The following day, the Winter Palace, was captured, the long-awaited Constituent Assembly elections were held on 12 November 1917. The Bolsheviks only won 175 seats in the 715-seat legislative body, coming in second behind the Socialist Revolutionary party, the Constituent Assembly was to first meet on 28 November 1917, but its convocation was delayed until 5 January 1918 by the Bolsheviks. On its first and only day in session, the body rejected Soviet decrees on peace and land, as the revolution was not universally recognized, there followed the struggles of the Russian Civil War and the creation of the Soviet Union in 1922. At first, the event was referred to as the October coup or the Uprising of 25th, in Russian, however, переворот has a similar meaning to revolution and also means upheaval or overturn, so coup is not necessarily the correct translation. With time, the term October Revolution came into use and it is also known as the November Revolution having occurred in November according to the Gregorian Calendar. The Great October Socialist Revolution was the name for the October Revolution in the Soviet Union after the 10th anniversary of the Revolution in 1927. The February Revolution had toppled Tsar Nicolas II of Russia, however, the provisional government was weak and riven by internal dissension. It continued to wage World War I, which became increasingly unpopular, a nationwide crisis developed in Russia, affecting social, economic, and political relations. Disorder in industry and transport had intensified, and difficulties in obtaining provisions had increased, gross industrial production in 1917 had decreased by over 36% from what it had been in 1914. In the autumn, as much as 50% of all enterprises were closed down in the Urals, the Donbas, at the same time, the cost of living increased sharply. Real wages fell about 50% from what they had been in 1913, russias national debt in October 1917 had risen to 50 billion rubles. Of this, debts to foreign governments constituted more than 11 billion rubles, the country faced the threat of financial bankruptcy. In these months alone, more than a million took part in strikes. Workers established control over production and distribution in many factories and plants in a social revolution, by October 1917, there had been over 4,000 peasant uprisings against landowners. When the Provisional Government sent punitive detachments, it only enraged the peasants
33.
United States Railroad Administration
–
The United States Railroad Administration was the name of the nationalized railroad system of the United States between 1917 and 1920. It was possibly the largest American experiment with nationalization, and was undertaken against a background of war emergency, on April 4,1917, the United States entered World War I, and very soon the nations railroads proved inadequate to the task of serving the war effort. There were several sources of the problem, although the carriers had made massive investments in the first years of the 20th century, there remained inadequacies in terminals, trackage, and rolling stock. The ICC did allow some increases in rates, however, also, investors had overexpanded the nations trackage, so by late 1915 fully one-sixth of the railroad trackage in the country belonged to roads in receivership. The railroad unions, desiring shorter working days and better pay, to avert a strike, President Woodrow Wilson secured Congressional passage of the Adamson Act, which set the eight-hour work day as the industry standard. When the Supreme Court ruled the law constitutional, the carriers had no choice, the railroads attempted to coordinate their efforts to support the war by creating the Railroads War Board, but private action ran into anti-trust and other regulatory barriers. Observers noted, for example, that sometimes competitive practices prevailed that were not in the best interests of efficient mobilization, also, government departments sought priority for shipment made on their behalf, and congestion in freight yards, terminals, and port facilities became staggering. Finally, in December 1917 the ICC recommended federal control of the industry to ensure efficient operation. President Wilson issued an order for nationalization on December 26,1917, the railroads were organized into three divisions, East, West, and South. Duplicate passenger services were eliminated, while costly and employee-heavy sleeping car services were cut back, uniform passenger ticketing was instituted, and competing services on different former railroads were cut back. Terminals, facilities, and shops were shared, before the new USRA standard locomotive types were built and released, locomotives that builders had on hand were issued to various railroads. 2-8-0 Consolidation locomotives built by the Baldwin Locomotive Works for transport, then 2-10-0 Decapod locomotives built for Imperial Russia by both ALCO and Baldwin, but stranded in the US by the Russian Revolution of 1917, were also made available to the railroads. On March 21,1918 the Railway Administration Act became law, Wilson appointed his son-in-law, Secretary of the Treasury William Gibbs McAdoo, as Director General of the newly formed USRA. It also guaranteed compensation for the use of their assets at the operational income of the railroads in the three years previous to nationalization. This act laid down in concrete that the nationalization would be only a measure, before. With the Armistice in November 1918, McAdoo resigned from his post, there was support among labor unions for continuing the nationalization of the railroads after the war. However, this position was not supported by Wilson nor the public generally, congress passed the Esch-Cummins Act in February 1920, which substantially increased the ICCs powers over the railroads, and the USRAs authority ended on March 1,1920. The ICC was given powers to approve or reject railroad mergers, to set rates, to approve or reject abandonments of service, the government also made financial guarantees to the railroads after control was handed back to them, to ensure their financial survival after the restoration of control
34.
Allegheny Mountains
–
The Alleghenies comprise the rugged western-central portion of the Appalachians. They rise to approximately 4,862 feet in northeastern West Virginia, in the east, they are dominated by a high, steep escarpment known as the Allegheny Front. In the west, they slope down into the closely associated Allegheny Plateau which extends into Ohio, the principal settlements of the Alleghenies are Altoona, State College, and Johnstown, Pennsylvania, and Cumberland, Maryland. The name is derived from the Allegheny River, which only a small portion of the Alleghenies in west-central Pennsylvania. The meaning of the word, which comes from the Lenape Indians, is not definitively known but is translated as fine river. A Lenape legend tells of an ancient tribe called the Allegewi who lived on the river and were defeated by the Lenape, Allegheny is the early French spelling, and Allegany is closer to the early English spelling. The word Allegheny was once used to refer to the whole of what are now called the Appalachian Mountains. John Norton used it around 1810 to refer to the mountains in Tennessee, around the same time, Washington Irving proposed renaming the United States either Appalachia or Alleghania. In 1861, Arnold Henry Guyot published the first systematic study of the whole mountain range. His map labeled the range as the Alleghanies, but his book was titled On the Appalachian Mountain System, as late as 1867, John Muir—in his book A Thousand Mile Walk to the Gulf—used the word Alleghanies in referring to the southern Appalachians. There was no agreement about the Appalachians versus the Alleghanies until the late 19th century. From northeast to southwest, the Allegheny Mountains run about 400 miles, from west to east, at their widest, they are about 100 miles. To the west, the Alleghenies grade down into the dissected Allegheny Plateau, the westernmost ridges are considered to be the Laurel and Chestnut Ridges in Pennsylvania and Laurel and Rich Mountains in West Virginia. The mountains to the south of the Alleghenies—the Appalachians in westernmost Virginia, eastern Kentucky, the Alleghenies and the Cumberlands both constitute part of the Ridge and Valley Province of the Appalachians. The eastern edge of the Alleghenies is marked by the Allegheny Front and this great escarpment roughly follows a portion of the Eastern Continental Divide in this area. A number of gorges and valleys drain the Alleghenies, to the east, Smoke Hole Canyon, and to the west the New River Gorge. Thus, about half the precipitation falling on the Alleghenies makes its way west to the Mississippi and half goes east to Chesapeake Bay, the highest ridges of the Alleghenies are just west of the Front, which has an east/west elevational change of up to 3,000 feet. Absolute elevations of the Allegheny Highlands reach nearly 5,000 feet, the highest point in the Allegheny Mountains is Spruce Knob, on Spruce Mountain in West Virginia
35.
Baldwin Locomotive Works
–
The Baldwin Locomotive Works was an American builder of railroad locomotives. It was originally located in Philadelphia, and later moved to nearby Eddystone, although the company was very successful as the largest producer of steam locomotives, its transition to the production of diesels was far less so. Later, when the demand for diesel locomotives to replace steam tapered off. It stopped producing locomotives in 1956 and went out of business in 1972, having produced over 70,000 locomotives and this company is not to be confused with E M Baldwin of Australia who made small locomotives for such things as sugar cane tramways. The Baldwin Locomotive Works had a humble beginning, the original engine was in use and powered many departments of the works for well over 60 years, and is currently on display at the Smithsonian Institution in Washington, DC. The Camden and Amboy Railroad Company had shortly before imported a locomotive from England and it had not yet been assembled by Isaac Dripps when Baldwin visited the spot. He inspected the detached parts and made notes of the principal dimensions, aided by these figures, he commenced his task. The difficulties attending the execution of this first order were such that they are not easily understood by present-day mechanics. It was under such circumstances that his first locomotive, christened Old Ironsides, was completed and tried on the Philadelphia and it was at once put in active service, and did duty for over 20 years. It was an engine, weighing a little over five tons, the driving wheels were 54 inches in diameter. The wheels were of heavy cast iron hubs, with spokes and rims, and wrought iron tires. It had a 30 inches diameter boiler which took 20 minutes to raise steam, Baldwin struggled to survive the Panic of 1837. Production fell from 40 locomotives in 1837 to just nine in 1840, as part of the survival strategy, Matthias Baldwin took on two partners, George Vail and George Hufty. Although the partnerships proved relatively short-lived, they helped Baldwin pull through the hard times. Zerah Colburn was one of many engineers who had an association with Baldwin Locomotive Works. Colburn was full of praise for the quality of Baldwins work, in the 1850s, railroad building became a national obsession, with many new carriers starting up, particularly in the Midwest and South. While this helped drive up demand for Baldwin products, it increased competition as more companies entered the locomotive production field. Still, Baldwin had trouble keeping pace with orders and in the early 1850s began paying workers piece-rate pay, taking advantage of human nature, this increased incentives and productivity
36.
Pound (mass)
–
The pound or pound-mass is a unit of mass used in the imperial, United States customary and other systems of measurement. The international standard symbol for the pound is lb. The unit is descended from the Roman libra, the English word pound is cognate with, among others, German Pfund, Dutch pond, and Swedish pund. All ultimately derive from a borrowing into Proto-Germanic of the Latin expression lībra pondō, usage of the unqualified term pound reflects the historical conflation of mass and weight. This accounts for the modern distinguishing terms pound-mass and pound-force, the United States and countries of the Commonwealth of Nations agreed upon common definitions for the pound and the yard. Since 1 July 1959, the avoirdupois pound has been defined as exactly 0.45359237 kg. In the United Kingdom, the use of the pound was implemented in the Weights and Measures Act 1963.9144 metre exactly. An avoirdupois pound is equal to 16 avoirdupois ounces and to exactly 7,000 grains, the conversion factor between the kilogram and the international pound was therefore chosen to be divisible by 7, and an grain is thus equal to exactly 64.79891 milligrams. The US has not adopted the system despite many efforts to do so. Historically, in different parts of the world, at different points in time, and for different applications, the libra is an ancient Roman unit of mass that was equivalent to approximately 328.9 grams. It was divided into 12 unciae, or ounces, the libra is the origin of the abbreviation for pound, lb. A number of different definitions of the pound have historically used in Britain. Amongst these were the avoirdupois pound and the tower, merchants. Historically, the sterling was a tower pound of silver. In 1528, the standard was changed to the Troy pound, the avoirdupois pound, also known as the wool pound, first came into general use c. It was initially equal to 6992 troy grains, the pound avoirdupois was divided into 16 ounces. During the reign of Queen Elizabeth, the pound was redefined as 7,000 troy grains. Since then, the grain has often been a part of the avoirdupois system
37.
Pounds per square inch
–
The pound per square inch or, more accurately, pound-force per square inch is a unit of pressure or of stress based on avoirdupois units. Now converting the psi to standard atmospheres,1 atm =101325 Pa =101325 Pa 6894.757293168 Pa / psi ≈14.70 psi Therefore,1 atmosphere is approximately 14.7 pounds per square inch. Pounds per square inch absolute is used to make it clear that the pressure is relative to a rather than the ambient atmospheric pressure. Since atmospheric pressure at sea level is around 14.7 psi, the converse is pounds per square inch gauge or pounds per square inch gage, indicating that the pressure is relative to atmospheric pressure. For example, a bicycle tire pumped up to 65 psi above atmospheric pressure. When gauge pressure is referenced to something other than ambient atmospheric pressure, the kilopound per square inch is a scaled unit derived from psi, equivalent to a thousand psi. Ksi are not widely used for gas pressures and they are mostly used in materials science, where the tensile strength of a material is measured as a large number of psi. The conversion in SI Units is 1 ksi =6.895 MPa, the megapound per square inch is another multiple equal to a million psi. It is used in mechanics for the modulus of the materials. The conversion in SI Units is 1 Mpsi =6.895 GPa, inch of water,0.036 psid Blood pressure – clinically normal human blood pressure,2.32 psig/1.55 psig Natural gas residential piped in for consumer appliance, 4–6 psig. Boost pressure provided by a turbocharger, 6–15 psig NFL football,12. 5–13.5 psig Atmospheric pressure at sea level,14
38.
Western Maryland Railway
–
The Western Maryland Railway was an American Class I railroad which operated in Maryland, West Virginia, and Pennsylvania. It was primarily a coal hauling and freight railroad, with a passenger train operation. The original main line began with the chartering of the Baltimore, Carroll and Frederick Railroad in 1852, with the intent of building a line from Baltimore west to Washington County. The Maryland General Assembly changed the name of the company to the Western Maryland Rail Road Company in 1853, an existing Northern Central Railway branch line terminating at Owings Mills was used to connect into Baltimore. The railroad was completed to Westminster in 1861 and Union Bridge in 1862, further expansion was delayed because of the Civil War. Westward construction resumed in 1868, and the line was completed to Hagerstown in 1872 and this section became the East Subdivision. The companys first major car shops were established at Union Bridge and it built a branch east of Union Station to Hillen Station, which opened in 1876 and became the company headquarters. The WM built a connection from Hagerstown to Williamsport, in order to access coal traffic from the Chesapeake, under the leadership of company president John Mifflin Hood, the railway made its first extension into Pennsylvania by leasing a line from Edgemont, Maryland, to Waynesboro and Shippensburg. This line became the Lurgan Subdivision and was leased from the Baltimore and Cumberland Valley Railroad in 1881, and was connected to the Harrisburg and Potomac Railroad in 1886. A second route into Pennsylvania, the Hanover Subdivision, was acquired by the WM when it gained control of the Baltimore and Hanover Railroad, and the Gettysburg Railroad, in late 1886. This line connected to the WM main at Emory Grove, proceeded north to Hanover and Gettysburg, then southwest to connect again to the WM at Highfield, Maryland, a branch from Porters to York, Pennsylvania was completed in 1893, this became the York Subdivision. The WM established a connection with the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad in 1892 with the opening of the Potomac Valley Rail Road between Williamsport and Big Pool, Maryland and this connection brought a major increase in through-freight traffic. Construction of an extension from Hagerstown to Cumberland began in 1903, to service the expanded system, the WM built a major shop complex at Hagerstown in 1909, with a roundhouse, machine shops and related facilities. Rail yards at Hagerstown were also expanded, the Fuller Syndicate, led by George Gould, purchased a controlling interest in the WM in 1902 and made plans for westward expansion of the system. In 1904 the WM completed construction of a marine terminal at Port Covington, on the Patapsco River in Baltimore. The terminal facilities included coal, grain and merchandise piers, overhead cranes,11 rail yards, warehouses, a roundhouse, a turntable, in the 1920s rotary dumpers for coal and coke were installed, and a large grain elevator. Using the portion of the line through the Narrows, the Connellsville Extension was built west from Cumberland to Connellsville, Pennsylvania, beginning in 1910, at Connellsville the WM connected with the Pittsburgh and Lake Erie Railroad. In 1915 the WM obtained trackage rights on a B&O line from Bowest Junction to Chiefton, West Virginia, the GC&C line provided the WM with access to mines in the Georges Creek Valley
39.
Great Western 90
–
Strasburg Rail Road no.90 is a 2-10-0 steam locomotive operated by the Strasburg Rail Road, outside Strasburg, Pennsylvania. She was built by the Baldwin Locomotive Works in 1924, in Philadelphia PA and she originally pulled sugar beet trains of about 40 to 50 cars length for the Great Western Railway of Colorado to the companys towering mill in Loveland, Colorado. Before being sold to the Strasburg Railroad, #90 ran excursions on the GWR, and even met with Chicago, Burlington, and Quincy #5632, a 4-8-4, and CB&Q #902, some say that she also got t-boned by an 18-wheeler in the 1940s. In 1968, #90 was invited to double head former Canadian Pacific, G-5-d class pacific and this was the last mainline excursion #90 would run. She was returned to the Strasburg Railroad to haul tourist and freight trains, the 90 was the Great Westerns largest and most powerful road locomotive, and saw extensive use on trains too large for the companys fleet of 2-8-0s. In 1944,90 was hit by a truck at a crossing and knocked onto its firemans side. The Great Western sent 90 to the Chicago, Burlington and Quincy Railroads shops in Denver for repairs, following WWII,90 was used primarily in the Autumn during the harvest season. By the late 1950s,90 was occasionally used in service on the Great Western. The Strasburg Rail Road purchased the 90 on 5 April 1967 for a price of $23,000.00, and the locomotive arrived on Strasburgs property a month later on 5 March. In the winter of 1968, Ross Rowlands High Iron Company planned to operate a series of steam excursions between Jersey City, NJ and Ardsley, PA on the Central Railroad of New Jersey. After the trips concluded,90 was returned to the Strasburg. As it was on the Great Western,90 is also the most powerful of the four locomotives in operation at the Strasburg Rail Road in Lancaster County PA. The Strasburg Rail Road purchased her in 1967, and it is now one of the two operating decapods in the United States, the other one being former Frisco #1630, who still operates today in the Illinois Railway Museum. Another light decapod, Woodward Iron #41, just arrived at the Age of Steam Roundhouse in December 2015 for restoration,90 has undergone a number of modifications by the Strasburg in order to better suit their needs. In 1991, the sand dome between the dome and cab was removed along with all of its associated piping. In 1993, the extension added in the 1940s by the Great Western to allow the locomotive to burn poorer grades of coal was removed in order to improve drafting. The coal board extensions were removed at this time presumably to improve rearward visibility. In 2006, 90s tender tank was replaced with a new identical tank made from stainless steel welded with cosmetic rivet heads spot welded to make it appear authentic
40.
Strasburg Rail Road
–
The Strasburg Rail Road is the oldest continuously operating railroad in the western hemisphere and the oldest public utility in the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania. Chartered in 1832, the Strasburg Rail Road continues to operate under its original charter, Strasburg currently has four serviceable historic steam locomotives on its roster and has the nations largest fleet of historic wooden passenger coaches in operation. The Strasburg Rail Road is also one of the few railroads in the United States to occasionally use steam locomotives to haul freight trains. It hosts 300,000 visitors per year, across the street from the Strasburg Rail Road is the Railroad Museum of Pennsylvania. The Strasburg Rail Road serves as the Museums physical rail connection to the Amtrak Philadelphia to Harrisburg Main Line junction in Paradise, Strasburg Rail Road is a shortline railroad whose construction in the 19th century was intended to connect the town of Strasburg with the main line. Today, the original 4½-mile line carries passengers on a 45-minute round-trip journey from Strasburg to Leaman Place Junction through nearly 1,000 acres in south-eastern Lancaster County, the train includes the United States only operational wooden dining car on which visitors may dine while riding. Attractions at the station include the fully operational 15 in gauge Pint-Sized Pufferbelly a vintage car and several c. 1930s cranky cars along with several gift shops. A percentage of each ticket is contributed to the Lancaster Farmland Trust. Strasburg Rail Roads freight department facilitates the carrying of goods to, in 2016, it was announced that they are to expand their shop an extra 12,000 square feet due to the increase of jobs from other railroads. By the 1820s, the system had replaced the Conestoga Wagon as the primary method of long-distance transportation. When the Susquehanna Canal opened, the majority of goods were directed through Baltimore, the small amount of goods that were destined for Philadelphia traveled via a wagon road through Strasburg. Philadelphia attempted to reclaim its position as a port city by constructing the Philadelphia and Columbia Railroad in 1831. A railroad was easier and more cost effective to build than a canal, a charter was issued by the Pennsylvania Legislature with the signature of Governor George Wolf on June 9,1832 to incorporate the Strasburg rail road. Although the pre-1852 history of the Strasburg Rail Road is sketchy, the railroad operated as a horse-drawn railroad until it purchased a second-hand Norris-built, 4-2-0 steam locomotive named the William Penn in 1851. Controlling interest in the railroad was purchased by John F. the rails were replaced around the same time with heavier ones to accommodate the locomotive. Isaac Groff managed The Strasburg Rail Road for about 20 years until the fire of January 16,1871 which destroyed the depot, grist, and merchant-mill, planing-mill. In one night over fifty thousand dollars worth of property was destroyed, in 1878, the Strasburg Rail Road and the shops were sold. The railroad was again sold in 1888 to the Edward Musselman, with the Musselmans retaining control of it until 1918
41.
St. Louis-San Francisco Railway 1630
–
St. Louis-San Francisco Railway 1630 is a 2-10-0 steam locomotive. That currently works at the Illinois Railway Museum in Union, Illinois, the locomotive was built in 1918 by the Baldwin Locomotive Works for use in Russia as a class Ye locomotive. However, it, along with approximately 200 other locomotives, remained in the United States, due to the inability of the Bolshevik government to pay for them,1630 was converted from 5 ft Russian track gauge to 4 ft 8 1⁄2 in standard gauge. After being re-gauged, #1630 was sold to the USRA and was numbered 1147, shortly after,1147 was briefly leased for use on the Pennsylvania Railroad. In 1920, the locomotive was sold to the St. Louis – San Francisco Railway, in 1951, the locomotive was sold to Eagle-Picher, who used it to haul lead ore from a mine to their smelter. Sometime after arriving at the museum,160 was restored from her Eagle Picher appearance back to her Frisco appearance, in an episode the 1982 TV series American Playhouse named Any Friend of Nicholas Nickelby is a Friend of Mine, the deacpod was used for some sequences. On Memorial Day weekend 2014, the returned to excursion service. Frisco 1630 Restoration Operational Steam Locomotives Steam Railroading
42.
Illinois Railway Museum
–
The Illinois Railway Museum is the largest railroad museum in the United States and is located in Union, Illinois,55 miles northwest of Chicago. The museum is situated at 7000 Olson Rd, the museum was granted its tax-exempt status in 1957 and its mission is to demonstrate the vital role railroads have played in the growth of the Chicago area as well as the United States as a whole. There are over 450 pieces of equipment in its collection as well as numerous displays. Visitors may ride on some of the electric, steam. The museum was founded in 1953 by ten individuals who joined together to purchase Indiana Railroad interurban car 65, originally called the Illinois Electric Railway Museum, the name was changed to IRM in 1961 to reflect the museums expanding scope. The museum was located on the grounds of the Chicago Hardware Foundry in North Chicago. In 1964 the museums collection was relocated to Union along the former right-of-way of the Elgin & Belvidere interurban. Two years later, operations were begun using Illinois Terminal interurban car 415, the first storage barn was erected in 1971. In 1981 a one-mile streetcar loop was constructed, a 4. 6-mile railroad line was built during the 1980s and early 1990s. The museums operations are concentrated around its main campus just east of Union. Train rides are offered on the line as well as the streetcar loop. Electric trains are operated from April through October, and diesel, Trolley bus operation occurs on the Saturdays of the Memorial Day, Independence Day & Labor Day weekends, as well as on Bus Day, the first Saturday in October. IRM is one of two railway museums in the country that operates both electric and diesel trains. It is the museum that offers trolley bus rides. The Illinois Railway Museum has the most extensive physical plant of any museum in North America. The main campus is located at 42°13′40. 0″N 88°31′38. 08″W, among the equipment preserved at IRM is, Ex-Virginian EL-C No.131 Retired Metra F7 locomotive 308. One of only two North Shore Line Electroliner trainsets built Illinois Central steam locomotive 201, participated in the Wheels A-Rolling pageant at the Chicago Railroad Fair in 1949, nebraska Zephyr St. Louis-San Francisco Railway 2-10-0 Decapod Frisco 1630. The first SD40-2 donated to a museum Grand Trunk Western Railroad Class U-3 4-8-46323, two New York City Transit Authority, IRT Division R28 Series Subway Cars from 1960 #s 7926-7927, Built by ACF. in the Berwick PA Plant
.jpg)
.jpg)
