1.
Terrorism in Indonesia
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Terrorism in Indonesia refer to acts of terrorism that take place within Indonesia or attacks on Indonesian people or interests abroad. These acts of terrorism often target the government of the Republic of Indonesia or foreigners in Indonesia, most notably Western visitors, especially those from the United States and that gives Indonesia the same status as other major economies in the G-20. Traditionally militias politically opposed to Indonesian government interests have been responsible for terrorism attacks in Indonesia. Recent terrorism in Indonesia can in part be attributed to the al-Qaeda-affiliated Jemaah Islamiyah Islamist terror group and/or ISIL, since 2003, a number of western targets have been attacked. Victims have included both foreigners — mainly Western tourists — as well as Indonesian civilians, terrorism in Indonesia intensified in 2000 with the Jakarta Stock Exchange bombing, followed by four more large attacks. The deadliest killed 202 people in the Bali resort town of Kuta in 2002, the attacks, and subsequent travel warnings issued by other countries, severely damaged Indonesias tourism industry and foreign investment prospects. Since 2011, terrorist attacks seemed to shift from targeting foreign Western interests and residents to attacking Indonesian police officers, the Indonesian Police had success in cracking down on terrorist cells, and in retaliation a new terrorist cell, identified as the Cirebon Cell, began targeting police officers. On 15 April 2011 a suicide bomber detonated a device in a mosque in a police compound in the city of Cirebon, West Java. The bomber was killed and at least 28 people were injured, the same cell was also suspected of being involved in two more attacks in Solo, the suicide bombing of a church on 25 September 2011, and a shooting targeting police on 17 August 2012. However these attacks were not as well-prepared and high scaled as previous attacks organized by the Jemaah Islamiyah terrorist group, although the number of terrorist attacks seem to have reduced in both amount and scale, some terrorist hotspots such as Poso, Central Sulawesi, remain. The Poso region was previously marred by violence between Muslims and Christians in the area. On 16 October 2012, Police discovered two corpses of murdered police that had been missing for three days in Tamanjeka village, Poso Regency, Central Sulawesi, the victims went missing during an investigatory mission to a suspected terrorist training ground in a forest the Poso area. On 8 April 2012, a Trigana Air PK-YRF airplane was shot at by unidentified gunmen during an approach on Mulia airstrip, Puncak Jaya. A Papua Pos journalist, Kogoya, was killed in this shooting, on 27 November 2012, three policemen stationed at the remote Pirime police post, Jayawijaya, Papua, were killed in an attack by a group of unidentified men. Police suspected the Papua separatist movement was behind the attack, subsequent bombings in the centre of Jakarta, in which all but one victim were ordinary Indonesians, shocked the public and brought swift responses from the Indonesian security forces. Even the most reluctant politicians had to admit that the evidence pointed to a group of Islamist agitators. Political factors clouded Indonesian responses to the War on Terror, politicians were at pains not to be seen to be bowing to US, even the term Jemaah Islamiyah is controversial in Indonesia as it means Islamic community/congregation, and was also the subject of previous New Order manipulation. The attacks, and subsequent travel warnings issued by other countries including the United States and Australia, severely damaged Indonesias tourism industry, balis economy was particularly hard hit, as were tourism based businesses in other parts of Indonesia
2.
Denpasar
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Denpasar is the capital of Bali. Situated on the Bali island, it is worldwide as a major tourist destination. The city is also a hub for cities in the Lesser Sunda Islands. With the rapid growth of the industry in Bali, Denpasar has encouraged and promoted business activities and ventures. The population of Denpasar was 834,881 in 2012, up from 788,445 at the 2010 Census, the surrounding metropolitan area has roughly 2 million residents. The municipalitys area extent, population, and density are similar to San Francisco, in the 18th and 19th century, Denpasar functioned as the capital of the Hindu Majapahit Kingdom of Badung. Thus, the city was formerly called Badung, the royal palace was looted and razed during the Dutch intervention in 1906. In 1958 Denpasar became the seat of government for the Province of Bali and it remained the administrative centre of both Badung Regency and the City of Denpasar. Both Denpasar and Badung Regency have experienced physical, economic. Denpasar has become not only the seat of government, but also the centre of commerce, education, industry, average population growth of 4. 05% per annum, accompanied by rapid development, led to a variety of urban problems. It was resolved that meeting the needs and demands of the urban community would best be addressed by giving Denpasar administrative independence from Badung Regency. Agreement was reached to raise the status of Denpasar to that of an autonomous City and it was inaugurated by the Minister of Home Affairs on 27 February 1992. On 16 November 2009, in an administrative realignment, Regulation Number 67 shifted the capital of Badung Regency from Denpasar to Mangupura. Denpasar is located at a height of 0-75 mdpl, while the total area of 127.78 km² or 2. 18% of the total area of Bali Province. From the use of land,2,768 hectares of land are paddy,10,001 hectares are dry land, Badung River divides Denpasar, after which the river empties into the Gulf of Benoa. Denpasar, located just south of the equator, has a wet and dry climate, with hot. Due to this there is little change throughout the year. Unlike many cities outside Indonesia with this climate, there is little seasonal temperature change
3.
Bali
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Bali is an island and province of Indonesia. The province includes the island of Bali and a few smaller neighbouring islands, notably Nusa Penida, Nusa Lembongan and it is located at the westernmost end of the Lesser Sunda Islands, between Java to the west and Lombok to the east. Its capital, Denpasar, is located in the part of the island. With a population of 3,890,757 in the 2010 census, and 4,225,000 as of January 2014, the island is home to most of Indonesias Hindu minority. According to the 2010 Census,83. 5% of Balis population adhered to Balinese Hinduism, followed by 13. 4% Muslim, Christianity at 2. 5%, Bali is a popular tourist destination, which has seen a significant rise in tourists since the 1980s. Tourism-related business makes up 80% of its economy and it is renowned for its highly developed arts, including traditional and modern dance, sculpture, painting, leather, metalworking, and music. The Indonesian International Film Festival is held every year in Bali, in March 2017, Tripadvisor named the island the worlds top destination in its Travelers choice award. Bali is part of the Coral Triangle, the area with the highest biodiversity of marine species, in this area alone over 500 reef building coral species can be found. For comparison, this is about 7 times as many as in the entire Caribbean, most recently, Bali was the host of the 2011 ASEAN Summit,2013 APEC and Miss World 2013. Bali is the home of the Subak Irrigation System, a UNESCO World Heritage Site, Bali was inhabited around 2000 BC by Austronesian people who migrated originally from Southeast Asia and Oceania through Maritime Southeast Asia. Culturally and linguistically, the Balinese are closely related to the people of the Indonesian archipelago, Malaysia, stone tools dating from this time have been found near the village of Cekik in the islands west. In ancient Bali, nine Hindu sects existed, namely Pasupata, Bhairawa, Siwa Shidanta, Waisnawa, Bodha, Brahma, Resi, Sora, each sect revered a specific deity as its personal Godhead. Inscriptions from 896 and 911 dont mention a king, until 914 and they also reveal an independent Bali, with a distinct dialect, where Buddhism and Sivaism were practiced simultaneously. Mpu Sindoks great-granddaughter, Mahendradatta, married the Bali king Udayana Warmadewa around 989 and this marriage also brought more Hinduism and Javanese culture to Bali. Suradhipa reigned from 1115 to 1119, and Jayasakti from 1146 until 1150, jayapangus appears on inscriptions between 1178 and 1181, while Adikuntiketana and his son Paramesvara in 1204. Balinese culture was influenced by Indian, Chinese, and particularly Hindu culture. The name Bali dwipa has been discovered from inscriptions, including the Blanjong pillar inscription written by Sri Kesari Warmadewa in 914 AD. It was during this time that the people developed their complex irrigation system subak to grow rice in wet-field cultivation, some religious and cultural traditions still practiced today can be traced to this period
4.
Indonesia
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Indonesia, officially the Republic of Indonesia, is a unitary sovereign state and transcontinental country located mainly in Southeast Asia with some territories in Oceania. Situated between the Indian and Pacific oceans, it is the worlds largest island country, with more than seventeen thousand islands. At 1,904,569 square kilometres, Indonesia is the worlds 14th-largest country in terms of area and worlds 7th-largest country in terms of combined sea. It has an population of over 260 million people and is the worlds fourth most populous country. The worlds most populous island, Java, contains more than half of the countrys population, Indonesias republican form of government includes an elected legislature and president. Indonesia has 34 provinces, of which five have Special Administrative status and its capital and countrys most populous city is Jakarta, which is also the most populous city in Southeast Asia and the second in Asia. The country shares land borders with Papua New Guinea, East Timor, other neighbouring countries include Singapore, Vietnam, the Philippines, Australia, Palau, and the Indian territory of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Despite its large population and densely populated regions, Indonesia has vast areas of wilderness that support the second highest level of biodiversity. The country has abundant natural resources like oil and natural gas, tin, copper, agriculture mainly produces rice, palm oil, tea, coffee, cacao, medicinal plants, spices and rubber. Indonesias major trading partners are Japan, United States, China, the Indonesian archipelago has been an important region for trade since at least the 7th century, when Srivijaya and then later Majapahit traded with China and India. Local rulers gradually absorbed foreign cultural, religious and political models from the early centuries CE, Indonesian history has been influenced by foreign powers drawn to its natural resources. Indonesia consists of hundreds of native ethnic and linguistic groups. The largest – and politically dominant – ethnic group are the Javanese, a shared identity has developed, defined by a national language, ethnic diversity, religious pluralism within a Muslim-majority population, and a history of colonialism and rebellion against it. Indonesias national motto, Bhinneka Tunggal Ika, articulates the diversity that shapes the country, Indonesias economy is the worlds 16th largest by nominal GDP and the 8th largest by GDP at PPP, the largest in Southeast Asia, and is considered an emerging market and newly industrialised country. Indonesia has been a member of the United Nations since 1950, Indonesia is a member of the G20 major economies and World Trade Organization. The name Indonesia derives from the Greek name of the Indós, the name dates to the 18th century, far predating the formation of independent Indonesia. In 1850, George Windsor Earl, an English ethnologist, proposed the terms Indunesians—and, his preference, in the same publication, one of his students, James Richardson Logan, used Indonesia as a synonym for Indian Archipelago. However, Dutch academics writing in East Indies publications were reluctant to use Indonesia, they preferred Malay Archipelago, the Netherlands East Indies, popularly Indië, the East, and Insulinde
5.
Kuta
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Kuta is administratively a district and subdistrict/village in southern Bali, Indonesia. A former fishing village, it was one of the first towns on Bali to see substantial tourist development and it is known internationally for its long sandy beach, varied accommodation, many restaurants and bars, and many renowned surfers who visit from Australia. It is located near Balis Ngurah Rai Airport, Kuta was the site of the October 12,2002 1st Bali bombing and the October 1,2005 2nd Bali bombing. The Balinese Provincial Government have taken the view that the preservation of the Balinese culture, natural resources and wildlife are of primary importance in the development of the island. To this end they have limited tourist development to the peninsula on the southern aspect of the island, Kuta beach is on the western side of this peninsula. To the north of the no new tourist development is supposedly permitted. To the south, Kuta Beach extends beyond the airport into Jimbaran, other nearby towns and villages include Seseh, Denpasar, Ujung, Pesanggaran, Kedonganan and Tuban. Kuta District covers subdistricts/villages of Kuta Village, Legian, Seminyak, Kedonganan, furthermore, Badung Regency has 3 districts with the name Kuta, Kuta, Kuta South District Kecamatan Kuta Selatan, and Kuta North District Kecamatan Kuta Utara. Kuta is now the center of an extensive tourist-oriented urban area that merges into the neighboring towns, Legian, to the north, is the commercial hub of Kuta and the site of many restaurants and entertainment spots. Most of the areas big beachfront hotels are in the section of Tuban. Legian and Seminyak are northern extensions of Kuta along Jl and they are somewhat quieter suburbs with cottage-style accommodations, where many of the expat crowd live. Also to the north are Petitenget, Berawa, Canggu, and Seseh — new and they are easy to reach through Abian Timbul or Denpasar and Kerobokan. Several large hotels are located in area, the Oberoi Bali, Hard Rock Hotel Bali, the Intan Bali Village, the Legian in Petitenget, the Dewata Beach. After the first Bali Bombing in 2002 at Kuta, which killed 202 people including 88 Australians, the memorial is made of intricately carved stone, set with a large marble plaque, which bears the names and nationalities of each of those killed. It is flanked by the flags of the victims. The monument is well-maintained and illuminated at night, the memorial was dedicated on 12 October 2004, the second anniversary of the attack. The dedication included a Balinese Hindu ceremony and the opportunity for mourners to lay flowers, the Australian ambassador and Indonesian officials attended the ceremony as most of the victims were Australians. The beach has been notable since early 1970s, Kuta beach is also known as Sunset Beach, as opposed to the Sunrise Beach, another name for Sanur Beach
6.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
7.
Time in Indonesia
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The Indonesian archipelago geographically stretches across four time zones from UTC+6 in Aceh to UTC+9 in Western Papua. The border between central and eastern time zones runs north from the tip of Timor to the eastern tip of Sulawesi. Daylight saving time is not currently observed in almost all of Indonesia due to its tropical location, the only unofficial exception of this is Muara Teweh and Maurainu, which unofficially uses Western Indonesian Daylight Time. All provinces in the island of Java including major cities such as, Bandung, Surabaya, Jakarta, Semarang, two provinces in Kalimantan island, West Kalimantan and Central Kalimantan. Including major cities such as, Pontianak, Palangkaraya, and Sampit, Muara Teweh and Maurainu unofficially uses Western Indonesian Daylight Time, which has the same time as Central Indonesian Time. All provinces in the Lesser Sunda Islands including major cities such as, Denpasar, Mataram, three provinces in Kalimantan island, North Kalimantan, East Kalimantan and South Kalimantan, including major cities such as, Balikpapan, Banjarmasin, Samarinda, and Tarakan. IANA time zone identifier is Asia/Makassar Indonesia Eastern Standard Time is observed in, Maluku Islands including major cities such as, Ambon City, Ternate City. All provinces in West Papua including major cities such as, Jayapura, Biak, all provinces in Papua including all major islands in the province. IANA time zone identifier is Asia/Jayapura It observed since January 1,1988. Central and Southern Sumatra Time, was observed in Bengkulu, Palembang and Lampung, Java, Bali, and Borneo Time, was observed in Java, Bali, Madura and Kalimantan. Celebes Time, was observed in Sulawesi and Lesser Sunda Islands, moluccan Time, was observed in Ternate, Namlea, Ambon, Sofifi and Banda. West Irian Time was observed in West Irian and it observed during November 1,1932 to August 31,1944. Dutch New Guinea Time, was observed in West Irian during named Dutch New Guinea because Netherlands still hold West Irian. It observed from September 1,1944 to December 31,1963, Daylight saving time was observed in Jakarta from May 1,1948 to May 1,1950. Its UTC offset during daylight saving time is UTC+08,00. tab, asia/Jakarta Asia/Pontianak Asia/Makassar Asia/Jayapura ASEAN Common Time Time in Malaysia Time in the Philippines Time in Singapore UTC+8 Indonesian Standard Time
8.
Suicide attack
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A suicide attack is a violent attack in which the attacker expects to die in the process. They constituted only 4% of all terrorist attacks around the world over one period, ninety per cent of those attacks occurred in Afghanistan, Iraq, Israel, the Palestinian territories, Pakistan, and Sri Lanka. Overall, as of mid-2015 about three-quarters of all suicide attacks occurred in just three countries, Afghanistan, Pakistan, and Iraq, the motivation of suicide attackers varies. Kamikaze acted under orders and were motivated by obedience and nationalism. Before 2003, most attacks targeted forces occupying the attackers homeland, anthropologist Scott Atran states that since 2004 the overwhelming majority of bombers have been motivated by the ideology of Islamist martyrdom. Academic Fred Halliday, has written that assigning the descriptor of terrorist or terrorism to the actions of a group is a used by states to deny legitimacy and rights to protest. The definition of suicide is another issue, Suicide terrorism itself has been defined by one source as violent actions perpetrated by people who are aware that the odds they will return alive are close to zero. It may not always be clear to investigators which type of killing is which, the usage of the term suicide attack goes back a long way but suicide bombing dates back to at least 1940 when a New York Times article mentions the term in relation to German tactics. Less than two years later that newspaper referred to a Japanese kamikaze attempt on an American carrier as a suicide bombing, sometimes, to assign either a more positive or negative connotation to the act, suicide bombing is referred to by different terms. Istishhad Islamist supporters often call a suicide attack Istishhad, and the suicide attacker shahid, the idea being that the attacker died in order to testify his faith in God, for example while waging jihad bis saif. The term suicide is never used because Islam has strong strictures against taking ones own life, the terms Istishhad/martyrdom operation have been embraced by the Palestinian Authority, and by Hamas, Al-Aqsa Martyrs Brigades, Fatah and other Palestinian factions. The first to use the term for an audience was White House Press Secretary Ari Fleischer in April 2002. The only major media outlets to use it are Fox News Channel, Fox News producer Dennis Murray argued that a suicidal act should be reserved for a person who does something to kill themselves only. CNN Producer Christa Robinson argued that the term homicide bomber reflects only that you have killed other people, sacrifice bombing In the German-speaking area the term sacrifice bombing was proposed in 2012 by German scholar Arata Takeda. The term is intended to shift the focus away from the suicide of the perpetrators, until the second half of the twentieth century most suicide attacks occurred in a military context. The first recorded suicide attack came from Christian soldiers during the Crusades to free The Holy City of Jerusalem from the control of Muslim armies. During the Crusades, the Knights Templar destroyed one of their own ships with 140 Christians on board in order to kill 10 times as many Muslims in the opposing fleet. The 1st Century AD Jewish Sicarii sect are thought to have out carried suicidal attacks against Hellenized Jews they considered immoral collaborators
9.
Car bomb
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A car bomb, or truck bomb, also known as a vehicle-borne improvised explosive device, is an improvised explosive device placed inside a car or other vehicle and detonated. The latter type may be parked up or the vehicle might be used to deliver the bomb. It is commonly used as a weapon of terrorism or guerrilla warfare, the gasoline in the vehicles fuel tank may make the explosion of the bomb more powerful by dispersing and igniting the fuel. Car bombs are effective weapons as they are a way to transport a large amount of explosives to the intended target. A car bomb also produces copious shrapnel, or flying debris, in recent years, car bombs have become widely used by suicide bombers. Since the height of the Provisional Irish Republican Army campaign in 1991, where major public roads pass near buildings, road closures may be the only option. Historically these tactics have encouraged potential bombers to target soft or unprotected targets, in the Syrian Civil War, and Iraq, the car bomb concept was modified so that it could be driven and detonated by a driver, but armoured to withstand incoming fire. The vehicle would be driven to its area, in a similar fashion to a kamikaze plane of WW2. These were known by the acronym SVBIED or VBIEDs and this saw generally civilian cars with armour plating added, that would protect the car for as long as possible, so that it could reach its intended target. Cars were sometimes driven into enemy troop areas, or into incoming enemy columns, most often, the SVIEDs were used by ISIS against Government forces, but also used by Syrian rebels against government troops. In some cases trucks were used, as well as cars. They were sometimes used to start an assault, generally the vehicles had a large space that would contain very heavy explosives. In some cases, animal drawn carts with improvised explosive devices have been used, tactically, a single vehicle may be used, or an initial breakthrough vehicle, then followed by another vehicle. Though using a less refined technology, the principle of the hellburner is similar to that of the car bomb. The first possible suicide car bombing was the Bath School bombings of 1927, mass-casualty car bombing, and especially suicide car bombing, is currently a predominantly Middle Eastern phenomenon. The tactic was first introduced to the region by the Stern Gang, the tactic was widely used in the Lebanese Civil War by the Islamic fundamentalist group Hezbollah. A notable suicide car bombing was the 1983 Beirut barracks bombing, marines and 58 French military personnel. The perpetrator of attacks has never been positively confirmed
10.
Explosive belt
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An explosive belt is an improvised explosive device, a belt or a vest packed with explosives and armed with a detonator, worn by suicide bombers. Explosive belts are usually packed with ball bearings, nails, screws, bolts, the Chinese used explosive vests during the Second Sino-Japanese War. A Chinese soldier detonated a grenade vest and killed 20 Japanese at Sihang Warehouse, Chinese troops strapped explosives like grenade packs or dynamite to their bodies and threw themselves under Japanese tanks to blow them up. During one incident at Taierzhuang, Chinese suicide bombers destroyed four Japanese tanks with grenade bundles, the use of suicidal attacks to inflict damage upon an enemy predates the Second World War, in which Kamikaze units and Kaiten were used to attack Allied forces. Japanese soldiers routinely sacrificed themselves by attacking Allied tanks while carrying antitank mines, magnetic demolition charges, hand grenades, the explosive belt usually consists of several cylinders filled with explosive, or in more sophisticated versions with plates of explosive. The explosive is surrounded by a jacket that produces the shrapnel responsible for most of the bombs lethality, effectively making the jacket a crude, body-worn. Once the vest is detonated, the explosion resembles an omnidirectional shotgun blast, the most dangerous and the most widely used shrapnel are steel balls 3 to 7 millimetres in diameter. Other shrapnel material can be anything of suitable size and hardness, most often nails, screws, nuts, shrapnel is responsible for about 90% of all casualties caused by this kind of device. A loaded vest may weigh between 5 to 20 kilograms and may be hidden under thick clothes, usually jackets or snow coats, a suicide vest may cover the entire stomach and usually has shoulder straps. While this procedure is relatively uncontroversial for use on males, it may cause an issue dealing with females suspected to be suicide bombers. Male security personnel may be reluctant to inspect females or strip-search them, furthermore, alternatively, an infrared detector can be used. The discovery of remains as well as incidentally unexploded belts or vests can offer forensic clues to the investigation after the attack, some of that energy wave would inevitably roll upward, ripping the bombers body apart at its weakest point, between the neck bones and lower jaw
11.
Potassium chlorate
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Potassium chlorate is a compound containing potassium, chlorine and oxygen atoms, with the molecular formula KClO3. In its pure form, it is a crystalline substance. It is the most common chlorate in industrial use, on the industrial scale, potassium chlorate is produced by the Liebig process, passing chlorine into hot calcium hydroxide, subsequently adding potassium chloride. The low solubility of KClO3 in water causes the salt to conveniently isolate itself from the mixture by simply precipitating out of solution. It continues in that application, where not supplanted by potassium perchlorate, chlorate-based propellants are more efficient than traditional gunpowder and are less susceptible to damage by water. However, they can be unstable in the presence of sulfur or phosphorus and are much more expensive. Chlorate propellants must be used only in equipment designed for them, potassium chlorate, often in combination with silver fulminate, is used in trick noise-makers known as crackers, snappers, pop-its, or bang-snaps, a popular type of novelty firework. Another application of potassium chlorate is as the oxidizer in a composition such as that used in smoke grenades. Since 2005, a cartridge with potassium chlorate mixed with lactose, potassium chlorate is often used in high school and college laboratories to generate oxygen gas. It is a far cheaper source than a pressurized or cryogenic oxygen tank, potassium chlorate readily decomposes if heated while in contact with a catalyst, typically manganese dioxide. Thus, it may be placed in a test tube. If the test tube is equipped with a stopper and hose. Molten potassium chlorate is a powerful oxidizer and spontaneously reacts with many common materials such as sugar. Explosions have resulted from liquid chlorates spattering into the latex or PVC tubes of oxygen generators, impurities in potassium chlorate itself can also cause problems. When working with a new batch of potassium chlorate, it is advisable to take a small sample, contamination may cause this small quantity to explode, indicating that the chlorate should be discarded. Potassium chlorate is used in chemical oxygen generators, employed as oxygen-supply systems of e. g. aircraft, space stations, and submarines, a fire on the space station Mir was also traced to this substance. The decomposition of potassium chlorate was also used to provide the oxygen supply for limelights, potassium chlorate is used also as a pesticide. In Finland it was sold under trade name Fegabit, in schools, molten potassium chlorate is used in the dramatic screaming jelly babies demonstration
12.
Al-Qaeda
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It operates as a network made up of Islamic extremist, Salafist jihadists. Al-Qaeda has mounted attacks on civilian and military targets in various countries, including the 1998 U. S. embassy bombings, the September 11 attacks, the U. S. government responded to the September 11 attacks by launching the War on Terror. Characteristic techniques employed by al-Qaeda include suicide attacks and the bombing of different targets. Al-Qaeda ideologues envision a complete break from all foreign influences in Muslim countries, among the beliefs ascribed to al-Qaeda members is the conviction that a Christian–Jewish alliance is conspiring to destroy Islam. Al-Qaeda also opposes what it regards as man-made laws, and wants to replace them with a form of sharia law. Al-Qaeda has carried out attacks on targets it considers kafir. Al-Qaeda is also responsible for instigating violence among Muslims. Al-Qaeda leaders regard liberal Muslims, Shias, Sufis and other sects as heretics and have attacked their mosques, examples of sectarian attacks include the Yazidi community bombings, the Sadr City bombings, the Ashoura massacre and the April 2007 Baghdad bombings. Since the death of bin Laden in 2011, the group has been led by the Egyptian Ayman al-Zawahiri, al-Qaedas management philosophy has been described as centralization of decision and decentralization of execution. Many terrorism experts do not believe that the global jihadist movement is driven at every level by al-Qaedas leadership, marc Sageman, a psychiatrist and former Central Intelligence Agency officer, said that al-Qaeda is now just a loose label for a movement that seems to target the west. We like to create an entity called in our minds. This view mirrors the account given by Osama bin Laden in his October 2001 interview with Tayseer Allouni and this matter isnt about any specific person and. is not about the al-Qaidah Organization. We are the children of an Islamic Nation, with Prophet Muhammad as its leader, and all the true believers are brothers. So the situation isnt like the West portrays it, that there is an organization with a specific name and that particular name is very old. It was born without any intention from us, created a military base to train the young men to fight against the vicious, arrogant, brutal, terrorizing Soviet empire. So this place was called The Base, as in a base, so this name grew. We arent separated from this nation, and so we discuss the conscience of this nation. Bruce Hoffman, however, sees al-Qaeda as a network that is strongly led from the Pakistani tribal areas
13.
War on Terror
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The War on Terror, also known as the Global War on Terrorism, is a metaphor of war referring to the international military campaign that started after the September 11th attacks on the United States. U. S. President George W. Bush first used the term War on Terror on 20 September 2001 and it was originally used with a particular focus on countries associated with Islamic terrorist organizations including al-Qaeda and like-minded organizations. In 2013, President Barack Obama announced that the United States was no longer pursuing a War on Terror, in 2017 Donald Trump assumed presidency of the United States and vowed that the fight against ISIL is his number one priority. Trump has also agreed to work together and carry joint operations with Russian President Vladimir Putin in the war on terror. The phrase War on Terror has been used to refer to the ongoing military campaign led by the U. S. The conflict has also referred to by names other than the War on Terror. Author Shane Harris asserts this was a reaction to the 1983 Beirut barracks bombing, Bush later apologized for this remark due to the negative connotations the term crusade has to people, e. g. of the Muslim faith. The word crusade was not used again, on 20 September 2001, during a televised address to a joint session of Congress, Bush stated that ur war on terror begins with al-Qaeda, but it does not end there. It will not end until every terrorist group of global reach has been found, stopped, in April 2007, the British government announced publicly that it was abandoning the use of the phrase War on Terror as they found it to be less than helpful. This was explained more recently by Lady Eliza Manningham-Buller, in her 2011 Reith lecture, the former head of MI5 said that the 9/11 attacks were a crime, not an act of war. So I never felt it helpful to refer to a war on terror. U. S. President Barack Obama has rarely used the term, in March 2009 the Defense Department officially changed the name of operations from Global War on Terror to Overseas Contingency Operation. In March 2009, the Obama administration requested that Pentagon staff members avoid the use of the term, basic objectives of the Bush administration war on terror, such as targeting al Qaeda and building international counterterrorism alliances, remain in place. Because the actions involved in the war on terrorism are diffuse, jackson cites among many examples a statement by John Ashcroft that the attacks of September 11 drew a bright line of demarcation between the civil and the savage. Administration officials also described terrorists as hateful, treacherous, barbarous, mad, twisted, perverted, without faith, parasitical, inhuman, Americans, in contrast, were described as brave, loving, generous, strong, resourceful, heroic, and respectful of human rights. The origins of al-Qaeda can be traced to the Soviet war in Afghanistan, a small number of Afghan Arab volunteers joined the fight against the Soviets, including Osama bin Laden, but there is no evidence they received any external assistance. On 7 August 1998, al-Qaeda struck the U. S. embassies in Kenya and Tanzania, killing 224 people, the plant produced much of the regions antimalarial drugs and around 50% of Sudans pharmaceutical needs. The strikes failed to kill any leaders of WIFJAJC or the Taliban, next came the 2000 millennium attack plots, which included an attempted bombing of Los Angeles International Airport
14.
East Timor
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East Timor or Timor-Leste, officially the Democratic Republic of Timor-Leste, is a sovereign state in Maritime Southeast Asia. It comprises the half of the island of Timor, the nearby islands of Atauro and Jaco, and Oecusse. The countrys size is about 15,410 km2, nine days later, it was invaded and occupied by Indonesia and was declared Indonesias 27th province the following year. The Indonesian occupation of East Timor was characterised by a highly violent decades-long conflict between separatist groups and the Indonesian military, in 1999, following the United Nations-sponsored act of self-determination, Indonesia relinquished control of the territory. East Timor became the first new state of the 21st century on 20 May 2002 and joined the United Nations. In 2011, East Timor announced its intention to gain status in the Association of Southeast Asian Nations by applying to become its eleventh member. It is one of two predominantly Christian nations in Southeast Asia, the other being the Philippines. In Indonesian, the country is called Timor Timur, thus using the Portuguese name for the island followed by the word for east, the official names under the Constitution are Democratic Republic of Timor-Leste in English, República Democrática de Timor-Leste in Portuguese and Repúblika Demokrátika Timór-Leste in Tetum. Humans first settled in East Timor 42,000 years ago, descendants of at least three waves of migration are believed still to live in East Timor. The first is described by anthropologists as people of the Veddo-Australoid type, around 3000 BC, a second migration brought Melanesians. The earlier Veddo-Australoid peoples withdrew at this time to the mountainous interior, finally, proto-Malays arrived from south China and north Indochina. Hakka traders are among those descended from this final group, Timorese origin myths tell of ancestors that sailed around the eastern end of Timor arriving on land in the south. Some stories recount Timorese ancestors journeying from the Malay Peninsula or the Minangkabau highlands of Sumatra, austronesians migrated to Timor, and are thought to be associated with the development of agriculture on the island. Thirdly, Proto-Malays arrived from south China and north Indochina, before European colonialism, Timor was included in Chinese and Indian trading networks, and in the 14th century was an exporter of aromatic sandalwood, slaves, honey, and wax. It was the abundance of sandalwood in Timor that attracted European explorers to the island in the early 16th century. During that time, European explorers reported that the island had a number of small chiefdoms or princedoms, the Portuguese established outposts in Timor and Maluku. Effective European occupation of a part of the territory began in 1769, when the city of Dili was founded. For the Portuguese, East Timor remained little more than a trading post until the late nineteenth century, with minimal investment in infrastructure, health
15.
Jakarta Stock Exchange bombing
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The Jakarta Stock Exchange bombing was a terrorist attack on the Jakarta Stock Exchange on September 14,2000. A car bomb exploded in the basement of the building, triggering a chain of explosions in which a number of cars caught fire, most of the dead were drivers waiting by their employers cars. Many had taken cover in their vehicles but suffocated as billowing black smoke engulfed the basement levels, in August 2001 an Indonesian court sentenced two men to 20-year jail terms for masterminding the attack. The two men were members of the notorious Indonesian special forces unit, Kopassus, prosecutors had demanded the death penalty for Teuku Ismuhadi Jafar and life for his accomplice, Nuryadin, who escaped detention in July 2001 but was sentenced by the South Jakarta Court in absentia. The court declined the death sentence for Jafar, saying that while he had ordered the blast he did not actively participate at the scene of the crime in downtown Jakarta
16.
2003 Marriott Hotel bombing
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The 2003 Marriott Hotel bombing occurred on 5 August 2003 in Mega Kuningan, South Jakarta, Indonesia. A suicide bomber detonated a car bomb outside the lobby of the JW Marriott Hotel, killing twelve people and those killed were mostly Indonesian, with the exception of one Dutch man. The hotel was viewed as a Western symbol, and had used by the United States embassy for various events. The hotel was closed for five weeks and reopened to the public on 8 September, during the raid, the police also discovered some drawings outlining specific areas in the city for possible attacks. A Toyota Kijang, bought on 20 July 2003, from a Jakarta businessman for 25.75 million rupiah was loaded with explosives, the vehicle stopped briefly in front of the lobby and CCTV cameras show a security guard approaching the vehicle, briefly speaking to the driver. The security guard then turns and a detonation can be seen and it is still not clear if the explosion was accidental, set off by remote detonation or a timer exploding prematurely. If the vehicle had kept a course heading straight for the lobby the damage would undoubtedly have been more severe, the blast radius was visible along the shattered windows of nearby buildings. According to Indonesian police, one of the ingredients in the car contained the same chemical used in the deadly 2002 Bali bombings. The attack came two days before a verdict in the trial of the Bali nightclub bombers, al-Qaeda claimed responsibility for the attack and the perpetrators are known to have trained in al Qaeda training camps in Afghanistan and Pakistan. Six days after the atrocity on 11 August al-Qaeda claimed responsibility, via the Arab media Al Jazeera, the statement said Jemaah Islamiyah, an organisation affiliated with al-Qaeda, is alleged to have carried out the bombing. The al-Qaeda link has been backed by Indonesias Minister of Defense, each one of them has special abilities received from training in Afghanistan and Pakistan, Matori Abdul Djalil said on 11 August 2003. He also claimed that the bombers were linked to a group of people arrested in the eastern Indonesian town of Semarang during July 2004 and are alleged to be members of Jemaah Islamiah, there are many more Jemaah Islamiah members on the loose in Indonesia. Because of this I am sure that JI is behind all of this, on 5 May 2006 the International Crisis Group released its Asia Report No 114 entitled Terrorism in Indonesia. Toni Togar, a JI member based in Medan, North Sumatra, was nervous and he contacted Noordin Mohammad Top to tell him he was going to throw them out. Noordin had been part of the team carried out the Christmas Eve bombings which was led by Hambali and included Imam Samudra. He told Togar to hold on as he saw good materials being wasted, abu Bakar Bashir approved of Hambalis activities, and Toni Togar was selected to take part in the new bombing plot. Hambali had already set a precedent for a secret team pursuing jihad on its own and this was in part because he controlled the separate funding from al-Qaeda. In January 2003, Muhammad Rais, Noordin and Azahari Husin moved to Bengkulu, where a group of JI members lived, including Asmar Latin Sani, also known as Tohir, another Pondok Ngruki graduate and a Luqmanul Hakiem teacher who was a close friend of Rais
17.
2004 Australian Embassy bombing in Jakarta
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The 2004 Australian embassy bombing took place on 9 September 2004 in Jakarta, Indonesia. It gutted the Greek Embassy on the 12th floor of an adjacent building, damage to the nearby Chinese embassy was also reported. Numerous office buildings surrounding the embassy were also damaged by the blast, a dispute ensued as to how many civilians lost their lives after the explosion, local health authorities in Jakarta reported 9 deaths, compared to 11 deaths reported by Australian officials. Nonetheless, all Australians working at the embassy were reported alive, among the victims killed were embassy security guard Anton Sujarwo,23, and four Indonesian policemen on duty at the embassy. The rest were civilians, including the embassy gardener, Suryadi,34, a grainy photograph of a white delivery van suspected of carrying the bomb and the attackers was released by Indonesian police. Indonesian police denied receiving such a message and this was the third recent major attack involving Australians or Australian targets in Indonesia, after the 2002 Bali bombing, and the 2003 Marriott Hotel bombing. The executors of that attack, Jemaah Islamiyah, were also head suspects for this bombing and it is the first of a series of attacks. We advise Australians in Indonesia to leave country or else we will transform it into a cemetery for them. We advise the Australian government to withdraw its troops from Iraq, if our demand is not satisfied, we will deal them many painful blows. The lines of booby-trapped cars will have no end and our jihad will continue until the liberation of the land of Muslims. Jemaah Islamiah in eastern Asia – department of information – Indonesia, on 1 October 2004, authorities identified the suicide bomber as Heri Golun, based on DNA tests done at the scene. On 10 November 2004, Indonesian police arrested Rois, also known as Iwan Dharmawan, during questioning, Rois claimed that he had received funds for the attack from a courier that was sent by Osama Bin Laden via Malaysia. He told police, “According to Dr Azahari’s explanation to me at the time, the funds came from Osama bin Laden, and they were sent by a courier, but he didn’t say the name or when he received it. On 13 September 2005 Rois was sentenced to death for his role in the bombing but appeared to recant his confession by telling the court. I reject a day or even an hour of sentence because Im innocent, an appeal by Rois’s lawyers against the death penalty was rejected by the Indonesian High Court in December 2005. On 5 May 2006 the International Crisis Group released its report entitled Terrorism in Indonesia and he enlisted the help of Irun Hidayat in both tasks. On 17 August, Noordin asked Rois to check on Heri Golun’s state of mind, when Heri said he was ready, he moved into the house where Noordin and Azhari were and slept in their room at night, so they could give him additional religious counselling. On 23 August, Rois started to teach Heri Golun how to drive, and on 9 September, in March 2005, Irun Hidayat was charged with being an accessory by giving money to one of the bombings perpetrators and providing housing after the attack for Azahari and Noordin
18.
2005 Bali bombings
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The 2005 Bali bombings were a series of terrorist suicide bomb and a series of car bombs and attacks that occurred on 1 October 2005, in Bali, Indonesia. Bombs exploded at two sites in Jimbaran Beach Resort and in Kuta 30 km away, both in south Bali, the terrorist attack claimed the lives of 20 people and injured more than 100 others. The three bombers also died in the attacks. The Indonesian national news agency, ANTARA, reported that the first two explosions occurred at 6,50 p. m. local time, near a Jimbaran food court, other reports claim that the blasts occurred at around 7,15 p. m. At least 3 blasts were reported, one of the blasts struck Rajas Restaurant at the Kuta Square shopping mall in central Kuta. Another two bombs exploded at warungs along the Jimbaran beach, one of which was near the Four Seasons Hotel and these areas are generally popular with Western tourists. Police later said they had found three unexploded bombs in Jimbaran and they had apparently failed to go off after the security forces hastily shut down the island’s mobile telephone network following the first blasts. The remnants of backpacks and excessively mutilated bodies are believed to be evidence of suicide bombings, there remains also a possibility that backpacks were hidden inside the target restaurants before detonation. A medical officers x-rays showed foreign objects described as pellets in many victims bodies, the attack came during the school holiday period in some states of Australia, when an estimated 7,500 Australians are believed to have been visiting Bali. The latest report cites 20 dead and between 101 and 129 injured, some earlier reports put the number of fatalities at between 26 and 36 people, but those figures have since been lowered. Among those killed were 15 Indonesians,4 Australians, and a Japanese national, the wounded included many Indonesians, mostly Hindus while the rest were 19 Australians,8 South Koreans,6 Americans,4 Japanese,3 Canadians and 1 Briton. As there were no records at the hospitals or morgues on the locations from where the victims arrived, most of the casualties were sent to Balis Sanglah General Hospital, and mostly treated for injuries caused by broken glass. Others were sent to Griya Asih Hospital, as in the 2002 bombings, some of the injured, primarily foreign nationals, were evacuated to medical facilities in Australia and Singapore. However, the Australian government claimed that it received no specific warning of a terrorist attack being imminent in Bali. Minister Downer also played down any knowledge of signs of the potential event. DFAT warned Australians against non-essential travel to Indonesia since before the 2002 attacks – a warning still in effect, the department advises travellers against congregating in areas popular with Western tourists. In May 2005, the US State Department issued a warning against non-essential trips to Indonesia. The travel warning was last updated January 9,2007, on August 31,2005, one month before the second Bali bombing, terrorists managed to put a partially assembled bomb on the 4th floor of Kuta Paradiso hotel
19.
2009 Jakarta bombings
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At around 07,47 until 07,57 WIB on 17 July 2009, the JW Marriott and Ritz-Carlton Hotels in Jakarta, Indonesia, were hit by separate bombings five minutes apart. Three of the seven victims who were killed were Australians, two from The Netherlands, and one each from New Zealand and Indonesia, more than 50 people were injured in the blasts. Both blasts were caused by suicide bombers, who checked into the hotels as paying guests several days earlier, the twin suicide bombings came four years after the last serious terrorist attack in Indonesia. Since the 2002 Bali bombings, in which 202 were killed, an anti-terrorism law was confirmed by the Indonesian legislature in 2003. The 2002 attack was carried out by Jemaah Islamiyah, an al-Qaeda- previously linked now linked to ISIS group seeking to unite Indonesia, Malaysia, the Marriott had previously been suicide bombed in 2003. The Marriott bombing occurred first and was followed five minutes later by the Ritz bombing, Police moved to seal off the surrounding area. At noon local time, a bomb was found in room 1808 of the Marriott. The Ritz-Carlton explosion is thought to have originated in the Airlangga Restaurant on the second story, there was said to be glass everywhere. A part of the facade of the Ritz Carlton was blown away by the blast, the Marriott bomb was detonated in a small breakfast room rented for the event, and not in the main restaurant. One witness said the lobby of the neighboring Plaza Mutiara building was destroyed in the explosion, the unexploded bomb in room 1808 of the JW Marriott hotel was programmed to go off prior to the other bomb there, but its timer malfunctioned. The Indonesian police believe the bomb was intended to create an atmosphere of panic, causing guests to flee their rooms to exit the hotel, had this occurred as planned, the lobby bomb may have taken a much greater toll. There were nine fatalities, three Australians, one New Zealander, two Dutch tourists, and three Indonesians, the Australians killed were Austrade official Craig Senger, mining executive Garth McEvoy and Perth businessman Nathan Verity. New Zealander Tim Mackay died, he was president/director of PT Holcim Indonesia, Indonesians killed included Evert Mokodompis, a waiter at the JW Marriott Hotel. Sixteen foreigners were treated at Metropolitan Medical Center hospital, a New Zealander, a Canadian, an Indian and 3 Dutch men were reported injured. Police believe planning for the bombings was led by Noordin M. Top, the first meeting had been held on April 30. Ibrohim, a florist who worked for a florist company which had stores in both the bombed hotels, was another key organiser, Ibrohim was recruited in 2000 by Saifudin Jaelani, his brother-in-law, while he was working as a florist at the Hotel Mulia in Jakarta. In 2005, Ibrohim and Jaelani were inaugurated as members of Noordins special forces, Ibrohim set strategies, conducted surveys of the locations and smuggled the bombs into the hotels. Saifudin Jaelani is believed to have recruited the suicide bombers for the operation
20.
Islamism
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Islamism is a concept whose meaning has been debated in both public and academic contexts. It is commonly used interchangeably with the terms political Islam or Islamic fundamentalism and these movements have arguably altered the Middle East more than any trend since the modern states gained independence, redefining politics and even borders according to Robin Wright. Some authors hold the term Islamic activism to be synonymous and preferable to Islamism, Central and prominent figures of modern Islamism include Hasan al-Banna, Sayyid Qutb, Abul Ala Maududi, and Ruhollah Khomeini. Some Islamist thinkers emphasize peaceful political processes, whereas Sayyid Qutb in particular called for violence, however, Qutb, unlike modern extremists, denounced the killing of innocents. Following the Arab Spring, some Islamist currents became heavily involved in politics, while others spawned the most aggressive and ambitious Islamist militia to date. A theocratic ideology that seeks to impose any version of Islam over society by law, subsequently, clarified to be, the desire to impose any given interpretation of Islam on society. A movement so broad and flexible it reaches out to everything to everyone in Islam, making it unsustainable. and at the extremes, a violent vehicle for rejectionists and radicals. All who seek to Islamize their environment, whether in relation to their lives in society, their circumstances, or the workplace. Moderate and reformist Islamists who accept and work within the process include parties like the Tunisian Ennahda Movement. Jamaat-e-Islami of Pakistan is basically a socio-political and democratic Vanguard party but has gained political influence through military coup détats in the past. The Islamist groups like Hezbollah in Lebanon and Hamas in Palestine participate in the democratic, following the Arab Spring, Roy has described Islamism as increasingly interdependent with democracy in much of the Arab Muslim world, such that neither can now survive without the other. While Islamist political culture itself may not be democratic, Islamists need democratic elections to maintain their legitimacy, at the same time, their popularity is such that no government can call itself democratic that excludes mainstream Islamist groups. The term, which denoted the religion of Islam, first appeared in English as Islamismus in 1696. The term appears in the U. S. Supreme Court decision in In Re Ross, the term Islamism acquired its contemporary connotations in French academia in the late 1970s and early 1980s. From French, it began to migrate to the English language in the mid-1980s, a 2003 article in Middle East Quarterly states, In summation, the term Islamism enjoyed its first run, lasting from Voltaire to the First World War, as a synonym for Islam. Enlightened scholars and writers generally preferred it to Mohammedanism, eventually both terms yielded to Islam, the Arabic name of the faith, and a word free of either pejorative or comparative associations. To all intents and purposes, Islamic fundamentalism and Islamism have become synonyms in contemporary American usage, the AP Stylebook entry for Islamist now reads as follows, An advocate or supporter of a political movement that favors reordering government and society in accordance with laws prescribed by Islam. Do not use as a synonym for Islamic fighters, militants, extremists or radicals, where possible, be specific and use the name of militant affiliations, al-Qaida-linked, Hezbollah, Taliban, etc
21.
Capital punishment
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Capital punishment, also known as the death penalty, is a government sanctioned practice whereby a person is put to death by the state as a punishment for a crime. The sentence that someone be punished in such a manner is referred to as a death sentence, etymologically, the term capital in this context alluded to execution by beheading. Fifty-six countries retain capital punishment,103 countries have abolished it de jure for all crimes, six have abolished it for ordinary crimes. Capital punishment is a matter of controversy in various countries and states. In the European Union, Article 2 of the Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union prohibits the use of capital punishment, also, the Council of Europe, which has 47 member states, prohibits the use of the death penalty by its members. The United Nations General Assembly has adopted, in 2007,2008,2010,2012 and 2014, non-binding resolutions calling for a moratorium on executions. Although most nations have abolished capital punishment, over 60% of the population live in countries where executions take place, such as China, India. Execution of criminals and political opponents has been used by nearly all societies—both to punish crime, in most countries that practise capital punishment it is reserved for murder, terrorism, war crimes, espionage, treason, defection or as part of military justice. In many countries use the death penalty, drug trafficking is also a capital offence. In China, human trafficking and serious cases of corruption are punished by the death penalty, in militaries around the world courts-martial have imposed death sentences for offences such as cowardice, desertion, insubordination, and mutiny. The use of formal execution extends to the beginning of recorded history, most historical records and various primitive tribal practices indicate that the death penalty was a part of their justice system. Communal punishment for wrongdoing generally included compensation by the wrongdoer, corporal punishment, shunning, banishment, usually, compensation and shunning were enough as a form of justice. The response to crime committed by neighbouring tribes or communities included a formal apology, a blood feud or vendetta occurs when arbitration between families or tribes fails or an arbitration system is non-existent. This form of justice was common before the emergence of a system based on state or organized religion. It may result from crime, land disputes or a code of honour, acts of retaliation underscore the ability of the social collective to defend itself and demonstrate to enemies that injury to property, rights, or the person will not go unpunished. However, in practice, it is difficult to distinguish between a war of vendetta and one of conquest. Elaborations of tribal arbitration of feuds included peace settlements often done in a religious context, compensation was based on the principle of substitution which might include material compensation, exchange of brides or grooms, or payment of the blood debt. Settlement rules could allow for animal blood to replace human blood, the person offered for execution did not have to be an original perpetrator of the crime because the system was based on tribes, not individuals
22.
Osama bin Laden
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He was a Saudi Arabian, a member of the wealthy bin Laden family, and an ethnic Yemeni Kindite. Bin Laden was born to the family of billionaire Mohammed bin Awad bin Laden in Saudi Arabia and he studied at university in the country until 1979, when he joined Mujahideen forces in Pakistan fighting against the Soviet Union in Afghanistan. He helped to fund the Mujahideen by funneling arms, money and fighters from the Arab world into Afghanistan and he was banished from Saudi Arabia in 1992, and shifted his base to Sudan, until U. S. pressure forced him to leave Sudan in 1996. After establishing a new base in Afghanistan, he declared a war against the United States, initiating a series of bombings and related attacks. Bin Laden was on the American Federal Bureau of Investigations lists of Ten Most Wanted Fugitives, from 2001 to 2011, bin Laden was a major target of the War on Terror, as the FBI placed a $25 million bounty on him in their search for him. S. There is no accepted standard for transliterating Arabic words and Arabic names into English, however. The FBI and Central Intelligence Agency, as well as other U. S. governmental agencies, have used either Usama bin Laden or Usama bin Ladin, less common renderings include Ussamah bin Ladin and, in the French-language media, Oussama ben Laden. Other spellings include Binladen or, as used by his family in the West, the decapitalization of bin is based on the convention of leaving short prepositions, articles, and patronymics uncapitalized in surnames, the nasab bin means son of. The spellings with o and e come from a Persian-influenced pronunciation also used in Afghanistan, Osama bin Ladens full name, Osama bin Mohammed bin Awad bin Laden, means Osama, son of Mohammed, son of Awad, son of Laden. The Arabic linguistic convention would be to refer to him as Osama or Osama bin Laden, not bin Laden alone, as bin Laden is a patronymic, not a surname in the Western manner. According to bin Ladens son Omar bin Laden, the familys surname is al-Qahtani. Osama bin Laden had also assumed the kunyah Abū Abdāllāh and his admirers have referred to him by several nicknames, including the Prince or Emir, the Sheik, the Jihadist Sheik or Sheik al-Mujahid, Hajj, and the Director. The word usāmah means lion, earning him the nicknames Lion and Lion Sheik, in a 1998 interview, bin Laden gave his birth date as March 10,1957. Mohammed bin Laden divorced Hamida soon after Osama bin Laden was born, Mohammed recommended Hamida to Mohammed al-Attas, an associate. Al-Attas married Hamida in the late 1950s or early 1960s, the couple had four children, and bin Laden lived in the new household with three half-brothers and one half-sister. The bin Laden family made $5 billion in the construction industry, Bin Laden was raised as a devout Sunni Muslim. From 1968 to 1976, he attended the élite secular Al-Thager Model School and he studied economics and business administration at King Abdulaziz University. Some reports suggest he earned a degree in engineering in 1979
23.
Imam Samudra
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Samudra, together with Huda bin Abdul Haq and Amrozi bin Nurhasyim were executed together for their part in coordinating and carrying out the Bali bombings. Samudra was born as Abdul Aziz in Serang, Banten, he was raised by a mother as one of 12 children. Samudra graduated from an Islamic school and he left home in 1990 and did not return for a decade - and then only for a few hours before disappearing again, according to his mother. He went to Malaysia and taught at a school in the south of the country in the early 1990s. On 12 October 2002 two bombs explode in the Kuta tourist strip on the Indonesian island of Bali, one hits Paddys Irish Bar, and the second explodes in a van outside the nearby Sari club. A total of 202 people die as a result, a third bomb explodes near Balis US consulate, but no one is hurt. Arrested on 21 November 2002, Samudra was about to board a ferry for Sumatra, police believe he was the planner or field commander of the Bali operation. Originally incarcerated in Denpasars Kerobokan Prison, he was moved to the high-security prison island of Nusakambangan, on 20 November he lodged an appeal against his sentence. Together with the two other bombers who received death sentences, he launched a challenge against the use of firing squads. Samudra and the two other bombers preferred beheading, saying that it was a more Islamic form of execution, in October 2008 he remained unrepentant and claimed revenge would be taken for his death. On 25 September 2008, the Supreme Court of Indonesia rejected the appeals of Imam Samudra and Mukhlas. In October 2008, he remained unrepentant and claimed revenge would be taken for his death, during the month, his final appeals were rejected and the Attorney Generals office announced that he would be executed by firing squad in early November 2008. According to a source in Indonesias Attorney General Office, the execution was to be done before the end of Sunday,9 November 2008 and this was reportedly delayed from the original plan to allow a representative from the family to identify the body post-execution. However, no representative from Samudras family were in attendance, Samudra, along with Amrozi and Huda bin Abdul Haq were executed by firing squad at 00,15 local time on 9 November 2008. From his cell, he wrote an autobiography titled I Fight Terrorists and it went on sale for US$3, on a run of 5,000 copies. In 2004, CNN described the book as a bestseller in Indonesia, list of terrorist incidents in Indonesia Terrorism in Indonesia Death row bomber plotted new attack on smuggled laptop – requires login
24.
Amrozi bin Nurhasyim
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Ali Amrozi bin Haji Nurhasyim, also known as Amrozi, was an Indonesian who was convicted and executed for his role in carrying out the 2002 Bali bombings, an act of terrorism. Amrozi was the brother of Huda bin Abdul Haq, also known as Muklas, Amrozi was executed together with Muklas and their co-conspirator, Imam Samudra. Amrozi was born in Tenggulun, Lamongan, East Java in 1962 and he attended the Al-Mukmin Islamic school founded by Abu Bakar Bashir along with his brothers Muklas and Ali Imron. His family were religious, following the Wahhabist school of Islam which has its roots in Saudi Arabia. Amrozis grandfather established the first pesantren in Tenggulun and his father Nur Hasyim taught his sons that Javanese customs were considered heresy under Sharia law and were therefore to be eradicated. Nur Hasyim was involved in the Indonesian independence struggle against the Dutch, Amrozi displayed little interest in school or religious studies. Police psychiatric reports undertaken after the Bali bombings describe him as simple and shallow and they describe him as having an immature personality and lower than normal intellectual capacity. Amrozis brother, Ali Imron, reported that Amrozi was continually in trouble at school and at home, being banned and expelled by teachers and stealing items from his own home and he only made it to the second year of high school. At the age of 23 Amrozi married for the first time and he attempted high school again but dropped out soon after. Seemingly without purpose and lacking direction he began vandalising Javanese graves in his village in an apparent attempt to gain approval from his strictly religious and he mortified his parents by desecrating the grave of a respected village elder, subsequently spending a week in police custody. Amrozis elder brother Muklas was a member of a pesantren in Malaysia. Amrozi had not seen him for ten years and Muklas had, to some degree. Amrozi decided to visit Muklas but was shunned and rejected because of his errant ways. He was devastated by this and realised that to become accepted he needed to become a good Muslim, Amrozi ceased smoking and watching movies. He began praying five times a day in his efforts to gain the acceptance of Muklas and Muklas finally agreed to let him stay. In the 1990s Amrozi attended the Lukman Nul Hakim peasantren where he was lectured at least once by a radical Islamic cleric, Abu Bakar Bashir, Amrozi was talented with his hands and became the local repairman, fixing cars and mobile phones. By trade he became a mechanic and owned the van used in the Sari Club bombing and it was Amrozi who purchased the explosives for the bombing. On the evening of 12 October 2002, two exploded in the Kuta tourist strip on the Indonesian island of Bali
25.
Huda bin Abdul Haq
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Huda bin Abdul Haq was an Indonesian who was convicted and executed for his role in coordinating the 2002 Bali bombings, an act of terrorism. Mukhlas was a senior and influential Jemaah Islamiah leader with ties to Osama bin Laden, different reports place Muklas birthdate at either 2 February or 9 February 1960, in Solokuro, Lamongan, East Java. He attended the Al-Mukmin Islamic school founded by Abu Bakar Bashir with his brothers Amrozi bin Nurhasyim and he recruited these two brothers to manufacture the explosives and purchase the vehicles used in the 2002 Bali bombing. After graduating from Al-Mukmin, Muklas sought to continue his Jihad studies at various training camps in Afghanistan and he fought in the Afghanistan-Soviet civil war between 1980 and 1989, as a member of Osama bin Ladens International Brigade. Muklas admitted that he met with Osama bin Laden in 1987, Muklas secured the funds, through senior JI member Hambali, needed to perform the 2002 Bali bombing. After the eventual defeat of the Soviet Union and installation of the Taliban as Afghanistans rulers and he was named head of JIs Mantiqi One, a regional network covering Sumatra, Singapore, Malaysia and southern Thailand. Muklas then co-founded an Islamic school in Malaysia that was to be used as a training ground for JI operatives. In 1991, Muklas, at the behest of Abdullah Sungkar and Abu Bakar Bashir founded Lukmanul Hakiem and it was created to link up with other madrassahs and serve to recruit future jihadists. Lukmanul Hakiem employed Noordin Mohammad Top, a Malaysian national, as principal and he used this role to recruit Muhammad Rais. Abu Bakar Bashir, Abdullah Sungkar, Muklas, Noordin Top, JI bomb maker Azahari Husin served on the board of directors. Noordin Top was promoted to director, when Malaysian law was adjusted, Muklas admitted to being present and in command at the planning meetings for the Bali bombings, and recruited two of his brothers to help assemble and transport the bombs used in the Bali attacks. Approximately US$35,000 was contributed to the Bali bombings by Wan Min Wan Mat and this money was transferred through Hambali, Jemaah Islamiahs head of operations. The money was provided in cash and according to claims by Muklas, the money was not just used for the bombings in Bali, after acquiring al-Qaeda funds, Muklas recruited two of his brothers to handle the logistics of the bomb plot. His younger brother Amrozi, was convicted who is situated on death row for his conviction in the attack. Amrozi also assembled the car bomb, and backpack bomb used at Paddys Pub, on 4 December 2002 Muklas was arrested while hiding in the Central Javanese town of Solo. He confessed to police that he was the head of one of Jemaah Islamiahs four cells and had ordered the Bali bombings. He admitted to being present and in command at the meetings for the Bali bombings. He also confessed that another Jemaah Islamiah leader Riduan Isamuddin, had provided the funds for the attacks
26.
Nusa Kambangan
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Nusa Kambangan island is located in the Indian Ocean, separated by a narrow strait from the south coast of Java, the closest port is Cilacap in Central Java province. It is sometimes known as Execution Island because the island is the location for carrying out capital punishment around Java. The island was made into an island during the Dutch period. The colonial government built a security prison on the isolated island to exile criminals. The prison on Nusakambangan was opened in the mid-1920s by Indonesias Dutch colonial rulers and was considered the harshest penal institution in Southeast Asia. The island was declared off-limits in 1905 by the Dutch and its use as a prison island continued after independence. During the rule of former President Suharto, hundreds of dissidents were imprisoned on the island. Most were political prisoners, members of the banned Communist Party of Indonesia or sympathizers and these political prisoners were never brought to trial, and many of them died from hunger or illness. In 1996, the island was opened to the public as a tourist destination. The island has also involved in refugee handling. About 140 Afghan refugees were detained on the island after their boat, however, more than 90 of these refugees would later escape on September 19,2001, sailing away in small fishing boats and are believed to have headed for Australia. The island was affected by the 2006 Pangandaran earthquake and tsunami. At least 11 villagers disappeared and 8 people were killed in the ensuing tsunami, at least fifteen inmates on the Nusakambangan prison island near Pangandaran were also missing. Nusakambangan is separated from Java by the narrow Segara Anakan strait, being isolated from mainland Java, the island is relatively under-developed and less inhabited and the wildlife is better preserved. The eastern side of a bay is a reserve area where an old Dutch fortress is located on the Karangbandung beach. As a lowland rain forest, Nusakambangan is biologically diverse. More than 71 different bird species,14 reptile species and various species are found in the island. Twenty-three bird species are classified as protected, including Pacific reef heron, woolly-necked stork, lesser adjutant, white-bellied sea eagle, brahminy kite, several other protected mammal species include the black-spotted leopard, Javan muntjac and Javan mouse deer
27.
Dulmatin
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Dulmatin was a senior figure in the militant group Jemaah Islamiyah and one of the most wanted terrorists in Southeast Asia. He was also known as Amar Usmanan, Joko Pitoyo, Joko Pitono, Abdul Matin, Pitono, Muktarmar, Djoko, Dulmatin was a Javanese with 172 cm tall, weighing 70 kg, with a brown complexion. According to the Jakarta Globe when he was a man he attended a religious boarding school run by the founder of the Jemaah Islamiyah. Dulmatin had received training in camps in Afghanistan. He was believed to have been the protégé of Azahari Husin and under Azaharis guidance Dulmatin became an electronics specialist and bomb making expert. He participated in the car bomb attack on the Philippine ambassador in Jakarta on 1 August 2000 and he was one of the masterminds behind the 2002 Bali bombings in Indonesia which killed 202 people, including 27 from the United Kingdom and 88 Australian citizens. Working alongside Azahari, Dulmatin helped to assemble car bomb and explosive vests used in the attack and he allegedly set off one of the bombs with a mobile phone. He was believed to be with the Abu Sayyaf group in the Philippines since 2003 and was involved in providing explosive expertise and training other militants. From radio intercept and human intelligence, authorities believe that Dulmatin was wounded in a gun battle with the Philippines military in January 2007, on the southern island of Jolo. In May 2007, Dulmatin again eluded capture when he fled from a house in Simunul island just hours before Philippine police. The authorities found 4 children believed to be Dulmatins children, the United States government offered a reward of up to US$10 million for the capture of Dulmatin under the Rewards For Justice Program. Dulmatin was killed in a raid in Pamulang, Jakarta on 9 March 2010 on the outskirts of Jakarta by Detachment 88
28.
Mitsubishi Motors
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Mitsubishi Motors Corporation is a multinational automotive manufacturer headquartered in Minato, Tokyo, Japan. In 2011, Mitsubishi Motors was the sixth biggest Japanese automaker, from October 2016 onwards, Mitsubishi is one-third owned by Nissan, and thus a part of the Renault-Nissan Alliance. Mitsubishis automotive origins date back to 1917, when the Mitsubishi Shipbuilding Co. Ltd. introduced the Mitsubishi Model A, in 1934, Mitsubishi Shipbuilding was merged with the Mitsubishi Aircraft Co. a company established in 1920 to manufacture aircraft engines and other parts. The unified company was known as Mitsubishi Heavy Industries, and was the largest private company in Japan, MHI concentrated on manufacturing aircraft, ships, railroad cars and machinery, but in 1937 developed the PX33, a prototype sedan for military use. It was the first Japanese-built passenger car with full-time four-wheel drive, immediately following the end of the Second World War, the company returned to manufacturing vehicles. Fuso bus production resumed, while a small three-wheeled cargo vehicle called the Mizushima, the same year, Central Japan Heavy-Industries concluded a similar contract with Willys for CKD-assembled Jeep CJ-3Bs. This deal proved more durable, with licensed Mitsubishi Jeeps in production until 1998, by the beginning of the 1960s Japans economy was gearing up, wages were rising and the idea of family motoring was taking off. Central Japan Heavy-Industries, now known as Shin Mitsubishi Heavy-Industries, had already re-established an automotive department in its headquarters in 1953, now it was ready to introduce the Mitsubishi 500, a mass market sedan, to meet the new demand from consumers. It followed this in 1962 with the Minica kei car and the Colt 1000, in 1964, Mitsubishi introduced its largest passenger sedan, the Mitsubishi Debonair as a luxury car primarily for the Japanese market, and was used by senior Mitsubishi executives as a company car. West Japan Heavy-Industries and East Japan Heavy-Industries had also expanded their automotive departments in the 1950s, within three years its output was over 75,000 vehicles annually. Mitsubishi Motors Corporation was formed on April 22,1970 as an owned subsidiary of MHI under the leadership of Tomio Kubo. The logo of three red diamonds, shared with over forty other companies within the keiretsu, predates Mitsubishi Motors itself by almost a century, the name Mitsubishi is a compound of mitsu and hishi. Part of Mr. Kubos expansion strategy was to increase exports by forging alliances with well-established foreign companies, therefore, in 1971 MHI sold U. S. automotive giant Chrysler a 15 percent share in the new company. Thanks to this deal, Chrysler began selling the Galant in the United States as the Dodge Colt, in 1977, the Galant was sold as the Chrysler Sigma in Australia. By 1977, a network of Colt-branded distribution and sales dealerships had been established across Europe, annual production had by now grown from 500,000 vehicles in 1973 to 965,000 in 1978, when Chrysler began selling the Galant as the Dodge Challenger and the Plymouth Sapporo. The new Japanese owners renamed it Mitsubishi Motors Australia Ltd, in 1982, the Mitsubishi brand was introduced to the American market for the first time. The Tredia sedan, and the Cordia and Starion coupés, were sold through seventy dealers in 22 states. This quota, restricted by mutual agreement between the two governments, had to be included among the 120,000 cars earmarked for Chrysler
29.
Thatching
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Thatching is the craft of building a roof with dry vegetation such as straw, water reed, sedge, rushes, heather, or Palm fronds, layering the vegetation so as to shed water away from the inner roof. Since the bulk of the vegetation stays dry, and is densely packed - trapping air - thatching also functions as a quite significant insulation material and it is a very old roofing method and has been used in both tropical and temperate climates. Thatch is still employed by builders in developing countries, usually with low-cost, in some equatorial countries, thatch is the prevalent local material for roofs, and often walls. There are diverse building techniques from the ancient Hawaiian hale shelter made from the local ti leaves, Palm leaves are also often used. For example, in Na Bure, Fiji, thatchers combine fan palm leave roofs with layered reed walls, feathered palm leaf roofs are used in Dominica. Alang-alang thatched roofs are used in Hawaii and Bali, in Southeast Asia, mangrove nipa palm leaves are used as thatched roof material known as attap dwelling. In Bali, Indonesia, the fibres of Arenga pinnata called ijuk is also used as thatched roof materials, usually used in Balinese temple roof. Sugar cane leaf roofs are used in Kikuyu tribal homes in Kenya, many indigenous people, such as the Maya, the Inca, and the Triple Alliance, lived in thatched buildings. Evidence of the complex buildings with fiber-based roofing material was not rediscovered until the early 2000s. French and British settlers built temporary thatched dwellings with local vegetation as soon as arrived in New France and New England. In most of England, thatch remained the only roofing material available to the bulk of the population in the countryside, in towns and villages. Commercial production of Welsh slate began in 1820, and the mobility provided by canals, gradually, thatch became a mark of poverty, and the number of thatched properties gradually declined, as did the number of professional thatchers. Thatch has become more popular in the UK over the past 30 years. Although thatch is popular in Germany, The Netherlands, Denmark, parts of France, Sicily, Belgium and Ireland, good quality straw thatch can last for more than 50 years when applied by a skilled thatcher. Traditionally, a new layer of straw was simply applied over the surface. The straw is bundled into yelms before it is taken up to the roof and then is attached using staples, known as spars, almost all of these roofs are thatched with wheat, rye, or a maslin mixture of both. Medieval wheat grew to almost 6 feet tall in very poor soils and produced durable straw for the roof, technological change in the farming industry significantly affected the popularity of thatching. The availability of good quality thatching straw declined in England after the introduction of the harvester in the late 1930s and 1940s
30.
Bar
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Some types of bars, such as pubs, may also serve food from a restaurant menu. The term bar also refers to the countertop and area where drinks are served, bars provide stools or chairs that are placed at tables or counters for their patrons. Bars that offer entertainment or live music are often referred to as music bars, live venues, types of bars range from inexpensive dive bars to elegant places of entertainment often accompanying restaurants for dining. Many bars have a discount period, designated a happy hour to encourage off-peak-time patronage, bars that fill to capacity sometimes implement a cover charge or a minimum drink purchase requirement during their peak hours. Bars may have bouncers to ensure patrons are of age, to eject drunk or belligerent patrons. Such bars often feature entertainment, which may be a band, vocalist, comedian. The term bar is derived from the counter on which drinks are served. Patrons may sit or stand at the bar and be served by the bartender, depending on the size of a bar and its approach, alcohol may be served at the bar by bartenders, at tables by servers, or by a combination of the two. The back bar is a set of shelves of glasses and bottles behind that counter, in some establishments, the back bar is elaborately decorated with woodwork, etched glass, mirrors, and lights. There have been different names for public drinking spaces throughout history. In the colonial era of the United States taverns were an important meeting place, during the 19th century saloons were very important to the leisure time of the working class. Today, even when an establishment uses a different name, such as tavern or saloon, the sale and/or consumption of alcoholic beverages was prohibited in the first half of the 20th century in several countries, including Finland, Iceland, Norway, and the United States. In the United States, illegal bars during Prohibition were called speakeasies, blind pigs, laws in many jurisdictions prohibit minors from entering a bar. If those under legal drinking age are allowed to enter, as is the case with pubs that serve food, in some jurisdictions, bars cannot serve a patron who is already intoxicated. Cities and towns usually have restrictions on where bars may be located. Some bars may have a license to serve beer and wine, in some jurisdictions, patrons buying alcohol must also order food. In some jurisdictions, bar owners have a liability for the conduct of patrons who they serve. A bars owners and managers choose the name, décor, drink menu, lighting
31.
Kuta Beach
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Kuta is administratively a district and subdistrict/village in southern Bali, Indonesia. A former fishing village, it was one of the first towns on Bali to see substantial tourist development and it is known internationally for its long sandy beach, varied accommodation, many restaurants and bars, and many renowned surfers who visit from Australia. It is located near Balis Ngurah Rai Airport, Kuta was the site of the October 12,2002 1st Bali bombing and the October 1,2005 2nd Bali bombing. The Balinese Provincial Government have taken the view that the preservation of the Balinese culture, natural resources and wildlife are of primary importance in the development of the island. To this end they have limited tourist development to the peninsula on the southern aspect of the island, Kuta beach is on the western side of this peninsula. To the north of the no new tourist development is supposedly permitted. To the south, Kuta Beach extends beyond the airport into Jimbaran, other nearby towns and villages include Seseh, Denpasar, Ujung, Pesanggaran, Kedonganan and Tuban. Kuta District covers subdistricts/villages of Kuta Village, Legian, Seminyak, Kedonganan, furthermore, Badung Regency has 3 districts with the name Kuta, Kuta, Kuta South District Kecamatan Kuta Selatan, and Kuta North District Kecamatan Kuta Utara. Kuta is now the center of an extensive tourist-oriented urban area that merges into the neighboring towns, Legian, to the north, is the commercial hub of Kuta and the site of many restaurants and entertainment spots. Most of the areas big beachfront hotels are in the section of Tuban. Legian and Seminyak are northern extensions of Kuta along Jl and they are somewhat quieter suburbs with cottage-style accommodations, where many of the expat crowd live. Also to the north are Petitenget, Berawa, Canggu, and Seseh — new and they are easy to reach through Abian Timbul or Denpasar and Kerobokan. Several large hotels are located in area, the Oberoi Bali, Hard Rock Hotel Bali, the Intan Bali Village, the Legian in Petitenget, the Dewata Beach. After the first Bali Bombing in 2002 at Kuta, which killed 202 people including 88 Australians, the memorial is made of intricately carved stone, set with a large marble plaque, which bears the names and nationalities of each of those killed. It is flanked by the flags of the victims. The monument is well-maintained and illuminated at night, the memorial was dedicated on 12 October 2004, the second anniversary of the attack. The dedication included a Balinese Hindu ceremony and the opportunity for mourners to lay flowers, the Australian ambassador and Indonesian officials attended the ceremony as most of the victims were Australians. The beach has been notable since early 1970s, Kuta beach is also known as Sunset Beach, as opposed to the Sunrise Beach, another name for Sanur Beach
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Australia
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Australia, officially the Commonwealth of Australia, is a country comprising the mainland of the Australian continent, the island of Tasmania and numerous smaller islands. It is the worlds sixth-largest country by total area, the neighbouring countries are Papua New Guinea, Indonesia and East Timor to the north, the Solomon Islands and Vanuatu to the north-east, and New Zealand to the south-east. Australias capital is Canberra, and its largest urban area is Sydney, for about 50,000 years before the first British settlement in the late 18th century, Australia was inhabited by indigenous Australians, who spoke languages classifiable into roughly 250 groups. The population grew steadily in subsequent decades, and by the 1850s most of the continent had been explored, on 1 January 1901, the six colonies federated, forming the Commonwealth of Australia. Australia has since maintained a liberal democratic political system that functions as a federal parliamentary constitutional monarchy comprising six states. The population of 24 million is highly urbanised and heavily concentrated on the eastern seaboard, Australia has the worlds 13th-largest economy and ninth-highest per capita income. With the second-highest human development index globally, the country highly in quality of life, health, education, economic freedom. The name Australia is derived from the Latin Terra Australis a name used for putative lands in the southern hemisphere since ancient times, the Dutch adjectival form Australische was used in a Dutch book in Batavia in 1638, to refer to the newly discovered lands to the south. On 12 December 1817, Macquarie recommended to the Colonial Office that it be formally adopted, in 1824, the Admiralty agreed that the continent should be known officially as Australia. The first official published use of the term Australia came with the 1830 publication of The Australia Directory and these first inhabitants may have been ancestors of modern Indigenous Australians. The Torres Strait Islanders, ethnically Melanesian, were originally horticulturists, the northern coasts and waters of Australia were visited sporadically by fishermen from Maritime Southeast Asia. The first recorded European sighting of the Australian mainland, and the first recorded European landfall on the Australian continent, are attributed to the Dutch. The first ship and crew to chart the Australian coast and meet with Aboriginal people was the Duyfken captained by Dutch navigator, Willem Janszoon. He sighted the coast of Cape York Peninsula in early 1606, the Dutch charted the whole of the western and northern coastlines and named the island continent New Holland during the 17th century, but made no attempt at settlement. William Dampier, an English explorer and privateer, landed on the north-west coast of New Holland in 1688, in 1770, James Cook sailed along and mapped the east coast, which he named New South Wales and claimed for Great Britain. The first settlement led to the foundation of Sydney, and the exploration, a British settlement was established in Van Diemens Land, now known as Tasmania, in 1803, and it became a separate colony in 1825. The United Kingdom formally claimed the part of Western Australia in 1828. Separate colonies were carved from parts of New South Wales, South Australia in 1836, Victoria in 1851, the Northern Territory was founded in 1911 when it was excised from South Australia
33.
Sports team
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A Sports team is a group of individuals who play sports, usually team sports, on the same team. Historically sports teams and the people who play sports have been amateurs, however, by the 20th century, some sports teams and their associated leagues have become extremely valuable with net worth in the millions. Real Madrid is rated by Forbes as the world most valuable sports team at $3.26 billion USD, some individual sports have modified rules that allow them to be played by teams. Team identities can be formed from a number of sources, most often a type of location, e. g. the Dallas Cowboys are named after Dallas, Texas. Sports club Social group Works team
Australia
Indonesia
United Kingdom
United States
Germany
Sweden
Netherlands
France
Denmark
Switzerland
New Zealand
Brazil
Canada
Japan
South Africa
South Korea
Ecuador
Greece
Ireland
Italy
Poland
Portugal
Taiwan
