1.
Swiss locomotive and railcar classification
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It started out as a uniform system for the classification and naming of all rolling stock, powered and unpowered, but had been replaced and amended by the UIC classification of goods wagons. The Swiss classification system was created by the Swiss federal railways department, in 1902, when the Swiss Federal Railways was founded as a government railway, that new railway also became bound by the system. The Swiss system is less precise than those other systems in the way it deals with axles, because it refers only to numbers, rather than to arrangements, of powered axles. The Swiss system is more a method of classifying locomotive. The classifications for which the Swiss system provides have always been adapted to new requirements. The last modification to the system occurred in 1968, with the publication of the Directory of the Rolling Stock of the Swiss Private Railways by the Swiss Federal Agency for Transport. For carriages and wagons, the system was progressively replaced from 1968 by the UIC international wagon classification system. However, all of Switzerlands powered rolling stock initially retained its Swiss type classification or class designation, the standard gauge private railways of Switzerland soon followed the example of the Swiss Federal Railways, and agreement was reached as to the allocation of number ranges. The narrow gauge railways have largely retained the old system for locomotives, railcars and passenger carriages, here is a description of the classification system as it operated up to 1989, and as it still operates in respect of narrow gauge private railway motive power. There is no provision for combining the codes A, B, C, D, E, G, R and T, the combination of H and G is possible. HG would therefore be a narrow gauge locomotive, with a mix of adhesion, since 1966, in respect of railcars and tractors, he or hm has meant pure rack rail drive, and eh or mh has meant a mix of adhesion and rack rail drive. Steam powered tank locomotives were given an E, and the maximum speed of the locomotive was designated with a lower case letter. Thus, an Ea 3/6 was a locomotive with vmax >80 kilometres per hour. With steam locomotives, separate driving mechanisms were displayed, so, for example, a Mallet locomotive was named G 2x2/2 or G 2/3+2/2, and not G 4/4 or G 4/5. Up until 1920, standard gauge locomotives were given the letter F. The class later designated as Be 5/7 was therefore originally named Fb 5/7, the designation R was originally intended for locomotives with an axle load of under 16 tonnes. These lightweight locomotives exert less stress on the rails when they negotiate curves, with the introduction of the Re 4/4II, the axle load limit was dropped following extensive testing. Several locomotives were given approval for higher cornering speeds, to which their type designation had not yet been adapted
2.
South Devon Railway Company
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The South Devon Railway Company built and operated the railway from Exeter to Plymouth and Torquay in Devon, England. It was a 7 ft 1⁄4 in broad gauge railway built by Isambard Kingdom Brunel, the revolutionary system proved to have insuperable technical difficulties and was abandoned. The line continued as a conventional locomotive railway, the Company promoted a number of branches, through the medium of nominally independent companies. Its original main line between Exeter and Plymouth remains in use today as an important part of the line between London and Plymouth. They chose the route over two suggested longer routes, which were similar to the Teignmouth and Okehampton routes that were actually built later. This ambitious scheme was presented to Parliament as a Bill on 29 February 1840 and its supporters continued to argue in its favour, but the more practical scheme via Newton soon gained favour. The failure of this scheme did not suppress the enthusiasm in Plymouth for a railway, the Great Western Railway and the B&ER were working in close harmony, and were known as the Associated Companies, forming a powerful broad gauge interest in railways. The choice of terminal in Plymouth was a point, for the Three Towns of Plymouth, Devonport and Stonehouse were independent. With Isambard Kingdom Brunel now advising the promoters, a terminal at a location at Eldad was selected. The Companys name was changed to the South Devon Railway and a Parliamentary Bill was submitted in the 1844 session, with little opposition, it obtained its authorising Act on 4 July 1844. Although the route was to follow the coast from Exeter to Newton, from there to Plymouth it would need to run over difficult hilly terrain, and gradients and curvature were challenging. Brunel had planned the route as a double-track locomotive railway, and as late as May 1844 he stated, in reference to the atmospheric system, I have not been called upon to recommend it or not. However Brunel was concerned about the efficiency of steam locomotives. The system is described in the article Atmospheric railway and in the technical section below. Briefly, it involves a pipe laid between the rails, and stationary steam engines located at intervals of a few miles along the line, they exhaust air from the pipe. A piston carriage is placed at the head of each train, the tube is slotted at the top to enable the piston bracket to pass, and a continuous leather seal prevents unwanted admission of air. With a partial vacuum in the pipe ahead of the piston, the leather seal is opened by rollers immediately ahead of the bracket carrying the piston, and closed immediately behind it. In fact the capital outlay would be reduced by £67,000, allowing for the cost of construction of the pumping stations, and annual operating costs would be £8,000 cheaper
3.
Great Western Railway
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The Great Western Railway was a British railway company that linked London with the south-west and west of England, the Midlands, and most of Wales. It was founded in 1833, received its enabling Act of Parliament on 31 August 1835, Goods wagons were painted red but this was later changed to mid-grey. Great Western trains included long-distance express services such as the Flying Dutchman, the Cornish Riviera Express and it also operated many suburban and rural services, some operated by steam railmotors or autotrains. The company pioneered the use of larger, more economic goods wagons than were usual in Britain and it operated a network of road motor routes, was a part of the Railway Air Services, and owned ships, docks and hotels. The Great Western Railway originated from the desire of Bristol merchants to maintain their city as the port of the country. The company was founded at a meeting in Bristol in 1833 and was incorporated by Act of Parliament in 1835. Isambard Kingdom Brunel, then aged twenty-nine, was appointed engineer and this was by far Brunels largest contract to date. Firstly, he chose to use a gauge of 7 ft to allow for the possibility of large wheels outside the bodies of the rolling stock which could give smoother running at high speeds. Secondly, he selected a route, north of the Marlborough Downs and this meant the line was not direct from to London to Bristol. From Reading heading west, the line would curve in a northerly sweep back to Bath, the first 22.5 miles of line, from Paddington station in London to Maidenhead Bridge station, opened on 4 June 1838. When Maidenhead Railway Bridge was ready the line was extended to Twyford on 1 July 1839, the cutting was the scene of a railway disaster two years later when a goods train ran into a landslip, ten passengers who were travelling in open trucks were killed. This accident prompted Parliament to pass the 1844 Railway Regulation Act requiring railway companies to provide carriages for passengers. The next section, from Reading to Steventon crossed the Thames twice, a 7. 25-mile extension took the line to Faringdon Road on 20 July 1840. Meanwhile, work had started at the Bristol end of the line, on 17 December 1840, the line from London reached a temporary terminus at Wootton Bassett Road west of Swindon and 80.25 miles from Paddington. The section from Wootton Bassett Road to Chippenham was opened on 31 May 1841, as was Swindon Junction station where the Cheltenham and Great Western Union Railway to Cirencester connected. That was an independent line worked by the GWR, as was the Bristol and Exeter Railway, in 1851, the GWR purchased the Kennet and Avon Canal, which was a competing carrier between London, Reading, Bath and Bristol. The GWR was closely involved with the C&GWUR and the B&ER, the South Wales Railway had opened between Chepstow and Swansea in 1850 and became connected to the GWR by Brunels Chepstow Bridge in 1852. It was completed to Neyland in 1856, where a port was established
4.
United States
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Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
5.
4-6-0
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During the second half of the nineteenth and first half of the twentieth centuries, the 4-6-0 was constructed in large numbers for passenger and mixed traffic service. The primary limitation of the type was the size of the firebox. In passenger service, it was superseded by the 4-6-2 Pacific type whose trailing truck allowed it to carry a greatly enlarged firebox. For freight service, the addition of a driving axle created the 4-8-0 Mastodon type, which was rare in North America. The 4-6-0T locomotive version was a far less common type, during the First World War, the type was also used on narrow gauge military railways. In 1907, five 6th Class locomotives of the Cape Government Railways were sold to the 3 ft 6 in Benguela Railway and these included one of the Dübs-built locomotives of 1897 and two each of the Neilson and Company and Neilson, Reid and Company-built locomotives of 1897 and 1898. In the mid-1930s, in order to ease maintenance, modifications were made to the running boards, the former involved mounting the running boards higher, thereby getting rid of the driving wheel fairings. This gave the locomotives a much more American rather than British appearance, in April 1951, three Class NG9 locomotives were purchased from the South African Railways for the Caminhos de Ferro de Moçâmedes. They were placed in service on the Ramal da Chibía, a 600 mm gauge line across 116 kilometres from Sá da Bandeira to Chiange. The locomotives were observed dumped at the Sá da Bandeira shops by 1969, the line through Bechuanaland Protectorate was still under construction and was operated by the CGR on behalf of the BR at the time. The locomotives were returned to the CGR. The Finnish State Railways operated the Classes Hk1, Hk2, Hk3, Hk5, Hv1, Hv2, Hv3, Hv4, Hr2, the Class Hk1, numbers 232 to 241, was built by Baldwin Locomotive Works in 1898. The ten Baldwin locomotives were originally designated H1 class, numbers 291 to 300 and 322 to 333 were built by the Richmond Locomotive Works in 1900 and 1901. The 22 Richmond locomotives were originally designated H2 class and were nicknamed Big-Wheel Kaanari, another 100 of these locomotives were manufactured in Finland from 1903 to 1916, numbered in the range from 437 to 574 and initially designated H3 to H8 classes. The Class Hk5 was numbered from 439 to 515, the Class Hv1 was built from 1915 by Tampella and Lokomo. They were nicknamed Heikki and were numbered 545 to 578 and 648 to 655, the class remained in service until 1967. One, no.555 named Princess, is preserved at the Finnish Railway Museum, the Class Hv2 was built by Berliner Maschinenbau and Lokomo in the years between 1919 and 1926. They were numbered 579 to 593,671 to 684 and 777 to 780, the Class Hv3 was built by Berliner, Tampella and Lokomo in the years from 1921 to 1941
6.
Whyte notation
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The notation counts the number of leading wheels, then the number of driving wheels, and finally the number of trailing wheels, groups of numbers being separated by dashes. Other classification schemes, like UIC classification and the French, Turkish and Swiss systems for steam locomotives, in the notation a locomotive with two leading axles in front, then three driving axles and then one trailing axle is classified as 4-6-2. Articulated locomotives such as Garratts, which are two locomotives joined by a common boiler, have a + between the arrangements of each engine. Thus a double Pacific type Garratt is a 4-6-2+2-6-4, for Garratt locomotives the + sign is used even when there are no intermediate unpowered wheels, e. g. the LMS Garratt 2-6-0+0-6-2. This is because the two units are more than just power bogies. They are complete engines, carrying fuel and water tanks, the + sign represents the bridge that links the two engines. Simpler articulated types such as Mallets, have a frame under a common boiler where there are no unpowered wheels between the sets of powered wheels. Typically, the frame is free to swing, whereas the rear frame is rigid with the boiler. Thus a Union Pacific Big Boy is a 4-8-8-4, four leading wheels, one group of eight driving wheels, another group of eight driving wheels and this numbering system is shared by duplex locomotives, which have powered wheel sets sharing a rigid frame. No suffix means a tender locomotive, T indicates a tank locomotive, in European practice, this is sometimes extended to indicate the type of tank locomotive, T means side tank, PT pannier tank, ST saddle tank, WT well tank. T+T means a tank locomotive that also has a tender, in Europe, the suffix R can signify rack or reversible, the latter being Bi-cabine locomotives used in France. The suffix F indicates a fireless locomotive, other suffixes have been used, including ng for narrow-gauge and CA or ca for compressed air. In Britain, small diesel and petrol locomotives are classified in the same way as steam locomotives. This may be followed by D for diesel or P for petrol, thus 0-6-0DE denotes a six-wheel diesel locomotive with electric transmission. Where the axles are coupled by chains or shafts or are individually driven, thus 4wPE indicates a four-wheel petrol locomotive with electric transmission. For large diesel locomotives the UIC classification is used, the main limitation of Whyte Notation is that it does not cover non-standard types such as Shay locomotives, which use geared trucks rather than driving wheels. The most commonly used system in Europe outside the United Kingdom is UIC classification, based on German practice, in American practice, most wheel arrangements in common use were given names, sometimes from the name of the first such locomotive built. For example, the 2-2-0 type arrangement is named Planet, after the 1830 locomotive on which it was first used, the most common wheel arrangements are listed below
7.
Steam locomotive
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A steam locomotive is a railway locomotive that produces its pulling power through a steam engine. These locomotives are fueled by burning combustible material—usually coal, wood, the steam moves reciprocating pistons which are mechanically connected to the locomotives main wheels. Both fuel and water supplies are carried with the locomotive, either on the locomotive itself or in wagons pulled behind, the first steam locomotive, made by Richard Trevithick, first operated on 21 February 1804, three years after the road locomotive he made in 1801. The first practical steam locomotive was built in 1812-13 by John Blenkinsop, Steam locomotives were first developed in Great Britain during the early 19th century and used for railway transport until the middle of the 20th century. From the early 1900s they were superseded by electric and diesel locomotives, with full conversions to electric. The majority of locomotives were retired from regular service by the 1980s, though several continue to run on tourist. The earliest railways employed horses to draw carts along railway tracks, in 1784, William Murdoch, a Scottish inventor, built a small-scale prototype of a steam road locomotive. An early working model of a rail locomotive was designed and constructed by steamboat pioneer John Fitch in the US during 1794. His steam locomotive used interior bladed wheels guided by rails or tracks, the model still exists at the Ohio Historical Society Museum in Columbus. The authenticity and date of this locomotive is disputed by some experts, accompanied by Andrew Vivian, it ran with mixed success. The design incorporated a number of important innovations that included using high-pressure steam which reduced the weight of the engine, Trevithick visited the Newcastle area in 1804 and had a ready audience of colliery owners and engineers. The visit was so successful that the railways in north-east England became the leading centre for experimentation. Trevithick continued his own steam propulsion experiments through another trio of locomotives, Four years later, the successful twin-cylinder locomotive Salamanca by Matthew Murray for the edge railed rack and pinion Middleton Railway debuted in 1812. Another well known early locomotive was Puffing Billy built 1813–14 by engineer William Hedley and it was intended to work on the Wylam Colliery near Newcastle upon Tyne. This locomotive is the oldest preserved, and is on display in the Science Museum. George Stephenson built Locomotion No.1 for the Stockton and Darlington Railway, north-east England, in 1829, his son Robert built in Newcastle The Rocket which was entered in and won the Rainhill Trials. This success led to the company emerging as the pre-eminent builder of locomotives used on railways in the UK, US. The Liverpool and Manchester Railway opened a year later making exclusive use of power for passenger
8.
Leading wheel
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The leading wheel or leading axle or pilot wheel of a steam locomotive is an unpowered wheel or axle located in front of the driving wheels. The axle or axles of the wheels are normally located on a leading truck. Leading wheels are used to help the locomotive negotiate curves and to support the front portion of the boiler, importantly, the leading bogie does not have simple rotational motion about a vertical pivot, as might first be thought. It must also be free to slip sideways to a small extent, the sliding bogie of this type was patented by William Adams in 1865. The first use of leading wheels is commonly attributed to John B, Jervis who employed them in his 1832 design for a locomotive with four leading wheels and two driving wheels. In the Whyte system of describing locomotive wheel arrangements, his locomotive would be classified as a 4-2-0, in the UIC classification system, which counts axles rather than wheels and uses letters to denote powered axles, the Jervis would be classified 2A. Locomotives without leading trucks are generally regarded as unsuitable for high speed use, the British Railway Inspectorate condemned the practice in 1895, following an accident involving two 0-4-4s at Doublebois, Cornwall, on the Great Western Railway. A single leading axle increases stability somewhat, while a leading truck is almost essential for high-speed operation. The highest number of leading wheels on a locomotive is six as seen on the 6-2-0 Crampton type. Six-wheel leading trucks were not very popular, the Cramptons were built in the 1840s, but it was not until 1939 that the PRR used one on the S1. AAR wheel arrangement Adams axle Trailing wheel UIC classification Whyte notation
9.
Bogie
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A bogie is a chassis or framework carrying wheels, attached to a vehicle, thus serving as a modular subassembly of wheels and axles. Bogies take various forms in various modes of transport, while bogie is the preferred spelling and first-listed variant in various dictionaries, bogey and bogy are also used. A bogie in the UK, or a truck, wheel truck. In Indian English, bogie may also refer to a railway carriage. In South Africa, the bogie is often alternatively used to refer to a freight or goods wagon. The first standard gauge British railway to build coaches with bogies, an alternate configuration often is used in articulated vehicles, which places the bogies under the connection between the carriages or wagons. Most bogies have two axles, but some cars designed for heavy loads have more axles per bogie, heavy-duty cars may have more than two bogies using span bolsters to equalize the load and connect the bogies to the cars. Suspension to absorb shocks between the frame and the rail vehicle body, Common types are coil springs, or rubber airbags. At least one wheelset, composed of an axle with bearings and a wheel at each end The bolster, the railway car is supported at the pivot point on the bolster. Axle box suspensions absorb shocks between the bearings and the bogie frame. The axle box suspension usually consists of a spring between the frame and axle bearings to permit up-and-down movement, and sliders to prevent lateral movement. A more modern design uses solid rubber springs, brake equipment, Two main types are used, brake shoes that are pressed against the tread of the wheel, and disc brakes and pads. More modern, bolsterless bogie designs omit these features, instead taking advantage of the movement of the suspension to permit rotational movement. The Commonwealth bogie, manufactured by the English Steel Corporation under licence from the Commonwealth Steel Company in Illinois, fitted with SKF or Timken bearings, it was introduced in the late 1950s for all BR Mark 1 vehicles. It was a heavy, cast-steel design weighing about 6.5 long tons, with sealed roller bearings on the axle ends, the leaf springs were replaced by coil springs running vertically rather than horizontally. The advanced design gave a better quality than the BR1. The side frame of the bogie was usually of bar construction, with simple horn guides attached, the axle boxes had a cast-steel equaliser beam or bar resting on them. The bar had two steel coil springs placed on it and the bogie frame rested on the springs, the effect was to allow the bar to act as a compensating lever between the two axles and to use both springs to soften shocks from either axle
10.
Driving wheel
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On a steam locomotive, a driving wheel is a powered wheel which is driven by the locomotives pistons. On diesel and electric locomotives, the wheels may be directly driven by the traction motors. Coupling rods are not usually used, and it is common for each axle to have its own motor. Jackshaft drive and coupling rods were used in the past but their use is now confined to shunting locomotives, on an articulated locomotive or a duplex locomotive, driving wheels are grouped into sets which are linked together within the set
11.
Trailing wheel
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On a steam locomotive, a trailing wheel or trailing axle is generally an unpowered wheel or axle located behind the driving wheels. The axle of the wheels is usually located in a trailing truck. On some large locomotives, an engine was mounted on the trailing truck to provide extra tractive effort when starting a heavy train. Trailing wheels were used in early locomotives but fell out of favor for a time during the latter 19th century. As demand for more powerful locomotives increased, trailing wheels began to be used to support the crew cab, trailing wheels first appeared on American locomotives between 1890 and 1895, but their axle worked in rigid pedestals. It enabled boilers to be lowered, since the top of the frames was dropped down behind the driving wheels. The firebox could also be longer and wider, increasing the surface area and steam generation capacity of the boiler. One-piece cast-steel trailer trucks were developed about 1915, to provide the strength for a booster engine to be fitted to the trailing axle. Finally, about 1921 the Delta trailing truck was developed with a centering device at the rear ends of the truck frame. Delta trucks were soon enlarged to carry four trailing wheels, in the Whyte notation, trailing wheels are designated by the last numbers in the series. For example, the 2-8-2 Mikado type locomotive had two leading wheels, eight driving wheels, and two trailing wheels, some locomotives such as the 4-4-0 American type had no trailing wheels and were designated with a zero in the final place. In the UIC classification system, the number of rather than the number of wheels is counted. AAR wheel arrangement Steam locomotive nomenclature UIC classification Whyte notation
12.
North America
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North America is a continent entirely within the Northern Hemisphere and almost all within the Western Hemisphere. It can also be considered a subcontinent of the Americas. It is bordered to the north by the Arctic Ocean, to the east by the Atlantic Ocean, to the west and south by the Pacific Ocean, and to the southeast by South America and the Caribbean Sea. North America covers an area of about 24,709,000 square kilometers, about 16. 5% of the land area. North America is the third largest continent by area, following Asia and Africa, and the fourth by population after Asia, Africa, and Europe. In 2013, its population was estimated at nearly 565 million people in 23 independent states, or about 7. 5% of the worlds population, North America was reached by its first human populations during the last glacial period, via crossing the Bering land bridge. The so-called Paleo-Indian period is taken to have lasted until about 10,000 years ago, the Classic stage spans roughly the 6th to 13th centuries. The Pre-Columbian era ended with the migrations and the arrival of European settlers during the Age of Discovery. Present-day cultural and ethnic patterns reflect different kind of interactions between European colonists, indigenous peoples, African slaves and their descendants, European influences are strongest in the northern parts of the continent while indigenous and African influences are relatively stronger in the south. Because of the history of colonialism, most North Americans speak English, Spanish or French, the Americas are usually accepted as having been named after the Italian explorer Amerigo Vespucci by the German cartographers Martin Waldseemüller and Matthias Ringmann. Vespucci, who explored South America between 1497 and 1502, was the first European to suggest that the Americas were not the East Indies, but a different landmass previously unknown by Europeans. In 1507, Waldseemüller produced a map, in which he placed the word America on the continent of South America. He explained the rationale for the name in the accompanying book Cosmographiae Introductio, for Waldseemüller, no one should object to the naming of the land after its discoverer. He used the Latinized version of Vespuccis name, but in its feminine form America, following the examples of Europa, Asia and Africa. Later, other mapmakers extended the name America to the continent, In 1538. Some argue that the convention is to use the surname for naming discoveries except in the case of royalty, a minutely explored belief that has been advanced is that America was named for a Spanish sailor bearing the ancient Visigothic name of Amairick. Another is that the name is rooted in a Native American language, the term North America maintains various definitions in accordance with location and context. In Canadian English, North America may be used to refer to the United States, alternatively, usage sometimes includes Greenland and Mexico, as well as offshore islands
13.
Railroad Gazette
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Railroad Gazette was a trade journal first published in April 1856 that focused on railroad, transportation and engineering topics. Master mechanics read and used the publication to share information about railway matters with one-another, an article in the publication documented what was purported to be the first locomotive run in the United States on a railroad, which was stated as performed by the author of the article. It also reported about the Erie Railroads Rochester Divisions electrification and about the opening of the Thebes Bridge, Railroad Gazette editors included Arthur Mellen Wellington and Matthias Nace Forney, and Horace Cleveland was an article contributor. Another publication of the same name Railroad Gazette was established in 1843 in Rogersville and it focused exclusively upon internal improvement. Railroad Gazette was a journal published in the United States that focused on railroad news, transportation. The journal also published editorial content and it was established and first published in April 1856. Master train mechanics were among the readership, who used it to share in technological information about railway matters. The publication served as a forum for readers to discuss railroad management, in February–June 1872, Railroad Gazette published a series of articles written by a person using the pen name Hindoo, and reader comments in response to the articles. Hindoo proposed that this was due to the manner in which Indian train stations dispatched trains using telegraphs, Hindoo felt that the U. S. system placed too much responsibility upon a single dispatcher, who would oversee all freight and passenger train movements on a division. Hindoos articles provided a comparison of safety matters between Indian and American railway systems, comparisons of management systems and styles and comparisons in train dispatching methods, a main contributor to the ongoing discussion was a reader using the pen name X, and several other readers also responded. Additional reader responses generally concurred with Xs opinion, but did not provide solid suggestions about how to remedy such problems, one respondent stated that some of the comparisons were faulty as being based upon U. S. railway lines that did not use telegraphic dispatching. This discourse in Railroad Gazette during this also covered various aspects of problems and flaws in the American railroad system. Railroad Gazette reported about the electrification of the Erie Railroads Rochester Division and it also reported about the Thebes Bridge at the time the bridge was opened in Illinois. Arthur Mellen Wellington was one of the editors of Railroad Gazette from 1884 to early 1887, wellingtons work The Economic Theory of the Location of Railroads was first published in a series of Railroad Gazette articles in 1876. A book of the content was published in 1877 by Railroad Gazette. Matthias Nace Forney was editor of the publication in the 1870s, in 1866, Forney patented a concept for urban elevated railways which later became the de facto standard for elevated railway service. Articles written by the noted American landscape architect Horace Cleveland that focused upon tree planting efforts in the western United States were published in Railroad Gazette, Railroad Gazette, Volume 37, No.14. A list of accessible Railroad Gazette issues may be accessed at Railroad gazette, railway Age List of American rail transport magazines Ripley, William Z. Railroads, Finance & Organizations
14.
2-4-0
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The wheel arrangement is known as a Porter. The notation 2-4-0T indicates a locomotive of this wheel arrangement on which its water and fuel is carried on board the engine itself. The type was designed for freight haulage. Because of its popularity for a period with English railways, noted railway author C. Hamilton Ellis considered the 2-4-0 designation to have the nickname of Old English, during the 1850s and 1860s these designs were widely copied by other railways, both in the United Kingdom and overseas. During the mid-1840s, Sir John Hawkshaw developed a new style of 2-4-0 passenger locomotive with outside cylinders in front of the leading wheels and this layout provided steady running at high speeds, despite a long overhang at the front. Joseph Beattie of the London and South Western Railway was one of the first British locomotive engineers to use this type on express locomotives. From 1858, he began experimenting with 2-4-0 designs for passenger work, culminating in his Seven-Foot 2-4-0 express passenger locomotives, built between 1859 and 1868. Beattie was also responsible for the long-lived 0298 Class of 2-4-0 well tanks, designed for passenger work in 1874. A locomotive of this type hauled the first Orient Express from Paris to Munich, the Bavarian B V and Bavarian B VI 2-4-0 locomotives of the Royal Bavarian State Railways were the first types to be produced in Bavaria in large numbers. In all,208 were built between 1853 and 1863, one example is preserved in the Nuremberg Transport Museum. Between 1877 and 1885, altogether 294 passenger locomotives of the Prussian P2 class were delivered to the Prussian State Railways, in New Zealand, two classes of tank locomotive were built with the 2-4-0T wheel arrangement. They were the New Zealand Railways D class in 1874 and 1929, five D class locomotives were built by Dübs and Company in Glasgow, Scotland, nineteen were built by Neilson and Company and eleven were built by Scott Brothers Ltd. of Christchurch. The first members of the D class entered service in 1874 and all had withdrawn from NZR service by the end of 1927. Of the 33 D class locomotives built, seven have been preserved, although only D16, all ten L class locomotives were built by the Avonside Engine Company in Bristol. The first L class built, entered service in 1878 and another nine L class locomotives were ordered, in 1893-94, three of the L class 2-4-0T locomotives were rebuilt to a 4-4-0 wheel arrangement at Newmarket workshops, with larger boilers and enlarged cylinders. This new design was classified La, but their limited coal bunker capacity remained a drawback, the solution was to add a trailing pony truck to accommodate a larger coal bunker, converting them to a 4-4-2T wheel arrangement. A further four L class locomotives were similarly converted, three were not rebuilt, but sold to the Public Works Department between 1901 and 1903. Three new 4-4-2T locomotives were built in 1902-03, when the conversion program was completed in 1903, the classification for all ten remaining NZR locomotives was changed back to L
15.
West Point Foundry
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The West Point Foundry was an early ironworks in Cold Spring, New York that operated from 1817 to 1911. The rise of steel making and declining demand for cast iron after the Civil War caused it to sink into bankruptcy. The impetus for its creation came from James Madison, who, after the War of 1812, Cold Spring was an ideal site, timber for charcoal was abundant, there were many local iron mines, and the nearby Margarets Brook provided water power to drive machinery. The site was guarded by West Point, across the Hudson River, the West Point Foundry Association was incorporated by Gouverneur Kemble, who came from a merchant family in New York City, and the foundry began operation in 1817. The platform used for mounting artillery for proofing was uncovered during Superfund work in the early 1990s, besides artillery, the foundry also produced iron fittings for civilian uses, such as pipe for the New York City water system and sugar mills for shipment to the West Indies. A number of locomotives were built at the foundry, including the Best Friend of Charleston, the West Point, the DeWitt Clinton, Phoenix. In 1835, Captain Robert Parker Parrott, a West Point graduate, was appointed inspector of ordnance from the foundry, the next year, he resigned his commission and on October 31,1836 was appointed superintendent of the foundry. It prospered under his tenure, and was the site of experiments with artillery and projectiles. During Parotts tenure, in 1843, the foundry also manufactured the USS Spencer, the foundrys operations peaked during the Civil War due to military orders, it had a workforce of 1,400 people and produced 2,000 cannon and three million shells. Parrott also invented an incendiary shell which was used in an 8-inch Parrott rifle to bombard Charleston, the importance of the foundry to the war effort can be measured by the fact that President Abraham Lincoln visited and inspected it in June 1862. The fame of the foundry was such that Jules Verne, in his novel From the Earth to the Moon, in 1867, Parrott resigned as superintendent, although he continued to experiment with artillery designs until his death in 1877. Business at the foundry declined as it faced competition from modern techniques of iron. It had discontinued the use of charcoal and begun to import coal from Pennsylvania around 1870, however, it was unable to stave off receivership in 1884 and bankruptcy in 1889. It was sold in 1897 to the Cornell brothers, makers of sugar mills, of the buildings on the site, only the central office building remains intact, the rest are in ruins. 87 acres around the form a preserve owned by Scenic Hudson. It can be visited by a trail from the nearby Cold Spring Metro-North station. A major archaeological study of the site, funded by Scenic Hudson, the West Point Foundry Archeological Site was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 2010. National Register of Historic Places listings in Putnam County, New York Archaeological Investigation of West Point Foundry Yasinsac, Rob, West Point Foundry, Hudson Valley Ruins
16.
0-4-0
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Under the Whyte notation for the classification of steam locomotives, 0-4-0 represents one of the simplest possible types, that with two axles and four coupled wheels, all of which are driven. The wheels on the earliest four-coupled locomotives were connected by a gear wheel. The notation 0-4-0T indicates a locomotive of this wheel arrangement on which its water and fuel is carried on board the engine itself. In Britain, the Whyte notation of wheel arrangement was often used for the classification of electric and diesel-electric locomotives with side-rod-coupled driving wheels. The UICs Bo classification for electric and diesel-electric locomotives indicates that the axles are independently motored, the term Four-coupled is often used for 0-4-0 locomotives. Four-wheeled is also used, but this term can also encompass other wheel arrangements. 0-4-0 locomotives were built as tank locomotives as well as tender locomotives, the former was more common in Europe and the latter in the United States, except in the tightest of situations such as that of a shop switcher, where overall length was a concern. The earliest 0-4-0 locomotives were tender engines and appeared as early as c, 0-4-0 tank engines were introduced in the early 1850s. The type was found to be so useful in locations that they continued to be built for more than a century. Richard Trevithicks Coalbrookedale, Pen-y-Darren and Newcastle locomotives were of the 0-4-0 type, the first 0-4-0 to use coupling rods was Locomotion No. 1, built by Robert Stephenson and Company for the Stockton and Darlington Railway in 1825, Stephenson also built the Lancashire Witch in 1828, and Timothy Hackworth built Sans Pareil which ran at the Rainhill Trials in 1829. The latter two later worked on the Bolton and Leigh Railway. A four-wheeled configuration, where all the wheels are driving wheels, the type was therefore mainly used for switchers and shunters. Because of the lack of stability, tender engines of type were only built for a few decades in the United Kingdom. They were built for a period in the United States. The possible tractive effort of an 0-4-0 within normal axle load limits was not enough to large loads. By 1900, they had largely been superseded for most purposes by locomotives with more complex wheel arrangements. They nevertheless continued to be used in situations where tighter radius curves existed or the length was an advantage
17.
Best Friend of Charleston
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The Best Friend of Charleston was a steam-powered railroad locomotive. It is widely acclaimed as the first locomotive to be entirely within the United States for revenue service. It also produced the first locomotive boiler explosion in the US, the locomotive was built for the South Carolina Canal and Rail Road Company by the West Point Foundry of New York in 1830. Disassembled for shipment by boat to Charleston, SC, it arrived in October of that year and was named the Best Friend of Charleston. After its inaugural run on Christmas Day, the Best Friend was used in passenger service along a six-mile demonstration route in Charleston. For the time, this locomotive was considered one of the fastest modes of transport available, the only mode of travel that was any faster was by an experienced horse and rider. On June 17,1831, the Best Friend earned a rather grisly first — it became the first locomotive in the US to suffer a boiler explosion. The blast is said to have been caused by the tying down the steam pressure release valve, he had tired of listening to it whistle. Another reason may have been the fireman was trying to overpressure the boiler as the locomotive was expected to perform hard work i. e. climbing a gradient upon setting off and this was common practice and a common cause of boiler bursts until a tamper-proof safety valve was produced. The blocked valve caused the pressure within the boiler to exceed its capacity, the resulting blast was said to have hurled metal fragments over a wide area and killed the fireman. The locomotives engineer Nicholas Darrell was uninjured in the explosion, salvageable parts from the Best Friend were later used to build the Phoenix which seems to have run up to the time of the American Civil War. To restore passenger confidence, a flatcar piled high with protective cotton bales was placed between the locomotive and its passenger cars, today, an operable replica of this locomotive is in the hands of the Charleston, SC Chapter, National Railway Historical Society. This replica was built in 1928 to commemorate the centenary of the South Carolina Canal, on August 6,2005, the Best Friend replica was lent by the City of Charleston to the Norfolk Southern Railway, the current operator of the original SCRR line, for five years. This replica, which was on display at NS Atlanta headquarters at 1200 Peachtree Street in midtown Atlanta, was transported by truck in October 2013 to Charleston. Another full-size replica is on exhibit at the South Carolina State Museum, in Columbia, in May 2014, the Best Friend of Charleston Museum opened on 36 John Street in the Charleston Historic District behind the Charleston Visitor Center and near the Charleston Museum. October 1830, the Best Friend arrives in Charleston from West Point Foundry, december 25,1830, The Best Friend runs for the first time in Charleston. June 17,1831, The boiler explodes on the Best Friend, remains of Best Friend rebuilt in Charleston as Phoenix, which runs until the American Civil War. Tom Thumb Best Friend of Charleston Website Explosion of Best Friend
18.
Engineer
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Engineers design materials, structures, and systems while considering the limitations imposed by practicality, regulation, safety, and cost. The word engineer is derived from the Latin words ingeniare and ingenium, the work of engineers forms the link between scientific discoveries and their subsequent applications to human and business needs and quality of life. His/her work is predominantly intellectual and varied and not of a mental or physical character. It requires the exercise of original thought and judgement and the ability to supervise the technical, he/she is thus placed in a position to make contributions to the development of engineering science or its applications. In due time he/she will be able to give authoritative technical advice, much of an engineers time is spent on researching, locating, applying, and transferring information. Indeed, research suggests engineers spend 56% of their time engaged in various information behaviours, Engineers must weigh different design choices on their merits and choose the solution that best matches the requirements. Their crucial and unique task is to identify, understand, Engineers apply techniques of engineering analysis in testing, production, or maintenance. Analytical engineers may supervise production in factories and elsewhere, determine the causes of a process failure and they also estimate the time and cost required to complete projects. Supervisory engineers are responsible for major components or entire projects, Engineering analysis involves the application of scientific analytic principles and processes to reveal the properties and state of the system, device or mechanism under study. Most engineers specialize in one or more engineering disciplines, numerous specialties are recognized by professional societies, and each of the major branches of engineering has numerous subdivisions. Civil engineering, for example, includes structural and transportation engineering and materials engineering include ceramic, metallurgical, mechanical engineering cuts across just about every discipline since its core essence is applied physics. Engineers also may specialize in one industry, such as vehicles, or in one type of technology. Several recent studies have investigated how engineers spend their time, that is, research suggests that there are several key themes present in engineers’ work, technical work, social work, computer-based work, information behaviours. Amongst other more detailed findings, a recent work sampling study found that engineers spend 62. 92% of their time engaged in work,40. 37% in social work. The time engineers spend engaged in activities is also reflected in the competencies required in engineering roles. There are many branches of engineering, each of which specializes in specific technologies, typically engineers will have deep knowledge in one area and basic knowledge in related areas. When developing a product, engineers work in interdisciplinary teams. For example, when building robots an engineering team will typically have at least three types of engineers, a mechanical engineer would design the body and actuators
19.
Patent
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A patent is a set of exclusive rights granted by a sovereign state to an inventor or assignee for a limited period of time in exchange for detailed public disclosure of an invention. An invention is a solution to a technological problem and is a product or a process. Patents are a form of intellectual property, the procedure for granting patents, requirements placed on the patentee, and the extent of the exclusive rights vary widely between countries according to national laws and international agreements. Typically, however, a patent application must include one or more claims that define the invention. A patent may include many claims, each of which defines a specific property right and these claims must meet relevant patentability requirements, such as novelty, usefulness, and non-obviousness. Nevertheless, there are variations on what is patentable subject matter from country to country, the word patent originates from the Latin patere, which means to lay open. More directly, it is a version of the term letters patent. Similar grants included land patents, which were land grants by early state governments in the USA, and printing patents, a precursor of modern copyright. In modern usage, the term patent usually refers to the granted to anyone who invents any new, useful. The additional qualification utility patent is used to distinguish the primary meaning from these other types of patents. Particular species of patents for inventions include biological patents, business method patents, chemical patents, the period of protection was 10 years. These were mostly in the field of glass making, as Venetians emigrated, they sought similar patent protection in their new homes. This led to the diffusion of patent systems to other countries, by the 16th century, the English Crown would habitually abuse the granting of letters patent for monopolies. After public outcry, King James I of England was forced to revoke all existing monopolies, the Statute became the foundation for later developments in patent law in England and elsewhere. Important developments in patent law emerged during the 18th century through a process of judicial interpretation of the law. During the reign of Queen Anne, patent applications were required to supply a complete specification of the principles of operation of the invention for public access. Influenced by the philosophy of John Locke, the granting of patents began to be viewed as a form of property right. The English legal system became the foundation for patent law in countries with a common law heritage, including the United States, New Zealand, in the Thirteen Colonies, inventors could obtain patents through petition to a given colonys legislature
20.
Cylinder (engine)
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A cylinder is the central working part of a reciprocating engine or pump, the space in which a piston travels. Multiple cylinders are arranged side by side in a bank, or engine block. Cylinders may be sleeved or sleeveless, a sleeveless engine may also be referred to as a parent-bore engine. A cylinders displacement, or swept volume, can be calculated by multiplying its cross-sectional area by the distance the piston travels within the cylinder, the engine displacement can be calculated by multiplying the swept volume of one cylinder by the number of cylinders. The rings make near contact with the walls, riding on a thin layer of lubricating oil. The first illustration depicts a longitudinal section of a cylinder in a steam engine, the sliding part at the bottom is the piston, and the upper sliding part is a distribution valve that directs steam alternately into either end of the cylinder. Refrigerator and air compressors are heat engines driven in reverse cycle as pumps. Internal combustion engines operate on the inherent volume change accompanying oxidation of gasoline, diesel fuel or ethanol and they are not classical heat engines since they expel the working substance, which is also the combustion product, into the surroundings. The reciprocating motion of the pistons is translated into crankshaft rotation via connecting rods, as a piston moves back and forth, a connecting rod changes its angle, its distal end has a rotating link to the crankshaft. A typical four-cylinder automobile engine has a row of water-cooled cylinders. V engines use two angled cylinder banks, the V configuration is utilized to create a more compact configuration relative to the number of cylinders. For example, there are also rotary turbines, the Wankel engine is a rotary adaptation of the cylinder-piston concept which has been used by Mazda and NSU in automobiles. Rotary engines are relatively quiet because they lack the clatter of reciprocating motion, air-cooled engines generally use individual cases for the cylinders to facilitate cooling. Inline motorcycle engines are an exception, having two-, three-, four-, water-cooled engines with only a few cylinders may also use individual cylinder cases, though this makes the cooling system more complex. The Ducati motorcycle company, which for years used air-cooled motors with individual cylinder cases, in some engines, especially French designs, the cylinders have wet liners. They are formed separately from the casting so that liquid coolant is free to flow around their outsides. Wet-lined cylinders have cooling and a more even temperature distribution. During use, the cylinder is subject to wear from the action of the piston rings
21.
Piston
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A piston is a component of reciprocating engines, reciprocating pumps, gas compressors and pneumatic cylinders, among other similar mechanisms. It is the component that is contained by a cylinder and is made gas-tight by piston rings. In an engine, its purpose is to force from expanding gas in the cylinder to the crankshaft via a piston rod and/or connecting rod. In a pump, the function is reversed and force is transferred from the crankshaft to the piston for the purpose of compressing or ejecting the fluid in the cylinder, in some engines, the piston also acts as a valve by covering and uncovering ports in the cylinder wall. An internal combustion engine is acted upon by the pressure of the combustion gases in the combustion chamber space at the top of the cylinder. This force then acts downwards through the rod and onto the crankshaft. The connecting rod is attached to the piston by a swivelling gudgeon pin and this pin is mounted within the piston, unlike the steam engine, there is no piston rod or crosshead. The pin itself is of hardened steel and is fixed in the piston, a few designs use a fully floating design that is loose in both components. All pins must be prevented from moving sideways and the ends of the pin digging into the cylinder wall, gas sealing is achieved by the use of piston rings. These are a number of iron rings, fitted loosely into grooves in the piston. The rings are split at a point in the rim, allowing them to press against the cylinder with a light spring pressure. Two types of ring are used, the rings have solid faces and provide gas sealing, lower rings have narrow edges. There are many proprietary and detail design features associated with piston rings, pistons are cast from aluminium alloys. For better strength and fatigue life, some racing pistons may be forged instead, early pistons were of cast iron, but there were obvious benefits for engine balancing if a lighter alloy could be used. To produce pistons that could survive engine combustion temperatures, it was necessary to develop new alloys such as Y alloy and Hiduminium, a few early gas engines had double-acting cylinders, but otherwise effectively all internal combustion engine pistons are single-acting. During World War II, the US submarine Pompano was fitted with a prototype of the infamously unreliable H. O. R, although compact, for use in a cramped submarine, this design of engine was not repeated. Media related to Internal combustion engine pistons at Wikimedia Commons Trunk pistons are long relative to their diameter and they act both as a piston and cylindrical crosshead. As the connecting rod is angled for much of its rotation, a longer piston helps to support this
22.
Pressure
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Pressure is the force applied perpendicular to the surface of an object per unit area over which that force is distributed. Gauge pressure is the relative to the ambient pressure. Various units are used to express pressure, Pressure may also be expressed in terms of standard atmospheric pressure, the atmosphere is equal to this pressure and the torr is defined as 1⁄760 of this. Manometric units such as the centimetre of water, millimetre of mercury, Pressure is the amount of force acting per unit area. The symbol for it is p or P, the IUPAC recommendation for pressure is a lower-case p. However, upper-case P is widely used. The usage of P vs p depends upon the field in one is working, on the nearby presence of other symbols for quantities such as power and momentum. Mathematically, p = F A where, p is the pressure, F is the normal force and it relates the vector surface element with the normal force acting on it. It is incorrect to say the pressure is directed in such or such direction, the pressure, as a scalar, has no direction. The force given by the relationship to the quantity has a direction. If we change the orientation of the element, the direction of the normal force changes accordingly. Pressure is distributed to solid boundaries or across arbitrary sections of normal to these boundaries or sections at every point. It is a parameter in thermodynamics, and it is conjugate to volume. The SI unit for pressure is the pascal, equal to one newton per square metre and this name for the unit was added in 1971, before that, pressure in SI was expressed simply in newtons per square metre. Other units of pressure, such as pounds per square inch, the CGS unit of pressure is the barye, equal to 1 dyn·cm−2 or 0.1 Pa. Pressure is sometimes expressed in grams-force or kilograms-force per square centimetre, but using the names kilogram, gram, kilogram-force, or gram-force as units of force is expressly forbidden in SI. The technical atmosphere is 1 kgf/cm2, since a system under pressure has potential to perform work on its surroundings, pressure is a measure of potential energy stored per unit volume. It is therefore related to density and may be expressed in units such as joules per cubic metre. Similar pressures are given in kilopascals in most other fields, where the prefix is rarely used
23.
Baldwin Locomotive Works
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The Baldwin Locomotive Works was an American builder of railroad locomotives. It was originally located in Philadelphia, and later moved to nearby Eddystone, although the company was very successful as the largest producer of steam locomotives, its transition to the production of diesels was far less so. Later, when the demand for diesel locomotives to replace steam tapered off. It stopped producing locomotives in 1956 and went out of business in 1972, having produced over 70,000 locomotives and this company is not to be confused with E M Baldwin of Australia who made small locomotives for such things as sugar cane tramways. The Baldwin Locomotive Works had a humble beginning, the original engine was in use and powered many departments of the works for well over 60 years, and is currently on display at the Smithsonian Institution in Washington, DC. The Camden and Amboy Railroad Company had shortly before imported a locomotive from England and it had not yet been assembled by Isaac Dripps when Baldwin visited the spot. He inspected the detached parts and made notes of the principal dimensions, aided by these figures, he commenced his task. The difficulties attending the execution of this first order were such that they are not easily understood by present-day mechanics. It was under such circumstances that his first locomotive, christened Old Ironsides, was completed and tried on the Philadelphia and it was at once put in active service, and did duty for over 20 years. It was an engine, weighing a little over five tons, the driving wheels were 54 inches in diameter. The wheels were of heavy cast iron hubs, with spokes and rims, and wrought iron tires. It had a 30 inches diameter boiler which took 20 minutes to raise steam, Baldwin struggled to survive the Panic of 1837. Production fell from 40 locomotives in 1837 to just nine in 1840, as part of the survival strategy, Matthias Baldwin took on two partners, George Vail and George Hufty. Although the partnerships proved relatively short-lived, they helped Baldwin pull through the hard times. Zerah Colburn was one of many engineers who had an association with Baldwin Locomotive Works. Colburn was full of praise for the quality of Baldwins work, in the 1850s, railroad building became a national obsession, with many new carriers starting up, particularly in the Midwest and South. While this helped drive up demand for Baldwin products, it increased competition as more companies entered the locomotive production field. Still, Baldwin had trouble keeping pace with orders and in the early 1850s began paying workers piece-rate pay, taking advantage of human nature, this increased incentives and productivity
24.
Derailment
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A derailment is said to take place when a vehicle such as a train runs off its rails. This does not necessarily mean that it leaves its track, although many derailments are minor, all result in temporary disruption of the proper operation of the railway system, and they are potentially seriously hazardous to human health and safety. In emergency situations, deliberate derailment with derails or catch points is used to prevent a more serious accident. During the 19th century derailments were commonplace, but progressively improved safety measures have resulted in a lower level of such incidents. In the US, derailments have dropped dramatically since 1980 from over 3,000 annually to 1,000 or so in 1986, a traditional track structure consists of two rails, fixed at a designated distance apart, and supported on transverse sleepers. Some advanced track structures support the rails on a concrete or asphalt slab, the running surface of the rails is required to be practically continuous and of the proper geometrical layout. 170 broken rails were reported on Network Rail in the UK in 2008, in jointed track, rails are usually connected with bolted fishplates. The web of the rail experiences large shear forces and these are enhanced around the bolt hole, where track maintenance is poor, metallurgical fatigue can result in the propagation of star cracking from the bolthole. In extreme situations this can lead to a piece of rail at the joint becoming detached. Local embrittlement of the parent metal may take place due to wheel spin, the fishplates in jointed track may fail, allowing the rails to pull apart in extremely cold weather, this is usually associated with uncorrected rail creep. Derailment may take place due to excessive gauge widening, in which the sleepers or other fastenings fail to maintain the proper gauge, the crabbing effect referred to above is more marked in dry conditions, when the coefficient of friction at the wheel to rail interface is high. The running gear — wheelsets, bogies, and suspension — may fail, modern technologies have reduced the incidence of these failures considerably, both by design and intervention. The last condition applies if the suspension springing has a stiffness optimised for the condition, or for a compromise loading condition. The vehicle wheelsets become momentarily unloaded vertically so that the guidance required from the flanges or wheel tread contact is inadequate, a special case is heat related buckling, in hot weather the rail steel expands. This is managed by stressing continuously welded rails and by providing proper expansion gaps at joints, in addition, lateral restraint is provided by an adequate ballast shoulder. If any of these measures are inadequate, the track may buckle, a large lateral distortion takes place, junctions and other changes of routing on railways are generally made by means of points. In the early days of railways these were moved independently by local staff, accidents — usually collisions — took place when staff forgot which route the points were set for, or overlooked the approach of a train on a conflicting route. If the points were not correctly set for either route — set in mid-stroke — it is possible for a passing to derail
25.
Lehigh Valley Railroad
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The Lehigh Valley Railroad was one of a number of railroads built in the northeastern United States primarily to haul anthracite coal. On January 7,1853, the name was changed to Lehigh Valley Railroad. It was sometimes known as the Route of the Black Diamond, at the time, anthracite was transported by boat down the Lehigh River, the railroad was meant to be faster transportation. The railroad ended operations in 1976 and merged into Conrail along with several railroads that same year. During its existence, the Lehigh Valley Railroad used a line that later became known as the Lehigh Line in order for it to operate. The line was known as the Lehigh Valley Mainline during the majority of its time under the ownership of the Lehigh Valley Railroad, Conrail shortened the line by abandoning most of its route to Buffalo. The Lehigh Line still exists and retains its original route but it now also doesnt reach close to New York City, the Lehigh Line is now owned by the Norfolk Southern Railway and has lost its trackage miles between Manville, New Jersey and Newark, New Jersey. As of 31 Dec 1925,1363.7 miles of road,3533.3 miles of track, the Lehigh Valley Railroad was authorized on April 21,1846 for freight and transportation of passengers, goods, wares, merchandise and minerals in Lehigh Valley, Pennsylvania. The route was surveyed and grading started in 1850, but progress was slow, the railroad began to survey a route from Mauch Chunk to Easton, Pennsylvania and the route was to be double tracked. The survey was conducted by Robert H. Sayre, the railroads Chief Engineer, with a rail of not less than 55 lb to the yard, and aiding along the line not less than four miles additional. Asa Packer wanted thorough rock cuts throughout the length of the line and doubled tracked bridge over the Delaware River into Phillipsburg. The railroads growth occurred after Asa Packer invested in the company in 1852, on January 7,1853, the railroad was renamed to the Lehigh Valley Railroad. Sayre, the chief engineer, the lines route to Mauch Chunk was delayed. At Easton, the LVRR constructed a bridge across the Delaware River for connections to the CNJ. From Easton to Allentown, the LVRR ran two trains daily from its opening date until September 11,1855, during this time, the LVRR was finishing construction of an extension of the line from Allentown to Mauch Chunk. After October 1,1855, the LVRR added more services to the Allentown-Mauch Chunk route. Through a connection with the Central Railroad of New Jersey, LVRR passengers had a route to Newark, New Jersey, Jersey City, New Jersey, a daily freight train was put into operation leaving Easton in the morning and returning in the evening. In the early part of October 1855, a contract was made with Howard & Co of Philadelphia to do the business of the railroad
26.
Norris Locomotive Works
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The Norris Locomotive Works was a steam locomotive manufacturing company based in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, that produced nearly one thousand railroad engines between 1832 and 1866. The company was started in 1832 as the American Steam Carriage Company by William Norris and Major Stephen H. Long, the two men had experimented with steam engine building for years and, as early as 1829, designed a locomotive to burn anthracite coal. Norris and Long also built an engine called the Black Hawk, which performed with success on the Boston and Providence Railroad. Major Long later left the firm and William Norris was joined by his brother Septimus, the two brothers reformed the enterprise into the Norris Locomotive Works. Named George Washington, the 14,400 pound engine hauled a load of 19,200 pounds up the grade at 15 miles per hour. This engine, the first in the world to ascend a hill by its own power, so remarkable was this accomplishment that reports published in engineering journals emphatically doubted its occurrence. A second, more formal trial with a greater load proved the engines capabilities on July 19,1836. Norris 4-2-0s were exported to England for the Lickey Incline about 1842, Norris built the Lafayette for the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad the following year based on plans of the George Washington. The Lafayette established the configuration that American steam locomotives would follow until the end of the steam era, in 1847, the Norris Works built the first ten-wheel locomotive in America, the Chesapeake. Operated by the Philadelphia and Reading Railroad, this was also the worlds first 4-6-0 locomotive and it weighed 22 tons and had 14½ by 22 inch cylinders and driving wheels 46 inches in diameter. Initially a wood-burning locomotive, the Chesapeake was converted to burn coal in 1862. Some authorities claim that Septimus Norris came up with the design, there were nine Norris brothers altogether, six of them had been involved in locomotive building at some point. The firm later became Richard Norris and Son, other locomotive factories, operated independently by various Norris brothers later opened in Lancaster, Pennsylvania, and Schenectady, New York. The Norris Locomotive Works sold many locomotives overseas, as noted above and this company was the first American exporter of locomotives—and perhaps of large mechanical devices generally. As early as 1840, thirty percent of the production until then had been for foreign markets. Norris machines operated in England, France, the states of the German Confederation, Belgium, Italy, Canada, Cuba and these engines influenced contemporary and subsequent locomotive design in many of these countries. William Norris had several large-scale operating models constructed as presentation pieces to rulers of several nations, such sovereigns included Tsar Nicholas of Russia and King Louis-Philippe of France, who was so pleased with his model that he gave Norris a gold medal and a handsome gold box. A quarter-sized 4-4-0 locomotive and tender were built for Commodore Matthew C. Perry to deliver as a gift on his expedition to Japan in 1854
27.
Rogers Locomotive and Machine Works
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Rogers Locomotive and Machine Works was a 19th-century manufacturer of railroad steam locomotives based in Paterson, in Passaic County, New Jersey, in the United States. It built more than six thousand steam locomotives for railroads around the world, most railroads in 19th-century United States rostered at least one Rogers-built locomotive. The companys most famous product was a locomotive named The General, built in December 1855, the company was founded by Thomas Rogers in an 1832 partnership with Morris Ketchum and Jasper Grosvenor as Rogers, Ketchum and Grosvenor. Rogers remained president until his death in 1856 when his son, Jacob S. Rogers, took the position and reorganized the company as Rogers Locomotive, the younger Rogers led the company until he retired in 1893. Robert S. Hughes then became president and reorganized the company as Rogers Locomotive Company, Rogers avoided the American Locomotive Company merger in 1901 through closing and reopening as Rogers Locomotive Works. The company remained independent until 1905, when ALCO purchased it, ALCO used the Rogers facilities through the 1920s as a parts storage facility and warehouse, but eventually sold the property to private investors. The firm that was to become Rogers Locomotive Works began in 1831, Thomas Rogers had been designing and building machinery for textile manufacturing for nearly 20 years when he sold his interest in Godwin, Rogers & Company in June of that year. Rogers set out on his own with a new company called Jefferson Works in Paterson, the Jefferson Works built textile and agricultural machinery for a year before Rogers met the two men who would help transform the company into a major locomotive manufacturer. In 1832, Rogers partnered with two investors from New York City, Morris Ketchum and Jasper Grosvenor, Jefferson Works was renamed Rogers, Ketchum & Grosvenor, and the company began to diversify into the railroad industry. The company soon manufactured springs, axles and other parts for railroad use. The first locomotive that Rogers company assembled was built by Robert Stephenson. This locomotive was the McNeil for the Paterson and Hudson River Railroad and it took another two years before Rogers received its first order for a complete locomotive. In 1837, the Mad River and Lake Erie Railroad ordered two locomotives from Rogers to form the beginning of the railroads roster. The first of two locomotives was the Sandusky, which became the first locomotive to cross the Allegheny Mountains. Sandusky included features designed by Thomas Rogers that had not been seen in construction to date. Before Sanduskys construction, driving wheels were built with wooden spokes. Some accounts also state that Sandusky was the first locomotive to feature a whistle, Rogers was not working completely alone in American locomotive manufacturing. In 1837, in addition to building the companys first locomotive, Rogers also filled orders from fellow locomotive builders Matthias W. Baldwin, once Rogers started working on his own locomotives, however, no further orders from either Baldwin or Norris were forthcoming
28.
St. Lawrence and Atlantic Railroad
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It crosses the Canada–US border at Norton, Vermont, and is owned by short line operator Genesee and Wyoming. The line was built by the Atlantic and St. Lawrence Railroad in the U. S. major communities served include Portland and Lewiston in Maine, Berlin, New Hampshire, Island Pond, Vermont, and Sherbrooke and Montreal in Quebec. Milepost 0, Portland terminal facilities including wharves, grain elevators, Portland Company shops, feldspar was mined, processed and loaded here for the manufacture of porcelain from 1925 to 1988. Station built in 1851, enlarged in 1879, and closed in 1967 was razed in 1968, Portland was desperate to connect its ice-free port with Montreal, and Maine was at risk of being eclipsed by a similar proposal running from nearby Boston, Massachusetts. Montreal saw an advantage in linking with the port at Portland. William Pitt Preble was the railroads first President, the line was originally built to the Portland gauge of 5 ft 6 in. Construction started in Portland on July 4,1846, the first section, from Portland to Yarmouth, opened July 20,1848. Further extensions up the Royal River to Danville opened in October,1848, construction then proceeded up the Little Androscoggin River to Oxford in September,1849, and Paris in March,1850. Construction was then completed down the Alder River to the Androscoggin River at Bethel in March,1851, simultaneous construction of Portland gauge connecting railways occurred from Danville and Mechanic Falls. Sections into and within New Hampshire opened to Gorham on July 23,1851 and Northumberland July 12,1852, and the full distance to Island Pond, Vermont on January 29,1853. The St. Lawrence and Atlantic Railway was chartered to build the part of the line in Quebec, regular operations began April 4,1853 between Montreal and Portland. Four months later, on August 5,1853 the Grand Trunk Railway leased the two companies, giving the Toronto-Montreal line an extension east to Portland, a branch was also built from Richmond, Quebec northeast to Point Levi, across the St. Lawrence River from Quebec City. Grand Trunk enlarged their waterfront facilities at Portland by purchasing land from Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, the locomotives burned wood exclusively until the cost of seasoned firewood increased during the winter of 1871-72 to make other fuels competitive. Peat from Quebec was used briefly before coal became the standard, coal was used exclusively between Portland and Gorham by 1879, but use of wood continued for a few more years north of Gorham. Interchange with standard gauge railroads became a problem during the 1860s, Grand Trunk equipped approximately 1,000 freight cars with experimental sliding-wheels in 1863 at company shops in Sarnia, Ontario, and Pointe-Saint-Charles in Montreal. Gauge could be adjusted by removing and inserting axle pins on special tapered-gauge track segments at interchange points, safety problems were reported despite high maintenance costs. All lines west of Montreal were converted to standard gauge on October 3 and 4,1873, Grand Trunk purchased 200 standard gauge locomotives and converted 135 old locomotives. Ten thousand standard gauge bogies were purchased for conversion of freight cars, the railway from Portland to Montreal was standard-gauged in September,1874
29.
Boiler
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A boiler is a closed vessel in which water or other fluid is heated. The fluid does not necessarily boil, the heated or vaporized fluid exits the boiler for use in various processes or heating applications, including water heating, central heating, boiler-based power generation, cooking, and sanitation. The pressure vessel of a boiler is usually made of steel, stainless steel, especially of the austenitic types, is not used in wetted parts of boilers due to corrosion and stress corrosion cracking. In live steam models, copper or brass is used because it is more easily fabricated in smaller size boilers. For much of the Victorian age of steam, the material used for boilermaking was the highest grade of wrought iron. In the 20th century, design practice instead moved towards the use of steel, which is stronger and cheaper, with welded construction, which is quicker and requires less labour. It should be noted, however, that wrought iron boilers corrode far slower than their steel counterparts. This makes the longevity of older wrought-iron boilers far superior to those of welded steel boilers, cast iron may be used for the heating vessel of domestic water heaters. Although such heaters are usually termed boilers in some countries, their purpose is usually to produce hot water, not steam, the brittleness of cast iron makes it impractical for high-pressure steam boilers. The source of heat for a boiler is combustion of any of several fuels, such as wood, coal, oil, electric steam boilers use resistance- or immersion-type heating elements. Nuclear fission is used as a heat source for generating steam, either directly or, in most cases. Heat recovery steam generators use the heat rejected from other such as gas turbine. 18th century Haycock boilers generally produced and stored large volumes of very low-pressure steam and these could burn wood or most often, coal. Flued boiler with one or two large flues—an early type or forerunner of fire-tube boiler, fire-tube boiler, Here, water partially fills a boiler barrel with a small volume left above to accommodate the steam. This is the type of boiler used in nearly all steam locomotives, the heat source is inside a furnace or firebox that has to be kept permanently surrounded by the water in order to maintain the temperature of the heating surface below the boiling point. Fire-tube boilers usually have a low rate of steam production. Fire-tube boilers mostly burn solid fuels, but are adaptable to those of the liquid or gas variety. Water-tube boiler, In this type, tubes filled with water are arranged inside a furnace in a number of possible configurations and this type generally gives high steam production rates, but less storage capacity than the above
30.
Connecting rod
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In a reciprocating piston engine, the connecting rod or conrod connects the piston to the crank or crankshaft. Together with the crank, they form a mechanism that converts reciprocating motion into rotating motion. Connecting rods may also convert rotating motion into reciprocating motion, historically, before the development of engines, they were first used in this way. As a connecting rod is rigid, it may transmit either a push or a pull, earlier mechanisms, such as chains, could only pull. In a few two-stroke engines the connecting rod is required to push. Today, connecting rods are best known through their use in internal combustion piston engines and these are of a distinctly different design from earlier forms of connecting rods, used in steam engines and steam locomotives. The earliest evidence for a connecting rod appears in the late 3rd century AD Roman Hierapolis sawmill and it also appears in two 6th century Eastern Roman saw mills excavated at Ephesus and Gerasa. The crank and connecting rod mechanism of these Roman watermills converted the motion of the waterwheel into the linear movement of the saw blades. In Renaissance Italy, the earliest evidence of a − albeit mechanically misunderstood − compound crank, a sound understanding of the motion involved is displayed by the painter Pisanello who showed a piston-pump driven by a water-wheel and operated by two simple cranks and two connecting-rods. The first steam engines, Newcomens atmospheric engine, was single-acting, its piston only did work in one direction and their output rocked back and forth, rather than rotating continuously. Steam engines after this are usually double-acting, their internal pressure works on each side of the piston in turn. This requires a seal around the rod and so the hinge between the piston and connecting rod is placed outside the cylinder, in a large sliding bearing block called a crosshead. In a steam locomotive, the pins are usually mounted directly on one or more pairs of driving wheels. The connecting rods, run between the pins and crossheads, where they connect to the piston rods. Crossheads or trunk guides are used on large diesel engines manufactured for marine service. The connecting rods of smaller steam locomotives are usually of rectangular cross-section but, on small locomotives, stephen Lewin, who built both locomotive and marine engines, was a frequent user of round rods. Gresleys A4 Pacifics, such as Mallard, had an alloy steel connecting rod in the form of an I-beam with a web that was only 0.375 in thick. On Western Rivers steamboats, the rods are properly called pitmans
31.
2-6-0
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This arrangement is commonly called a Mogul. In the United States of America and Europe, the 2-6-0 wheel arrangement was used on tender locomotives. This type of locomotive was built in the USA from the early 1860s to the 1920s. On these early 2-6-0 locomotives, the axle was merely used to distribute the weight of the locomotive over a larger number of wheels. The first American 2-6-0 with a rigidly mounted leading axle was the Pawnee, built for freight service on the Philadelphia. In total, about thirty locomotives of type were built for various American railroads. The railroads noted their increased pulling power, but also found that their rather rigid suspension made them prone to derailments than the 4-4-0 locomotives of the day. Many railroad mechanics attributed these derailments to having too little weight on the leading truck, the first true 2-6-0s were built in the early 1860s, the first few being built in 1860 for the Louisville and Nashville Railroad. The new design required the utilisation of a single-axle swivelling truck, such a truck was first patented in the United Kingdom by Levi Bissell in May 1857. In 1864, William S. Hudson, then the superintendent of Rogers Locomotive and Machine Works and this equalized suspension worked much better over the uneven tracks of the day. The first locomotive built with such a truck was likely completed in 1865 for the New Jersey Railroad. It is likely that the class name derives from a locomotive named Mogul. However, it has also suggested that, in England, it derived from the engine of that name built by Neilson. Beyer, Peacock and Company provided large numbers of standard design 3 ft 6 in narrow gauge Mogul locomotives to several Australian Railways. Twenty 2-6-0 locomotives were built by Les Ateliers de Tubize locomotive works in Belgium for the 1,000 mm CF du Congo Superieur aux Grands Lacs Africains between 1913 and 1924. The first eight, numbered 27 to 34, were built in 1913, followed by six more in 1921, six more of a slightly larger version followed in 1924, numbered 41 to 46. They had 360 by 460 millimetres cylinders and 1,050 millimetres diameter driving wheels, with the versions having a working order mass of 28.8 tonnes. Most of the CFL was regauged to 3 ft 6 in gauge in 1955, most of them still survived in 1973
32.
2-8-0
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In the United States and elsewhere, this wheel arrangement is commonly known as a Consolidation. Of all the types that were created and experimented with in the 19th century. The first locomotive of this arrangement was possibly built by the Pennsylvania Railroad. Like the first 2-6-0s, this first 2-8-0 had an axle that was rigidly attached to the locomotives frame. To create this 2-8-0, PRR master mechanic John P. Laird modified an existing 0-8-0, the 2-6-0 Mogul type, first created in the early 1860s, is often considered as the logical forerunner to the 2-8-0. However, a claim is made that the first true 2-8-0 engine evolved from the 0-8-0 and was ordered by the United States Lehigh and Mahanoy Railroad, the name given to the new locomotive was Consolidation, the name that was later almost globally adopted for the type. According to this viewpoint, the first 2-8-0 order by Lehigh dates to 1866 and antedates the adoption of the type by other railways and coal, from its introduction in 1866 and well into the early 20th century, the 2-8-0 design was considered to be the ultimate heavy-freight locomotive. The 2-8-0s forte was starting and moving impressive loads at unimpressive speeds, the practical limit of the design was reached in 1915, when it was realised that no further development was possible with a locomotive of this wheel arrangement. As in the United States, the 2-8-0 was also a type in Europe. The type was used in Australia, New Zealand. The 2-8-0 locomotive was used extensively throughout Australia, the Js remained in service in New South Wales until 1915, when they were withdrawn. Wartime shortages between 1916 and 1920 had six engines re-entering service after being shopped and fitted with superheaters, the last engine of this class was finally withdrawn in 1934 and all were scrapped by 1937. The second batch of 2-8-0 locomotives to appear in Australia, between 1896 and 1916, was the NSWGR T class engines. During World War II,14 of these locomotives were equipped with superheaters, from 1899, the Victorian Railways also used a range of broad-gauge 2-8-0 locomotives. The first of these locomotives were the Baldwin-built Victorian Railways V class and these engines were built at Phoenix Foundry in Ballarat, Victoria. By 1930, they had disappeared from the VR, the VRs next type was the 26 C class engines, which saw freight and passenger service. In 1922, a smaller and lighter 2-8-0, the K class, was introduced for branchline freight, finally, the VR introduced sixty light 2-8-0 J class engines in 1954. These also worked both freight and passenger services, the first 2-8-0 engines in private service on the Midland Railway of Western Australia arrived in 1912
33.
Narrow-gauge railway
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A narrow-gauge railway is a railway with a track gauge narrower than the 1,435 mm of standard gauge railways. Most existing narrow-gauge railways are between 600 mm and 1,067 mm, narrow-gauge railways also have specialized use in mines and other environments where a very small structure gauge makes a very small loading gauge necessary. Narrow-gauge railways also have general applications. Many narrow-gauge street tramways are used, particularly in Europe, where 1,000 mm metre gauge tramways are common, the earliest recorded railway is shown in the De re metallica of 1556, which shows a mine in Bohemia with a railway of about 2 ft gauge. During the 16th century, railways were mainly restricted to hand-pushed narrow-gauge lines in mines throughout Europe, during the 17th century, mine railways were extended to provide transportation above ground. These lines were industrial, connecting mines with nearby transportation points and these railways were usually built to the same narrow gauge as the mine railways from which they developed. The worlds first steam locomotive on rails, built in 1802 by Richard Trevithick for the Coalbrookdale Company, during the 1820s and 1830s, a number of industrial narrow-gauge railways in the United Kingdom used steam locomotives. In 1842, the first narrow-gauge steam locomotive outside the UK was built for the 1,100 mm gauge Antwerp-Ghent Railway in Belgium, historically, many narrow-gauge railways were built as part of specific industrial enterprises and were primarily industrial railways rather than general carriers. Some common uses for these industrial narrow-gauge railways were mining, logging, construction, tunnelling, quarrying, extensive narrow-gauge networks were constructed in many parts of the world for these purposes. For example, mountain logging operations in the 19th century often used narrow-gauge railways to transport logs from mill sites to market, significant sugarcane railways still operate in Cuba, Fiji, Java, the Philippines, and Queensland. Narrow-gauge railway equipment remains in use for the construction of tunnels. Extensive narrow-gauge railway systems served the front-line trenches of both sides in World War I and they were a short-lived military application, and after the end of the war, the surplus equipment from these created a small boom in narrow gauge railway building in Europe. Narrow-gauge railways usually cost less to build because they are lighter in construction, using smaller cars and locomotives, as well as smaller bridges, smaller tunnels. Narrow gauge is often used in mountainous terrain, where the savings in civil engineering work can be substantial. It is also used in populated areas where the potential demand is too low for broader gauge railways to be economically viable. This is the case in some of Australia and most of Southern Africa, the use of such railways has almost vanished due to the capabilities of modern trucks. In many countries, narrow gauge railways were built as feeder or branch lines to feed traffic to more important standard gauge lines, the choice was often not between a narrow-gauge railway and a standard gauge one, but between a narrow-gauge railway and none at all. Some bulk commodities, such as coal, ore, and gravel, can be transshipped, but this still incurs time penalties
34.
Amusement park
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An amusement park or theme park is a group of entertainment attractions, rides, and other events in a location for the enjoyment of large numbers of people. Theme parks, a type of amusement park, are usually much more intricately themed to a certain subject or group of subjects than normal amusement parks. Amusement parks evolved from European fairs and pleasure gardens, which were created for peoples recreation, Worlds fairs and expositions were another influence on the development of the amusement park industry. In common language, the theme park and amusement park are often synonymous. However, a park can be regarded as a distinct style of amusement park. A theme park has landscaping, buildings, and attractions that are based on one or more specific themes or stories. The amusement park evolved from three earlier traditions, the oldest being the periodic fair of the Middle Ages - one of the earliest was the Bartholomew Fair in England, the worlds oldest amusement park appeared in the Continent. Bakken at Klampenborg, north of Copenhagen, Denmark, opened in 1583, a wave of innovation in the 1860s and 1870s created mechanical rides, such as the steam-powered carousel, and its derivatives. This inaugurated the era of the modern funfair ride, as the classes were increasingly able to spend their surplus wages on entertainment. The second influence was the pleasure garden, one of the earliest gardens was the Vauxhall Gardens, founded in 1661 in London. By the late 18th century, the site had a fee for its many attractions. It regularly drew crowds, with its paths being noted for romantic assignations, tightrope walkers, hot air balloon ascents, concerts. Although the gardens were designed for the elites, they soon became places of great social diversity. Public firework displays were put on at Marylebone Gardens, and Cremorne Gardens offered music, dancing, prater in Vienna, Austria, was opened in 1766. The concept of a park for amusement was further developed with the beginning of the worlds fairs. The first World fair began in 1851 with the construction of the landmark Crystal Palace in London, the purpose of the exposition was to celebrate the industrial achievement of the nations of the world and it was designed to educate and entertain the visitors. American cities and business saw the worlds fair as a way of demonstrating economic. The Worlds Columbian Exposition of 1893 in Chicago, Illinois was an precursor to the modern amusement park
35.
Broad-gauge railway
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Broad-gauge railways use a track gauge greater than the 1,435 mm standard gauge. In Britain the Great Western Railway, designed by Isambard Kingdom Brunel, pioneered broad gauge in 1838 with a gauge of 7 ft 1⁄4 in, some harbours also used railways of this gauge for construction and maintenance. These included Portland Harbour and Holyhead Breakwater, which used a locomotive for working sidings, as it was not connected to the national network, this broad-gauge operation continued until the locomotive wore out in 1913. The gauge initially proposed by Brunel was 7 ft exactly but this was increased by 1⁄4 in to accommodate clearance problems identified during early testing. It became apparent that standardization on a gauge throughout a rail transport system was advantageous. Rolling stock did not need to match the gauge exactly, a difference of a few millimetres could be coped with, the value of interoperability was initially not obvious to the industry. The standardization movement was gradual, over time the value of a proprietary gauge diminished, being replaced by the idea of charging money for equipment used on other railway lines. Ireland, using the criteria, was allocated a different standard gauge. Broad-gauge lines in Britain were gradually converted to dual gauge or standard gauge from 1864, Ireland and some states in Australia and Brazil have a gauge of 5 ft 3 in, but Luas, the Dublin light rail system, is built to standard gauge. Russia and the other former Soviet Republics use a 1,520 mm gauge while Finland continues to use the 5 ft gauge inherited from Imperial Russia, in 1839 the Netherlands started its railway system with two broad-gauge railways. But the neighbouring countries Prussia and Belgium already used standard gauge, in 1855, NRS regauged its line and shortly afterwards connected to the Prussian railways. There are replicas of one broad-gauge 2-2-2 locomotive and three carriages in the Dutch Railway Museum in Utrecht and these replicas were built for the 100th anniversary of the Dutch Railways in 1938–39. Portugal and the Spanish Renfe system use a gauge of 1,668 mm called Ancho Ibérico in Spanish or Bitola Ibérica in Portuguese, in India, Pakistan and Bangladesh, a gauge of 5 ft 6 in is widespread. This is also used by the Bay Area Rapid Transit system of the San Francisco Bay Area. In Toronto, Canada the gauge for TTC subways and streetcars was chosen in 1861, years after the establishment of gauge in Britain. In 1861, the province was supplying subsidies only to broad gauge railways. The use of a non-standard gauge precludes interoperability of rolling stock on railway networks. On the 5 ft 3 in and 5 ft 6 in gauges, the extra width allowed bigger inside cylinders and greater power, in the event, the most powerful engines on standard gauge in North America and Scandinavia far exceeded the power of any broad-gauge locomotive
36.
Tank locomotive
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A tank locomotive or tank engine is a steam locomotive that carries its water in one or more on-board water tanks, instead of a more traditional tender. A tank engine may also have a bunker to hold fuel, there are several different types of tank locomotive, distinguished by the position and style of the water tanks and fuel bunkers. The most common type has tanks mounted either side of the boiler and this type originated about 1840 and quickly became popular for industrial tasks, and later for shunting and shorter distance main line duties. Tank locomotives have advantages and disadvantages compared to traditional tender locomotives, the first tank locomotive was the Novelty that ran at the Rainhill Trials in 1829. It was an example of a Well Tank and these were E. B. Wilson and Company, William Fairbairn & Sons, George England, Kitson Thompson and Hewitson and William Bridges Adams. By the mid-1850s tank locomotives were to be performing a variety of main line and industrial roles. There are a number of types of locomotive, based on the location. These include the side tank, the tank, the pannier tank. A configuration very common in the U. K, the water is contained in rectangular tanks mounted on either side of the locomotive, near to the boiler but not quite touching. The tank sides extend down to the platform, if such is present. The length of side tanks was limited in order to give access to the inside motion. If it was desired to extend them to the front of the locomotive for greater capacity, with larger side tanks it was sometimes necessary to taper the tanks slightly at the front end to improve forward visibility. Side tanks almost all stopped at, or before, the end of the boiler barrel, a few designs did reach to the front of the smokebox and these were termed flatirons. The water tank sits on top of the boiler like a saddle sits atop a horse, usually the tank is curved in cross-section, although in some cases there were straight sides surmounted by a curve, or even an ogee shape. Saddle tanks were a popular arrangement especially for smaller locomotives in industrial use and it gave a greater water supply, but limited the size of the boiler and restricted access to it for cleaning. However, the locomotive has a centre of gravity and hence must operate at lower speeds. The drivers vision may also be restricted, again restricting the safe speed, Water in the tank is slightly pre-heated by the boiler, which reduces the loss of pressure found when cold feedwater is injected into the boiler. However if the water becomes too hot, injectors lose efficiency, for this reason, the tanks often stopped short of the hotter and uninsulated smokebox
37.
Tender (rail)
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A tender or coal-car is a special rail vehicle hauled by a steam locomotive containing its fuel and water. Steam locomotives consume large quantities of water compared to the quantity of fuel, a locomotive that pulls a tender is called a tender locomotive. Locomotives that do not have tenders and carry all their fuel, a brake tender is a tender that is heavy and used to provide greater braking efficiency. The largest steam locomotives are coupled by a drawbar to a tender that carries the water. The fuel source used depends on what is available locally. In the UK and parts of Europe, a supply of coal made this the obvious choice from the earliest days of the steam engine. Until around 1850 in the United States, the vast majority of burned wood until most of the eastern forests were cleared. Subsequently coal burning became more widespread, and wood burners were restricted to rural, according to Steamlocomotive. com, By the mid-1800s, most steam locomotive tenders consisted of a fuel bunker surrounded by a U shaped water jacket. The overall shape of the tender was usually rectangular, the bunker which held the coal was sloped downwards toward the locomotive providing easier access to the coal. The ratio of water to fuel capacities of tenders was normally based on two water-stops to each fuel stop because water was readily available than fuel. One pound of coal could turn six pounds of water to steam, therefore, tender capacity ratios were normally close to 14 tons of coal per 10,000 gallons of water. The water supply in a tender was replenished at water stops, refilling the tender is the job of the fireman, who is responsible for maintaining the locomotives fire, steam pressure, and supply of fuel and water. Water carried in the tender must be forced into the boiler, early engines used pumps driven by the motion of the pistons. Later, steam injectors replaced the pump while some engines used turbopumps, in the UK, the USA and France, water troughs were provided on some main lines to allow locomotives to replenish their water supply while moving. The fuel and water capacities of a tender are usually proportional to the rate at which they are consumed, the Pennsylvania Railroad and the New York Central Railroad used track pans on many of their routes, allowing locomotives to pick up water at speed. The result was that the tanks on these tenders were proportionally much smaller. In the UK water troughs were used by three of the Big Four railways, the Southerns decision to electrify its routes into London with a third rail system also made the installation of water troughs impractical. Only on the former London and South Western Railway routes west of Salisbury, rather than install troughs the L&SWR equipped its express locomotives with special high-capacity tenders with a water capacity of 4,000 gallons running on a pair of twin-axle bogies
38.
Daniel Gooch
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Sir Daniel Gooch, 1st Baronet was an English railway locomotive and transatlantic cable engineer and Conservative politician who sat in the House of Commons from 1865 to 1885. He was the first Superintendent of Locomotive Engines on the Great Western Railway from 1837 to 1864, Gooch was born in Bedlington, Northumberland, the son of John Gooch, an ironfounder, and his wife Anna Longridge. Gooch wrote in his diaries Large works of this kind are by far the best school for an engineer to get a general knowledge of what he needs in after life. And. I look back upon the time spent at Tredegar as by far the most important years of my life and he trained in engineering with a variety of companies, including a period with Robert Stephenson and Company, in Newcastle upon Tyne, as a draughtsman. At the age of 20 he was recruited by Isambard Kingdom Brunel for the Great Western Railway, under the title Superintendent of Locomotive Engines, whilst working in Newcastle he met his future wife, Margaret Tanner, the daughter of Henry Tanner, a Sunderland shipowner. He stayed in touch with Margaret when he moved south to work for Brunel, Goochs earliest days with the company were a struggle to keep the miscellaneous collection of 7 ft 0 1⁄4 in broad gauge steam locomotives previously ordered by Brunel working. When working at Robert Stephenson and Company he had helped design two 5-foot 6-inch gauge locomotives for the New Orleans Railway, which had never been delivered. Gooch persuaded Brunel to buy the two locomotives, North Star and Morning Star and had Stephenson convert them to 7-foot gauge before delivery and these were the only reliable locomotives that the company had at that time and became the basis of the GWR Star Class. He and Brunel improved the blastpipe arrangement of the North Star to improve its fuel efficiency, eventually Gooch moved on from the Star class and designed the new GWR Firefly Class of 2-2-2 express passenger locomotives, introduced in 1840. In comparative trials by the Gauge Commissioners, Ixion of this class proved capable of greater than its standard gauge challenger. In 1843 Gooch introduced a new form of valve gear. Though Goochs locomotives were principally for the gauge, between 1854 and 1864 he also had to design a number of standard gauge classes for the GWRs new Northern Division. In 1864 Gooch resigned from his post of Locomotive Superintendent, though he continued as a member of the GWR Board, Great Western Railway have named class 800 no.800004 after Gooch, this train will run on the line that Gooch helped to create. From 1859 Gooch lived at Clewer Park in Windsor and was a Deputy Lieutenant for Berkshire, in 1865, Gooch was recalled to the Great Western Railway Company as Chairman. He was also chief engineer of the Telegraph Construction & Maintenance Company, in this role, he was instrumental in laying the first successful Transatlantic telegraph cable, using the SS Great Eastern, following which he was granted the baronetcy. In 1865, while out of the laying the cable. He held the seat until 1885, in 1866 Gooch was created a baronet in recognition of his cable work. In 1868 he became chairman of the Telegraph Construction & Maintenance Company after John Pender the first chairman resigned and he led the Great Western Railway out of near-bankruptcy and took a particular interest in construction of the Severn Tunnel
39.
Robert Stephenson and Company
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Robert Stephenson and Company was a locomotive manufacturing company founded in 1823. It was the first company set up specifically to build railway engines, the company was set up in 1823 in Forth Street, Newcastle-upon-Tyne in England by George Stephenson, his son Robert, with Edward Pease and Michael Longridge. It was founded as part of their construction of the Stockton and Darlington Railway, the manager of the works for a while was James Kennedy. The companys first engine was Locomotion No 1, which opened the Stockton and Darlington and their vertical cylinders meant these locomotives rocked excessively and at the Hetton colliery railway Stephenson had introduced steam springs which had proved unsatisfactory. In 1828 he introduced the Experiment with inclined cylinders, which improved stability, originally four wheeled, it was modified for six and another example, Victory, was built. Around this time, two locomotives were built for America, the first, a four coupled loco named America, was ordered by the Delaware and Hudson Railroad. The second, six-coupled and named Whistler, was built for the Boston, in October 1829 Stephensons Rocket won the Rainhill Trials. This locomotive engine had two notable improvements - a multi-tube boiler and a separate firebox, originally angled, the cylinders were later made horizontal. The Invicta was the twentieth, and was built for the Canterbury and its cylinders were inclined, but moved to the front end. In 1830 came the Planet class with the cylinders inside the frames and this 2-2-2 design became the pattern for most locomotives, by many makers, for many years. The locomotive John Bull, originally of the Planet type, later modified, is now in the Smithsonian, the increased distance travelled by many trains highlighted problems with the fireboxes and chimneys. With the co-operation of the North Midland Railway at their Derby works, he measured the temperature of the exhaust gases, and decided to lengthen the boilers on future engines. It was one of these, the Great A along with another from the North Midland Railway, in 1846 he added a pair of trailing wheels - the first with eight wheels. Another important innovation in 1842 was the Stephenson link motion, Robert Stephenson and Company built a number of Crampton type locomotives for the South Eastern Railway and the London, Chatham and Dover Railway. These were all of 4-2-0 wheel arrangement with inside cylinders and indirect drive, the inside cylinders drove a crankshaft located in front of the firebox and the crankshaft was coupled to the driving wheels by outside rods. They were unsuccessful on the LCDR, and the five Echo class locomotives were rebuilt as conventional 4-4-0 locomotives after only four years of service, the first railway proposal in Egypt came about when Pasha Muhammad Ali asked the British engineer T. H. Galloway to design a railway in 1834, instructions to make it followed in 1836. Materials were delivered but little real construction followed, No Ottoman firwan was issued and the French objected
40.
Standard gauge
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The standard gauge is a widely used railway track gauge. Approximately 55% of the lines in the world are this gauge, all high-speed rail lines, except those in Russia, Uzbekistan, and Finland, are standard gauge. The distance between the edges of the rails is defined to be 1435 mm except in the United States. It is also called the UIC gauge or UIC track gauge, as railways developed and expanded, one of the key issues was the track gauge to be used. The result was the adoption throughout a large part of the world of a gauge of 1435 mm. In North East England, some lines in colliery areas were 4 ft 8 in. All these lines had been widened to standard gauge by 1846, parts of the United States, mainly in the Northeast, adopted the same gauge, because some early trains were purchased from Britain. However, until well into the half of the 19th century, Britain. The American gauges converged as the advantages of equipment interchange became increasingly apparent, notably, all the 5 ft broad gauge track in the South was converted to standard gauge over the course of two days beginning on 31 May 1886. See Track gauge in the United States, snopes categorized this legend as false, but commented that. It is perhaps more fairly labelled as True, but for trivial, the historical tendency to place the wheels of horse-drawn vehicles approximately 5 feet apart probably derives from the width needed to fit a carthorse in between the shafts. Others were 4 ft 4 in or 4 ft 7 1⁄2 in, the English railway pioneer George Stephenson spent much of his early engineering career working for the coal mines of County Durham. He favoured 4 ft 8 in for wagonways in Northumberland and Durham, the Hetton and Springwell wagonways also used this gauge. Stephensons Stockton and Darlington railway was primarily to transport coal from mines near Shildon to the port at Stockton-on-Tees. The initial gauge of 4 ft 8 in was set to accommodate the existing gauge of hundreds of horse-drawn chaldron wagons that were already in use on the wagonways in the mines. The railway used this gauge for 15 years before a change was made to 4 ft 8 1⁄2 in gauge, George Stephenson used the 4 ft 8 1⁄2 in gauge for the Liverpool and Manchester Railway, authorised in 1826 and opened 30 September 1830. The success of this led to Stephenson and his son Robert being employed to engineer several other larger railway projects. Monkland and Kirkintilloch Railway, authorised 1824 and opened 1825, used 4 ft 6 in, Dundee and Newtyle Railway, authorised 1829 and opened 1831, used 4 ft 6 1⁄2 in
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