1.
North American P-51 Mustang
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The North American Aviation P-51 Mustang is an American long-range, single-seat fighter and fighter-bomber used during World War II, the Korean War and other conflicts. The Mustang was designed in 1940 by North American Aviation in response to a requirement of the British Purchasing Commission, the Purchasing Commission approached North American Aviation to build Curtiss P-40 fighters under license for the Royal Air Force. Rather than build an old design from another company, North American Aviation proposed the design, the prototype NA-73X airframe was rolled out on 9 September 1940,102 days after the contract was signed, and first flew on 26 October. The Mustang was originally designed to use the Allison V-1710 engine and it was first flown operationally by the RAF as a tactical-reconnaissance aircraft and fighter-bomber. The addition of the Rolls-Royce Merlin to the P-51B/C model transformed the Mustangs performance at altitudes above 15,000 ft, the P-51 was also used by Allied air forces in the North African, Mediterranean, Italian and Pacific theaters. During World War II, Mustang pilots claimed to have destroyed 4,950 enemy aircraft, despite the advent of jet fighters, the Mustang remained in service with some air forces until the early 1980s. After the Korean War, Mustangs became popular civilian warbird and air racing aircraft, in April 1940 the British government established a purchasing commission in the United States, headed by Sir Henry Self. Self was given responsibility for Royal Air Force production and research and development, and also served with Sir Wilfrid Freeman. Self also sat on the British Air Council Sub-committee on Supply and one of his tasks was to organize the manufacturing and supply of American fighter aircraft for the RAF. At the time, the choice was limited, as no U. S. aircraft then in production or flying met European standards. The Curtiss-Wright plant was running at capacity, so P-40s were in short supply, North American Aviation was already supplying its Harvard trainer to the RAF, but was otherwise underutilized. NAA President Dutch Kindelberger approached Self to sell a new medium bomber, instead, Self asked if NAA could manufacture the Tomahawk under license from Curtiss. Kindelberger said NAA could have an aircraft with the same engine in the air sooner than establishing a production line for the P-40. In March 1940,320 aircraft were ordered by Sir Wilfred Freeman who had become the head of the Ministry of Aircraft Production. The NA-73X, which was designed by a led by lead engineer Edgar Schmued, followed the best conventional practice of the era. One was a wing designed using laminar flow airfoils which were developed co-operatively by North American Aviation and these airfoils generated very low drag at high speeds. The results of this test showed the superiority of the wing designed with the NAA/NACA 45–100 airfoils, the other feature was a new cooling arrangement that reduced the cooling drag. It was later discovered that, after lot of development, the assembly could take advantage of the Meredith Effect
2.
Korean War
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The Korean War began when North Korea invaded South Korea. The United Nations, with the United States as the principal force, China came to the aid of North Korea, and the Soviet Union gave some assistance. Korea was ruled by Japan from 1910 until the days of World War II. In August 1945, the Soviet Union declared war on Japan, as a result of an agreement with the United States, U. S. forces subsequently moved into the south. By 1948, as a product of the Cold War between the Soviet Union and the United States, Korea was split into two regions, with separate governments, both governments claimed to be the legitimate government of all of Korea, and neither side accepted the border as permanent. The conflict escalated into open warfare when North Korean forces—supported by the Soviet Union, on that day, the United Nations Security Council recognized this North Korean act as invasion and called for an immediate ceasefire. On 27 June, the Security Council adopted S/RES/83, Complaint of aggression upon the Republic of Korea and decided the formation, twenty-one countries of the United Nations eventually contributed to the UN force, with the United States providing 88% of the UNs military personnel. After the first two months of war, South Korean forces were on the point of defeat, forced back to the Pusan Perimeter, in September 1950, an amphibious UN counter-offensive was launched at Inchon, and cut off many North Korean troops. Those who escaped envelopment and capture were rapidly forced back north all the way to the border with China at the Yalu River, at this point, in October 1950, Chinese forces crossed the Yalu and entered the war. Chinese intervention triggered a retreat of UN forces which continued until mid-1951, after these reversals of fortune, which saw Seoul change hands four times, the last two years of fighting became a war of attrition, with the front line close to the 38th parallel. The war in the air, however, was never a stalemate, North Korea was subject to a massive bombing campaign. Jet fighters confronted each other in combat for the first time in history. The fighting ended on 27 July 1953, when an armistice was signed, the agreement created the Korean Demilitarized Zone to separate North and South Korea, and allowed the return of prisoners. However, no treaty has been signed, and the two Koreas are technically still at war. Periodic clashes, many of which are deadly, continue to the present, in the U. S. the war was initially described by President Harry S. Truman as a police action as it was an undeclared military action, conducted under the auspices of the United Nations. In South Korea, the war is referred to as 625 or the 6–2–5 Upheaval. In North Korea, the war is referred to as the Fatherland Liberation War or alternatively the Chosǒn War. In China, the war is called the War to Resist U. S
3.
South Africa
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South Africa, officially the Republic of South Africa, is the southernmost country in Africa. South Africa is the 25th-largest country in the world by land area and it is the southernmost country on the mainland of the Old World or the Eastern Hemisphere. About 80 percent of South Africans are of Sub-Saharan African ancestry, divided among a variety of ethnic groups speaking different Bantu languages, the remaining population consists of Africas largest communities of European, Asian, and multiracial ancestry. South Africa is a multiethnic society encompassing a variety of cultures, languages. Its pluralistic makeup is reflected in the recognition of 11 official languages. The country is one of the few in Africa never to have had a coup détat, however, the vast majority of black South Africans were not enfranchised until 1994. During the 20th century, the black majority sought to recover its rights from the dominant white minority, with this struggle playing a role in the countrys recent history. The National Party imposed apartheid in 1948, institutionalising previous racial segregation, since 1994, all ethnic and linguistic groups have held political representation in the countrys democracy, which comprises a parliamentary republic and nine provinces. South Africa is often referred to as the Rainbow Nation to describe the multicultural diversity. The World Bank classifies South Africa as an economy. Its economy is the second-largest in Africa, and the 34th-largest in the world, in terms of purchasing power parity, South Africa has the seventh-highest per capita income in Africa. However, poverty and inequality remain widespread, with about a quarter of the population unemployed, nevertheless, South Africa has been identified as a middle power in international affairs, and maintains significant regional influence. The name South Africa is derived from the geographic location at the southern tip of Africa. Upon formation the country was named the Union of South Africa in English, since 1961 the long form name in English has been the Republic of South Africa. In Dutch the country was named Republiek van Zuid-Afrika, replaced in 1983 by the Afrikaans Republiek van Suid-Afrika, since 1994 the Republic has had an official name in each of its 11 official languages. Mzansi, derived from the Xhosa noun umzantsi meaning south, is a name for South Africa. South Africa contains some of the oldest archaeological and human fossil sites in the world, extensive fossil remains have been recovered from a series of caves in Gauteng Province. The area is a UNESCO World Heritage site and has termed the Cradle of Humankind
4.
South African Air Force
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The South African Air Force is the air force of South Africa, with headquarters in Pretoria. The South African Air Force was established on 1 February 1920, the Air Force has seen service in World War II and the Korean War. From 1966 the SAAF was involved in providing support in a low intensity war in Angola, South-West Africa. On conclusion of the Border War in 1990, aircraft numbers were reduced due to economic pressures as well as the cessation of hostilities with neighboring states. Today the SAAF has an air combat capability and has been structured towards regional peace-keeping, disaster relief. After a visit to observe the 1912 military manoeuvres in Europe, beyers gave an extremely positive report on the future use of aircraft for military purposes to General Smuts. Flying training commenced in 1913 with students who excelled on the course being sent to the Central Flying School at Upavon in Great Britain for further training, the first South African military pilot qualified on 2 June 1914. At the outbreak of World War I, the Union Defence Force had realised the urgent need for air support which brought about the establishment of the South African Aviation Corps on 29 January 1915. Aircraft were purchased from France while the building of an airfield at Walvis Bay commenced in earnest in order to support operations against German forces in German South West Africa. By June 1915 the SAAC was deployed to its first operational airfield at Karibib in German South West Africa in support of Gen. Bothas South African ground forces. On 9 July 1915, the German forces capitulated and most of the pilots,26 Squadron RFC and later becoming an independent squadron on 8 October 1915. No.26 Squadron was equipped with Henri Farman F-27s and B. E. 2cs and was shipped to Kenya in support of the war effort in German East Africa, landing in Mombasa on 31 January 1916. While the SAAC were engaged in German South West Africa and 26 Sqdn RFC in East Africa, the number of South Africans in the RFC eventually reached approximately 3,000 men and suffered 260 active-duty fatalities over the Somme during the war. Forty six pilots became fighter aces, on conclusion of the First World War, the British Government donated surplus aircraft plus spares and sufficient equipment to provide the nucleus of a fledgling air force to each of its Dominions. In December 1920 the South African National insignia was added to aircraft for the first time and these colours remained until 1927 when they were replaced with the Orange, White and Blue roundels. 1 Squadron was called to fly reconnaissance missions and to bombard the strikers’ positions, the SAAF was again deployed to suppress the Bondelzwart Rebellion at Kalkfontein between 29 May and 3 July 1922. For maritime patrol operations, the SAAF took over all 29 passenger aircraft of South African Airways,18 Junkers Ju 86Z-ls for maritime patrols, SAAF maritime patrols commenced on 21 September 1939 with 16 Squadron flying three JU-86Zs from Walvis Bay. By 1940, the Ju 86s were replaced by Ansons and Coastal Command SAAF had been established, in December 1939 the Duke of Aosta had sent a report to Mussolini recording the state of chronic unpreparedness of the Allied Forces in East Africa
5.
Latin
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Latin is a classical language belonging to the Italic branch of the Indo-European languages. The Latin alphabet is derived from the Etruscan and Greek alphabets, Latin was originally spoken in Latium, in the Italian Peninsula. Through the power of the Roman Republic, it became the dominant language, Vulgar Latin developed into the Romance languages, such as Italian, Portuguese, Spanish, French, and Romanian. Latin, Italian and French have contributed many words to the English language, Latin and Ancient Greek roots are used in theology, biology, and medicine. By the late Roman Republic, Old Latin had been standardised into Classical Latin, Vulgar Latin was the colloquial form spoken during the same time and attested in inscriptions and the works of comic playwrights like Plautus and Terence. Late Latin is the language from the 3rd century. Later, Early Modern Latin and Modern Latin evolved, Latin was used as the language of international communication, scholarship, and science until well into the 18th century, when it began to be supplanted by vernaculars. Ecclesiastical Latin remains the language of the Holy See and the Roman Rite of the Catholic Church. Today, many students, scholars and members of the Catholic clergy speak Latin fluently and it is taught in primary, secondary and postsecondary educational institutions around the world. The language has been passed down through various forms, some inscriptions have been published in an internationally agreed, monumental, multivolume series, the Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum. Authors and publishers vary, but the format is about the same, volumes detailing inscriptions with a critical apparatus stating the provenance, the reading and interpretation of these inscriptions is the subject matter of the field of epigraphy. The works of several hundred ancient authors who wrote in Latin have survived in whole or in part and they are in part the subject matter of the field of classics. The Cat in the Hat, and a book of fairy tales, additional resources include phrasebooks and resources for rendering everyday phrases and concepts into Latin, such as Meissners Latin Phrasebook. The Latin influence in English has been significant at all stages of its insular development. From the 16th to the 18th centuries, English writers cobbled together huge numbers of new words from Latin and Greek words, dubbed inkhorn terms, as if they had spilled from a pot of ink. Many of these words were used once by the author and then forgotten, many of the most common polysyllabic English words are of Latin origin through the medium of Old French. Romance words make respectively 59%, 20% and 14% of English, German and those figures can rise dramatically when only non-compound and non-derived words are included. Accordingly, Romance words make roughly 35% of the vocabulary of Dutch, Roman engineering had the same effect on scientific terminology as a whole
6.
Cheetah
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The cheetah /ˈtʃiːtə/ is a large felid of the subfamily Felinae that occurs mainly in eastern and southern Africa and a few parts of Iran. The only extant member of the genus Acinonyx, the cheetah was first described by Johann Christian Daniel von Schreber in 1775. The cheetah is characterised by a body, deep chest, spotted coat, a small rounded head, black tear-like streaks on the face, long thin legs. Its lightly built, slender form is in sharp contrast with the robust build of the big cats, the cheetah reaches nearly 70 to 90 cm at the shoulder, and weighs 21–72 kg. Though taller than the leopard, it is smaller than the lion. Basically yellowish tan or rufous to white, the coat is uniformly covered with nearly 2,000 solid black spots. Cheetahs are active mainly during the day, with hunting their major activity, adult males are sociable despite their territoriality, forming groups called coalitions. Females are not territorial, they may be solitary or live with their offspring in home ranges, carnivores, cheetah mainly prey upon antelopes and gazelles. They will stalk their prey to within 100–300 metres, charge towards it and kill it by tripping it during the chase, the cheetahs body is specialised for speed, it is the fastest land animal. Cheetahs are induced ovulators, breeding throughout the year, gestation is nearly three months long, resulting in a litter of typically three to five cubs. Weaning occurs at six months, siblings tend to stay together for some time, Cheetah cubs face higher mortality than most other mammals, especially in the Serengeti region. Cheetahs inhabit a variety of habitats – dry forests, scrub forests, thanks to its prowess at hunting, the cheetah was tamed and used to kill game at hunts in the past. The animal has been depicted in art, literature, advertising. Classified as vulnerable by the International Union for Conservation of Nature, several African countries have taken steps to improve the standards of cheetah conservation. The vernacular name cheetah is derived from the Hindi word चीता, the first recorded use of this word has been dated back to 1610. An alternative name for the cheetah is hunting leopard, the scientific name of the cheetah is Acinonyx jubatus. The generic name Acinonyx could have originated from the combination of two Greek words, akinetos means motionless, and onyx means claw, a rough translation of the word would be non-moving claws, a reference to the limited retractability of the claws of the cheetah relative to other cats. The specific name jubatus means maned in Latin, referring to the dorsal crest of this animal, the cheetah is the only extant species of the genus Acinonyx
7.
Saab JAS 39 Gripen
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The Saab JAS39 Gripen is a light single-engine multirole fighter aircraft manufactured by the Swedish aerospace company Saab. It was designed to replace the Saab 35 Draken and 37 Viggen in the Swedish Air Force, the Gripen has a delta wing and canard configuration with relaxed stability design and fly-by-wire flight controls. It is powered by the Volvo RM12, and has a top speed of Mach 2, later aircraft are modified for NATO interoperability standards and to undertake in-flight refuelling. In 1979, the Swedish government began development studies for a capable of fighter, attack. A new design from Saab was selected and developed as the JAS39, following two crashes during flight development and subsequent alterations to the aircrafts flight control software, the Gripen entered service with the Swedish Air Force in 1997. Upgraded variants, featuring more advanced avionics and adaptations for longer mission times, in order to market the aircraft to export customers, Saab has formed several partnerships and collaborative efforts with multiple overseas aerospace companies. One example of efforts was Gripen International, a joint partnership between Saab and BAE Systems formed in 2001. A further version, designated Gripen JAS 39E/F, is under development as of 2014, the changes include the adoption of a new powerplant, the General Electric F414G, an active electronically scanned array radar, and significantly increased internal fuel capacity. Saab has proposed other derivatives, including a navalised Sea Gripen for carrier operations, Sweden and Brazil have ordered the Gripen E/F and Switzerland initially selected it for procurement. As of 2013, more than 247 Gripens have been built, in the late 1970s, Sweden sought to replace its ageing Saab 35 Draken and Saab 37 Viggen. One goal was for the aircraft to be smaller than the Viggen while equalling or improving on its payload-range characteristics, several foreign designs were also studied, including the General Dynamics F-16 Fighting Falcon, the McDonnell Douglas F/A-18 Hornet, the Northrop F-20 Tigershark and the Dassault Mirage 2000. Ultimately, the Swedish government opted for a new fighter to be developed by Saab, several Saab designs were reviewed, the most promising being Project 2105, recommended to the government by the Defence Materiel Administration. The preferred aircraft was a single-engine, lightweight single-seater, embracing fly-by-wire technology, canards, the powerplant selected was the Volvo-Flygmotor RM12, a license-built derivative of the General Electric F404−400, engine development priorities were weight reduction and lowering component count. On 30 June 1982, with approval from the Riksdag, the FMV issued contracts worth SEK 25.7 billion to Saab, covering five prototypes and an initial batch of 30 production aircraft. By January 1983, a Viggen was converted to a flying test aircraft for the JAS 39s intended avionics, the JAS39 received the name Gripen via a public competition, which is the heraldry on Saabs logo. The first Gripen was rolled out on 26 April 1987, marking Saabs 50th anniversary, originally planned to fly in 1987, the first flight was delayed by 18 months due to issues with the flight control system. On 9 December 1988, the first prototype took its 51-minute maiden flight with pilot Stig Holmström at the controls, during the test programme, concern surfaced about the aircrafts avionics, specifically the fly-by-wire flight control system, and the relaxed stability design. On 2 February 1989, this led to the crash of the prototype during an attempted landing at Linköping
8.
Presidential Unit Citation (United States)
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The unit with the most Presidential Unit Citations is the USS Parche with 9 citations. The Army citation was established by Executive Order 9075 on 26 February 1942, superseded by Executive Order 9396 on Dec.2,1943, as with other Army unit citations, the PUC is in a larger frame than other ribbons, and is worn above the right pocket. All members of the unit may wear the decoration, whether or not they participated in the acts for which the unit was cited. Only those assigned to the unit at the time of the action cited may wear the decoration as a permanent award, for both the Army and Air Force, the emblem is a solid blue ribbon enclosed in a gold frame. The Air Force PUC was adopted from the Army Distinguished Unit Citation after the Air Force became a military branch in 1947. By Executive Order 10694, dated Jan,10,1957 the Air Force redesignated the Distinguished Unit Citation as the Presidential Unit Citation. The Air Force PUC is the color and design as the Army PUC but slightly smaller. The Citation is carried on the units colors in the form of a blue streamer,4 ft long and 2.75 in wide. For the Army, only on rare occasions will a larger than battalion qualify for award of this decoration. The Navy citation was established by Executive Order 9050 on 6 February 1942, the Navy version has blue, yellow, and red horizontal stripes, and is the only Navy ribbon having horizontal stripes. These are only worn by persons who meet the criteria at the time it is awarded to the unit, unlike the Army, those who later join the unit do not wear it on a temporary basis. The current decoration is known as the Department of Homeland Security Presidential Unit Citation. A Coast Guard version of the award was awarded to all U. S. Coast Guard and Coast Guard Auxiliary personnel responding to Hurricane Katrina by President George W. Bush for rescue, the United States Public Health Service Presidential Citation was established in 2015. The design was finalized by the Army Institute of Heraldry on 17 August 2015, two units of the Free French Forces were awarded Presidential Unit Citations during World War II. On April 22,1986, the 1st Fighter Group Força Aérea Brasileira was awarded the Presidential Unit Citation for its actions in the Po Valley region of Italy in World War II. The Brazilians, operating in Italy in support of Allied forces, destroyed in one day over 45 vehicles, strafed pontoon bridges on the River Po, eleven missions of 44 sorties were flown destroying nine motor transports and damaging 17. One Belgian-Luxembourgian battalion of the Belgian United Nations Command was awarded the Presidential Unit Citation once for actions during the Battle of the Imjin River, the Colombia Battalion received the citation while attached to the American 21st Infantry Regiment in 1951. One Dutch unit, the Netherlands Detachment United Nations, part of the Regiment Van Heutsz, was awarded the Presidential Unit Citation twice for actions during the Korean War, the first citation was awarded after the battle near Wonju and Hoengson in February 1951
9.
Republic of Korea Presidential Unit Citation
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In recognition of allied military service to South Korea during the Korean War, all United States military departments were authorized the unit award for that period. When the Republic of Korea Presidential Unit Citation is worn on the South Korea military uniform it is as a ribbon 1 3⁄8 inches wide surrounded by a gold frame, the ribbon is white, with a 15⁄64 inch red above blue Taeguk in the center. No ribbon devices are authorized for wear with this award, U. S. Marine Corps for service in South Korea between 9 December 1999 to 24 April 2002. 2nd Infantry Division was recognized in 2011, for their support of South Korea over the preceding 60 years, seventh Air Force was recognized in October 2013, for longstanding achievements in operational readiness and force employment in South Korea. Eighth Army was recognized on October 1,2014, for outstanding performance in defense of the Republic of Korea, first Marine Division, Reinforced for operations from 15 September to 11 October 1950, including the Inchon landing and the battle for Seoul. 58th Engineer Treadway Bridge Company for their bridge building efforts with the X Corps at the Chosin Reservoir, the first was for service at Inchon, the second for service during the period of 1950-1953, and finally for deployment to the Korean Peninsula from 1945-1948 and 1953-1971. One Italian unit, the Ospedale da Campo n°68 of Corpo Militare della Croce Rossa Italiana, was awarded battle honour twelve, October 6,1952. One unit of the U. S. Armys 3rd Infantry Division, the first was for service in the Uijongbu Corridor in June 1951. The second was for service in the Iron Triangle at Hill 717 in July 1951, one South African unit, the 2 Squadron SAAF was also awarded this battle honour. It was presented on November 1,1951 and it reads This unit was dispatched from South Africa in support of the United Nations Forces in Korea. It was equipped with P-51 aircraft and has functioned continually in support of operations of the Eighth Army, through all gallantry and devotion to duty of its personnel it has earned high praise and its losses in pilots have been heavy. It continued to meet cheerfully all tasks allotted to it,16 Field Regiment of the Royal New Zealand Artillery. A Dutch battalion embedded into the US 2nd Infantry Division was awarded the U. S, Presidential Unit Citation in February 1951, for the capture of Hill 325, north of Manjong Station. The under-strength A Company, reinforced by personnel from B and heavy weapons companies, was ordered to recapture Hill 325 on the 15th of February 1951. At 0230 hrs the next morning, the Dutch were beaten back by heavy fire, at 0345 hrs they tried again. Just before dawn the exhausted Dutch, their ammunition almost expended, fixed bayonets and, shouting their battle cry, for these actions the Van Heutsz received its first U. S. This came at a cost, however, as the battalion had suffered over a hundred casualties. watv. org
South Africa
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Republic of Korea Presidential Unit Citation
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